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ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.
EIGHTH EDITION.
THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA,
OR
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, AND GENERAL LITERATURE.
EIGHTH EDITION.
WITH EXTENSIVE IMPROVEMENTS AND ADDITIONS;
AND NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.
VOLUME II.
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, EDINBURGH.
MDCCCLIII.
[The Proprietors of this Work give
notice that they reserve the right of Translating it.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
A.
A THE first letter of the alphabet in every known lan-
9 guage, the Ethiopic or Abyssinian alone excepted, in
which it is the thirteenth. Of the sixteen elementary sounds
of the human voice, that which is represented by this ini¬
tial letter is the simplest, and requires the least exertion of
the organs to produce it; for its enunciation is effected by
merely opening the mouth, and breathing, so that the air
propelled through the glottis may resound audibly in the
cavity of the mouth and nostrils. Hence this sound is re¬
markable for its universality as well as simplicity. Many of
the lower animals possess the capacity of uttering it, as every
one must be sensible who has attended to their distinguish¬
ing cries, in all, or at least in many of which, it may be easily
recognised. It is also the basis, so to speak, of vocality ;
for, on attentive examination, it will be found that the other
vowels are little more than labial, lingual, dental, or palatal
modifications of this primary, universal, and most elementary
sound. It is not without reason, therefore, that the symbol
of this sound is (with one solitary exception) placed at the
commencement of every known alphabet. Cicero seems to
have disliked the sound of this letter ; for in his treatise De
Oratore, c. xlix., he denominates it insuavissima littera, pro¬
bably on account of the out-breathing or expiration neces¬
sary to produce the sound of it; but, upon the same prin¬
ciple, the other vowels ought also to have shared his displea¬
sure, seeing that they are merely modifications of this primary
oToixetov or element.
In the English language, A is the mark or symbol of
three different sounds, termed by grammarians the broad,
the open, and the slender ; epithets, the two former of which
have an immediate reference to organic modification, as
well as to the impulse or volume of voice ; while the latter
seems to apply to the degree of intonation alone. Of
these varieties of sound, the first, which resembles that of
the German A, occurs in such monosyllables as hall, wall,
pall, thrall, where the a is pronounced in the same man¬
ner as au in cause ; that is, broad and long. The Saxons,
it is probable, expressed only this sound of the letter,
which is still commonly retained in the north of England,
and prevails universally throughout Scotland, the only
parts of the island where the genius and idiom of the
Saxon language have withstood modern innovations. The
open sound of A, again, resembles that of the Italian in
adagio and such like words, and is nearly the same with
that of a in father, rather, &c. But the slender sound, which
is peculiar to the English language alone, is identical with
the sound of the French diphthong ai in such words as mais,
paix, gai, and is exemplified in hate, late, ivaste, paste,
place, race; as also in polysyllables, such as toleration, jus¬
tification, with many others which it is unnecessary to specify.
So much for the varieties of this initial sound in English
words. A, however, is sometimes employed as an affix in
burlesque poetry ; in which case it has no other effect than to
add a syllable to the line, without any alteration of the sense,
just as the vowel or interjection O very often does in our old
ballads, and in some modern imitations of them. It is also
thought to be redundant and insignificative in such words as
arise, awake, aright, adoing, agoing. But this seems a
mistake; for the a here used as a prefix, is probably the
French abbreviation of the Latin preposition ad ; and hence
it appears to have an intensive effect, adding to and strength¬
ening the import of the word with which it is combined. In
the line, “ Arise, awake, or be for ever fall’n,” it is evident
that the words “ arise, awake,” convey a meaning stronger in
degree than the simple words rise, wake, would have done.
The prepositionary effect in such words as a-doing, a-going,
is indeed admitted by grammarians ; but, if this be the case,
where is the distinction between these instances and a-rise,
a-wake, where the prefix is said to be redundant, except
that, by usage, it has coalesced in some measure with the
word to which it is prefixed ? In such compounds as a-foot,
a-sleep, a-week, a-head, a-man, as well as when used before
local surnames, as Cornelius a Lapide, Thomas a Kempis,
Thomas a Bechet, nobody has ever doubted that the a is a
preposition. When a is used as an article, it is merely an
abbreviation of the old primary numeral ane, one, and con¬
sequently it has no plural signification. Thus a house, a
field, a ship, mean-pwe house, one field, one ship; but as it
is not one of two, ten, or twenty houses, fields, or ships, but
of any number, however great or small, hence it becomes in
A
A A L
effect quite general and indefinite, or, in other words, the
opposite of the, which defines and limits the attention to
something spoken of, pointed out, or referred to.
Among the ancients, A was a numeral letter, and stood
for 500, and when a dash was placed on the top, thus, A,
for ten times that number, or 5000. In the Julian calen¬
dar it is the first of the seven Dominical Letters. Long
before the establishment of Christianity, it had been in use
among the Romans as one of the eight Litter & Nundinales ;
and it was in imitation of this usage that the Dominical
Letters were first introduced. Among logicians, the letter
A is employed as a symbol or sign to denote an universal
affirmative, in contradistinction to an universal negative pro¬
position, in conformity with the following, which is the first
verse of a well-known distich :
Asserit a, negat e, sed universaliter ambae.
Thus, the first mode of the first figure, which is a syllogism
consisting of three universal affirmative propositions, is said
to be a syllogism in Barbara, a word in which the alphas
alone are significant, the repetition of that letter thrice de¬
noting so many of the propositions to be affirmative and uni¬
versal, conformably to the technical classification—
Barbara, Celarent, Darii, Ferio, dato primse.
In the public assemblies or comitia of the Romans the letter
A was used in giving votes or suffrages. When a new law
was proposed, each voter received a couple of wooden tallies
or ballots, one of them marked with a capital A, signifying
Antique, q. d. antiquam volo; and the other with U. R., the
initials of Uti Rogas. Those who were against the proposed
law, (or rogatio, as it was called) threw the former of these
into the urn; meaning thereby I antiquate it, I prefer the
ancient law, and desire no innovations; while such as were
favourable to the bill, as we would call it, threw in the latter,
signifying, Be it as you desire, or I vote for the measure you
propose. A was also marked on tallies or tablets used in vot¬
ing in criminal trials, and standing for Absolvo, denoted ac¬
quittal ; whence Cicero, in his speech for Milo, denominates
it litter a salutaris, or the letter of acquittal. We may add,
in explanation, that, on criminal trials, three of these tallies
or tablets were distributed to each of the judices, or persons
constituting the assize, by whom the accused was to be tried;
one of them marked with the letter A, ahsolvo, I acquit; an¬
other with the letter C, (littera tristis) condemno, I condemn;
and a third with the letters N. L. non liquet, it is not clear.
From the number of ballots cast into the urn, those marked
with N. L. were deducted, and the prcetor or magistratus
pronounced sentence of acquittal or condemnation, accord¬
ing as the A’s or the C’s were the more numerous. In cases
of equality the prisoner was absolved.
In ancient inscriptions, whether on marble, brass, or stone,
A stands for Augustus, Augustalis, ager, agit, aiunt, ali-
quando, antique, assolet, aut; A A for Augusti, Augusta,
Aulus Agerius, as alienum, ante audita, apud agrum,
aurum argentum; A A A for Augusti when they are three
in number, and aurum, argentum, as; and sometimes its
meaning can only be determined by the context of the in¬
scription. Isidore adds, that when this letter occurs after
the word miles, a soldier, it denotes him young {miles ado-
lescens). On the reverse of ancient medals, it indicates the
place where they were struck, as Argos or Athens; but on
coins of a modern date, it is the mark of the city of Paris,
probably taken anagramwise from the last letter of the word
Lutetia.
A, as an abbreviation, is likewise of frequent occurrence
in the works of modern authors; as A. D. for anno Domini,
A. M. for artium magister, anno mundi, &c. The letter a
with a line above it thus, a, is used in medical prescriptions
for ana, of each; and sometimes it is written thus, dd; for Aa
example, I£> mel. sacchar. et mann. d vel dd §j; that is, take II
honey, sugar, and manna, of each one ounce. Put to bills Aalen'
of exchange, A is, in England, an abbreviation of ac-
cepted, and in France of accepte. It is likewise usual with
merchants to mark their sets of books with the letters A,
B, C, &c., instead of the ordinary numerals, 1, 2, 3, &c.
A A A is the chemical abbreviation for amalgama, or amal¬
gamation.
AA, the name of several small rivers, probably derived
from the Celtic Ach or Teutonic Aa, water. I. A river of
Holland in North Brabant; which, passing Helmont, joins
the Dommel at Bois-le-Duc. II. A river of Holland, in
Groningen, distinguished by the name of Westerwolder Aa,
which falls into the Dollart. III. A river of Holland in
Overyssel, which, after uniting its waters with the Vecht,
flows into the Zuyder Zee. IV. A river of Belgium, in the
province of Antwerp, which discharges its waters into the
Neethe. V. A small river of Brabant, near Breda. VI. A
river of Russia in Europe, in the province of Livonia, which
flows from E. to S.W., into the Bay of Riga. VII. Another
river of Russia in Courland, which flows into the Dwina,
near Riga. VIII. A river of France, rising in the depart¬
ment of Le Nord. It becomes navigable for barges at St
Omer, and after a course of about 40 miles falls into the sea
at Gravelines. IX. A river of Hanover, which flows into
the Ems, in the province of Lingen. X. A river of Switzer¬
land, canton Aargau, which carries the waters of the Hall-
wyler See into the Aar. XL A river of Switzerland, carry¬
ing the waters of the Lake of Sarnen, canton Unterwalden,
into the Lake of Lucerne. XII. Another river of Switzer¬
land, which drains the valley of Engelberg, in Unterwalden,
and flows into a bay near the middle of the south side of the
Lake of Lucerne. XIII. A small river of Jutland, king¬
dom of Denmark.
AACHEN. See Aix-la-Chapelle.
AAGARD, Christian, a Danish poet, and Professor
of Poetry at Sora. He was born in 1596, and died in 1664.
His poems are published in the Delicia quorundam poet-
arum Danorum. Leyd. 1695.
AALBORG, one of the sees (stiffs) into which the Dan¬
ish kingdom is divided. See Denmark.
Aalborg, a city in Denmark, the capital of the see of the
same name. It is situated on the Lymfiord, at the spot
where the Oosterae joins it; it is tolerably fortified; contains
a cathedral and several other public buildings; and in 1847
the inhabitants amounted to 7500. There are manufac¬
tories of sugar, soap, snuff, chocolate, and scythes, with se¬
veral distilleries; but the woollen and hosiery trades which
formerly existed are nearly extinct. The entrance to the
harbour is such as to require vessels drawing more than
ten feet of water to lighten before they approach the city.
The chief exports are herrings, corn, wool, hides, tar, tallow,
and corn spirits. It is in Lat. 57. 2. 57. N., and Long.
9. 56. 36. E.
AALEN, a bailiwick in the circle of Jaxt, in the king¬
dom of Wirtemberg. Its extent is 108 square miles, or
69,120 acres. It is watered by the river Kocher, has some
lofty mountains in the southern part, and is most abundantly
wooded. It produces but little corn, and neither fruit nor
wine, but pastures a competent number of cattle. There are
some iron mines worked. Many articles of wood-ware are
produced, and some wool and cotton are spun. It contains
one city, one market town, and 190 smaller towns and vil¬
lages, with 22,000 inhabitants.
Aalen, a city, the capital of the bailiwick of the same
name. It has some ironworks, and manufactures of wool
and cotton. In 1847 it contained 2800 inhabitants. It is
in Lat. 48. 47.20. N., Long. 10. 7. 27. E.
a
AAR
AAR
Aalsmeer AALSMEER, a town in the arrondissement of Amster-
II dam, in the province of North Holland, ten miles SW. of
^argau. Amsterdam. It is celebrated for its strawberries; and con-
tains 2200 inhabitants, employed in making cotton goods.
AALTEN, a town in the arrondissement of Zutphen, and
province of Guelderland, in the Netherlands.
A AM, or Aham, a measure for liquids, used in Holland,
Belgium, and several of the continental states, varying in
capacity in different places from 35 to 41 English gallons.
See Weights and Measures.
AAR, the most considerable river in Switzerland, after the
Rhine and Rhone. It rises in the glaciers of the Finster-
aarhorn, Schreckhorn and Grimsel mountains in Berne; and
at Handeck in the valley of Hash forms a magnificent water¬
fall of above 150 feet in height. The Aar then flows through
the lakes of Brienz and Thun, and on emerging from the lat¬
ter it becomes navigable, and at length empties itself into the
Rhine, opposite Waldshut, after a course of about 170 miles.
In its course it receives numerous smaller rivers, the principal
of which are the Kander, Saane, and Thiele on the left, and
the Emmen, Surin, Reuss, and Limmat, on the right; and
on its banks are situated Unterseen, Thun, Berne, Aarburg,
Solothurn, and Aarau. It abounds in fish, and carries along
with it a considerable quantity of gold sand. This is also the
name of several small rivers in Germany.
AARAU, the chief city of the canton of Aargau, situated
on the right bank of the river Aar, at the south base of the
Jura. It is well built, paved, and lighted, and contains
4500 inhabitants, whose principal occupations are spinning
and weaving cotton, making silk ribbons, bleaching, and
casting cannon. Eat. 47.23.35. N., Long. 6. 2. 55. E. The
famous baths of Schintznach are about ten miles distant
along the right bank of the Aar. The inhabitants are chiefly
Protestants.
AARGAU, or Argovia, one of the cantons of Switzer¬
land. It was originally a part of Berne, but by arrange¬
ments begun in 1798, and continued in 1803, it was erected
into a separate and independent canton. It is bounded on
the north by the river Rhine, which divides it from the duchy
of Baden, on the east by Zurich, on the south-east by Zug,
on the south by Lucerne, on the south-west by Berne, and on
the west by Solothurn and Basle. Its extent is 502 square
miles, and it is divided into eleven circles, which are again
subdivided into forty-eight smaller ones. By the census
taken in 1850, the number of inhabitants amounted to
199,720, comprehending 107,194 Protestants, 91,096 Ca¬
tholics, and about 1500 Jews.
The greater part of the canton is either level or undu¬
lating, but some of the mountains on the right bank of the
Aar are of the height of 2700 feet. The chief river is the
Rhine, which forms the boundary, and is navigable, though,
on account of shoals and rocks, with difficulty. That river
receives into it the water of the Aar, the Wigger, the Suren,
the Reuss, and the Limmat, as well as that of many smaller
brooks and rivulets. The climate is milder than in most
parts of Switzerland.
The rearing of cattle, agriculture, and the cultivation
of vines and other fruits, are carried on with great acti¬
vity ; and in its towns and villages are found tradesmen,
mechanics, and manufactories of all kinds. This is one of the
cantons most distinguished for industry and generally dif¬
fused prosperity; and by the union of pastoral with mechani¬
cal pursuits the citizens have attained a comfort almost un¬
paralleled. The education of the people, by the establishment
of improved schools, and by popular publications, has been
greatly promoted within the last thirty or forty years, espe¬
cially in the Protestant parts of the canton.
The legislative power is vested in the great council, con¬
sisting of two hundred members, the one half Catholics, and
the other Protestants,—who are elected by the general body
of the people every six years. A lesser Council, consisting
of nine members, is elected by the members of the great
Council out of their own body for a like period of six years.
The preparation of the annual financial reports is committed
to this body, as also the initiative in legislation, subject to
the approval and sanction of the great Council. Each circle
has a Justice of the Peace who decides in matters under 16
francs. The District Court decides in cases above that sum;
but in cases above 160 francs its decision can be appealed to
the Highest Court. This canton possesses a military force
of 16,000 men, and its resources amount to 16,000,000 of
francs, or about £600,000; its income is about 680,000 francs
or £27,200, and its expenditure about 650,000 francs or
£26,000.
AARHUUS, one of the districts {stiffs) into which Den¬
mark is divided. It is in the most eastern part of the peninsula
of Jutland. The extent is 1825 square miles, or 1,168,000
acres. It is a level country, somewhat undulating, having
on its coasts several indentations forming bays, and in the
interior there are several lakes, rivers, low hills, and woods.
The climate is considered to be the best in Jutland. The
greater part of the inhabitants are engaged in cultivation,
and produce more corn, potatoes, and flax, than their con¬
sumption requires, and thus leave a portion for exportation.
The ecclesiastical bishopric of Aarhuus differs from the poli¬
tical see. The latter is divided into two bailiwicks, Aarhuus
and Rhanders, and 22 baronies {herrerders) comprehending
7 cities, 253 parishes, and 69 noble domains and dwellings.
The inhabitants amount to 140,000, many of whom are oc¬
cupied in the fisheries, and the females in spinning.
Aarhuus, one of the bailiwicks into which the see of
the same name in Denmark is divided. Its extent is 864
square miles, or 552,960 acres.
Aarhuus, a city, the capital of the see and of the baili¬
wick of the same name. It is situated on the Cattegat, in a
low plain, where an inland lake empties itself into the sea.
The cathedral is a Gothic building, and the largest church
in Denmark. In 1848 the inhabitants amounted to 7000.
The harbour is small, but good and secure ; and now one of
the best in Jutland, having regular steam communication
with Copenhagen and Callundborg, from which latter place
a road leads to Copenhagen. Aarhuus is about 100 miles
WNW. from the capital. It exports agricultural produce,
spirits, cork, leather, and gloves. It has sugar refineries,
and manufactories of wool, cotton, and tobacco. It is in Lat.
56. 9. 35. N., and Long. 10. 8. E.
AARLANDERVEEN, a town of the Netherlands, se¬
venteen miles SSE. of Haarlem. It contains 2688 inha¬
bitants.
AARON, the first high-priest of the Jews, eldest son of
Amram and Jochebad, and brother of Moses. By the father’s
side he was great-grandson, and by the mother’s, grandson
of Levi. He was born b.c. 1574 (Hales b.c. 1730), three
years before Moses, with whom he was associated to conduct
the children of Israel from Egypt to Canaan. To this office
he received the Divine appointment in consequence of his
persuasive fluency of speech, a quality in which Moses was
his inferior (Ex. iv. 16; vii. 1).
During the absence of Moses in Mount Sinai receiving the
tables of the law, the Israelites, regarding Aaron as their
head, clamorously demanded that he should provide them
with a visible symbolic image of their God for worship.
With this demand he weakly complied, and out of the orna¬
ments of gold contributed for the purpose he cast the figure
of the calf, doubtless the same as the Bull-god Apis, the ob¬
ject of Egyptian worship at Memphis. For this sin the Is¬
raelites were decimated by sword and plague (Ex. xxxii.)
In obedience to the Divine instruction received by Moses
4
Aaron
I!
Aarsens.
AAR
in the Mount, Aaron was appointed high-priest, his sons
and descendants, priests, and his tribe, that of Levi, was set
apart as the sacerdotal caste. The office was filled by
Aaron for nearly forty years, his death occurring on Mount
Hor, which he ascended with his brother Moses by the
Divine command. He was 123 years of age when he died,
his son and brother burying him in a cavern of the mountain.
Aaron, Ben Asser, a learned Jew of the fifth century, to
whom has been ascribed the invention of the Hebrew points
and accents, though some suppose them to be of much
higher antiquity.
Aaron, an eminent physician at the beginning of the
seventh century. He wrote in Syriac, as mentioned by Hali
Abbas, and described the measles and smallpox, diseases
then very little known, though in this he was perhaps antici¬
pated by Rhazes in his Discourse of the Pestilence.
Aaron, the Caraite, a learned Jew who flourished about
the year 1299. He left many works on the Old Testament,
among which there is one entitled A Commentary on the
Pentateuch, which has been much valued. It was written
in Hebrew, and printed in folio with a Latin translation, at
Jena, in 1710.
Aaron, another Caraite Jew, who lived in the fifteenth
century, wrote a concise Hebrew Grammar, entitled The
Perfection of Beauty, which was printed at Constantinople
in 1581.
Aaron, Pietro, a Florentine monk of the sixteenth cen¬
tury, an elaborate writer on music. His chief works, which
are curious, are II Toscanello della Musica, and Elucidario
in Musica di Alcune Oppenioni Antiche e Moderne. Ve¬
nice, 1545, 4to.
Aaron and Julius, Saints, were brothers who suffered
martyrdom together, during the persecution under the em¬
peror Diocletian, in the year 303, about the same time with
St Alban, the first martyr of Britain. We are not told what
their British names were, it being usual with the Christian
Britons, at the time of baptism, to take new names from the
Greek, Latin, or Hebrew. Nor have we any certainty as
to the particulars of their death ; only that they suffered the
most cruel torments. Two churches were dedicated to the
brothers, in which their bodies were interred, at Caer-Leon,
the ancient metropolis of Wales.
Aaron, or Haroun, Al Raschid, a celebrated caliph, or
Mahometan sovereign of the Sai-acen empire ; whose history
is given under the article Bagdad.
AARSENS, Francis, Lord of Someldyck and Spyck,
one of the greatest negotiators of the United Provinces.
He was born at the Hague in 1572. His father, Cornelius
Aarsens, was secretary to the States; and being acquainted
with Mr Mornay du Plessis, at the court of William Prince
of Orange, he prevailed upon him to take his son under him,
with whom he continued some years. John Olden Barne-
veldt, who presided over the affairs of Holland and all the
United Provinces, sent him afterwards as resident into
France, where he learned to negotiate under those profound
politicians Henry IV., Villeroy, Jeanin, &c. Soon after, he
was invested with the character of ambassador, and was the
first who was recognised as such by the French court. He
resided in France fifteen years; during which time he re¬
ceived great marks of esteem from the king, who created him
a knight and baron; and for this reason he was received
among the nobles of the province of Holland. However, he
became at length so odious to the French court, that they
desired to have him recalled. He was afterwards deputed
to Venice, and to several German and Italian Princes, upon
occasion of the troubles in Bohemia. He was the first of
three extraordinary ambassadors sent to England in 1620,
and the second in 1641; in which latter embassy he was ac¬
companied by the Lord of Brederode as first ambassador,
ABA
and Heemsvliet as third, to negotiate the marriage of Prince -A as.
William, son of the Prince of Orange, with a daughter of
Charles I. He was likewise ambassador extraordinary at the a'
French court in 1624, at the beginning of Cardinal Riche-
lieu’s administration, who had a high opinion of him. His
unpublished memoirs of the negotiations in which he was
engaged, shew him to have been one of the ablest men of
his time, and worthy of the confidence and trust reposed in
him by his country. But his character is not altogether
without stain. His enmity to the Remonstrants was bitter
and unrelenting; and he is supposed to have greatly en¬
couraged the violent measures pursued by Prince Maurice
against the venerable Barneveldt, and to have been the prin¬
cipal adviser for assembling the persecuting synod of Dor¬
drecht. He died at a very advanced age; and his son, who
survived him, was reputed the wealthiest man in Holland.
AAS, a French village in the Lower Pyrenees, 6£ leagues
from Oleron, much frequented for its mineral waters and
baths. In the adjoining mountains are mines of lead and iron.
AASAR, in Ancient Geography, a town of Palestine, in
the tribe of Judah, situated between Azotus and Ascalon.
In Jerome’s time it was a hamlet.
AASI. See Orontes.
AATYL, a town of Syria, 54 miles SSE. of Damascus,
chiefly inhabited by Druses. Its extensive ruins shew that
it once was a place of importance.
AB, the eleventh month of the civil year of the Hebrews,
and the fifth of their ecclesiastical year, which begins with
the month Nisan. It answers to the moon of July; that is,
to part of our month of the same name, and to the begin¬
ning of August: it consists of thirty days. The Jews fast
on the first of this month, in memory of Aaron’s death; and
on the ninth, because on that day both the temple of Solo¬
mon, and that erected after the Captivity, were burnt; the
former by the Chaldeans, and the latter by the Romans.
The same day is also remarkable among that people for the
publication of Adrian’s edict, wherein they were forbidden
to continue in Judea, or even to look back when at a dis¬
tance from Jerusalem, in order to lament the desolation of
that city. The eighteenth of the same month is also a fast
among the Jews; because the lamp in the sanctuary was
that night extinguished, in the time of Ahaz.
Ab, in the Syriac calendar, is the name of the last sum¬
mer month. The first day of this month they called Suum-
Miriam, the Fast of the Virgin, because the eastern Chris¬
tians fasted from that day to the fifteenth, which was there¬
fore called Fathr-Miriam, the cessation of the Fast of the
Virgin.
ABA (or rather Abou) Hanifah or Hanfa, surnamed
Ai-Nooma, was the son of Thabet, and born at Cufah, in
the 80th year of the Hegira. He is the most celebrated doc¬
tor of the orthodox Mussulmans, and his sect is the most
esteemed of the four which they severally follow. Almansor
caused him to be imprisoned at Bagdad, for having refused
to subscribe to the opinion of absolute predestination, which
the Mussulmans call Cadha; but afterwards Abou Joseph,
who was the sovereign judge or chancellor of the empire
under the caliph Hadi, brought his doctrine into such cre¬
dit, that it became a prevailing opinion, That to be a good
Mussulman was to be a Hanifite. He died in the 150th
year of the Hegira, in the prison of Bagdad: and it was not
till 335 years after his death, that Melick Shah, a sultan of
the Seljuckian race, erected to his memory a magnificent
monument in the same city, and a college for his followers,
in the 485th year of the Hegira, a.d. 1107.
Aba, Abas, Abos, or Abus, in Ancient Geography, the
name of a mountain in Greater Armenia, situated between
the mountains Niphatos and Nibonis. According to Strabo,
the Euphrates and Araxes rose from this mountain. It is in
ABA
N. Lat. 39J, and unites at its eastern extremity with Mount
Ararat.
Aba. See Ab^e.
Aba, A lbon, or Oyon, a king of Hungary. He married
the sister of Stephen I., and was elected king on the depo¬
sition of Peter in 1041. The emperor Henry III. prepar¬
ing to reinstate Peter on the throne, Aba made an incur¬
sion into his dominions, and returned loaded with booty;
but was next year obliged to make restitution, by paying a
large sum, in order to prevent a threatened invasion from
the emperor. He indulged in great familiarity with the
lower class of the people; on account of which, and his
severity to their order, he became universally odious to the
nobility. The fugitive nobles, aided by the emperor, ex¬
cited a revolt against him. After a bloody battle, Aba was
put to flight; and was murdered by his own soldiers in 1044,
having reigned three years.
ABABDE, a tribe of Bedouins who inhabit the country
south of Kosseir, nearly as far as the latitude of Derr.
Many of this race have settled in Upper Egypt, on the east
bank of the Nile, from Kenne to Assouan, and from thence
to Derr; but the greater part of them still live like Bedouins.
They have a bad character, being treacherous, and alto¬
gether faithless in their dealings. Great numbers of the
dispersed Mamelukes fell victims to the treachery of these
A.rabs. Their breed of camels, particularly dromedaries, is
famed. They are possessed of considerable property, and
trade largely in Senna-Mekke, and in charcoal of acacia wood,
for the Cairo market, both of which are produced from trees
growing abundantly in their own mountains. The Ababde
have few horses : when at war with other Arab tribes they
fight upon camels, arming themselves with a lance, sword,
and target. Their principal tribes are El Fokara, El Ash-
abat, and El Meleykab. Such of them as encamp with their
still more savage neighbours, the Bisharye, speak the lan¬
guage of the latter.-
The Bisharye inhabit the mountains southwards from
Derr, as far as Suakim. They live entirely upon flesh and
milk, eating much of the former raw. Their women are
said to be as handsome as those of Abyssinia, and mix in
company with strangers, but are reported to be of very de¬
praved habits. Encampments of the Bisharye are found on
the northern frontier of Abyssinia; and the sea-coast, from
Suakim to Massuah, is peopled by their tribes. They have no
fire-arms, but use the bow and slyvow.—Burckhardt's Nubia.
ABACiENUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Sicily,
whose ruins are supposed to be those lying near Trippi, a
citadel on a high and steep mountain not far from Messina.
Fazellus de Reb. Sic. ix. 7.—Diodorus Sicul.
ABACINARE, in writers of the middle age, a cruel
species of punishment, in which the criminal was deprived
of sight by having a red-hot basin or bowl of metal held
before his eyes.
ABACK (a sea term), the situation of the sails when
the surfaces are flatted against the masts by the force of
the wind. The sails are said to be taken aback when they
are brought into this situation, either by a sudden change
of the wind, or by an alteration in the ship’s course. They
are laid aback, to effect an immediate retreat, without
turning to the right or left; or in the sea phrase, to give
the ship stern-way, in order to avoid some danger disco¬
vered before her in a narrow channel, or when she has
advanced beyond her station in the line of battle, or other¬
wise. The sails are placed in this position by slackening
their lee braces, and hauling in the weather ones; so that
ABA
the whole effort of the wind is exerted on the fore part Abacot
of their surface, which readily pushes the ship astern, un- II
less she is restrained by some counteracting force. Abacus.
ABACOT, the name of an ancient cap of state worn
by the kings of England, the upper part whereof was in
the form of a double crown.
ABACTORS, or Abactores, a name given to those
who drive away, or rather steal, cattle by herds, or great
numbers at once; and are therefore very properly distin¬
guished from fures or thieves.
ABACUS, among the ancients, was a kind of cupboard
or buffet. Livy, describing the luxury into which the Ro¬
mans degenerated after the conquest of Asia, says they
had their abaci, beds, &c. plated over with gold.
Abacus, or Abaciscus, in Architecture, signifies the
superior part or member of the capital of a column, and
serves as a kind of crowning to both. Vitruvius tells us
the abacus was originally intended to represent a square
tile laid over an urn, or rather over a basket. The form
of the abacus is not the same in all orders: in the Tus¬
can, Doric, and Ionic, it is generally square; but in the
Corinthian and Composite, its four sides are arched in¬
wards, and embellished in the middle with some orna¬
ment, as a rose or other flower. Scammozzi uses abacus
for a concave moulding on the capital of the Tuscan pe¬
destal ; and Palladio calls the plinth above the echinus, or
boultin, in the Tuscan and Doric orders, by the same name.
Abacus is also the name of an ancient instrument for
facilitating operations in arithmetic. The exhibition of
numbers by counters appears happily fitted for unfolding
the principles of calculation. In the schools of ancient Grecian
Greece, the boys acquired the elements of knowledge by Abacus,
working on a smooth board Avith a narrow rim,—the
Abax; so named, evidently, from the combination of
A, B, r, the first letters of their alphabet, resembling, ex¬
cept perhaps in size, the tablet likewise called A, B, C,
on which the children with us used to begin to learn the
art of reading. The pupils, in those distant ages, were
instructed to compute, by forming progressive rows of
counters, which, according to the wealth or fancy of the
individual, consisted of small pebbles, of round bits of
bone or ivory, or even of silver coins. From ^(pog, the
Greek word for a pebble, comes the verb ^ripiZfiv, to com¬
pute. But the same board served also for teaching the
rudiments of writing and the principles of Geometry.
The Abax being strewed with green sand, the pulvis eru-
ditus of classic authors, it was easy, with a radius or small
rod, to trace letters, draw lines, construct triangles, or
describe circles.—Besides the original word Afiai', the
Greeks had the diminutive AjSax/ev; and it seems very
probable, that this smaller board Avas commonly used for
calculations, while the larger one Avas reserved among
them for the purpose of tracing geometrical diagrams.
To their calculating board the ancients make frequent
allusions. It appears, from the relation of Diogenes
Laertius, that the practice of bestowing on pebbles an ar¬
tificial value, according to the rank or place which they
occupied, remounts higher than the age of Solon, the
great reformer and legislator of the Athenian common¬
wealth. This sagacious observer and disinterested states¬
man, who was, however, no admirer of regal government,
used to compare the passive ministers of kings or tyrants
to the counters or pebbles of arithmeticians, which are
sometimes most important, and at other times quite insig¬
nificant.1 iEschines, in his oration for the Crown, speak-
1 E>.syg de rou; -rasa roig rvgamig dvvuymvg emi roug Yripoig TAI2 EIII TAN AO FI 2 MAN. xa/ exeivuiv
ixMTTiv Trore fj.e\ A A El A cr^ouveiv, xore 5s 'HTTA. (Diog. Laert. in Vita Sidtmis.)
ABACUS.
Abacus.
Roman
Abacus.
ing of balanced accounts, says, that the pebbles were clear¬
ed away, and none left.1 His rival, Demosthenes, repeat¬
ing his expression, employs further the verb avravikuv,
which means to take up as many counters as were laid
down. It is evident, therefore, that the ancients, in keep¬
ing their accounts, did not separately draw together the
credits and the debts, but set down pebbles for the for¬
mer, and took up pebbles for the latter. As soon as the
board became cleared, the opposite claims were exactly
balanced. We may observe, that the phrase to clear one s
scores or accounts, meaning to settle or adjust them, is
still preserved in the popular language of Europe, being
suggested by the same practice of reckoning with count¬
ers, which prevailed indeed until a comparatively late
period.
The Romans borrowed their Abacus from the Greeks,
and never aspired higher in the pursuit of science, do
each pebble or counter required for that board they gave
the name of calculus, a diminutive formed from calx, a
stone; and applied the verb calculare, to signify the ope¬
ration of combining or separating such pebbles or count¬
ers. Hence innumerable allusions by the Latin authors.
Ponere calculum—subducere calculum, to put down a
counter, or to take it up; that is, to add or subtract; vo-
care aliquid ad calculum, ut par sit ratio acceptorum et da-
torum—to submit any thing to calculation, so that the ba¬
lance of debtor and creditor may be struck. The emperor
Helvius Pertinax, who had been taught, while a boy, the
arts of writing and casting accounts, is said, by Julius Ca-
pitolinus, to be litteris elementariis et calculo imbutus. St
Augustine, whose juvenile years were devoted to pleasure
and dissipation, acquaints us, in his extraordinary Con¬
fessions, that to him no song ever sounded more odious
than the repetition or cantio, that one and one make two,
and two and two moke four. The use of the Abacus, call¬
ed sometimes likewise the Mensa Pythagorica, formed an
essential part of the education of every noble Roman
youth:
Nec qui abaco numeros, et secto in pulvere metas
Scit risisse vafer. Pers. Sat. i. 131.
From Martianus Capella we learn that, as refinement
advanced, a coloured sand, generally of a greenish hue,
was employed to strew the surface of the abacus.
Sic dbacum perstare jubet, sic tegmine glauco
Pandere pulvereum formarum ductibus aequor.
Lib. vii. De Arithmetica.
A small box or coffer, called a Loculus, having com¬
partments for holding the calculi or counters, was a ne¬
cessary appendage of the abacus. Instead of carrying a
slate and satchel, as in modern times, the Roman boy was
accustomed to trudge to school, loaded with his arithme¬
tical board, and his box of counters:
Quo pueri magnis e centurionibus orti,
Lcevo suspensi loculos talulamque lacerto.
Horat. Sat. i. 6.
In the progress of luxury, tali, or dies made of
ivory, were used instead of pebbles, and small silver coins
came to supply the place of counters. Under the em¬
perors, every patrician living in a spacious mansion, and
indulging in all the pomp and splendour of eastern
princes, generally entertained, for various functions, a nu¬
merous train of foreign slaves or freedmen in his palace.
Of these, the librarius or miniculator, was employed in
teaching the children their letters; but the notarius re¬
gistered expenses, the rationarius adjusted and settled
accounts, and the tabularius or calculator, working with
his counters and board, performed what computations
might be required. Sometimes these laborious combiners
of numbers were termed reproachfully canculones or cal-
culones. In the fervour of operation, their gestures must
often have appeared constrained and risible.
Abacus.
Computat, ac cevet. Ponatur calculus, adsint
Cum tabula pueri.
Juv. Sat. ix. 40.
The nicety acquired in calculation by the Roman youth,
was not quite agreeable to the careless and easy temper
of Horace.
Romani pueri longis rationibus assem
Discunt in parteis centum diducere. Dicat
Filius Albini, Si de quincunce remota est
Uncia, quid superet ? Poteras dixisse, Triens. Eu !
Item poteris servare tuam. Redit uncia; quid fit ?
Semis.
Epist. ad Pisones.
It was a practice among the ancients to keep a diary,
by marking their fortunate days by a lapillus, or small
white pebble, and their days of misfortune by a black
one. Hence the frequent allusions which occur in the
Classics:
O diem laetum, notandumque mihi candidissimo calculo!
Plin. Epist. vi. 11.
 diesque nobis
Signandi melioribus lapillis !
Mart. ix. 53.
Hunc, Macrine, diem numera meliore lapillo,
Qui tibi labentes apponit candidus annos.
Pers. Sat. ii. 1, 2.
To facilitate the working by counters, the construction
of the abacus was afterwards improved. Instead of the
perpendicular lines or bars, the board had its surface di¬
vided by sets of parallel grooves, by stretched wires, or
even by successive rows of holes. It was easy to move
small counters in the grooves, to slide perforated beads
along the wires, or to stick large nobs or round-headed
nails in the different holes. To diminish the number of
marks required, every column was surmounted by a short¬
er one, wherein each counter had the same value as five
of the ordinary kind, being half the index of the Denary
Scale. The abacus, instead of wood, was often, for the
sake of convenience and durability, made of metal, fre¬
quently brass, and sometimes silver. In the Plate en¬
titled Arithmetic, we have copied, from the third vo¬
lume of the Supplement added by Polenus to. the im¬
mense Thesaurus of Gnevius, two varieties of this instru¬
ment, as used by the Romans. They both rest on good
authorities, having been delineated from antique monu¬
ments,—the first kind by Ursinus, and the second by
Marcus Velserus. In the one, the numbers are repre¬
sented by flattish perforated beads, ranged on parallel
wires; and, in the other, they are signified by small round
counters moving in parallel grooves. These instruments
contain each seven capital bars, expressing in order units,
tens, hundreds, thousands, ten thousands, hundred thousands,
and millions ; and above them are shorter bars following
the same progression, but having five times the relative
value. With four beads on each of the long wires, and
Kciv xudaoui utriv at Y^o/, xat mgrri. (Demosthenes/>ro Corona.)
i
ABA
Abacus, one bead on every corresponding short wire, it is evident
that any number could be expressed, as far as ten millions.
In all these, the Denary Scale is followed uniformly;
but there is, besides, a small appendage to the arrange¬
ment founded on the Duodenary System. Immediately
below the place of units is added a bar, with its cor¬
responding branch, both marked 0, being designed to
signify ounces, or the twelfth parts of a pound. Five
beads on the long wire, and one bead on the short wire,
equivalent now to six, would therefore denote eleven
ounces. To express the simpler fractions of an ounce,
three very short bars are annexed behind the rest; a
bead on the one marked S or 5, the contraction for Se-
missis, denoting half an ounce; a bead on the other,
which is marked by the inverted 3, the contraction for
Sicilicum, signifying the quarter of an ounce ; and a bead
on the last very short bar, marked 2 > a contraction for
the symbol ^ or Bince Sextulce, intimating a duella or
two-sixths, that is, the third part of an ounce. The second
form of the abacus differs in no essential respect from the
first, the grooves only supplying the place of parallel
wires.
We should observe that the Romans applied the same
word abacus, to signify an article of luxurious furniture,
resembling in shape the arithmetical board, but often
highly ornamental, and destined for a very different pur¬
pose,—the relaxation and the amusement of the opulent.
It was used in a game apparently similar to that of chess,
which displayed a lively image of the struggles and vicis¬
situdes of war. The infamous and abandoned Nero took
particular delight in this sort of play, and drove along the
surface of the abacus with a beautiful quadriga, or cha¬
riot of ivory.
The civil arts of Rome were communicated to other
nations by the tide of victory, and maintained through
the vigour and firmness of her imperial sway. But the
simpler and more useful improvements survived the wreck
of empire, among the various people again restored by
fortune to their barbarous independence. In all transac¬
tions wherein money was concerned, it was found conve¬
nient to follow the procedure of the Abacus, in represent¬
ing numbers by counters placed in parallel rows. During
the middle ages, it became the usual practice over Europe
for merchants, auditors of accounts, or judges appointed
to decide in matters of revenue, to appear on a covered
bank or bench, so called, from an old Saxon or Franconian
word, signifying a seat. Hence those terms were after¬
wards appropriated to offices for receiving pledges, cham¬
bers for the accommodation of money-dealers, or courts
for the trying of questions respecting property or the
claims of the Crown. Hence also the word bankrupt,
which occurs in all the dialects of Europe. The term
scaccarium, from which was derived the French, and
thence the English name for the Exchequer, anciently
signified merely a chess-board, being formed from scaccum,
denoting one "of the movable pieces in that intricate
game. The reason of this application of the term is suf¬
ficiently obvious. The table for accounts was, to facilitate
the calculations, always covered with a cloth, resembling
the surface of the scaccarium or abacus, and distinguished
by perpendicular and chequered lines. The learned Skene
was therefore mistaken in supposing that the Exchequer
C U S. 7
derived its name from the play of chess, because its Abacus,
suitors appear to fight a keen and dubious battle.1
The Court of Exchequer, which takes cognizance of all Exchequer
questions of revenue, was introduced into England by the Board, and
Norman conquest. Richard Fitznigel, in a treatise or otjier Can-
dialogue on the subject, written about the middle of thetrivancps-
twelfth century, says that the scaccarium was a quadran¬
gular table about ten feet long and five feet broad, with a
ledge or border about four inches high, to prevent any
thing from rolling over, and was surrounded on all sides
by seats for the judges, the tellers, and other officers. It
was covered every year, after the term of Easter, with
fresh black cloth, divided by perpendicular white lines, or
distinctures, at intervals of about a foot or a palm, and
again parted by similar transverse lines. In reckoning,
they proceeded, he says, according to the rules of arith¬
metic,2 using small coins for counters. The lowest bar
exhibited pence, the one above it shillings, the next
pounds; and the higher bars denoted successively tens,
twenties, hundreds, thousands, and ten thousands of pounds;
though, in those early times of penury and severe eco¬
nomy, it very seldom happened that so large a sum as the
last ever came to be reckoned. The first bar, therefore,
advanced by dozens, the second and third by scores, and
the rest of the stock of bars by the multiples of ten. The
teller sat about the middle of the table ; on his right hand
eleven pennies were heaped on the first bar, and a pile of
nineteen shillings on the second; while a quantity of
pounds was collected opposite to him, on the third bar.
For the sake of expedition, he might employ a different
mark to represent half the value of any bar, a silver penny
for ten shillings, and a gold penny for ten pounds.
In early times, a chequered board, the emblem of cal¬
culation, was hung out, to indicate an office for changing
money. It was afterwards adopted as the sign of an inn
or hostelry, where victuals were sold, or strangers lodged
and entertained. We may perceive traces of that ancient
practice existing even at present. It is customary in
London, and in some provincial towns, to have a chequer,
diced with red and white, painted against the sides of the
door of a chop-house.
The use of the smaller abacus in assisting numerical
computation was not unknown during the middle ages.
In England, however, it appears to have scarcely entered
into actual practice, being mostly confined to those “ slen¬
der clerks” who, in such a benighted period, passed for
men of science and learning. The calculator was styled,
in correct Latinity, abacista; but, in the Italian dialect,
abbachista, or abbachiere. A different name came after¬
wards to be imposed. The Arabians, who, under the ap¬
pellation of Saracens or Moors, conquered Spain, and en¬
riched that insulated country by commendable industry
and skill, had likewise introduced their mathematical
science. Having adopted a most refined species of nume¬
ration, to which they gave the barbarous name of algaris-
mus, algorismus, or algorithmus, from the definite article
al, and the Greek word ctgiOyog, or number, this compound
term was adopted by the Christians of the West, in their
admiration of superior skill, to signify calculation in gene¬
ral, long before the peculiar mode had become known and
practised among them. The term algarism was corrupted
in English into augrim or awgrym, as printed by Wynkyn
1 “ Because mony persons conveenis in the Checker to playe their causes, contrare uthers, as gif they were fechtand in an arrayed
battell, quilk is the forme and ordour of the said playe.” (Skene, ad voc. Scaccarium.)
5 He calls it Arismetica: In the Myrrourof the Worlde, printed by Caxton, in 1481, it is strangely named Ars Me trike, a proof of
the total ignorance of Greek at that period in England.
8
ABACUS.
Abacus.
de Worde, at the end of the fifteenth century; and appli-
' ed even to the pebbles or counters used in ordinary cal¬
culation. In confirmation of this remark, we shall not
scruple to quote a passage from our ancient poet Chaucer,
who flourished about a century before, and whose verses,
however rude, are sometimes highly graphic.
This clerk was clepec! bendy Nicholas;
Of derne love he coude and of solas;
And therto he was slie and ful prive,
And like a maiden meke for to se.
A chambre had he ip that hostelrie
Alone, withouten any compagnie,
Ful fetisly ydight with herbes sote,
And he himself was swete as is the rote
Of licoris, or any setewale.
His almageste, and bokes gret and smale.
His astre'labre, longing fqr his art,
His augrtm stones, layen faire apart
On shelves couched at his beddcs hed,
His presse ycovered with a fabling red.
And all above ther lay a gay sautrie,
On which he made on nightes melodie,
So swetely, that all the chambre rong:
And Angelas ad virginem he song.
And after that he song the kinge’s note ;
Ful often blessed was his mery throte.
The Milleres Tale, v. 13-112.
The abacus, with its store of counters, wanted the valu¬
able property of being portable, and was at all times evi¬
dently a clumsy and most incommodious implement of cal¬
culation. In many cases, it became quite indispensable
to adopt some sure and ready method of expressing at
DigitaINu-least the lower numbers. The ancients employed the
monition, variously combined inflections of the fingers on both hands
to signify the numerical series, and on this narrow basis
they framed a system of considerable extent. In allusion
to the very ancient practice of numbering by the arbitrary
play of the fingers, Orontes, the son-in-law of Artaxerxes,
having incurred the weighty displeasure of that monarch,
is reported by Plutarch to have exclaimed in terms exact¬
ly of the same import as those before ascribed to Solon,
that “ the favourites of kings resemble the fingers of the
arithmetician, being sometimes at the top and sometimes
at the bottom of the scale, and are equivalent at one time
to ten thousand, and at another to mere units/’1
Among the Romans likewise, the allusions to the mode
of expressing numbers by the varied inflection of the
fingers, are very frequent. Hence the classical expres¬
sions, computare digitis, and numerare per digitos; and
hence the line of Ausonius,
Quot ter luctatus cum pollice computat index.
In this play of the fingers great dexterity was acquired ;
and hence the phrase which so frequently occurs in the
C assies—digitis. It was customary to begin with
the left hand and thence proceed to the right hand, on
which the different combined inflections indicated exactly
one hundred times more. Hence the peculiar force of
this passage from Juvenal:
Rex Pylius,. magno si quicquam credis Homero
Exemplum vitae fuit a cornice secundae ;
Felix nimirum, qui tot per saecula mortem
Distulit, atque suos jam dextra computat annos.
Sat. x. 246-249.
Many such allusions to the mode of indicating numbers
by the varied position of the fingers or the hands, occur
in the writings of Cicero and Quintilian. The ancients,
indeed, for want of better instruments, were tempted to Abacus,
push that curious art to a very great extent. By a single
inflection of the fingers of the left hand, they proceeded
as far as ten ; and by combining another inflection with it,
they could advance to an hundred. The same signs on
the right hand, being augmented, as we have seen, an
hundredfold, carried them as far as ten thousand ; and by
a further combination, those signs, being referred succes¬
sively to different parts of the body, were again multiplied
an hundred times, and therefore extended to a million.
This kind of pantomime outlived the subversion of the
Roman empire, and was particularly fitted for the slothful
religious orders who fattened on its ruins, and, relinquish¬
ing every maply pursuit, recommended silence as a virtue,
or enjoined it as an obligation. Our venerable Bede has
explained the practice of manual numeration at some
length; and we have given (see Plate Arithmetic) a
Small specimen of such inflections and digital signs.
These signs were merely fugitive, and it became neces¬
sary to adopt other marks, of a permanent nature, for the
purpose of recording numbers. But of all the contrivances
adopted with this view, the rudest undoubtedly is the
method of registering by tallies, introduced into England
along with the Court of Exchequer, as another badge of
the Norman conquest. These consist of straight well-
seasoned sticks, of hazel or willow, so called from the
French verb tailler, to cut, because they are squared at
each end. The sum of money was marked on the side
with notches, by the cutter of tallies, and likewise inscrib¬
ed on both sides in Roman characters, by the writer of
the tallies. The smallest notch signified a penny, a larger
one a shilling, and one still larger a pound; but other
notches, increasing successively in breadth, were made to
denote ten, a hundred, and a thousand. The stick was
then cleft through the middle by the deputy-chamberlains,
with a knife and a mallet; the one portion being called
the tally, or sometimes the scachia, stipes, or kancia ; and
the other portion named the countertally, ox folium.
After the union with Scotland had been concluded in
1707, a store of hazel rods for tallies was sent down to
Edinburgh, being intended, no doubt, as a mighty refine¬
ment on the Scottish mode of keeping accounts. Their
advantages, however, were not perceived or acknowledged,
and they have since been suffered, we believe, to lie as so
much useless lumber. But the case was very different in
England, which is more addicted to a slavish attachment to
ancient forms, and opposed to the general progress of
society.
T. his ridiculous plan of keeping the public accounts was
maintained up to the year 1834, when a more rational sys¬
tem was adopted, and the old wooden tallies were ordered
to be destroyed. The parties entrusted with this duty burnt
them in the stoves which heated the House of Lords ; and
so intense was the heat occasioned by the burning of so
great a quantity of dry wood, that it set fire to the building,
and consumed the Houses of Parliament, on the 16th Oc¬
tober 1834.
The Chinese have, from the remotest ages, used in all Chinese
their calculations, an instrument called the Swan-Pan, or Swan-Pan.
Computing Table, similar in its shape and construction to
the abacus of the Romans, but more complete and uni¬
form. It consists of a small oblong board surrounded by
a high ledge, and parted lengthwise near the top by an¬
other ledge. It is then divided vertically by ten smooth
and slender rods of bamboo, on which are strung two
B<Jf7ZZ,TZJHfnTU‘'‘V ^AKT/A01 r f‘”' MYPIA*AS, MONAAA rifovcu Swam*.
^ ^ 10 ™ & toAoxu™,. (Pldi. Apophthegm.)
TO avro KCLl T(OV
A baddon.
ABA
Abacus small balls of ivory or bone in the upper compartment,
and five such balls in the lower and larger compartment;
, each of the latter on the several bars denoting unit, and
each of the.former, for the sake of abbreviation, express¬
ing five. See Plate (Arithmetic), where the balls are
actually set to signify the numbers annexed.
The system of measures, weights, and coins, which pre¬
vails throughout the Chinese empire, being entirely
founded on the decimal subdivision, the swan-pan was
admirably suited for representing it. The calculator
could begin at any particular bar, and reckon with the
same facility either upwards or downwards. This advan¬
tage of treating fractions exactly like integers was, in
practice, of the utmost consequence. Accordingly, those
arithmetical machines, but of very different sizes, are
constantly used in all the shops and booths of Canton
and other cities, and are said to be handled by the native
traders with such rapidity and address as quite astonish
the European factors.
But the Chinese have also contrived a very neat and
simple kind of digital signs for denoting numbers, greatly
superior, both in precision and extent, to the method
practised by the Romans. Since every finger has three
joints, let the thumb-nail of the other hand touch those
joints in succession, passing up the one side of the finger,
down the middle, and again up the other side, and it will
give nine different marks, applicable to the Denary Scale
' of arrangement. On the little finger those marks signify
units, on the next finger tens, on the mid-finger hundreds,
on the index thousands, and on the thumb hundred thou-,
sands. With the combined positions of the joints of the
one hand, therefore, it was easy to advance by signs as
far as a million. To illustrate more fully this ingenious
practice, we have, immediately below the koua of the
Emperor Fou-hi, copied (See Plate), from a Chinese
elementary treatise of education, the figure of a hand,
noted at the several joints of each finger, by characters
along the inside, corresponding to one, two, and three,
down the middle by those answering to four, five, and six,
and again up the outside by characters expressing seven,
eight, and nine. It is said that the merchants in China are
accustomed to conclude bargains with each other by help
of those signs; and that often, from selfish or fraudulent
views, they conceal the pantomime from the knowledge
of by-standers, by only seeming to seize the hand with
a hearty grasp. (j. l.)
Abacus Pythagoricus, the common multiplication table,
so called from its being invented by Pythagoras.
Abacus Logisticus is a rectangled triangle, whose sides,
forming the right angle, contain the numbers from 1 to
60; and its area, the facta of each two of the numbers
perpendicularly opposite. This is also called a canon of
sexagesimals.
Abacus et Palmulce, in the Ancient Music, denote the
machinery whereby the strings of polyplectra, or instru¬
ments of many strings, were struck with plectra made
of quills.
Abacus Harmonious is used by Kircher for the struc¬
ture and disposition of the keys of a musical instrument,
whether to be touched with the hands or the feet.
Abacus Major, in metallurgic operations, the name of
a trough used in the mines, wherein the ore is washed.
ABADDON, or Apoixyon (”|1“E!1N, destruction;
’AySaSSwvin Rev. ix. 11, where it is rendered by the Greek
’AttoXAvow, destroyer?) The former is the Hebrew name,
and the latter the Greek, for the angel of death, or the
angel of the abyss or ‘ bottomless pit.’ In the Bible, and
in every Rabbinical instance, the word I'nnx {abaddon)
means destruction (Job xxxi. 12), or the place of destruc-
VOL. H.
Abana.
ABA £
tion, i. e. the subterranean world, Hades, the region of the Abad<*h
dead (Job xxvi. 6 ; xxviii. 22 ; Prov. xv. 11.) It is in fact
the second of the seven names which the Rabbins apply to
that region; and they deduce it particularly from Psalm
Ixxxviii. 11, “ Shall thy loving kindness be declared in the
grave, or thy faithfulness in {abaddon) destruction ?”
ABADEH, a Persian town in Ears, 115 miles north of
Shirauz, formerly a place of importance but now decayed,
though still with a population of about 5000. It is famous
for its gardens, the fruits of which are sent to Shirauz.
ABADIR, a title which the Carthaginians gave to gods
of the first order. In the Roman mythology, it is the name
of a stone which Saturn swallowed, by the contrivance of
his wife Ops, believing it to be his new-born son Jupiter:
hence it became the object of religious worship.
ABM, "A/Soll, in Ancient Geography, a town of Phocis
near the frontiers of the Opuntians Locrians famous for an
ancient oracle of Apollo, and the treasures of its temple, which
was plundered and burnt by the Persians, B.c. 480; and
again by the Boeotians, b.c. 346. Hadrian built a smaller
temple near the site of the former one. The ruins of Abae
'nuay still be traced on the S.W. side of a peaked hill to the
west of Exarkho. (See Leake’s Northern Greece ; Gell’s
'Itfnyrary.)
X ABAFT, a sea term, signifying the hinder part of a ship,
or all those parts both within and without which lie towards
the stern, in opposition to afore. Abaft is also used as a
preposition, and signifies further aft, or nearer the stern: as,
the barricade stands abaft the main-mast, i. e. behind it, or
nearer the stern.
ABAISSED, abaisse, in Heraldry, an epithet applied to
the wings of eagles, &c. when the tip looks downwards to the
point of the shield, or when the wings are shut; the natural
way of bearing them being extended.
ABAKA, Khan, the eighth emperor of the Moguls, a w ise
and good prince, ascended the throne in 1264. He reigned
17 years, and is by some authors said to have been a Chris¬
tian. It may be admitted, indeed, that he joined with the
Christians in keeping the feast of Easter, in the city Hama-
dan, a short time before his death. But this is no proof of
his Christianity; it having been a common practice, in these
times, for Christians and Mahometans to join in keeping the
same feasts, when each would compliment the other by
doing honour to his solemnity.
ABAKANSK, a range of mountains in the government
of Tomsk, in Siberia, extending from the river Tom to the
Jenisei, parallel to the Altai mountains.
Abakansk, a fortified town of Siberia, in the government
of Tomsk, on the river Abakan. This is considered the
mildest and most salubrious place in Siberia; and is remark¬
able for the tumuli in its neighbourhood, and for some sta¬
tues of men from seven to nine feet high covered with hiero¬
glyphics. Pop. 1200. Lat. 54. N. Long. 91. 14. E.
AB ALL AB A, an ancient Roman castle mentioned in the
Notitia Imperii, the site of which is referred by antiquaries
to Appleby in Westmoreland. It was one of the forts erected
by Hadrian, a.d. 120.
ABALUS, in Ancient Geography, is described as an
island in the German Ocean, where amber was found in
great abundance. It is called Basilia by Timaeus, and Bal-
tia by Xenophon of Lampsacus. It was probably one of
the narrow peninsulas on the Prussian coast, which lie be¬
tween the Baltic and the lakes called the Frisch and Curisch
Haffs.
ABANA, or Amana, and PHARPAR, are called
“ rivers of Damascus” in 2 Kings v. 12. The main stream
by which Damascus is now irrigated is called Barrada
(the ancient Chrysorrhoas), and it seems probable that this
was the ancient Pharpar: the Abana has been sought in
B
10 ABA ABA
Abancay its subsidiary streams, and also m the Fijih, a deep, rapid
I! stream, which falls into the Barrada 15 or 20 miles N.W.
Abaptiston 0f Damascus. See Damascus.
-,,u ABANCAY, a district of Peru in the partido of Cuzco.
Its length is 26 leagues from east to west, its breadth 14.
It contains several towns, of which the chief is Abancay.
The surface is varied; the plains produce very rich crops of
sugar cane, and the principal cereals, as well as much hemp,
which is manufactured into cloth in the chief town, where also
there are excellent sugar refineries. The mountains afford
some silver, and pasturage for large herds of cattle. The town
of Abancay is 65 miles from Cuzco, and has one of the finest
bridges in Peru.
ABANDONMENT, in Marine Insurance, is the sur¬
rendering of the ship or goods insured, to the insurers, in con¬
sequence of damage or loss sustained from any of the causes
insured against. In every case of loss or damage from these
causes, the insured is not entitled to abandon, but only when
serious injury has been sustained; as where the voyage is
lost or not worth pursuing, and the projected adventure frus¬
trated, or where the thing insured is so damaged and spoiled
as to be of little or no value to the owner. It was held that,
where the damage sustained in a voyage was to the extent
of forty-eight per cent, of the value of the vessel, the insured
were not entitled to abandon. By abandonment all the rights
of the insured are vested in the insurers, who thus become
the legal owners of the vessel or goods, and are obliged to
pay the full amount of the insurance. The insured must in¬
timate his intention to abandon, within a reasonable time after
receiving intelligence of the loss; any unnecessary delay
being held as an indication of his intention not to abandon.
An abandonment when once made is irrevocable; but in no
circumstances is the insured obliged to abandon. In the case
of shipwreck or other misfortune, the captain and crew are
bound to do all in their power to save the property, without
prejudice to the right of abandonment; for which they are
entitled to wages and remuneration from the insurers, at least
so far as what is saved will allow. (See Marshall and Park,
on the Law of Insurance?)
ABANO, a town in the Austrian division of Italy, at the
foot of the Vicentine Hills, the ancient Montes Euganei.
It is visited by invalids for the benefit of its baths, which were
well known to the ancients, and are noticed by Martial and
Claudian as Pontes Aponi. There are five thermal springs,
viz., Ponte d’Abano, Mont’-Ortone, San Pietro, Monte Gratto,
and San Bartolomeo, besides the hot mud bath, Bagno di
Fango; which latter is considered more efficacious for the cure
of diseases than the springs. These springs rise through ter¬
tiary strata, resting on trap-porphyry, which Breislac considers
of volcanic origin. Besides their medicinal virtues, Suetonius
relates that they were frequented for the purposes of divina¬
tion by means of tali cast into the basin of the fountain.
Suet. Tib. xiv. Claud. Idyll. 6.
AB AN IES, a people of ancient Greece who came ori¬
ginally from Thrace, and settled in Phocis, where they built
a town which they called Aba, after the name of Abas their
leader. If we may credit some ancient authors, the Abantes
afterwards migrated to the island of Eubcea; according to
other authorities the Abantes of Eubcea came from Athens.
The national character of the Abantes was very warlike.
ABANTIAS, or Abantis, in Ancient Geography, a name
of the island Eubcea. See Eub<ea.
ABAPTISTON, in Surgery, the perforating part of the
instrument called a trepan. This instrument, which is men¬
tioned by Galen, Fabricius ab Aquapendente, and others, was
a conical saw with a circular edge. Modern practitioners
however, prefer the cylindrical form; and various contri¬
vances have been recommended to obviate the danger that
may arise from want of dexterity, or from rashness, in per¬
forming the operation of trepanning, The instrument most Abaran
commonly employed in Britain is the trephine, in which the II
circular saw is moved backward and forward by the hand; Abas-
but on the Continent the preference is usually given to the
trepan, in which the circular saw is attached to a handle like
that of a carpenter’s brace ; and this is preferred by Professor
Syme, and some of our other eminent surgeons, to the tre¬
phine, as the latter renders the operation more tedious and
laborious. See Surgery.
ABARAN, a small town in the department of Ziezar,
and province of Murcia, in Spain.
Abaran, a Persian town, about 15 miles north of Nuck-
schivan, in which the Dominicans had a mission.
ABA RIM, high mountains of steep ascent separating the
country of the Ammonites and Moabites from the land of
Canaan, where Moses died. According to Josephus, they
stood opposite to the territory of Jericho, and were the last
station but one of the Israelites coming from Egypt. Nebo
and Pisgah were parts of these mountains.
ABARIS, the Hyperborean, a celebrated sage of anti¬
quity, whose history and travels have been the subject of
much learned discussion. Such a number of fabulous stories11 Jamblichi
were told of him, that Herodotus himself seems to scruple Vua py~
to relate them. He tells us only,2 that this barbarian was2^fb iv
said to have travelled with an arrow, and to have taken no ' -jg1V‘
sustenance ; but this does not acquaint us with the marvel¬
lous properties which were attributed to that arrow; nor that
it had been given him by the Hyperborean Apollo. With
regard to the occasion of his leaving his native country, Har-
pocration8 tells us, that the whole earth being infested with 3 Under the
a deadly plague, Apollo, upon being consulted, gave no other wordA^a?'f
answer than that the Athenians should offer up prayers in be¬
half of all other nations; upon which, several countries de¬
puted ambassadors to Athens, among whom was Abaris the
Hyperborean. In this journey, he renewed the alliance be¬
tween his countrymen and the inhabitants of the island of
Delos. It appears that he also went to Lacedaemon; since
according to some writers,4 he there built a temple conse-4 Pausanias
crated to Proserpine the Salutary. It is asserted that he was j.lb- ni.p.94.
capable of foretelling earthquakes, driving away plagues, lay- j>ry
ing storms,6 &c. He wrote several books, as Suidas6 in- y~
forms us, viz., Apollo’s arrival in the country of the Hyper- b Under the
boreans; the nuptials of the river Hebrus ; Geoyoma or the word a few;
Generation of the Gods; a collection of oracles, &c.—If the7 Account
Hebrides, or Western islands of Scotland, (says Mr Toland)7 tbe
were the Hyperboreans of Diodorus,8 then the celebrated
Abaris was of that country; and likewise a Druid, havingmowg
been the priest of Apollo. Suidas, who knew not the dis- Works, i.
tinction of the insular Hyperboreans, makes him a Scythian ;p. 161.
as do some others, misled by the same vulgar error; though8 Diod. Sic.
Diodorus has truly fixed his country in an island, and not on11*1,111111-
the Continent. But every thing relating to him is apocry¬
phal, and even his era is doubtful. Some refer his ap¬
pearance in Greece to the third Olympiad, others to the
21st, while some transfer him to the 52d Olympiad, or 570
years b.c., or somewhat later, about the time of Croesus of
Lydia.
ABARTICULATION, in Anatomy, a species of arti¬
culation, admitting of a manifest motion; called also Diar¬
throsis, and Dearticulatio, to distinguish it from that sort
of articulation which admits of a very obscure motion, and
is called Synarthrosis.
ABAS, a weight used in Persia for weighing pearls. It
is equal to 2-25 grains Troy.
Abas, in heathen mythology, the son of Meganira, who
entertained Ceres, and offered a sacrifice to that goddess;
but Abas ridiculing the ceremony, and giving her oppro¬
brious language, she sprinkled him with a certain mixture she
held in her cup, on which he became a newt or water lizard.
ABA
Abassi ABASSI, or Abassis, a silver coin current in Persia,
II equivalent in value to a French livre, or at present tenpence
Abates, sterling. It took its name from Schah Abbas II., king of
Persia, under whom it was struck.
ABATAMENTUM, in Law, is an entry to lands by
interposition, i. e. when a person dies seized, and another
who has no right enters before the heir.
ABATE, in the manege, implies the performing any
downward motion properly. Thus a horse is said to abate
or take down his curvets, when he puts both his hind legs
to the ground at once, and observes the same exactness in
all the times.
To Abate, (from the French abattre, to pull down, over¬
throw, demolish, batter down, or destroy,) a term used by
the writers of the English common law both in an active
and neuter sense; as, To abate a castle, is to beat it down.
To abate a writ, is, by some exception to defeat or over¬
throw it. A stranger abdteth; that is, entereth upon a
house or land void by the death of him that last possessed
it, before the heir takes possession, and so keepeth him out:
wherefore, as he that putteth out him in possession is said
to disseize, so he that steppeth in between the former pos¬
sessor and his heir is said to abate. In the neuter significa¬
tion thus : The writ of the demandant shall abate ; that is,
shall be disabled, frustrated, or overthrown. The appeal
abateth by covin; that is, the accusation is defeated by
deceit.
ABATEMENT, in Heraldry, an accidental figure sup¬
posed to have been added to coats of arms, in order to
denote some dishonourable demeanour or stain, whereby
the dignity of coat armour was rendered of less esteem.
Abatement, Rebate, or Rebatement, in Commerce, is a
discount for ready money; and it also means a deduction
sometimes made at the custom-house from the fixed duties
on certain kinds of goods, on account of damage or loss
sustained in warehouses. The rate of such deduction is
regulated by Act 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 52.
ABATI, Niccolo, a celebrated fresco-painter of Modena,
born in 1512. His best works are at Modena, and in the
Institute of Bologna; and have been highly praised by Zan-
otti, Algarotti, and Lanzi. He accompanied Primaticcio to
France, and assisted in decorating the palace at Fontain-
bleau. He united skill in drawing, grace, and natural co¬
louring in his pictures. Some of his easel pieces in oil are
in different collections; and the finest of them, to be seen
in the Dresden Gallery, represents the martyrdom of St
Peter and St Paul. Abati died at Paris, in 1571. There
are several good painters of his name and family mentioned
by Lanzi. Storia Pittorica, tom. iv.
ABATIS, an ancient term for an officer of the stables.
Abatis, or Abattts, in military affairs, a kind of defence
made of felled trees. In sudden emergencies, the trees are
merely laid lengthwise beside each other, with the branches
pointed outwards to prevent the approach of the enemy,
while the trunks serve as a breast-work to the defendants.
When the abatis is employed for the defence of a pass or
entrance, the boughs of the trees are stripped of their leaves
and pointed, the trunks are planted in the ground, and the
branches interwoven with each other.
ABATON, a building at Rhodes, erected as a fence to
the trophy of Artemisia, queen of Halicarnassus, Coos, &c.
raised in memory of her victory over the Rhodians, or rather
to conceal the disgrace of the Rhodians from the eyes of the
world; for, to efface or destroy the trophy was with them a
point of religious abhorrence.
ABATOR, in Law, a term applied to a person who
enters a house or lands void by the death of the last posses¬
sor, before the true heir.
ABATOS, in Ancient Geography, an island in the Nile
aba n
near Philae, sacred to Osiris, which the priests alone were Abattoir,
permitted to enter.
ABATTOIR, the term applied by the French to desig¬
nate slaughter-houses for cattle. These useful establishments
were introduced into Paris and other large cities by Napo¬
leon. Formerly the multitude of animals slaughtered in
Paris, became a nuisance of great magnitude to the in¬
habitants, from the exhibition of the barbarities practised
on the poor animals by the butchers, the piteous cries of
sheep and cattle pent up, without food or water, in the con¬
fined stalls in which they were crowded, and from the offen¬
sive exhalations of putrid blood and offal that proceeded
from slaughter-houses, often planted in the most populous
parts of the city. The same nuisance, till lately, disgraced
the British metropolis, and most of our other great towns.
It appears hardly conceivable that London should, till 1852,
have tolerated the nuisance of Smithfield market. When
this mart was established five centuries ago, it was far be¬
yond the precincts of the city. There, in the midst of a
dense population, no fewer than 243,537 head of cattle, and
1,455,249 sheep were sold in 1852, to be afterwards slaugh¬
tered in the crowded lanes and ill-ventilated courts of the
metropolis; while our more judicious neighbours the French,
and our transatlantic brethren in New York and Philadel¬
phia, do not tolerate such sources of disgust and disease in
the interior of their great towns.
The abattoirs of Paris, created by Napoleon’s decree of
1810, amounted to five in 1818, when they were all com¬
pleted, and put under excellent regulation. There are three
on the north, and two on the south side of Paris; and all
are in the outskirts of the town, about two miles from its
centre. The largest to the north is in the Rue Rochechouart,
between the Barrieres Poissonnieres and des Martyres ; the
largest on the south side is just behind the Place Breteuil;
the rest are near the banks of the Seine. The cattle-mar¬
kets are all at the distance of some miles from Paris; and
the cattle are driven from them to the abattoirs, round by
the external Boulevards, so as to avoid the streets as much
as possible.
Each butcher goes to his own abattoir; to which are at¬
tached proper places for preserving the meat, provided with
an iron rack for the fat, pans for melting the tallow, and
stalls for the cattle before they are slaughtered. The stalls
are furnished with proper racks and troughs for hay and
water, that the animals may suffer as little as possible be¬
fore they are slaughtered. The abattoirs, and the whole
establishment are kept very clean, by an abundant supply
of water that carries off the blood and all impurities into
sewers. Considering the nature of the place, every thing is
commendably clean.
An inspector is appointed to each abattoir, whose business
it is to prevent the sale of unwholesome meat, and to enforce
order and cleanliness. For these accommodations a butcher
pays according to the number of animals he slaughters.
The sum now paid for each ox is six francs, four for a cow,
two for a calf, and one for a sheep or lamb. The money
thus raised from all the Parisian abattoirs in 1842, amounted
to about £48,000 sterling.
It is greatly to be wished that some regulations like those of
the French abattoirs were introduced into all our large towns,
especially London, Liverpool, Manchester, Glasgow, &c.,
as has lately been done at Edinburgh.
In 1851, the corporation of Edinburgh constructed a
greatly improved abattoir in that city, from designs prepared
by Mr David Cousin, the city architect. It occupies an area
of four acres and a quarter, surrounded by a screen-wall,
with entrance gates on each side in the Egyptian style of
architecture; behind the screen-wall is a large open area,
from which access is given to all the different buildings con-
12
ABA
ABB
Aba-Ujvar nected with the establishment. The slaughtering booths
II consist of a double row of buildings, extending in a straight
Abauzit. ]jne t() about 375 feet in length, with a centre roadway 2o
feet wide. There are three separate blocks of building on
each side of the roadway, the extreme blocks being each 100
feet in length, and the central one 140 feet, with cross roads
18 feet wide, between these, giving access to the other por¬
tions of the grounds. The different ranges of building con¬
tain 42 booths in all; each booth is 18 feet wide, 24 feet in
length, and 20 feet in height, having a cattle shed attached,
18 feet by 22 feet, and a small enclosed yard behind, with
a separate back entrance, by which all the cattle are driven
into the sheds, where they are kept previously to being
slaughtered. By a series of large ventilators along the roof,
and by other contrivances, these buildings are thoroughly
ventilated. The large doors of the booths, instead of being
hinged in the usual manner, are hung by balance weights,
so as to slide up and down similarly to an ordinary sash-
window, so that they never interfere with the operations
within, or with the thoroughfare of the road.
Improved mechanical contrivances have been introduced,
some of them of a novel application, which have secured
great facilities in the dressing and preparation of the meat*
Each booth is amply provided with water.
In addition to the slaughtering booths, there is large ac¬
commodation for triperies, pig-slaughtering houses, tallow¬
weighing houses, and all the other necessaries of such an
establishment.
The whole of the booths have been laid with thick well-
dressed pavement, resting on a stratum of concrete twelve
inches thick, and the walls to the height of seven feet are
formed of solid ashler, so as to prevent the possibility of rats
burrowing in them. With this view also, the whole surface
of the roadways have been laid with concrete and causewayed
with well-dressed whinstone pavement. The drainage also
consists entirely of glazed earthenware tubes, so that the
whole area of the buildings is rendered impervious to these
destructive vermin.
There are two distinct sets of drains, one for surface wa¬
ter, which is conveyed directly into Lochrin burn ; the other
for soil from the booths, which is conveyed into large tanks
formed for its reception, and sold for agricultural purposes.
Before the erection of these buildings, private slaughter¬
houses were scattered all over the city, often in the most
populous districts, where, through want of drainage and im¬
perfect ventilation, they contaminated the whole neighbour¬
hood. Since the opening of the public abattoir, all private
slaughter-houses are prohibited.
ABA-UJVAR, one of the palatinates into which the
Austrian kingdom of Hungary is divided. It is bounded on
the east and south by the county of Zemplin, on the west
by those of Torna Borschod and Zips, and on the north by
Saros. It is mountainous, and nearly one-half covered with
wood. Its chief productions are wine, tobacco, wood, corn,
flax, fruit, metals, and precious stones ; and it has also some
valuable quarries of marble. Its extent is about 1118 square
miles, and it contains one city, 10 market-towns, and 227
villages. Population in 1838, 204,000.
ABAUZIT, Firmin, a learned Frenchman, was born at
Usez, in Languedoc, in November 1679. His father died
when he was but two years of age. To avoid the persecu¬
tion to which the Protestants of France were exposed in the
time of Louis XIV., Abauzit’s mother fled with her son to
Geneva. F rom his 1 Oth to his 19th year, his time was wholly
devoted to literature,; and having made great progress in lan¬
guages, he studied mathematics, physics, and theology. In
the year 1698, he travelled into Holland, where he became
acquainted with Bayle, Basnage, and Jurieu. Thence he
passed over to England, and was introduced to Sir Isaac
Newton, who entertained a very high opinion of his merit. Abavo
For this philosopher afterwards sent him his Commercium ||
Epistolicum, accompanied with a very honourable testi- Abbadie.
mony: “You are well worthy,” says Newton, “ to judge be-
tween Leibnitz and me.” The reputation of Abauzit reached
the ears of King William, who encouraged him by a very
handsome offer to settle in England; which he declined, and
returned to Geneva. In 1715 he entered into the society
formed for the purpose of translating the New Testament
into the French language, and contributed valuable assist¬
ance to this work. The chair of philosophy in the university
was offered to him in 1723, which he refused; but in 1727
he accepted the office of librarian to the city, the duties of
of which were not burdensome, and did not subject him to
any particular restraint.
Abauzit was one of the first who embraced the grand
truths which the sublime discoveries of Newton disclosed to
the world. He defended the doctrines of that philosopher
against Father Castel; and discovered an error in the Prin-
cipia, which was corrected by Newton in the second edition
of his work. He was a perfect master of many languages;
his knowledge was extensive and profound; and the different
sciences which he had studied were so well digested and
arranged in his retentive mind, that he could at once bring
together all that he ever knew on any subject. Rousseaix
(in his Heloise) addressed to Abauzit one of the finest pane¬
gyrics which he ever wrote; and a stranger having addressed
Voltaire in a flattering manner, by saying he had come to
Geneva to see a great man, the poet asked him whether he
had seen Abauzit.
This excellent man, having lived universally respected to
the great age of 87 years, died in the year 1767, lamented
hy the republic, and regretted by the learned.
ABAVO, in Botany, a synonyme of the Adansonia.
ABB, a term among clothiers applied to the yarn of
a weaver’s warp. They say also Abb-wool in the same
sense.
Abb, a town of Yemen in Arabia, situated on a moun¬
tain in the midst of a very fertile country, 73 miles N.E. of
Mocha. Lat. 13. 58. N., Long. 44.15. E. It contains about
800 houses, and is surrounded by a strong wall; the streets
are well paved; and an aqueduct from a neighbouring moun¬
tain supplies it with water, which is received in a great reser¬
voir in front of the principal mosque. Population about
5000.
ABBA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa Propria,
near Carthage. Liv. xxx. 7.
Abba, in the Syriac and Chaldee languages, literally sig¬
nifies a father; and figuratively, a superior, reputed as a
father in respect of age, dignity, or affection. It is more par-
ticularly used in the Syriac, Coptic, and Ethiopic churches,
as a title given to the bishops. The bishops themselves
bestow the title of Abba more eminently on the bishop of
Alexandria ; which occasioned the people to give him the
title of Babba, or Papa, that is Grandfather; a title which
he bore before the bishop of Rome. It is a Jewish title of
honour given to certain Rabbis called Tanaites: and it was
particularly used, by some writers of the middle age, for the
superior of a monastery, usually called abbot.
ABBADIE, James, an eminent Protestant divine, born
at Nay in Berne in 1657; first educated there under the
famous John la Placette, and afterwards at the university of
Sedan, from whence he went into Holland and Germany,
and was minister in the French church of Berlin. He left
that place in 1690; came into England; was some time minis¬
ter in the French church in the Savoy, London; and was
made dean of Killalo in Ireland. He was strongly attached
to the cause of King William, as appears in his elaborate
defence of the Revolution, and his History of the Assassin-
ABB
ABB
13
7\bbas- ation Plot. The materials for the last were furnished by
Hen- the secretaries of state. He had great natural abilities, which
Abdul- he improved by useful learning. His best known and ablest
Motalleb works are, Traite de la Divinite de Jesus-Christ, and Traita
,., .de la Reliqion Chretienne. He died in London in 1727,
v alter his return trom a tour in Holland.
ABBAS-BEN-ABDUL-MOTALLEB, Mahomet’s
uncle, opposed his nephew with all his power, regarding
him as an impostor and traitor to his country; but in the
second year of the Hegira, being overcome and made a pri¬
soner at the battle of Beder in 623, when a great ransom
was demanded for him, he represented to Mahomet that his
paying it would reduce him to beggary, which would bring
dishonour on the family. Mahomet, who knew that he had
concealed large sums of money, said to him, “ Where are
the purses of gold that you gave your mother to keep when
you left Mecca ? Abbas, who thought this transaction secret,
was much surprised; and conceiving that his nephew was
really a prophet, embraced his religion. He became one of
his principal captains, and saved his life when in imminent
danger at the battle of Honain, against the Thakesites, soon
after the reduction of Mecca. But besides being a great
commander, Abbas was one of the first doctors of Islamism.
He is said to have read lectures on every chapter of the
Koran, as his nephew pretended to receive them from heaven.
He died in 652, and his memory is held in the highest vene¬
ration among the Mussulmans to this day.
Abbas, Schak, the Great, was third son of Codabendi,
seventh king of Persia of the race of the Sophis. Succeed¬
ing to his father in 1585, at the age of 18, he found the
affairs of Persia at a low ebb, occasioned by the conquests
of the Turks and Tartars. He regained several of the pro¬
vinces they had seized ; but death put a stop to his victories
in 1629, after a reign of 44 years. He was the greatest
prince who had reigned in Persia for many ages; and it was
he who made Ispahan the metropolis of Persia: but his
memory is stained with many atrocities.
Abbas, Schah, his great-grandson, ninth king of Persia
of the race of the Sophis, succeeded his father Sesi at 13
years of age. He was but 18 when he made himself master
of the city of Candahar, which had surrendered in his father’s
reign to the Great Mogul, and all the province about it;
and he preserved it afterwards against this Indian emperor,
though he besieged it more than once with an army of
300,000 men. He was a very merciful prince, and openly
protected the Christians. He had formed a design of ex¬
tending the limits of his kingdom toward the north, and
for that purpose had levied a powerful army; but death
put a stop to all his great designs, at 37 years of age, a.d.
1666.
Abbas-Abad, a town founded by Abbas the Great, now
a frontier town of Persia, on the Araxes, near which is a
strong fortress. It once contained 40,000 houses, and an
immense population, which is now reduced to 3388 Tartars,
and 1779 Armenians.
ABBASSA, sister of the celebrated Khaliph Haroun A1
Raschid, who was given in marriage to his vizier Ghiaffr, on
the strange condition that she should remain a virgin; the
violation of which, and its terrible consequences, have been
the theme of oriental story.
ABBASSIDES, the name of a race who possessed the
caliphat for 524 years. There were 37 caliphs of this race
who succeeded one another without interruption. They drew
their descent from Abbas-Ben-Abdul-Motalleb, a brother of
the Prophet’s father. The princes of this family made war
on the dynasty of Ommiades, a.d. 746; and in 750 defeated
the last caliph of the rival family in the bloody battle of Zab
near Mosid. The most celebrated monarchs of this family
were Al-Mansur, and Haroun-al-Baschid. Their empire ter¬
minated in Mostazem, who fell in battle against the Tartar Abbe
Prince Hulaku in 1257. . ii
ABBE', in a monastic sense, the same with Abbot. Abbey.
Abbe', in a modern sense, the denomination of a class
of persons which has been popular in France. They
were not in orders; but having received the ceremony
of tonsure, were entitled to enjoy certain privileges in the
church. The dress of abbes was that of academics or
professed scholars. In colleges they were the instructors
of youth, and were employed as tutors in private families.
Many of them have risen to a distinguished rank in the
state, while others have been no less eminent in science and
literature.
ABBESS, the superior of an abbey or convent of nuns.
The abbess has the same rights and authority over her nuns
that the abbots regular have over their monks. The sex
indeed does not allow her to perform the spiritual functions
annexed to the priesthood, with which the abbot is usually
invested ; but there are instances of some abbesses who have
a right, or rather a privilege, to commission a priest to act
for them. They have even a kind of episcopal jurisdiction,
as well as some abbots who are exempted from the visita¬
tion of their diocesans.
Martene, in his treatise on the rights of the church, ob¬
serves, that abbesses formerly confessed nuns ; but he adds,
that their excessive curiosity carried them to such lengths, that
there arose a necessity for checking it. However, St Basil,
in his Rule, allows the abbess to be present with the priest
at the confession of her nuns.
ABBEVILLE, an arrondissement of the department of
the Somme, in the north-west of France, which extends over
610 square miles, or 390,300 acres. It is divided into 11
cantons, which are subdivided into 172 communes, and in
1846 contained 137,111 inhabitants.
Abbeville, a city of France, capital of the arrondissement
of the same name, situate in a pleasant and fertile valley on
both sides of the river Somme, 12 miles above its mouth,
and 25 miles N.W. of Amiens. This town, which is strongly
fortified on Vauban’s system, is neat and well built, and has
several bridges, squares, and churches, one of them, St
Wulfram’s, very antique and curious. A cloth manufactory
was established here by Van Bobais, a Dutchman, under
the patronage of the minister Colbert, as early as 1669 ; and
since that time Abbeville has continued to be one of the
most thriving manufacturing towns in France. Besides
black cloths of the best quality, there are produced velvets,
cottons, linens, serges, sackings, hosiery, packthread, jewel¬
lery, soap, glass-wares, &c. It has also establishments for
spinning wool, print-works, bleaching-works, tanneries, a
paper manufactory, &c.; and being situate in the centre of
a fruitful district, it has a considerable trade with the sur¬
rounding country. By help of the tides, vessels of 150 tons
come up to the town. According to the census of 1846, it
had a population of 17,035. A treaty was concluded here
in 1225, between Henry III. of England and Louis IX. of
France, by which the province of Guienne was ceded to the
English. Lat. 50. 7. 4. N. Long. L 59. 58. E.
Abbeville, a fertile district of the United States, North
America, in S. Carolina, between the rivers Savannah and
Saluda. The population in 1850 was 32,148. The chief
town of the same name is on Little River, 97 miles west of
Columbia.
ABBEY, a monastery, or religious house, governed by a
superior under the title of abbot or abbess.
Abbeys differ {xovapriories in this, that the former are un¬
der the direction of an abbot, the latter of a prior; for ab¬
bot and prior (we mean a prior conventual) are much the
same thing, differing in little but the name.
Fauchet observes, that, in the early days of the French
14
ABB
ABB
Abbey-
boyle
II
Abbey-
feale.
monarchy, dukes and counts were called abbots, and duchies
and counties abbeys. Even some of their kings are mentioned
in history under the title of abbots. Philip L, Louis VI., and
afterwards the Duke of Orleans, are called abbots of the mo~
j nastery of St Aignan. The dukes of Aquitain were called
abbots of the monastery of St Hilary at Poictiers ; and the
earls of Anjou, of St Aubin, fyc.
Monasteries were at first established as religious houses,
to which persons retired from the bustle of the world to spend
their time in solitude and devotion. But they soon dege¬
nerated from their original institution, and obtained large
privileges, exemptions, and riches. They prevailed greatly
in Britain before the Reformation, particularly in England;
and as they increased in riches, so the state became poor:
for the lands which these regulars possessed were in mor-
tua manu, i.e. could never revert to the lords who gave them.
This inconvenience gave rise to the statutes against gifts in
mortmain', and Lord Coke tells us, that several lords, at
their creation, had a clause in their grant, that the donor
might give or sell his land to whom he would (exceptis viris
religiosis et Judceis) excepting monks and Jews.
These places were wholly abolished in England at the
time of the Reformation; Henry VIII. having first appointed
visitors to inquire into the lives of the monks and nuns, which
were found in some places to be extremely irregular. The
abbots, perceiving their dissolution unavoidable, were in¬
duced to resign their houses to the king, who by that means
became invested with the abbey lands: these were afterwards
granted to different persons, whose descendants enjoy them
at this day.
Though the suppression of religious houses, even consi¬
dered in a political light only, was a national benefit, it must
be owned, that at the time they flourished, they were far
from useless. Abbeys or monasteries were then the reposi¬
tories, as well as the seminaries, of learning ; many valuable
books and national records, as well as private history, having
been preserved in their libraries, the only places in which
they could have been safely lodged in those turbulent times.
Many of those which had escaped the ravages of the Danes,
were destroyed with more than Gothic barbarity at the dis¬
solution of the abbeys. These ravages are pathetically la¬
mented by John Bale: “A number of those,” says he, “who
purchased these superstitious mansions, reserved of the lib¬
rary books, some to serve their jakes, some to scour the can¬
dlesticks, and some to rub their boots; some they sold to the
grocer and soapseller; and some they sent over sea to the
bookbinders, not in small numbers, but in whole ships full;
yea, the universities of this realm are not clear of so detest¬
able a fact. I know a merchant that bought the contents
of two noble libraries for 40s. price ; a shame it is to be
spoken! I his stuff hath he occupied instead of gray paper,
by the space of more than these ten years, and yet he hath
store enough for as many years to come. I shall judge this
to be true, and utter it with heaviness, that neither the Bri¬
tons under the Romans and Saxons, nor yet the EnMish
people under the Danes and Normans had ever such5 da¬
mage of their learned monuments as we have seen in our
time.”
Every abbey had at least one person whose office it was to
instruct youth; and the historians of this country are chiefly
beholden to the monks for the knowledge they have of for¬
mer national events. In these houses also the arts of paint¬
ing, architecture, and printing, were cultivated. They were
hospitals for the sick and poor, and afforded entertainment
to travellers at a time when there were no inns. They were
likewise an asylum for aged and indigent persons of good
family.
ABBEYBOYLE. See Boyle.
ABBEYFEALE, a village of Ireland, in the county of
Limerick, on the river Feale, with a population in 1851 of Abbey-
717. The parish of the same name has an area of 18,150 holm
acres, and 4364 inhabitants. II
ABBEYHOLM, a town in Cumberland, so called from ^ ^bbot.
an abbey built there by David king of Scots, five miles ^ v
W.N.W. of Wigton.
ABBEYLEIX, a small town of Ireland, Queen’s County,
9 miles S.S.W. of Maryborough. In 1851 the population was
1341. The parish of the same name has an area of 13,547
acres, and 5646 inhabitants.
ABBIATE GRASSO, a town in the Austrian delegation
of Pavia, in Italy. It is situate on the canal of Bereguardo,
14 miles W.S.W. of Milan. It contains 4600 inhabitants.
ABBITIBBEE, a district, river, and trading station in
British North America, forming part of the Hudson’s Bay
Company’s possessions. The station is situate in Lat. 49.
N. Long. 78. 10. W.
ABBON, or Abbo Cernuus, a monk of Saint Germain-
des-Pres, who flourished towards the end of the 9th cen¬
tury. He wrote an epic poem in Latin on the siege of Paris
by the Northmen in 886-7, of which he was an eye-witness.
As a poem his work is of little value; but it is of considerable
importance to the historian, as being an accurate narrative
of the event.
Abbon, or Abbo Floriacensis, a learned Frenchman, born
in the vicinity of Orleans, in the year 945. He was edu¬
cated at the schools of Paris and Rheims, where he greatly
distinguished himself; and devoted himself with great ardour
to the study of all the sciences of his time. In 970, he was
chosen abbot of the monastery of Fleury, of which he was
a monk; and was engaged in disputes with several of the
bishops of his time in defending the rights of his order. In
986, and again in 996, he was sent by King Robert to Rome,
in order to appease the pope, who had threatened to inter¬
dict the kingdom, and on both occasions he was successful.
He was killed in 1004, while endeavouring to quell a tumult
between two contending parties of French and Gascons.
His chief works were the Lives of the Popes, published in
1602, and some collections of canons, letters, &c.
ABBOT, or Abbat, the superior of a monastery of monks
erected into an abbey or priory.
The name Abbot is originally Hebrew, where it signifies
father. The Jews call father, in their language, Ab; whence
the Chaldeans and Syrians formed Abba; thence the Greek
’A/3/?a, which the Latins retained; and hence our Abbot, the
French Abbe, See. St Mark and St Paul use the Syriac
Abba in their Greek, by reason it was then commonly known
in the synagogues and the primitive assemblies of the Chris¬
tians ; adding to it, by way of interpretation, the word father,
'O TLarrjp, “ Abba, father q. d. Abba, that is to say,
Father. But the name Ab, or Abba, which at first was a
term of tenderness and affection, became at length a title of
dignity and honour. The Jewish doctors affected it; and
one of their most ancient books, containing the sayings or
apophthegms of divers of them, is entitled Pirke Abboth or
Avoth; i. e. Chapter of the Fathers. It was in allusion to
this affectation, that Jesus Christ forbade his disciples to call
any man their father on earth ; which word St Jerome turns
against the superiors of the monasteries of his time, for as¬
suming the titles of Abbots, or Fathers.
The name Abbot, then, appears as old as the institution
of monks itself. The governors of the primitive monasteries
assumed indifferently the titles Abbots and Archimandrites.
They were really distinguished from the clergy; though
frequently confounded with them, because a degree above
laymen.
In those early days, the abbots were subject to the
bishops and the ordinary pastors. Their monasteries be¬
ing remote from cities, built in the farthest solitudes, they
ABB
Abbot, had no share in ecclesiastical affairs. They went on Sun-
days to the parish church with the rest of the people;
or, if they were too remote, a priest was sent them to ad¬
minister the sacraments ; till at length they were allowed
to have priests of their own body. The abbot or archi¬
mandrite himself was usually the priest: but his function
extended no farther than to the spiritual assistance of his
monastery; and he remained still in obedience to the bi¬
shop. There being among the abbots several persons of
learning, they made a vigorous opposition to the rising
heresies of those times; which first occasioned the bi¬
shops to call them out of their deserts, and fix them about
the suburbs of cities, and at length in the cities them¬
selves ; from which era their degeneracy is to be dated.
Then the abbots threw off their former plainness and
simplicity, assumed the rank of prelates, aspired at being
independent of the bishops, and grasped at so much
power, that severe laws were made against them at the
council of Chalcedon. Many of them, however, carried
the point of independency, obtained the appellation of
lord, and were distinguished by other badges of the epis¬
copate, particularly the mitre.
Hence arose new distinctions between the abbots. Those
were termed mitred abbots, who were privileged to wear
the mitre, and exercise episcopal authority within their
respective precincts; being exempted from the jurisdic¬
tion of the bishop. Others were called crosiered ab¬
bots, from their bearing the crosier or pastoral staff.
Others were styled ecumenical or universal abbots, in imi¬
tation of the patriarch of Constantinople: while others
were termed cardinal abbots, from their superiority over
all other abbots. In Britain, the mitred abbots were lords
of parliament, and called abbots-sovereign, and abbots-
general, to distinguish them from the other abbots. And
as there were lords-abbots, so there were also lords-priors,
who had exempt jurisdiction, and were likewise lords of
parliament.
In Roman Catholic countries, the principal distinctions
observed between abbots are those of regular and com¬
mendatory. The former take the vow and wear the ha¬
bit of their order; whereas the latter are seculars who
have received tonsure, but are obliged by their bulls to
take orders when of proper age.
Anciently the ceremony of creating an abbot consisted
in clothing him with the habit called cuculus, or cowl;
putting the pastoral staff into his hand, and the shoes
calledpedales on his feet: but at present, it is only a simple
benediction, improperly called, by some, consecration.
Abbot is also a title given to others beside the supe¬
riors of monasteries: thus bishops whose sees were for¬
merly abbeys, are called abbots. Among the Genoese,
the chief magistrate of the republic formerly bore the title
of abbot of the people.
Abbot, George, archbishop of Canterbury, born Oct. 29.
1562, at Guildford in Surrey, was the son of Maurice Abbot,
a cloth-worker, who suffered religious persecution in the reign
of Queen Mary. He studied at Oxford, and in 1597 was
chosen principal of University college. In 1599, he was in¬
stalled dean of Winchester: the year following he w as chosen
vice-chancellor of the university of Oxford, and a second time
in 1603. In 1604, the translation of the Bible now in use
was begun by the direction of King James; and Dr Abbot
was the second of eight divines of Oxford, to whom the care
of translating the whole New Testament (excepting the
Epistles) was committed. The year following, he was a
third time vice-chancellor. In 1608, he went to Scot¬
land with George Hume earl of Dunbar, to assist in esta¬
blishing an union between the churches of Scotland and
England; and in this business he conducted himself with
A B B 15
so much address and prudence, that it laid the fom da- Abbot,
tion of all his future preferment. King James ever after ^
paid great deference to his advice and counsel; and upon
the death of Dr Overton, bishop of Litchfield and Coven¬
try, he named Dr Abbot for his successor, who was ac¬
cordingly constituted bishop of those two united sees in
December 1609. About a month afterwards he was
translated to the see of London, and on the second of
November following was raised to the archiepiscopal see.
It is not however improbable, that his extravagant
adulation of his royal master, in which he went as far as
any other court chaplain could do, contributed not a little
to his rapid preferment. In the preface to a pamphlet
which he published, the following specimen of ridiculous
flattery occurs: Speaking of the king, he says, “ whose
life hath been so immaculate and unspotted, &c. that
even malice itself, which leaves nothing unsearched, could
never find true blemish in it, nor cast probable aspersion
on it.—Zealous as a David; learned and wise, the Solo¬
mon of our age ; religious as Josias ; careful of spreading
Christ’s faith as Constantine the Great; just as Moses;
undefiled in all his ways as a Jehoshaphat and Hezekiah;
full of clemency as another Theodosius.”—Yet, as we
shall immediately see, Abbot could sometimes oppose the
will of the sovereign with courage and constancy.
His great zeal for the Protestant religion made him a
strenuous promoter of the match between the Elector
Palatine and the Princess Elizabeth; which was accord¬
ingly concluded and solemnized the 14th of February
1612, the archbishop performing the ceremony on a stage
erected in the royal chapel. In the following year hap¬
pened the famous case of divorce between the lady Fran¬
ces Howard, daughter of the earl of Suffolk, and Robert
earl of Essex; which has been considered as one of the
greatest blemishes of King James’s reign. The part which
the archbishop took in the business added much to the
reputation he had already acquired for incorruptible inte¬
grity. It was referred by the king to a court of delegates,
whose opinion the king and court wished and expected
to be favourable to the divorce. But the archbishop, un¬
awed by royal authority, with inflexible firmness resisted
it, and published his reasons for persisting in his opinion;
to which the king, disappointed in his views, thought fit
to reply: Sentence was given in the lady’s favour. In
1618, the king published a declaration, which he ordered
to be read in all churches, permitting sports and pastimes
on the Lord’s day: this gave great uneasiness to the arch¬
bishop, who happening to be at Croydon on the day it
was ordered to be read, had the courage to forbid it.
Being now in a declining state of health, the archbishop
used in the summer to go to Hampshire for the sake of
recreation; and being invited by Lord Zouch to hunt in
his park at Bramzill, he met there with the greatest mis¬
fortune that ever befell him ; for he accidentally killed the
game-keeper by an arrow from a cross-bow which he shot
at one of the deer. This fatal accident threw him into a
deep melancholy; and he ever afterwards kept a monthly
fast on Tuesday, the day on which it happened; and he
settled an annuity of L.20 on the widow.1 Advantage i Fuller’s
was taken of this misfortune, to lessen him in the king’s Church
favour; but his majesty said, “ An angel might have mis-#”*-
carried in this sort.” His enemies alleging that he had cent-xxv>i-
incurred an irregularity, and was thereby incapacitatedp’
for performing the offices of a primate, the king directed
a commission to ten persons to inquire into this matter.
The result was not satisfactory to his Grace’s enemies;
it being declared, that, as the murder was involuntary, he
had not forfeited his archiepiscopal character.
The archbishop after this seldom assisted at the coun-
16
ABB
Abbot, cil, being chiefly hindered by his infirmities; but in the
king’s last illness he was sent for, and constantly ftttende
till his majesty expired .on the 27th of March --
performed the ceremony of the coronation of mg
Charles I. though very infirm and distressed with the
gout. He was never greatly in this king s favour, ant
the duke of Buckingham being his declared enemy,
watched an opportunity of making him feel the weight
of his displeasure. This he at last accomplished, upon
the archbishop’s refusing to license a sermon, preached
bv Dr Sibthorpe to justify a loan which the king hau de¬
manded, and pregnant with principles which tended to
overthrow the constitution. The archbishop was imme¬
diately after suspended from all his functions as primate;
and they were exercised by certain bishops commissioned
by the king, of whom Laud, the archbishop s enemy, and
afterwards his successor, was one; while the only cause
assigned for this procedure was, that the archbishop
could not at that time personally attend those services
which were otherwise proper for his cognizance and di¬
rection. He did not, however, remain long in this situ¬
ation ; for a parliament being absolutely necessary, his
Grace was sent for, and restored to his authority and ju¬
risdiction. But not proving friendly to certain rigorous
measures adopted by the prevailing church party, headed
by Laud, whose power and interest at court were now
very considerable, his presence became unwelcome there ;
so that, upon the birth of the prince of Wales, afterwards
Charles II., Laud had the honour to baptize him, as dean
of the chapel. The archbishop being worn out with cares
and infirmities, died at Croydon, the 5th of August 1633,
aged 71 years; and was buried at Guildford, the place of
his nativity, where he had endowed an hospital with lands
to the amount of L.300 per annum. A stately monumeut
was erected over the grave, with his effigy in his robes.
He proved himself, in most circumstances of his hie, to
be a man of great moderation to all parties; and was de¬
sirous that the clergy should gain the respect of the laity
by the sanctity and purity of their manners, rather than
claim it as due to their function. His opinions and prin¬
ciples, however, have drawn upon him many severe re¬
flections ; particularly from the earl of Clarendon. But
Dr Welwood has done more justice to his merit and abi-
' Memoirg, lities.1 The following is a list of his works, as given in
3vo. 1700, Chalmers’s Biographical Dictionary:—1. Quaestiones Sex,
p. 38. totidem praelectionibus in Schola Theologica Oxoniae, pi o
forma habitis, discussae et disceptatae anno 1597, in qui-
bus e Sacra Seriptura et Patribus, quid statuendum sit
definitur. Oxon. 1598, 4to. 2. Exposition on the Pro-
phet Jonah, contained in certain Sermons preached in St
Marie’s Church in Oxford. 1600, 4to. 3. Answer to the
Questions of the Citizens of London in January 1600,
concerning Cheapside Cross; not printed until 1641.
4. The Reasons which Dr Hill hath brought for the up¬
holding of Papistry unmasked, and showed to be very
weak, &c. Oxon. 1604, 4to. 5. A Preface to the Ex¬
amination of George Sprot,' &c. 6. Sermon preached at
Westminster, May 26. 1608, at the funeral of Thomas
Earl of Dorset, late Lord High Treasurer of England, on
Isaiah xl. 6. 1608, 4to. 7. Translation of a part of the
New Testament, with the rest of the Oxford divines.
1611. 8. Some Memorials, touching the Nullity between
the Earl of Essex and his Lady, pronounced September
25. 1613, at Lambeth; and the difficulties endured in
the same. 9. A Brief Description of the whole World,
wherein is particularly described all the Monarchies, Em¬
pires and Kingdoms of the same, with their Academies,
&c 1617, 4to. 10. A short Apology for Archbishop
Abbot, touching the death of Peter Hawkins, dated Oc-
ABB
tober 8. 1621. 11. Treatise of perpetual Visibility and Abbot.
Succession of the true Church in all ages. Lond. 1624,
4to.; published without his name ; but Ins arms, impaled
with’ those of Canterbury, are put before it. 12. A Nar¬
rative containing the true cause of his sequestration and
disgrace at Court; in two parts ; written at Ford, in Kent,
1627, printed in Rushworth’s Historical Collections, vol.
i. p. 438-461, and in the Annals of King Charles, p. 213-
224. 13. History of the Massacre in the Valteline, print¬
ed in the third volume of Fox’s Acts and Monuments.
14. Judgment on bowing at the Name of Jesus. Ham¬
burgh, 1632, 8vo.
Abbot, Robert, elder brother to the former, was born
at Guildford in 1560, and completed his studies at Bahol
college, Oxford. In 1582, he took his degree of master
of arts, and soon became a celebrated preacher; and to
this talent he chiefly owed his preferment. Upon the
first sermon at W orcester, he was chosen lecturer in that
city, and soon after rector of All-saints in the same place.
In 1597, he took his degree of doctor in divinity: and, in
the beginning of King James’s reign, was appointed chap¬
lain in ordinary to his majesty; who had such an opinion
of him as a writer, that he ordered the doctor’s book Be
Antichristo to be printed, with his own commentary upon
part of the Apocalypse. In 1609, he was elected master
of Baliol college; which trust he discharged with the ut¬
most care and assiduity, by his frequent lectures to the
scholars, by his continual presence at public exercises,
and by promoting temperance in the society. In No¬
vember 1610, he was made prebendary of Normanton in
the church of Southwell; and, in 1612, his majesty ap¬
pointed him regius professor of divinity at Oxford. The
fame of his lectures became very great; and those which
he gave upon the supreme power of kings, against Bellar-
mine and Suarez, so much pleased his majesty, that when
the see of Salisbury became vacant, he named him to
that bishopric, and he was consecrated by his own bro¬
ther at Lambeth, December 3. 1615. When he came to
Salisbury, he found the cathedral falling to decay, through
the avarice and negligence of the clergy belonging to it;
however, he found means to draw five hundred pounds
from the prebendaries, which he applied towards repair¬
ing it. Here he devoted himself to the duties of his
function with great diligence and assiduity, visiting his
whole diocese in person, and preaching every Sunday.
But his sedentary life, and close application to study,
brought upon him the gravel and stone ; of which he died
on the 2d of March 1618, in the 58th year of his age ;
having filled the see only two years and three months.
Abbot, Charles, Lord Colchester, the son of a clergy¬
man at Colchester, was born October 14, 1757, and was
educated at Westminster School, from which he was elected
a student to Christ Church, Oxford, in 1775. He was called
to the bar in 1795, and soon after published a legal work,
in which he strongly recommended the abolition of the se¬
parate Welsh judicature, a measure which has since been
carried out. The same year introduced him into Farlia-
ment, where his activity and habits of business soon brought
him into notice, and he was proposed by Mr Pitt as chair¬
man of the finance committee. In Mr Addington s admi¬
nistration, he filled the office of chief secretary of state tor
Ireland; and in 1802 he was elected speaker of the House
of Commons, an office which he filled with dignity and gene¬
ral approbation, under successive administrations, till IS W,
when a severe attack of erysipelas induced him to resign the
laborious duties of the speaker’s chair. While he held that
situation, it was his lot, on April 8, 1805, to give the cast¬
ing vote in a House of 433 members, which drove Henry
Lord Melville from public life. On Abbot’s retirement, he
ABB
Abbots- was created Lord Colchester, and obtained a pension of
bury L.4000 a-year; but he afterwards took no very prominent
. I! part in public affairs, except in strenuous opposition to the
tions12'" Homan Catholic Emancipation. In 1828 he published six
^^-v-^yof his parliamentary speeches on that subject. He died May
8. 1829.
ABBOTSBURY, a parish and market-town on the coast
of Dorsetshire. It has the ruins of an abbey, founded about
the year 1044. In the vicinity is a Roman camp, a cromlech,
and the ruins of St Catherine’s chapel. Pop. in 1851, 1077.
ABBOTSFORD, two miles W. of Melrose, and 30 miles
S.S.E. of Edinburgh, the celebrated residence of Sir Walter
Scott, built by himself on the plan of a castellated Gothic
mansion, on the south bank of the river Tweed, near the Ab¬
bot’s ford.
ABBOTS-LANGLEY, a village of Herts, four miles
from St Albans, famous as the birth-place of Pope Adrian
IV. Population of parish in 1851, 2384.
ABBREVIATION, or Abbreviature, a contraction of
a word or passage, made by dropping some of the letters, or
by substituting certain marks or characters in their place.
Harris, in his treatise called Hermes, divides the parts of
speech into words which are necessary for the communica¬
tion of thought, as the noun and verb, and abbreviations
which are employed for the sake of despatch. The latter,
strictly speaking, are also parts of speech, because they are
all useful in language, and each has a different manner of
signification Mr Tooke, however, seems to allow that rank
only to the necessary words, and to consider all others as
merely substitutes of the first sort, under the title of abbre¬
viations. They are employed in language in three ways—
in terms, in sorts of words, and in construction. Locke
in his Essay on the Human Understanding treats of the first
class; numerous authors have written on the last; and for
the second class of abbreviations, see the work of Mr Tooke
entitled Diversions of Hurley. Lawyers, physicians, &c. use
many abbreviations, for the sake of expedition. But the
Rabbis are the most remarkable for this practice, so that their
writings are unintelligible without the Hebrew abbrevia¬
tures. The Jewish authors and copyists do not content
themselves with abbreviating words like the Greeks and
Latins, by retrenching some of the letters or syllables ;
they frequently take away all but the initial letters. They
even take the initials of several succeeding words, join
them together, and, adding vowels to them, make a sort
of barbarous words, representative of all those which they
have thus abridged. Thus, Rabbi Moses ben Maimon,
in their abbreviature, is Rambam, &c.
The following Abbreviations are of most frequent occur¬
rence in the Writings and Inscriptions of the Romans.
A.
AB. Abdicavit.
AB. AUG. M. P. XXXXI. Ab Augusta millia passuum
quadraginta unum.
AB. AUGUSTOB. M. P. X. Ab Augustobriga millia pas¬
suum decem.
ABN. Abnepos.
AB. U. C. Ab urbe condita.
A. CAMB. M. P. XI. A Camboduno millia passuum un-
decim.
A. COMPL. XIIII. A Compluto quatuordecim.
A. C. P. VI. A capite vel ad caput pedes sex.
A. D. Ante diem.
ADJECT. H-S. IX. go. Adjectis sestertiis novem mille.
ADN. Adnepos.
ADQ. Adquiescit, vel adquisita pro acquisita.
JED. II. ii. VIR. II. TEdilis iterum, duumvir iterum.
/ED. II. VIR. QUINQ. JEdilis duumvir quinquennalis.
VOL. II.
ABB
TED. Q. II. VIR. TEdilis quinquennalis duumvir.
TEL. TElius, TElia.
TEM. vel AIM. TEmilius, TEmilia.
A. G. Animo grato, vel Aulus Gellius.
AG. Ager, vel Agrippa.
A. K. Ante kalendas.
ALA. I. Ala prima.
A. MILL. XXXV. A milliariis triginta quinque, vel ad
milliaria triginta quinque.
A. M. XX. Ad milliare vigesimum.
AN. A. V. C. Anno ab urbe condita.
AN. C. H. S. Annorum centum hie situs est.
AN. DCLX. Anno sexcentesimo sexagesimo.
AN. II. S. Annos duos semis.
AN. IVL. Annos quadraginta sex.
AN. N. Annos natus.
ANN. LIII. H. S. E. Annorum quinquaginta trium hie
situs est.
ANN. NAT. LXVI. Annos natus sexaginta sex.
ANN. PL. M. X. Annos vel annis plus minus decem.
AN. 0. XVI. Anno defunctus decimo sexto.
AN. V. XX. Annos vixit viginti.
AN. P. M. Annorum plus minus.
A. XII. Annis duodecim.
AN. P. M. L. Annorum plus minus quinquaginta.
A. XX. H. EST. Annorum viginti hie est.
AN. P. R. C. Anno post Romam conditam.
AN. V. P. M. II. Annis vixit plus minus duobus.
AN. XXV. STIP. VIII. Annorum viginti quinque stipen-
diorum octo.
A. P. M. Amico posuit monumentum.
AP. Appia, Appius.
A. P. V. C. Anno post urbem conditam.
APVD. L. V. CONV. Apud lapidem quintum convene-
runt.
A. RET. P. III. S. Ante retro pedes tres semis.
AR. P. Aram posuit.
ARG. P. X. Argenti pondo decem.
ARR. Arrius.
A. V. B. A viro bono.
A. V. C. Ab urbe condita.
B.
B. Balbus, Bulbius, Brutus, Belenus, Burrus.
B. Beneficiario, beneficium, bonus.
B. Balnea, beatus, bustum.
B pro V, berna pro verna, bixit pro vixit, bibo pro vivo,
bictor pro victor, bidua pro vidua.
B. A. Bixit annis, bonus ager, bonus amabilis, bona aurea,
bonum aureum, bonis auguriis, bonis auspiciis.
B. B. Bona bona, bene bene.
B. DD. Bonis deabus.
B. F. Bona fide, bona femina, bona fortuna, bene factum.
B. F. reversed thus, g. j. Bona femina, bona filia.
B. H. Bona hereditaria, bonorum hereditas.
B. I. I. Boni judicis judicium.
B. L. Bona lex.
B. M. P. Bene merito posuit.
B. M. P. C. Bene merito ponendum curavit.
B. M. S. C. Bene merito sepulcrum condidit.
BN. EM. Bonorum emptores.
BN. H. I. Bona hie invenies.
B. RP. N. Bono reipubliese natus.
B. A. Bixit, id est, vixit annis.
BIGINTI. Viginti.
BIXIT. BIXSIT. BISSIT. Vixit.
BIX. ANN. XXCI. M. IV. D. VII. Vixit annis octoginta
unum, mensibus quatuor, diebus septem.
BX. ANVS. VII. ME. VI. DI. XVII. V/xit annos septem,
menses sex, dies septemdecim.
17
c
18
Abbrevia¬
tions.
abbreviations.
C. Caesar, Caia, Caius, censor, civitas, consul, condemno.
C. C. Carissimae conjugi, calumniae causa, consilium cepit
C. C. R Caius Caii Alius.
C. B. Commune bonum.
C. D. Comitialibus diebus.
C. H. Gustos hortorum vel heredum.
C. I. C. Caius Julius Caesar.
CC. W. Clarissimi viri.
CEN. Censor, centuria, centurio. . .
CERTA. QUINQ. ROM. CO. Certamen quinquennale
Romae conditum.
CL. Claudius.
CL. V. Clarissimus vir.
CH. COH. Cohors.
C. M. vel CA. M. Causa mortis.
CN. Cneus.
C. O. Civitas omnis.
COH. I. vel II. Cohors prima vel secunda.
COS. ITER. ET. TERT. DESIG. Consul iterum et ter-
tium designatus.
COS. TER. vel Q.UAR. Consul tertium vel quartum.
COSS. Consules. .
COST. CUM. LOG. H-S. gd. D. Custodiam cum loco
sestertiis mille quingentis.
C. R. Civis Romanus.
CS. IP. Caesar imperator.
C. V. Centumviri.
D
D. Decius, decimus, decuria, decurio, dedicavit, dedit,
devotus, dies, divus, Deus, dii, Dominus, domus, donum,
datum, decretum, &c.
D. A. Divus Augustus.
D. B. I. Diis bene juvantibus.
D. B. S. De bonis suis.
DCT. Detractum.
DDVIT. Dedicavit.
D. D. Dono dedit, Deus dedit, decurionum decreto.
D. D. D. Datum decreto decurionum.
D. D. D. D. Dignum Deo donum dedicavit.
DDPP. Depositi.
D. D. Q. O. H. L. S. E. V. Diis deabusque omnibus bunc
locum sacrum esse voluit.
DIG. M. Dignus memoria.
D. M. S. Diis manibus sacrum.
D. O. M. Deo optimo maximo.
D. O. M. Deo optimo aeterno.
D. PP. Deo perpetuo.
DR. Drusus.
DR. P. Dare promittit.
D. RM. De Romanis.
D. RP. De republica.
D. S. P. F. C. De sua pecunia faciendum curavit.
DT. Duntaxat.
DVL. vel DOL. Dulcissimus.
DEC.*XIII. AVG. XII. POP. XI. Decurionibus denariis
tredecim, augustalibus duodecim, populo undecim.
D. IIII. ID. Die quarta idus.
D. VIIII. Diebus novem.
D. V. ID. Die quinta idus.
E.
E. Ejus, ergo, esse, est, erexit, exactum, &c.
E. C. F. Ejus causa fecit.
E. D. Ejus domus.
ED. Edictum.
E. E. Ex edicto.
EE. N. P. Esse non potest.
EG. Egit, egregius.
E. H. Ejus heres.
EID. Idus.
EIM. Ejusmodi. ^
E. L. Ea lege.
E. M. Elexit vel erexit monumentum.
EQ. M. Equitum magister.
EQ. O. Equester ordo.
EX. A. D. K. Ex ante diem kalendas.
EX. A. D. V. K. DEC. AD. PRID. K. IAN. Ex ante
diem quintum kalendas Decembris ad pridie kalendas
Januarias. .....
EX. H-S. X. P. F. I. Ex sestertiis decern parvis fieri jussit.
EX. H-S. CIO. N. Ex sestertiis mille nummum.
EX. H-S. od oo oo cd. Ex sestertiis quatuor millia.
EX. H-S. N. CC. L. oo. D. XL. Ex sestertiis nummorum
ducentis quinquaginta millibus quingentis quadraginta.
EX. H-S. DC. oo.D. XX. Ex sestertiis sexcentis millibus
quingentis viginti.
EX. KAL. IAN. AD. KAL. IAN. Ex kalendis Januarn
ad kalendas Januarii.
F.
F. Fabius, fecit, factum, faciendum, familia, famula, fastus,
Februarius, feliciter, felix, fides, fieri, fit, femina, filia,
filius, frater, finis, flamen, forum, fluvius, faustum, fuit.
F. A. Filio amantissimo, vel filiae amantissimse.
F. AN. X. F. C. Filio vel filiae annorum decern faciendum
curavit.
F. C. Fieri vel faciendum curavit, fidei commissum.
F. D. Flamen Dialis, filius dedit, factum dedicavit.
F. D. Fidejussor, fundum.
FEA. Femina.
FF. C. Ferme centum.
F. F. Fabre factum, filius familias, fratris filius
F. F. F. Ferro, flamma, fame ; fortior, fortuna, fato.
FF. Fecerunt.
FL. F. Flavii filius.
F. FQ. Filiis filiabusque. m
FIX. ANN. XXXIX. M. I. D. VI. HOR. SCIT. NEM.
Vixit annos triginta novem, mensem unum, dies sex,
boras scit nemo.
FO. FR. Forum.
F. R. Forum Romanum.
G.
G. Gellius, Gaius pro Caius, genius, gens, gaudium, gesta,
gratia, gratis, &c.
GAB. Gabinius.
GAL. Gallus, Galerius.
G. C. Genio civitatis.
GEN. P. R. Genio populi Romani.
GL. Gloria.
GL. S. Gallus Sempronius.
GN. Gneus pro Cneus, genius, gens.
GNT. Gentes.
GRA. Gracchus.
GRC. Graecus.
H.
H. Hie, habet, hastatus, heres, homo, hora, hostis, herus.
H. A. Hoc anno.
HA. Hadrianus.
HC. Hunc, huic, hie.
HER. Heres, hereditatis, Herenmus.
HER. vel HERC. S. Herculi sacrum.
H. M. E. H-S. CCIOO- CCIOO. 100. N. Hoc monumen-
tum erexit sestertiis viginti quinque mille nummum.
H. M. AD. H. N. T. Hoc monumentum ad heredes non
transit.
H. O. Hostis occisus.
HOSS. Hostes.
H. S. Hie situs vel sita, sepultus vel sepulta.
H-S. N. IIII. Sestertiis nummum quatuor.
Abbrevia¬
tions.
ABBREVIATIONS.
Abbrevia- H-S. CCCC. Sestertiis quatuor centum.
tions. H-S. qd. N. Sestertiis mille nummum.
v^v^H.s.
gd. CCI30. N. Sestertiis novem mille nummum.
H-S. CCIOD. CCIOO. Sestertiis viginti mille.
H-S. XX. M. N. Sestertiis viginti mille nummum.
H. SS. Hie suprascriptis.
I.
I. Junius, Julius, Jupiter, ibi, immortalis, imperator, in¬
fer!, inter, invenit, invictus, ipse, iterum, judex, jussit,
jus, &c.
IA. Intra.
I. AG. In agro.
I. AGL. In angulo.
IAD. Jamdudum.
IAN. Janus.
I A. RI. Jam respondi.
I. C. Juris consultus, Julius Caesar, judex cognitionum.
I. D. Inferis diis, Jovi dedicatum, Isidi deae, jussu Dei.
ID. Idus.
I. D. M. Jovi Deo magno.
I. F. vel I. FO. In foro.
IF. Interfuit. IFT. Interfuerunt.
I. FNT. In fronte.
IG. Igitur.
I. H. Jacet hie.
1.1. In jure.
IM. Imago, immortalis, imperator.
I. M. CT. In medio civitatis.
IMM. Immolavit, immortalis, immunis
IM. S. Impensis suis.
IN. Inimicus, inscripsit, interea.
IN. A. P. XX. In agro pedes viginti.
IN. vel INL. V. I. S. Inlustris vir infra scriptus.
I. R. Jovi regi, Junoni reginae, jure rogavit.
I. S. vel I. SN. In senatum.
I. V. Justus vir.
IVD. Judicium.
IVY. Juventus, Juvenalis.
II. V. Duumvir, vel duumviri.
III. V. vel III. VIR. Triumvir, vel triumviri.
IIII. VIR. Quatuorvir, vel quatuorviri, vel quatuorviratus.
IIIIII. V. vel VIR. Sextumvir, vel sevir, vel sexvir.
IDNE. vel IND. ant INDICT. Indictione vel indictio.
K.
K. Caeso, Caius, Caio, Caelius, Carolus, ealumnia, candida-
tus, caput, carissimus, clarissimus, castra, cohors, Car¬
thago, &c.
K. KAL. KL. KLD. KLEND. Kalendae, aut kalendis ; et
sic de ceeteris vhi mensium apponuntur nomina.
KARC. Career.
KK. Carissimi.
KM. Carissimus.
K. S. Carus suis.
KR. Chorus.
KR. AM. N. Carus amicus noster.
E.
L. Lucius, Lucia, Laelius, Lollius, lares, Latinus, latum,
legavit, lex, legio, libens vel lubens, liber, libera, liber-
tus, liberta, libra, locavit, &c.
L. A. Lex alia.
LA. C. Latini coloni.
L. A. D. Locus alteri datus.
L. AG. Lex agraria.
L. AN. Lucius Anius, vel quinquaginta annis.
L. AP. Ludi Apollinares.
LAT. P. VIII. E. S. Latum pedes octo et semis.
LONG. P. VII. L. P. III. Longum pedes septem, latum
pedes tres.
L. ADQ. Locus adquisitus.
LB. Libertus, liberi.
L. D. D. D. Locus datus decreto decurionum.
LECTIST. Lectisternium.
LEG. I. Legio prima.
L. E. D. Lege ejus damnatus.
LEG. PROV. Legatus provinciae.
LIC. Licinius.
LICT. Lictor.
LL. Libentissime, liberi, libertas.
L. L. Sestertius magnus.
LVD. S.ZEC. Ludi saeculares.
LVPERC. Lupercalia.
LV. P. F. Ludos publicos fecit.
M.
M. Marcus, Marca, Martius, Mutius, maceria, magister,
magistratus, magnus, manes, mancipium, marmoreus,
Marti, mater, maximus, memor, memoria, mensis, meus,
miles, militavit, militia, mille, missus, monumentum,
mortuus, &c.
MAG. EQ. Magister equitum.
MAR. VLT. Mars ultor.
MAX. POT. Maximus pontifex.
MD. Mandatum.
MED. Medicus, medius.
MER. Mercurius, mercator.
MERK. Mercurialia, mercatus.
MES. VII. DIEB. XL Mensibus septem, diebus undecim.
M. I. Maximo Jovi, matri Ideae vd Isidi, militiae jus, mo¬
numentum jussit.
MIL. COH. Miles cohortis.
MIN. vel MINER. Minerva.
M. MON. MNT. MONET. Moneta.
M. vel MS. Mensis vel menses.
MNF. Manifestus.
MNM. Manumissus.
M. P. II. Millia passuum duo.
MV. MN. MVN. MVNIC. Municipium, vel municeps.
N.
N. Neptunus, Numerius, Numeria, nonis, Nero, nam, non,
natus, natio, nefastus, nepos, neptis, niger, nomen, nonae,
noster, numerarius, numerator, numerus, nummus vel
numisma, numen.
NAV. Navis.
N. B. Numeravit bivus, pro vivus.
NB. vel NBL. Nobilis.
N. C. Nero Caesar, vel Nero Claudius.
NEG. vel NEGOT. Negotiator.
NEP. S. Neptuno sacrum.
N. F. N. Nobili familia natus.
N. L. Non liquet, non licet, non longe, nominis Latini.
N. M. Nonius Macrinus, non malum, non minus.
NN. Nostri. NNR. vel NR. Nostrorum.
NO. Nobis.
NOBR. November.
NON. AP. Nonis Aprilis.
NQ. Namque, nusquam. nunquam.
N. V. N. D. N. P. O. Neque vendetur, neque donabitur,
neque pignori obligabitur.
NVP. Nuptiae.
O.
O. Officium, optimus, olla, omnis, optio, ordo, ossa, os-
tendit, &c.
OB. Obiit.
OB. C. S. Ob cives servatos.
OCT. Octavianus, October.
O. E. B. Q. C. Ossa ejus bene quiescant condita.
O. H. F. Omnibus honoribus functus.
ONA. Omnia.
19
Abbrevia¬
tions.
20 A B B R E V
\bbrevia- 00. Omnes, omnino. O. O. Optimus ordo.
OP. Oppidum, opiter, oportet, optimus, opus.
ORN. Ornamentum.
OTIM. Optimae.
P.
P. Publius, passus, patria, pecunia, pedes, perpetuus, pius,
plebs, populus, pontifex, posuit, potestas, praeses, praetor,
pridie, pro, post, provincia, puer, publicus, publice, pri¬
mus, &c.
PA. Pater, patricius.
PAE. ET. ARR. COS. Paeto et Arrio consulibus.
P. A. F. A. Postulo an fias auctor.
PAR. Parens, Parilia, Parthicus.
PAT. PAT. Pater patriae.
PBLC. Publicus.
PC. Procurator.
P. C. Post consulatum,patres conscripti, patron us coloniae,
ponendum curavit, praefectus corporis, pactum conven-
tum.
PED. CXV. S. Pedes centum quindecim semis.
PEG. Peregrinus.
P. II. co. L. Pondo duarum semis librarum.
P. II. S ::. Pondo duo semis cum triente.
P. KAL. Pridie kalendas.
POM. Pompeius.
P. P. P. C. Propria pecunia ponendum curavit.
P. R. C. A. DCCCXLIIII. Post Romam conditam annis
octingentis quadraginta quatuor.
PROC. Proconsul. P. PR. Propraetor. P. PRR. Proprae-
tores.
PR. N. Pronepos.
P. R. V. X. Populi Romani vota decennalia.
PS. Passus, plebiscitum.
PUD. Pudicus, pudica, pudor.
PUR. Purpureus.
Q.
Q. Quinquennalis, quartus, quintus, quando, quantum, qui,
quae, quod, Quintus, Quintius, Quintilianus, quaestor,
quadratum, quaesitus.
Q. B. AN. XXX. Qui bixit, id est, vixit, annos triginta.
QM. Quomodo, quem, quoniam.
QQ. Quinquennalis. QQ. V. Quoquo versum.
Q. R. Quaestor reipublicae.
Q. V. A. III. M. II. Qui vel quae vixit annos tres, menses
duo.
R.
R. Roma, Romanus, rex, reges, Regulus, rationalis, Ra-
vennae, recta, recto, requietorium, retro, rostra, rudera,
&c.
RC. Rescriptum.
R. C. Romana civitas.
REF. C. Reficiendum curavit.
REG. Regio.
RP. RESP. Respublica.
RET. P. XX. Retro pedes viginti.
REQ. Requiescit.
RMS. Romanus.
ROB. Robigalia, Robigo.
RS. Responsum.
RVF. Rufus.
S.
S. Sacrum, sacellum, scriptus, semis, senatus, sepultus,
sepulcrum, sanctus, servus, serva, Servius. sequitur, si-
bi, situs, solvit, sub, stipendium, &c.
SAC. Sacerdos, sacrificium.
SiE. vel SfEC. Saeculum, saeculares.
SAL. Sal us.
S. C. Senatus consultum.
SCI. Scipio.
1 A T I O N S.
S. D. Sacrum diis. Abbrevia.
S. EQ. Q. O. ET. P. R. Senatus equesterque ordo et po- tions.
pulus Romanus.
SEMP. Sempronius.
SL. SVL. SYL. Sylla.
S. L. Sacer ludus, sine lingua.
S. M. Sacrum manibus, sine manibus, sine malo.
SN. Senatus, sententia, sine.
S. P. Sine pecunia.
S. P. Q. R. Senatus populusque Romanus.
S. P. D. Salutem plurimam dicit.
S. T. A. Sine vel sub tutoris auctoritate.
SET. Scilicet.
S. E. T. L. Sit ei terra levis.
SIC. V. SIC. X. Sicuti quinquennalia, sic decennalia.
SSTVP. XVIIII. Stipendiis novemdecim.
ST. XXXV. Stipendiis triginta quinque.
T.
T. Titus, Tullius, tantum, terra, tibi, ter, testamentum,
titulus, terminus, triarius, tribunus, turma, tutor, tutela,
&c.
TAB. Tabula. TABVL. Tabularius.
TAR. Tarquinius.
TB. D. F. Tibi dulcissimo filio.
TB. PL. Tribunus plebis.
TB. TI. TIB. Tiberius.
T. F. Titus Flavius, Titi filius.
THR. Thrax.
T. L. Titus Livius, Titi libertus.
TIT. Titulus.
TM. Terminus, thermae.
TR. PO. Tribunitia potestas.
TRAJ. Trajanus.
TUL. Tullus vel Tullius.
TR. V. Triumvir.
TT. QTS. Titus Quintus.
0. vel TH. AN. Mortuus anno.
0. XIII. Defunctus viginti tribus.
X
V.
V. Quinque, quinto, quintum.
V. Vitellius, Volera, Volero, Volusus, Vopiscus, vale, va-
leo, Vesta, vestalis, vestis, vester, veteranus, vir, virgo,
vivus, vixit, votum, vovit, urbs, usus, uxor, victus, vic¬
tor, &c.
V. A. Veterano assignatum.
V. A. I. D. XL Vixit annum unum, dies undecim.
V. A. L. Vixit annos quinquaginta.
V. B. A. Viri boni arbitratu.
V. C. Vale conjux, vivens curavit, vir consularis, vir cla-
rissimus, quintum consul.
VDL. Videlicet.
V. E. Vir egregius, visum est, verum etiam.
VESP. Vespasianus.
VI. V. Sextumvir. VII. V. Septemvir. VIII. VIR.
octumvir.
VIX. A. FF. C. Vixit annos ferme centum.
VIX. AN. x . Vixit annos triginta.
ULPS. Ulpianus, Ulpius.
V. M. Vir magnificus, vivens mandavit, volens merito.
V. N. Quinto nonas.
V. MUN. Vias munivit.
VOL. Volcania, Voltinia, Volusus.
VONE. Bonae.
VOT. V. Votis quinquennalibus.
VOT. V. MULT. X. Votis quinquennalibus, multis de-
cennalibus.
VOT. X. Vota decennalia.
ABB
Abbrevia- V OT. XX. vel XXX. vel XXXX. Yota vicennalia, aut tri
v tl0ns~ ) cennalia, aut quadragenalia.
V v-*-7 V. R. Urbs Roma, votum reddidit.
W. CC. Viri clarissimi.
UX. Uxor.
X.
X. AN. Decennalibus.
X. K. OCT. Decimo kalendas Octobris.
X. M. Decern millia. X. P. Decern pondo.
X. V. Decemvir. XV. VIR. Quindecimvir.
ABC
The folloimng are the principal Abbreviations in common
use:—
A. Associate.
A.B. or B.A. Bachelor of Arts.
Abp. Archbishop.
A.C. Anno Christi, in the year of Christ.
A.D. Anno Domini, in the year of our Lord.
A.M. Anno Mundi, in the year of the World.
A.M. or M.A. Artium niagister, Master of Arts.
A.M. Ante meridiem, forenoon.
A.B.A. Associate of the Boyal Academy.
A. R.S.A. Associate of the Royal Society of Arts, or of the Royal
Scottish Academy.
Bart, or Bt. Baronet.
B. C. Before Christ.
B. C.L. Bachelor of Civil Law.
Bp. Bishop.
C. or Cent. Centum, a hundred; or Chap. Chapter.
C.B. Companion of the Bath.
C.E. Civil Engineer.
C.P.S. Custos Privati Sigilli, Keeper of the Privy Seal
Cr. Creditor. J
C. S. Custos Sigilli, Keeper of the Seal.
Cwt. Hundredweight.
D. Five hundred.
d. Denarius, a penny.
D.B. or B.D. Bachelor of Divinity.
D.C.L. Doctor of Civil Law.
D.D. Doctor of Divinity.
D.F. or F.D. Fidei defensor, Defender of the Faith.
D.Gr. Dei gratia, by the grace of God.
Do. ditto, the same.
Dr. Doctor, debtor.
D. V. Deo volente, God willing.
Dwt. Pennyweight.
E. East.
E. C.P. Evangelii Christi Praedicator, Preacher of the Gospel of
Christ. r
e.g. Exempli gratia, for example.
Esq. Esquire.
Ex. Example.
Exr. Executor.
F. A.S. Fellow of the Antiquarian Society.
F.G.S. Fellow of the Geological Society.
F.L.S. Fellow of the Linnasan Society.
1 .R.C.S. Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons.
F.R.S. Fellow of the Royal Society.
F.R.C.P. Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians.
F.S.A. Fellow of the Society of Arts, or of Antiquaries.
F. S.S. Fellow of the Statistical Society.
G. C.B. Knight of the Grand Cross of the Bath.
H. E.I.C.S. The Honourable the East India Company’s Service.
H.M.S. Her Majesty’s Ship.
H. R.H. His or Her Royal Highness.
Ib. or Ibid, Ibidem, in the same place.
Id. Idem, the same,
i.e. id est, that is.
I. H.S. Jesus Hominum Salvator, Jesus the Saviour of mankind.
I. H.>J<S. In hac cruce salus, safety in this cross.
J. P. Justice of the Peace.
I.P.D. In praesentia Dominorum, in presence of the Lords.
K. B. Knight of the Bath.
K.C. Knight of the Crescent.
K.C.B. Knight Commander of the Bath.
K.C.G. Knight Commander of the Guelphs of Hanover.
K.G. Knight of the Garter.
K.P. Knight of St Patrick.
K.T. Knight of the Thistle.
Kt. or Knt. Knight.
L. or Lib. libra, a pound; or liber, a book.
L.B. or B.L. Bachelor of Law.
L.C.J. Lord Chief-Justice.
L.D. Lady day.
Ldp. Lordship.
LL.D. Legum doctor. Doctor of Laws.
L. S. Locus sigilli, the place of the seal.
M. Mille, a thousand.
M B. or B.M. Bachelor of Medicine.
M.C. Member of the Congress.
M.D. Medicinas doctor. Doctor of Medicine.
M.P. Member of Parliament.
M.R.I.A. Member of the Royal Irish Academy.
M.S. Memorias sacrum, sacred to the memory.
MS. Manuscript. MSS. Manuscripts.
Mus. D. Doctor of Music.
M. W.S. Member of the Wernerian Society.
N. North, note, or noon.
H.B. Kota bene, mark well.
STem. con. or nem. diss. nemine contradicente, or nemine dissen-
tiente, without opposition, unanimously.
No. Number. ^
N.P. Notary public.
N. S. New style.
O. S. Old style.
Oxon. Oxford.
Oz. Ounce.
Pari. Parliament.
P. C. Privy Councillor.
Ph. D. Doctor of Philosophy.
P.M. Post meridiem, afternoon.
P. S. Postscript.
n'i 8Un1 dlCet’ 38 if he Should say; Tlasi dictum, as if it were said.
y.K.I). Quod erat demonstrandum, which was to be demonstrated.
• bjuod erat faciendum, which was to be done.
Q. S. Quantum sufficit, a sufficient quantity.
Q. V. Quod vide, which see.
Rp. Recipe, take.
R. A. Royal Academy.
R.E. Royal Engineers.
Beg. Prof. Regius Professor.
Bev. Beverend.
B.M. Boyal Marines.
R. N. Boyal Navy.
Bt. Hon. Bight Honourable.
Bt. Wpful. Right Worshipful.
S. South; or Solidus, a shilling'.
St. Saint.
S. S.C. Solicitor of the Supreme Court.
^•PT;i?aCr0;SanCtffi Theologi8e Professor, Professor of Divinity,
u It. Ultimo, last month. ^
U. S. United States.
T. D. Theologias doctor, Doctor of Theology.
V. D.M. Minister of God’s Word.
Viz. Videlicet, namely.
W. West.
W.S. Writer to the Signet.
Xmas. Christmas.
& et, and.
&c. et caetera, and so forth.
ABBRE VIATORS, a college of 72 persons in the chan¬
cery of Rome, who draw up the pope’s brieves, and reduce
petitions, when granted by him, into proper form for being
converted into bulls. 6
i St’ a Promontory on the eastern coast of Scot¬
land, Lat. 55. 55. N. Long. 2. 8. 30. W. The shore around
is steep and rocky, and there is a depth of 30 or 40 fathoms
water not far from land. The tide runs by it with a strong
current, and a little wind causes a great rolling sea.
ABCHASIA, or Abasia, a province of Asiatic Russia,
on the border of the Black Sea, comprehended between Lat.
42. 30. and 44. 45. N. and between Long. 37. 3. and 40. 36.
L. The high mountains of the Caucasus on the north and
north-east divide it from Circassia; on the south-east it is
bounded by Mingrelia; and on the south and west by the
Black Sea. The country is generally mountainous, with
some deep well-watered valleys, and the climate mild, being
21
Abbrevia¬
tions
li
Abchasia.
22 A B D
Abcheron defended from the northerly winds by the lofty range of
II mountains. The land is fertile, and produces grain, grapes,
Abdallatif. an(j other fruits. Some of the inhabitants devote themselves
to agriculture, some to the rearing of cattle and horses, and
not a few support themselves by piracy, robbery, and the
chase. These people still carry on a considerable slave trade,
selling even their children to the Turks for slaves. This
country, as bordering on the ancient Colchis, was early known
to the ancients; and the Abasci, at least as early as the time of
Herodotus, (lib. iii. 97.), carried on a considerable slave trade,
especially in beautiful boys, whom they sold for eunuchs.
In later times this country was subject to Colchis, until sub¬
dued by the Emperor Justinian, who introduced civilisation
and Christianity. Afterwards the Persians, Georgians, Mon¬
golians, and more recently the Turks, in turn, ruled over the
country. Under the Turks Christianity gradually disap¬
peared, and Mahomedanism was introduced in its stead. By
the treaty of Akerman in 1826, a part, and by the treaty of
Adrianople the rest of this country was ceded to Russia; but
except the possession of a few commanding fortresses on the
coast, it has very little authority over the people, and the
chiefs have almost unlimited power. Mahomedanism is the
religion of the higher classes, but the people generally are
buried in idolatry.
ABCHERON, or Apcheron, or Apsheron. See Baku.
ABDALLA, the son of Abdulmotalleb, was the father of
the prophet Mahomet. He was the most beautiful and mo¬
dest of the Arabian youth. Several other Arabians of emi¬
nence bore the same name.
ABDALLATIF, or Abdollatiph, a celebrated physician
and traveller, and one of the most voluminous writers of the
East, was born at Bagdad, in the 557th year of the Hegira,
being the 1179th of the Christian era. Of the life of this
learned person there has fortunately been preserved a me¬
moir, written by himself, together with some additions by a
contemporary biographer, named Osaiba. The whole of this
curious piece has been translated into French, and published
with a work of Abdallatif s, of which we shall afterwards give
some account. Long before the period of his birth, the em¬
pire of the Caliphs had begun to decline ; but their capital
still continued to enjoy those advantages for education which
it had originally derived from their liberal patronage of learn¬
ing and science. Abdallatif was carefully instructed in every
branch of knowledge then taught in that renowned city ; and
the biographical piece just alluded to is not a little interest¬
ing, from the glimpses it affords of the studies which engaged
the attention of the more aspiring of the Mussulman youth.
After learning to read, the rules of grammar appear to
have been studied with a degree of care and earnestness,
which has not perhaps been equalled in any other country.
With the study of grammar was joined that of the Koran and
the traditionary doctrines, and the whole of the sacred book
was carefully committed to memory. This faculty seems, in¬
deed, to have been severely taxed; for it was also thought
necessary to be able to repeat several treatises on grammar
and jurisprudence, besides some of the choicer collections of
Arabian poetry. In these arduous exercises, Abdallatif says
that he was for a considerable time accustomed to pass the
greater part of the night.
Having attained to great proficiency in the usual studies,
he afterwards applied to the natural philosophy of that day,
and to medicine; and with the view of still further improv¬
ing himself by converse with the learned of other places, he
set out, when in his twenty-eighth year, to Mosul in Meso¬
potamia. Having resided about a year in this city, he next
proceeded to Damascus, then a place of great resort to the
learned of the surrounding countries. Abdallatif found here
many of the most eminent men of that age, part of whom
were busied in the chimerical pursuits of the Hermetic art,
A B D
and part in philological and speculative inquiries. He seems Abdallatif.
always to have entertained great contempt for the sort of
chemistry then in vogue, but he entered with eagerness into
speculative discussions ; and he at this time composed a trea¬
tise upon the Divine essence and attributes, in consequence of
some discussionswithAlkendi, a philosopher of eminence, who
was not, however, thought to be quite orthodox in his faith.
The active curiosity of Abdallatif was next directed to
Egypt; and he accordingly proceeded to Acre, where its
sultan, the great Saladin, was at the time encamped, in order
to solicit his permission to visit that country. This monarch
was a liberal protector of the learned, and fond of their con¬
versation ; but having been lately defeated by the crusaders
under Richard Cceur de Lion, he was too much occupied
with the cares consequent upon this disaster, to admit Abdal¬
latif to the expected honour of a personal interview. He
was, however, received in a courteous manner by the Vizier
A1 Fadhel, whom he found in his tent writing and dictating
at the same time to two secretaries; employments which he
continued whilst he conversed with his visitor upon sundry
points of grammar and philology. Having obtained the ne¬
cessary credentials from this minister, he proceeded to Cairo ;
and the munificence which Saladin and his courtiers extended
towards the learned, was strikingly exemplified in his recep¬
tion and treatment in that city. He was provided with a
house, with provisions, and money; and the vizier seldom
failed to recommend him anew, in those letters of business
which he had occasion to write to the governor of the place.
Here Abdallatif enjoyed the long wished-for opportunity
of conversing with x\v&t Eagle of the Doctors, as he was called,
the celebrated Maimonides, who had been for a consider¬
able time settled in Egypt, and was physician to the sultan.
Here, too, he was fortunate enough to meet with a sage, who
weaned him of his admiration for the writings of Avicenna,
by pointing out the superior value of the ancients. But the
philosophers of Grand Cairo were not all of this stamp ; for
some of them were pretenders to the transmutation of metals,
and one boasted that his art enabled him to fabricate a tent
of the waters of the Nile. Having passed a considerable
time in making various observations and collections in this
interesting city, Abdallatif set out for Jerusalem, on learn¬
ing that he would there see Saladin, who had at length con¬
cluded a truce with the crusaders.
Saladin received him with every mark of respect for his
talents, and bestowed upon him a pension. He was then
busied in repairing the walls of the Holy City, himself, says
Abdallatif, often carrying stones upon his shoulders, to ani¬
mate the undertaking. But in spite of all his cares and pro¬
jects, he daily conversed with the learned men whom his
bounty had drawn around him. Abdallatif mentions, that
when first introduced, he found him in the midst of a circle
of this description; and he adds, that upon all the various
subjects which were discussed, the sultan spoke with the
most agreeable address, as well as ingenuity. From Jeru¬
salem, Abdallatif returned to Damascus; and, after a con¬
siderable interval, a fresh opportunity having occurred of re¬
visiting Egypt, he again proceeded to Cairo, where he taught
medicine and philosophy for several years.
During this period, Egypt was visited with a terrible
famine and pestilence, of which, and the horrors and crimes
that ensued, he has given a most appalling description in
the last two chapters of his Account of this country. Hu¬
man nature was scarcely ever presented to observation under
so hideous an aspect; the wretched Egyptians were driven,
not only to feed upon the bodies of those who had fallen vic¬
tims to want or disease, but to seize upon children, whom
they killed and devoured; and Abdallatif asserts, that they
thus came to acquire such a relish for those inhuman repasts,
that they with difficulty refrained from them after the famine
A B D
A B D
Abdalma'
lek.
had subsided. It was likewise during his second stay in
Egypt that he witnessed an insane attempt to pull down the
Pyramids; a project to which the reigning sultan (a son of
Saladin’s, who, after his death, succeeded to this part of his
dominions) had been instigated by some of his favourites,
and in which he persisted for eight months, without being
able to make any sensible impression upon these indestruc¬
tible monuments of the ancient world.
About the year 1207, Abdallatif left Egypt for his former
residence, Damascus; and here he for some time practised
as a physician, and lectured upon medicine with great suc¬
cess. But his love of new scenes, and desire of extending
his knowledge and fame, still urged him to travel; and he
seems to have passed the rest of his life in Aleppo, and va¬
rious parts of Armenia and Asia Minor, acquiring both wealth
and glory by his abilities as a physician and an author.
Having returned to his native city, purposing to present some
of his works to the caliph, and then to set out on a pilgrim¬
age to Mecca, he was seized with illness soon after his arri¬
val, and died there in the year 1231.
He was undoubtedly a person of great knowledge, and of
an ardent, inquisitive, and penetrating mind. According to
his Arabian biographer, to whom he was well known, he
showed himself, in conversation, somewhat vain of his own
attainments ; and was accustomed to speak rather scornfully
of most of his contemporaries. But it ought to be men¬
tioned, to the credit of his understanding, that his derision
seems partly to have flowed from his contempt of those che¬
mical fooleries to which they were so much addicted, that,
to use the words of Gibbon, “ the reason and the fortune of
thousands were evaporated in the crucibles of Alchemy.”
Of that long list of treatises on medicine, philosophy, and
literature, which Osaiba has appended to the account of Ab¬
dallatif s life, one only has found its way into Europe; nor
do any of the others appear to be known at this day in the
East. The work here alluded to is his Account of Egypt,
which was fortunately discovered and brought to this country
by our celebrated orientalist Pococke. The manuscript, which
is a very old one, is still preserved in the Bodleian Library.
Of this work, an elegant edition, with a Latin translation,
notes, and a life of Abdallatif, was published in 1800, by Dr
White, professor of Arabic in the University of Oxford. A
hrench translation, with enlarged notes, was published at
Paris in 1810, by M. Silvestre de Sacy; and to this, among
other valuable illustrations, is appended a translation from
an i* rabic manuscript, of the curious biographical memoir to
which we have above alluded.
This account of Egypt consists of two books; the first of
which, in six chapters, gives a general view of the country,
of its plants, animals, antiquities, buildings, and modes of
navigating on the Nile; and the second, in three chapters,
treats at large of this river, and of that terrible famine already
mentioned, which was occasioned by a failure in the usual
annual increase of its waters. The book undoubtedly is, upon
the whole, one of the most interesting productions which has
come to us from the East; inasmuch as it presents us with a
detailed and authentic view of the state of Egypt during the
middle ages, and thus supplies a link which was wanting be¬
tween the accounts of ancient and of modern times.
See Abdollatiphi Historic AEgypti Compendium, Ara-
bice et Latine, Lond. 1800, 4to. Relation de VEgypte, par
Abdallatif, traduite par M. Silvestre de Sacy, de ITnstitut
de France. Paris, 1810, 4to.
ABDALMALEK, or Abdulmelech, the son of Mirvan,
and the fifth caliph of the race of the Ommiades. He sur¬
passed all his predecessors in power and dominion ; for in his
reign the Indies were conquered in the east, and his armies
penetrated Spain in the west: he likewise extended his empire
toward the south, by making himself master of Medina and
23
Mecca. Under his reign the Greek language and characters Abdalma-
were excluded from the accounts of the public revenue. If lek
this change, says Gibbon, was productive of the invention or II
familiar use of the Arabic or Indian ciphers, which are our Abdera.
present numerals, a regulation of office has promoted the most
important discoveries of arithmetic, algebra, and the mathe-
matical sciences. He began his reign in the 65th of the
Hegira, a.d. 684; reigned 15 years; and four of his sons
successively enjoyed the caliphate.
Abdalmalek. See Avenzoar.
ABDALONYMUS, or Abdolonymtts, in classic history,
of the royal family of Sidon, and descended from King Ciny-
ras, lived in obscurity, and subsisted by cultivating a garden,
while Strato was in possession of the crown of Sidon. Alex¬
ander the Great having deposed Strato, inquired whether any
of the race of Cinyras was living, that he might set him on
the throne. It was generally thought that the whole race
was extinct; but at last Abdalonymus was thought of, and
mentioned to Alexander, who immediately ordered some of
his soldiers to fetch him. They found the good man at
work, happy in his poverty, and entirely a stranger to the
noise of arms, with which all Asia was at that time disturbed;
and they could scarcely persuade him they were in earnest.
Alexander was convinced of his high descent by the dignity
of his person; and not only bestowed on him all that be¬
longed to Strato, but augmented his dominions, and gave
him a large present out of the Persian spoils. This story is
i elated variously by different authors. See Q. Curtius, iv.
c. i.; Justin, xi. c. x.
ABDALS, in the eastern countries, a kind of fanatics
supposed to be inspired to a degree of madness. The word
is perhaps derived from the Arabic, Abdallah, the servant
of God. Hurried on by excess of zeal, especially in the
Indies, they often run about the streets, and kill all they
meet who are of a different religion. The English sailors
call this running a muck, from the name of the instrument,
a sort of poniard, which they employ on those desperate oc¬
casions. If they are killed, as it commonly happens before
they have done much mischief, they reckon it highly merito¬
rious ; and are esteemed, by the vulgar, martyrs for their
faith.
ABDERA, in Ancient Geography, a maritime town of
Thrace, not far from the mouth of the river Nessus, on the
east side. The Abderites, or Abderitani, were very much
derided for their want of wit and judgment: yet their city
has given birth to several eminent persons ; as Protagoras,
Democritus, Anaxarchus, Hecatmus the historian, Nicsene-
tus the poet, and many others, who were mentioned among
the illustrious men. In the reign of Lysimachus, Abdera
was afflicted for some months with a most extraordinary dis¬
ease:1 this was a burning fever, whose crisis was always oni T •
the seventh day, and then it left them; but it so distracted
their imaginations, that they fancied themselves players. Ilhtoria
After this, they were ever repeating verses from some tra- conscri-
gedy, and particularly from the ‘ Andromeda’ of Euripides, benda sit>
as if they had been upon the stage; so that many of these
pale meagre actors were pouring forth their tragic exclama¬
tions in every street. This delirium continued till the fol¬
lowing winter, which was a very cold one, and therefore fit¬
ter to remove it. Lucian, who has described this disease,
endeavours to account for it in this manner: Archelaus, an
excellent player, acted the ‘Andromeda’ of Euripides before
the Abderites, in the height of a very hot summer. Several
fell into a fever on coming out of the theatre; and as their
imaginations were full of the tragedy, the delirium which
the fever raised perpetually presented Andromeda, Per¬
seus with the Medusa, and the several dramatic incidents,
calling up the ideas of those objects, and the pleasure of the
representation, so strongly, that they could not forbear imi-
24
A B D
A B D
Abderah- bating Archelaus’s action and declamation : and from these
man the fever spread to others by infection.
Abdication ABDERAHMAN, a Saracen viceroy in Spain, who re-
y volted and formed an independent principality at Cordova.
v~"*" He had several successors of the same name. The first Ab-
derahman, in the year 756, became Moorish sovereign of
Spain, whither he had fled on the ruin of his family, in the
battle of the Zab. He was born at Baghdad, and was a
grandson of one of the Ommiad caliphs. A viceroy and cap¬
tain-general of this name led the Saracens and their followers
into France, ravaging the country wherever they came. At
length he was met at Tours by Charles Martel, who had re¬
ceived reinforcements of Germans and Gepidae. The Sara¬
cen army was totally routed in a general action, and Abder-
ahman fell in the general slaughter, which the Monkish writers
reckon at the exaggerated number of 370,000. This great
event, which first broke the power of the Saracens, hap¬
pened about the year 732 of the Christian era.
Abdurahman III., the most eminent and accomplished of
the Moorish sovereigns of Spain. See Spain.
ABDEST, a Persian word, properly signifying the water
placed in a basin for washing the hands; but it is used to
imply the legal purifications practised by the Mahometans
before prayer, entering the mosque, or reading the Koran.
ABDIAS of Babylon, the supposititious author of a
book, setting forth that he had seen Christ, that he was one
of the 70 disciples, had been eye-witness of the actions and
prayers of several of the apostles at their deaths, and had
followed into Persia St Simon and St Jude, who, he said,
made him the first bishop of Babylon. This book, entitled
Historia Certaminis Apostolici, was published by Wolfgang
Lazius, at Basil, 1551; and has passed through several edi¬
tions in other places.
ABDICATION, properly speaking, is the act whereby a
person renounces and gives up any right, office, or dignity,
particularly the supreme power. By a nice distinction, ab¬
dication is supposed to differ from resignation, and to imply
an unconditional surrender; whereas by resignation is meant
relinquishment, as a free and voluntary act, usually in favour
of another: but this distinction is rather conventional than
real, and of so little practical utility, that many abdications
have been called voluntary, while in fact they were the re¬
sult of necessity, or of court intrigue. The flight of a so¬
vereign from his dominions has usually been styled an abdi¬
cation, which, although the act be virtually such, is a meaning
not strictly proper, as nullifying its true sense of renunciation.
Since the Revolution of 1688, the throne of England can
only lawfully be abdicated with consent of the two houses
of Parliament; but by precedent it is established, that by
actions subversive of the constitution, the sovereign virtually
renounces the authority which he claims by that very con¬
stitution. The flight of James II. was declared by Parlia¬
ment to be an abdication ; and the power that could unmake
a king, might easily invest a word with a new signification;
for in a full assembly of the lords and commons, met in
convention upon the supposed vacancy of the throne, both
houses, in spite of James’s protest, came to this resolution,
“ that King James the Second having endeavoured to sub¬
vert the constitution of the kingdom, by breaking the ori¬
ginal contract between king and people ; and, by the advice
of Jesuits and other wicked persons having violated the fun¬
damental laws, and having withdrawn himself out of this
kingdom, has abdicated the government, and that the throne
is thereby vacant.” See Blackstone's Commentaries, vol. i.
p. 211; vol. iv. p. 78.
The Roman magistrates were said “ to abdicate,” when,
from informality in the auspices, utpote vitiosi, or for any
other reason, they quitted their office before the usual term
had expired. Abdication was also used for the act whereby
a father discarded or disclaimed his son, and expelled him Abdomen
from the family. See Rubino, Romische Staatsverfassung, II
p. 88. " Abduction.
Among the most memorable abdications of antiquity may
be especially mentioned, that of Sylla the dictator, b. c. 79;
and that of the Emperor Diocletian, the fierce persecutor of
the Christians, a.d. 305. The following are the most im¬
portant abdications of later times in chronological order:—
Henry IV. of Germany, ,
Stephen II. of Hungary, .
Albert of Saxony,
Lestus V. of Poland,
Vladislaus III. of Poland,
Baliol of Scotland, .
Otho of Hungary,
Eric IX. of Denmark,
Eric XIII. of Sweden,
Emperor Charles V.,
Christina of Sweden,
John Casimir of Poland,
James II. of England,
Frederick Augustus II. of Poland,
Philip V. of Spain, .
Victor Amadeus II. of Sardinia
Charles of Naples,
Stanislaus of Poland,
Victor of Sardinia, .
Charles IV. of Spain,
Joseph Buonaparte of Naples,
Napoleon of France,
Victor Emanuel of Sardinia,
Pedro of Portugal, .
Charles X. of France,
Pedro of Brazil,
Don Miguel of Portugal, .
William I. of Holland,
Louis Philippe of France,
Louis Charles of Bavaria,
Ferdinand of Austria,
Charles Albert of Sardinia,
June
Mar
June
April
Mar
May
Aug
April 7,
May 26,
Oct. 8,
Feb. 24,
Mar. 21,
Dec. 2,
Mar. 26,
A.D.
1080
1114
1142
1200
1206
1306
1309
1439
1441
1556
1654
1669
1688
1704
1724
1730
1795
1795
1802
1808
1808
1814
1821
1826
1830
1831
1834
1840
1848
1848
1848
1849
ABDOMEN, in Anatomy, is that part of the trunk of the
body which lies between the thorax and the bottom of the
pelvis.
ABDOMINALES, or Abdominal Fishes, constitute
the Fourth Order of the Fourth Class of Animals, in the
Linnaean system.
ABDON, {a servant^) the son of Hillel, of the tribe of
Ephraim, and tenth judge of Israel. He died b.c. 1112.
See Judges xii. Three other persons of the same name
are mentioned in 1 Chron. viii. 29; ix. 36 ; xxxiv. 20.
Abdon, a city of the tribe of Asher, which was given to the
Levites of Gershom’s family. See Job xxi. 30; 1 Chron. vi.
74.
ABDUCTION, in Laic, is the forcible or fraudulent re¬
moval of a person. Custom has limited its general applica¬
tion to the case where a woman is the victim, with the view
of her marriage or seduction. The forcible carrying off a
woman constituted the crimen raptus of the Roman law, and
was a capital offence, though unattended with violation of the
person of the woman. In the case of men or children,
it has been usual to substitute the term kidnapping. There
are many old severe laws against abduction, generally con¬
templating its object as the possession of an heiress and her
fortune. The offence was frequent at a comparatively late
period in Scotland and in Ireland, an account of the feeble¬
ness of the law and the geographical facilities of these coun¬
tries, and severe laws were directed against it in vain. So
late as the Act of 10 Geo. IV. c. 34, in Ireland it was made
punishable with death; but by 5 and 6 Viet. c. 28, § 16, this
is reduced to transportation, the punishment which had been
assigned to it in England fourteen years earlier, by Sir Robert
Peel’s Consolidation Act, 9 Geo. IV. c. 31. In Scotland,
ABE
Abduction where there is no statutory adjustment, a similar punishment
II has been awarded by practice.
Abelard. Abduction, in Logic, a kind of argumentation, by the
Greeks called apagoge, wherein the greater extreme is evi¬
dently contained in the medium, but the medium not so evi¬
dently in the lesser extreme as not to require some farther
medium or proof to make it appear. It is called abduction,
because, from the conclusion, it draws us on to prove the
proposition assumed.
ABDUCTOR, or Abducent, in Anatomy, a name given
to several of the muscles, on account of their serving to with¬
draw, open, or pull back the parts to which they belong.
ABEDNEGO, i.e. servant of Nego or Nebo, the Chaldee
name imposed by the king of Babylon’s officer upon Azariah,
one of the three companions of Daniel.
ABEL, properly Hebel, which means grief, the second son
of Adam, who was slain by Cain his elder brother, (Gen. iv.
1-16,) while engaged in offering sacrifice, God having tes¬
tified his acceptance of that of Abel, and his rejection of
Cain’s. Abel, it appears, brought two offerings, the one an
oblation, the other a sacrifice. Cain brought but the former,
a mere acknowledgment, it is supposed, of the sovereignty of
God, neglecting to offer the sacrifice which would have been
a confession of fallen nature, and typically an atonement for
sin ; it was not therefore the mere difference of feeling with
which the two offerings were brought, which constituted the
virtue of the one or the guilt of the other. God’s righteous
indignation against sin had been plainly revealed, and there
can be no doubt that the means of safety, of reconciliation
and atonement, were as plainly made known to Adam and
his offspring; the refusal therefore of the sacrifice was a vir¬
tual denial of God’s right to condemn the sinner, and at the
same time a proud rejection of the proffered means of grace.
In ancient times heretics existed who represented Cain
and Abel as embodying two spiritual powers, of which the
mightier was that of Cain, and to which they accordingly
rendered divine homage.
An obscure sect arose in the early church under the title
of Abelites, which inculcated certain fanatical notions re¬
specting marriage; but it was speedily lost amidst a host
of more popular parties. See Abelians.
Abel is likewise employed as a prefix to the names of
places, seemingly indicating their verdant appearance: thus
in Scripture we read of Abel-Beth-Maacah, Abel-Carmaim,
Abel-Shittim, &c.
Abel, Carl Frederick, a celebrated German musician,
a pupil of Sebastian Bach, and highly praised by Burney for
his adagio compositions in the age preceding Mozart, Haydn,
Beethoven. He died in 1787.
Abel, Niels Henri, an eminent mathematician of Nor¬
way, who was born at Christiania in 1802, and died of con¬
sumption in 1829. His works, which were published by the
Norwegian government in two 4to volumes in 1839, give
the unfortunate author a high place among the mathemati¬
cians of his age.
Abel, Thomas. See Able.
ABELARD, Peter, an eminent scholastic philosopher
of France, of noble descent, was born at Palais near Nantes
in Bretagne, in the year 1079. Devoted to letters by his
father’s appointment, and by his own inclination, his literary
attainments could at this time only be exhibited in the field
of scholastic philosophy; and, that he might be fitted for his
destined career of life, he was placed, after a previous course
of grammatical studies, under the tuition of Rosceline, a
celebrated metaphysician, and founder of the sect of the No¬
minalists. Under the instructions of this able master, at the
early age of sixteen, he furnished himself with a large store
of scholastic knowledge, and acquired a subtilty and quick¬
ness of thought, a fluency of speech, and facility of expres-
VOL. II.
ABE
sion, which were necessary qualifications in scholastic dis¬
putation.
Having spent some time in visiting the schools of several
provinces, in the twentieth year of his age he fixed his re¬
sidence in the university of Paris, then the first seat of learn¬
ing in Europe. The master, William de Champeaux, was
at that time in high repute for his knowledge of philosophy,
and his skill in the dialectic art; to him he committed the
direction of his studies, and was at first contented with re¬
ceiving instruction from so eminent a preceptor. De Cham¬
peaux was proud of the talents of his pupil, and admitted
him to his friendship. But the aspiring youth ventured to
contradict the opinions of his master, and in the public school
held disputations with him, in which he was frequently vic¬
torious. The jealousy of the master and the vanity of the
pupil naturally occasioned a speedy separation.
Elated by success, and confident of his own powers, Abe¬
lard, without hesitation, at the age of twenty-two, opened a
public school of his own. Melun, a town ten leagues from
Paris, where the court frequently resided, was the place
which he chose for this bold display of his talents. But it
was not without considerable difficulty that Abelard executed
his plan; for De Champeaux, who regarded him as a rival,
openly employed all his interest against him. Abelard at
length prevailed, his school was opened, and his lectures
were attended by crowded and admiring auditories. Em¬
boldened by this success, and perhaps stimulated by unworthy-
resentment, Abelard resolved to maintain an open contest
with his master, and for this purpose removed his school to
Corbeil near Paris. The disputants frequently met in each
other’s schools; and the contest was supported on each side
with great spirit, amidst crowds of their respective scholars.
The young champion was in the end victorious, and his an¬
tagonist was obliged to retire.
Constant application and violent exertions had now so far
impaired Abelard’s health, that it was become necessary for
him to interrupt his labours; and, with the advice of his phy¬
sician, he withdrew to his native country. Two years after¬
wards, he returned to Corbeil, and found that De Champeaux
had taken the monastic habit among the regular canons in
the convent of St Victor; but that he still continued to teach
rhetoric and logic, and to hold public disputations in theology.
Returning to the charge, he renewed the contest, and his
opponent was obliged to acknowledge himself defeated. The
scholars of De Champeaux deserted him, and went over in
crowds to Abelard. Even the new professor, who had taken
the former school of De Champeaux, voluntarily surrendered
the chair to the young philosopher, and requested to be en¬
rolled among his disciples. A triumph so complete, while it
gratified the vanity of Abelard, could not fail to provoke the
resentment of his old master, who had influence to obtain the
appointment of a new professor, and drive Abelard back to
Melun. De Champeaux’s motive for this violent proceeding
was soon perceived; even his friends were ashamed of his
conduct; and he retired from the convent into the country.
When Abelard was informed of the flight of his adversary,
he returned towards Paris, and took a new station at the abbey
on Mount St Genevieve. His rival, the new professor, was
unequal to the contest, and was soon deserted by his pupils,
who flocked to the lectures of Abelard. De Champeaux, too,
returning to his monastery, renewed the struggle ; but so un¬
successfully, that Abelard was again victorious.
During a short absence, in which Abelard visited his
native place, De Champeaux was preferred to the see of
Chalons. 1 he long and singular contest between these phi¬
losophers terminated; and Abelard, perhaps for want of a
rival to stimulate his exertions, or possibly through envy of
the good fortune of his rival, determined to exchange the
study and profession of philosophy for that of theology. He
25
Abelard.
26 ABEL
Abelard, therefore quitted his school at St Genevieve, and removed
^ r ^ to Laon, to become a scholar of Anselm. From this cele¬
brated master he entertained high expectations; but they
were soon disappointed. On attending his lectures, he found
that, though he possessed uncommon fluency of language,
he left his auditors without instruction. Abelard gradually
retired from these unprofitable lectures, but without offering
offence either to the veteran professor or his scholars. In
conversation one of them asked him, what he thought of the
study of the Scriptures ? Abelard replied that he thought the
explanation of them a task of no great difficulty; and to prove
his assertion, he undertook to give a comment, the next day,
upon any part of the Scriptures they should mention. They
fixed upon the beginning of the prophecy of Ezekiel; and
the next morning he explained the passage in a theological
lecture, which was heard with admiration. For several suc¬
cessive days, the lectures were, at the request of the audi¬
ence, continued; the whole town pressed to hear them ; and
the name of Abelard was echoed through the streets of Laon.
Anselm, jealous of the rising fame of this young theologian,
prohibited his lectures, under the pretence that so young a
lecturer might fall into mistakes, which would bring discredit
upon his master. Abelard, whose ambition required a wider
field than that of Laon, obeyed the prohibition, and with¬
drew. He returned to Paris, whither the fame of his theo¬
logical talents had arrived before him, and opened his school
with his lectures on the prophecy of Ezekiel. His auditors
were delighted; his school was crowded with scholars; and
he united in his lectures the sciences of theology and philo¬
sophy with so much success, that multitudes repaired to him
from various parts of France, from Spain, Italy, Germany,
Flanders, and Great Britain.
Hitherto Abelard has appeared with high distinction, as
an able disputant, and a popular preceptor: we must now
view him under a different character, and when nearly ar¬
rived at the sober age of forty, see him, on a sudden, ex¬
changing the school of philosophy for the bower of pleasure,
and even disgracing himself, as will too plainly appear in the
sequel, by forming and executing a deliberate plan for the
seduction of female innocence. It happened that there was
at this time, resident in Paris, Heloise, the niece of Fulbert,
one of the canons of the cathedral church, a lady about
eighteen years of age, of great personal beauty, and highly
celebrated for her literary attainments. Abelard, whose
vanity had been satiated with fame, and the vigour of whose
mind was now enervated by repose, found himself inclined
to listen to the voice of passion. He beheld with ardent ad¬
miration the lovely Heloise, and confident that his personal
attractions were still irresistible, he determined to captivate
her affections. Fulbert, who doubtless thought himself hon¬
oured by the visits of so eminent a scholar and philosopher, re¬
ceived him into his house as a learned friend. He was soon
afterwards prevailed upon, by a handsome payment which
Abelard offered for his board, to admit him into his family;
and, apprehending no hazard from a man of Abelard’s age
and profession, requested him to undertake the instruction of
Heloise. Abelard accepted the trust, but, as it seems, with¬
out any other intention than to betray it. The hours of in¬
struction were employed in other lessons than those of learn¬
ing and philosophy; but Fulbert’s respectful opinion of the
philosopher, and his partiality for his niece, long concealed
from him an amour, which was become the subject of gene¬
ral conversation. Upon discovering her pregnancy, it was
thought necessary for her to quit her uncle’s house; and
Abelard conveyed her to Bretagne, where his sister was pre¬
pared to receive them. Here Heloise was delivered of a son,
to whom they gave the whimsical name of Astrolabus. Abe¬
lard, upon the birth of the child, proposed to Fulbert to
marry his niece, provided the marriage might be kept secret:
A ED.
Fulbert consented, and Abelard returned to Bretagne to ful- Abelard,
fil his engagement. Heloise, partly out of regard to the
honour of Abelard, whose profession bound him to celibacy,
and partly from a romantic notion that love like hers ought
not to submit to ordinary restraints, at first gave Abelard a
peremptory refusal. He, however, at last prevailed, and they
were privately married at Paris. Heloise from this time met
with severe treatment from her uncle, which furnished Abe¬
lard with a plea for removing her from his house, and placing
her in the abbey of Benedictine nuns, in which she had been
educated. Fulbert concluded, perhaps not without reason,
that Abelard had taken this step, in order to rid himself of
an encumbrance which obstructed his future prospects. Deep
resentment took possession of his soul, and he meditated re¬
venge. He employed several ruffians to enter his chamber
by night, and inflict upon his person a disgraceful and cruel
mutilation. The deed was perpetrated; the ruffians were
taken, and suffered, according to the Lex Talionis, the pun¬
ishment they had inflicted; and Fulbert, for his savage re¬
venge, was deprived of his benefice, and his goods were con¬
fiscated. Unable to support his mortifying reflections, Abe¬
lard resolved to retire to a convent. At the same time he
formed the selfish resolution, that, since Heloise could no
longer be his, she should never be another’s, and ungene¬
rously demanded from her a promise to devote herself to
religion; and even insisted upon her taking the holy vow
before him, suspecting, as it seems, that if he first engaged
himself, she might violate her promise, and return to the
world.
A few days after Heloise had taken her vows, Abelard
assumed the monastic habit in the abbey of St Denys, de¬
termined, as it seems, to forget, in hope of being forgotten
by the world. However, his admirers and scholars in Paris
were unwilling that the world should lose the benefit of his
labours, and sent deputies to entreat him to return to his
school. After some deliberation, he again yielded to the
call of ambition; and at a small village in the country, he
resumed his lectures, and soon found himself surrounded
with a numerous train of scholars. The revival of his popu¬
larity renewed the jealousy of other professors, who took the
first opportunity of bringing him under ecclesiastical censure.
A treatise which he published at this time, entitled, The
Theology of Abelard, was supposed to contain some hereti¬
cal tenets. A synod was called at Soissons in the year 1121;
the work was condemned to be burnt, and Abelard was com¬
manded to throw it into the flames. After being involved
in other controversies, new charges were brought against
him, and he fled to the convent of St Ayoul at Provins in
Champagne, the prior of which was his intimate friend. The
place of his retreat was soon discovered, and threats and per¬
suasions were in vain employed to recal him: at last he
obtained permission to retire to some solitary retreat, on con¬
dition that he should never again become a member of a
convent.
The spot which he chose was a vale in the forest of Cham¬
pagne, near Nogent upon the Seine. Here Abelard, in
1122, erected a small oratory, which he dedicated to the
Trinity, and which he afterwards enlarged, and consecrated
to the Third Person, the Comforter, or Paraclete. Here
he was soon discovered, and followed by a train of scholars.
A rustic college arose in the forest, and the number of his
pupils soon increased to six hundred. Jealousy again pro¬
voked the exertions of his enemies, and he was meditating
his escape, when, through the interest of the duke of Bre¬
tagne, and with the consent of the abbot of St Denys, he was
elected superior of the monastery of St Gildas, in the diocese
of Vannes, where, though not without frequent and grievous
vexations, he remained several years.
About this time, Suger, the abbot of St Denys, on the
ABE
Abelians plea of an ancient right, obtained a grant for annexing the
Abell convent; °f Argenteuil, of which Heloise was now prioress,
e _a' j to St Denys ; and the nuns, who were accused of irregular
practices, were dispersed. Abelard, informed of the dis¬
tressed situation of Heloise, invited her, with her com¬
panions, eight in number, to take possession of the Para¬
clete.
It was during Abelard’s residence at St Hildas that the
interesting correspondence passed between him and Heloise,
which is still extant. The letters of Heloise, in this corre¬
spondence, abound with proofs of genius, learning, and taste,
which might have graced a better age. Upon these let¬
ters Pope formed his celebrated Epistle from Eloisa to
Abelard. Here, too, Abelard probably wrote his Theology,
which again subjected him to persecution. His opinions were
pronounced heretical by a council; and although he appealed
to Rome, the judgment of the council was confirmed by the
pope; and he was sentenced, unheard, to perpetual silence
and imprisonment. By the interposition of some friends, how¬
ever, and by a submissive apology, he obtained his par¬
don, with permission to end his days in the monastery of
Cluny.
At Cluny he was retired, studious, and devout. The
monks of the convent importuned him to resume his instruc¬
tions. In a few occasional efforts he complied with their
solicitations ; and his lectures were heard with undiminished
applause. But his health and spirits were much enfeebled,
and gradually declined till he died, in the 63d year of his age,
on the 21st of April 1142. His body was sent to Heloise
to be interred in the convent of the Paraclete. Heloise sur¬
vived her husband 21 years, a pattern of conjugal affection
and monastic virtue; and was buried in the same grave.
An elegant Gothic monument to their memory, constructed
out of the ruins of the abbey of the Paraclete, forms one of
the most interesting objects in the cemetery of Pere la Chaise.
The writings of Abelard do not give a high idea of his
genius or taste ; but it cannot be questioned, that the man
who could foil the first masters of the age at the weapons of
logic, draw round him crowded and admiring auditors, and
collect scholars from different provinces and countries wher¬
ever he chose to form a school, must have possessed extraor¬
dinary talents. Had his love of truth been equal to his thirst
of fame, and his courage in adhering to his principles equal
to his ingenuity in defending them, his sufferings and persecu¬
tions might have excited more regret, and his title to honour¬
able remembrance would have been better established.
His principal works, written in Latin, are, An Address to
the Paraclete on the Study of the Scriptures ; Problems and
Solutions; Sermons on the Festivals; A Treatise against
Heresies; An exposition of the Lord’s Prayer; A Commen¬
tary on the Romans; A System of Theology; and his Let¬
ters to Heloise and to others. Of some of those letters, and
the answers, there are translations in Berrington’s History
of the Lives of Abelard and Heloise. Besides these, there
was published for the first time, from ancient MSS., by M.
V. Cousin, in 1836, a quarto volume, entitled “ Ouvrages
inedits d’Abelard ” containing, with some smaller pieces, his
celebrated treatise, Sic et Non, and his Dialectics. The
most perfect edition of the complete works of Abelard is from
the same eminent hand, Paris, 4to, 1849-50.
ABELIANS, Abelites, or Abelonians, in Church His¬
tory, a sect of heretics mentioned by St Augustin, which pre¬
tended to follow the example of Abel; who, they alleged, had
died without ever having known his wife.
ABEL LA, now Avella, anciently a town of Campania,
near the river Clanius. The inhabitants were called Abel-
lani, and said to have been a colony of Chalcidians. The
nux Avellana, called also Prcenestina, or the hazel-nut, takes
its name from this town, according to Macrobius.
ABE 27
ABELLINUM. See Avellino. Abellinum
ABELLIO, a name of Apollo, from A/5eXto9, his name in II
Crete and elsewhere. Abercon-
ABENBERG, chief town of the district of the same name
in Bavaria, about 16 miles S.S.W. of Nuremberg. It has a
population of 1100, and manufactories of lace and needles.
ABEN-BITAR (Abdalla ben Ahmed), a celebrated
naturalist and physician of Spain, who wrote a very useful
work on all the herbs, animals, minerals, &c. used in medi¬
cine. He died at Damascus a.d. 1248.
ABENCERRAGES, and Zegris, the names of two
noble families, frequently mentioned by the Spanish chroni¬
clers and romance writers. See Guerras Civiles de Granada
by Guies Perez de Hyta, part of which has been translated
by T. Rodd; and Conde’s Hist, de la Dominacion de los
Arabes en Espagna, vol. iii.
ABEN-EZRA, Abraham, a celebrated rabbi, bom at
Toledo in Spain, called by the Jews the wise, great, and ad¬
mirable Doctor, was a very able interpreter of the Holy
Scriptures; and was well skilled in grammar, poetry, philo¬
sophy, astronomy, and medicine. He was also a perfect
master of the Arabic. His principal work, Commentaries
on the Old Testament, is printed in Bomberg’s and Bux-
torf’s Hebrew Bibles, and is much esteemed. His style is
clear, elegant, and concise : he almost always adheres to the
literal sense, and everywhere gives proof of his genius and
good sense. The scarcest of all his books is entitled Jesud
Mora, which is a theological work, intended as an exhor¬
tation to the study of the Talmud. He also wrote Ele-
gantiee Grammaticce, printed in octavo at Venice in 1548.
He died in 1194, aged 75, or, according to De Rossi, in
1168.
ABENHEIM, a market town in the bailiwick of Alzey,
and province of the Rhine, in the grand duchy of Hesse
Darmstadt, with 940 inhabitants, who make excellent wine.
ABENMELECH, Solomon, a learned rabbi, a native
of Spain, who flourished in the sixteenth century. He
wrote Scholia on the whole of the Old Testament, in which
he has interspersed the best of Kimchi’s grammatical obser¬
vations. His Commentaries are inserted in the Biblia Rab-
binica, Yen. 1518.
ABENSBERG, a small city, capital of the bailiwick of
the same name, in the circle of Regen in Bavaria, contain¬
ing, in 1847, 254 houses and 1200 inhabitants. It was for¬
merly the seat of the Counts Abenberg. Here Napoleon
defeated the Austrians in a great battle on the 20th of April
1809. It is the Abusina of the Romans ; and ancient ruins
exist in its neighbourhood.
ABENSPERG, a small town of Germany, in the king¬
dom of Bavaria, and in the government of Munich. It is
seated on the river Abentz, near the Danube. Lon°\ 11.
38. E. Lat. 48. 45. N.
ABERAVON, a borough town of Glamorganshire, in
Wales, at the mouth of the Avon, 192 miles west of London.
Long. 3.35. W. Lat. 51.40. N. Until lately, Aberavon was a
mere village; but has recently increased rapidly, from the
extension of the mines of coal and iron in its vicinity, and
the establishment of extensive works for the smelting of cop¬
per and zinc. At Port Talbot, about a mile distant, is an
excellent float dock, much frequented by numerous coasting
vessels. It unites with Swansea in returning a member to
parliament. Pop. in 1841, 3665 ; in 1851, 6567.
ABERBROTHICK. See Arbroath.
ABERCONWAY, or Conway, a town of Caernarvon¬
shire in North Wales, at the mouth of the Conway, as its
name implies. It is finely situate on a steep slope, and is
entirely enclosed by its lofty old walls of more than a mile
in circuit, forming a triangle, and fenced with 24 round
towers. It is a fine example of the style of fortification in
28
ABE
ABE
Abercrom- the reign of Edward I.; and contains some curious half-tim-
bie. her houses of Elizabeth’s time, with the ruins of a Cistertian
priory, and other objects of interest. The castle, which ex¬
hibits very extensive ruins, was built in 1284 by Edward I.,
and must have been one of the noblest fortresses in Britain.
An elegant suspension-bridge across the river (constructed
by Telford), was opened in 1826; and the tubular bridge by
Stevenson, the first of its kind, for the Chester and Holyhead
Railway, was completed in 1848. ihe population in 1851
was 2105, chiefly occupied in the coasting trade and in ship¬
building. The pearl-mussel fishery which subsisted for a
long period has been lately abandoned. It is one of the
contributory boroughs to Caernarvon in returning a member
to parliament. Distance from London, 224 miles. It is the
ancient Conovium.
ABERCROMBIE, John, M.D., an eminent physician
of Edinburgh, and most estimable man, was the son of the
Rev. George Abercrombie of Aberdeen ; in which city he
was born in 1780.
Young Abercrombie received his elementary education
at the grammar school of his native place, and his literary
and philosophical education in Marischal College; but his
medical studies were commenced at Edinburgh in 1800;
where, after the usual academical curriculum, he obtained his
degree of M.D. in 1803. Soon afterwards he went to Lon¬
don, and for about a year gave diligent attention to the medi¬
cal practice and lectures in St George’s Hospital. In 1804,
Dr Abercrombie returned to Edinburgh, became a Fellow'
of the College of Surgeons, and commenced as general prac¬
titioner in that city; where, in dispensary and private prac¬
tice, he laid the foundation of that character for sagacity as
an observer of disease, and judgment in its treatment, that
eventually elevated him to the head of his profession. He
early began the laudable practice of preserving accurate notes
of the cases that fell under his care; and at a period when
pathological anatomy was far too little regarded by practi¬
tioners in this country, Abercrombie had the merit of sedu¬
lously pursuing it, and collecting a body of most important
facts on the changes produced by disease on different organs;
so that, before the year 1824, he had more extended expe¬
rience, and more correct views in this interesting field, than
most of his contemporaries engaged in extensive practice.
From 1816 to 1824, he occasionally enriched the pages of
the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal with various
essays, that display originality and industry, particularly those
“on the diseases of the spinal cord and brain,” and “on diseases
of the intestinal canal, of the pancreas, and spleen.” The first
of thesp subjects formed the basis of his great and very ori¬
ginal Pathological and Practical Researches on Diseases
of the Brain and Spinal Cord, which appeared at Edin¬
burgh in 1828, and a second edition in 1830. This work is
illustrated by interesting cases, and the admirable observa¬
tions of the author. Besides these works, he contributed to
the Journal “ An Essay on the Pathology of Consumptive
Diseases,” “ Observations on Ischuria Renalis and to the
Transactions of the Edinburgh Medico-Chirurgical Society
a valuable paper “ on Diseases of the Heart.”
In 1823, he had become a Licentiate of the College of
Physicians; in 1824 a fellow of that body; and from the
death of Dr Gregory in 1822, Dr Abercrombie was consi¬
dered as the first physician in Scotland. His practice was
very extensive and lucrative; yet he found time for other
speculations and occupations. In 1830, he published his
Inquiries concerning the Intellectual Powers of Man, and
the Investigation of Truth. This work, though far less ori¬
ginal and profound than his medical speculations, contains
a popular view of an interesting subject, and was very exten¬
sively read, from the simplicity of diction, and integrity of
purpose. It was followed in 1833 by his Philosophy of the
Moral Feelings, a sequel to the former, the object of which, Abercrom-
as stated in the preface, “ was to divest the subject of all im- by.
probable speculations,” and to shew “ the important relation
which subsists between the science of mind and the doctrines
of revealed religion.” Though less profound even than the
last, soon after its publication, the University of Oxford con¬
ferred on the author the honorary degree of Doctor of Me¬
dicine ; and in 1833 his first alma mater elected him its
Lord Rector.
Dr Abercrombie continued in good health until 1841,
when he suffered from an alarming irregularity in the circu¬
lation of his brain, which induced him to consider it as the
forerunner of paralysis, for which he insisted on being pro¬
fusely bled. This was followed by extreme debility, ap¬
proaching to syncope; but he eventually recovered, after
about a fortnight’s illness, and continued his professional
duties, until the 14th November 1844; when he was found
on the floor of his room in a state of insensibility, and al¬
most immediately expired. The examination of his body
showed that the immediate cause of his death was a very
uncommon disease of the heart—softening of its muscular
substance, which induced a separation of the fibres of the
left ventricle, with laceration of the coronary vessels, by which
the pericardium was filled with blood.
In private life, Dr Abercrombie was much beloved by
numerous friends, for the suavity and kindness of his man¬
ners, and esteemed by all for his well-directed talents and
unaffected piety. (t. s. t.)
ABERCROMBY, The Honourable Alexander
(Lord Abercromby), a Judge in the Courts of Session and
Justiciary in Scotland, was the youngest son of George Aber¬
cromby of Tullibody, Esq., of a respectable family in Clack¬
mannanshire, and was born on the 15th October 1745. Mr
Abercromby was early destined for the profession of the law,
and with this view he was educated at the university of Edin¬
burgh, where he passed through the requisite course of lan¬
guages, philosophy, and law, and was admitted advocate in
the year 1766. In 1780 he resigned the office of sheriff-
depute of Stirlingshire, which he had held for several years,
and accepted that of depute-advocate, with the hope of
extending his employment in the line of his profession. In
this step he was not disappointed; for his reputation and busi¬
ness rapidly increased, and soon raised him to the first rank
at the Scottish bar. But he still retained a taste for the ele¬
gant amusements of polite literature, and was one of that
society who set on foot two periodical papers, the Mirror and
Lounger, published at Edinburgh; the former in 1779, and
the latter in 1785. To the Mirror he contributed ten papers,
and to the Lounger nine. The names of the authors have
been published in the late editions of these works, which ren¬
ders it unnecessary to point out those papers of which Mr
Abercromby was the author. In May 1792, he was appointed
one of the Judges of the Court of Session, and in December
following he was called to a seat in the Court of Justiciary.
Lord Abercromby continued to discharge the arduous duties
of these important offices till summer 1795, when he was
seized with a pectoral complaint, of which he died on the
17th November the same year, at Exmouth in Devonshire,
where he had gone for the recovery of his health.
Abercromby, Sir Ralph, knight of the Bath, and a lieu¬
tenant-general in the British army, an elder brother of the
preceding, was born in the year 1738. Being destined for
the army, he obtained, in May 1756, a cornet’s commission
in the 2d dragoon guards; and rose, April 24. 1762, to the
rank of a captain in the 3d regiment of horse. Ascending
through the intermediate gradations of rank, he was ap¬
pointed, November 3. 1781, to the colonelcy of the 103d
infantry. September 28.1787, he wras promoted to the rank
of major-general. November 5.1795 he obtained the com-
ABE
Abercrom- mand of the 7th regiment of dragoons. Having been nearly
by. 40 years in the army, having served with honour in two wars,
and being esteemed one of the ablest, coolest, and most in¬
trepid officers in the whole British forces, he was employed
on the continent under his Royal Highness the Duke of
York, in the commencement of the war against the French
republic. In the action on the heights of Cateau, he com¬
manded the advanced guard, and was wounded at Nime-
guen. He conducted the march of the guards from Deventer
to Oldensal, in the retreat of the British out of Holland, in
the winter of 1794—5. In August 1795, he was appointed to
succeed Sir Charles Grey, as commander-in-chief of the Bri¬
tish forces in the West Indies. March 24. 1796, Grenada
was suddenly attacked and taken by a detachment of the
army under his orders. He afterwards obtained possession
of the settlements of Demerara and Essequibo, in South
America. St Lucia was next taken by more difficult exer¬
tions, in which his ability was signally displayed. St Vin¬
cent was, by the middle of June, added to the British con¬
quests. Trinidad, in February 1797, shared the same fate.
He returned the same year to Europe, and, in reward for
such important services, was invested with the red ribbon,
appointed to the command of the regiment of Scots Greys,
intrusted with the governments of the Isle of Wight, Fort
George, and Fort Augustus, and raised to the rank of lieu¬
tenant-general. He held, for a time, the chief command of
the forces in Ireland. In that command, he laboured to
maintain the discipline of the army, to suppress the rising
rebellion, and to protect the people from military oppression,
with a care worthy alike of the great general and the en¬
lightened and beneficent statesman. When Sir Ralph was
appointed to the command in Ireland, an invasion of that
country by the French was confidently anticipated by the
English Government. He used his utmost efforts to restore
the discipline of an army that was utterly disorganized; and,
as a first step, he anxiously endeavoured to protect the people,
by re-establishing the supremacy of the civil power, and not
allowing the military to be called out, except when it was
indispensably necessary for the enforcement of the law and
the maintenance of order. Finding that he received no
adequate support from the head of the Irish Government,
and that all his efforts were thwarted and opposed by those
who presided in the councils of Ireland, he resigned the com¬
mand. His departure from Ireland was deeply lamented by
all the reflecting portion of the people, and was speedily fol¬
lowed by those disastrous results which he had anticipated,
and which he so ardently desired to prevent.
It is known that in after life there was no part of his pub¬
lic conduct on which he reflected with such entire satisfac¬
tion as on those efforts which he made to protect the country
from the threatened invasion. From Ireland he was called
to the chief command of the forces in Scotland. When the
enterprise against Holland was resolved upon, Sir Ralph
Abercromby was called again to command, under his Royal
Highness the Duke of York. The difficulties of the ground,
the inclemency of the season, delays, though inconvenient,
yet unavoidable, the disorderly movements of the Russians,
and the timid duplicity of the Dutch, disappointed our hopes
of that expedition. But by the Dutch, the French, the Bri¬
tish, it was confessed, that even victory the most decisive
could not have more conspicuously proved the talents of this
distinguished officer. His country applauded the choice,
when, in 1801, he was sent with an army to dispossess the
French of Egypt. His experience in Holland and Flanders,
and in the climate of the West Indies, particularly fitted him
for this new command. He accomplished some of the first
duties of a general, in carrying his army in health, in spirits,
and with the requisite intelligence and supplies, to the des¬
tined scene of action. The landing in Egypt may be justly
ABE 29
ranked among the most daring and brilliant exploits of the Aberdare
English army. The incidental capture of two English officers, II
who were reconnoitering the camp, indicated the point at Aberdeen,
which the attempt to land would be made. The French pre-
pared to meet it with a body of 2000 infantry, a detachment
of cavalry, and 15 pieces of artillery. The Turks were ex¬
posed to the concentrated fire of the enemy, while they were
transported for a considerable distance in open boats to the
coast. When they reached the shore, they had to land and
form in the face of an enemy prepared to meet them, and
with the additional disadvantage of sinking deep at each step
in the loose sand. Sir Ralph was not discouraged by these
severe difficulties, because he had been fully apprised of the
very great importance which was attached even to the par¬
tial success of the enterprise, as a prelude to the negotiations
for peace which were then impending; but he at the same
time made arrangements for desisting, if he saw that the sacri¬
fice of life would be greater than it was justifiable to make.
The landing, the first dispositions, the attack, and the supe¬
riority over the French which the British infantry under his
command evinced, all bear testimony to the high military
talents of this commander. It was his fate to fall in the mo¬
ment of victory. General Lord Hutchinson, who succeeded
him in the command, in the dispatches with the account of
his death, has given a fine eulogium on his character as a
soldier, and strongly expressive of the high estimation in
which he was held. “We have sustained an irreparable loss
in the person of our never sufficiently to be lamented com¬
mander-in-chief, Sir Ralph Abercromby, who was mortally
wounded in the action (of the 21st), and died on the 28th
of March. I believe he was wounded early, but he concealed
his situation from those about him, and continued in the field,
giving his orders with that coolness and perspicuity which
had ever marked his character, till long after the action was
over, when he fainted through weakness and loss of blood.
Were it permitted for a soldier to regret any one who has
fallen in the service of his country, I might be excused for
lamenting him more than any other person; but it is some
consolation to those who tenderly loved him, that, as his life
was honourable, so was his death glorious. His memory will
be recorded in the annals of his country—will be sacred to
every British soldier—and embalmed in the recollection of
a grateful posterity.” His remains were conveyed on board
Admiral Lord Keith’s flag-ship to Malta, attended by Colonel
Sir John Dyer, and were interred in the commandery of the
grand master, with the highest military honours. A monu¬
ment to his memory was erected in St Paul’s church, Lon¬
don, in pursuance of a vote of the House of Commons. His
widow was created a peeress, and a pension of L.2000 a-year
for her and other two lives settled on the family. For a de¬
tailed account of the military transactions in which Sir Ralph
Abercromby was engaged, see Britain.
ABERDARE, a parish and large village of South Wales,
in the county of Glamorgan. The village is situate in a
beautiful valley, watered by the river Cynon, an affluent of
the Taaf, about 4^- miles south-west of Merthyr-Tydvil. In
1831, the population was only 3961 ; but, owing to the rapid
and enormous extension of the iron-trade, the number has
increased more than threefold, mostly employed in the manu¬
facture of iron, and the raising of coal.
ABERDEEN, Old, is a place of great antiquity. In 1004,
Malcolm II. founded a bishopric at a place called Mortlach
in Banffshire, in memory of a signal victory which he there
gained over the Danes: which bishopric was translated to
Old Aberdeen by David I.; and in 1153, the then bishop
of Aberdeen obtained a new charter from Malcolm IV. The
town lies about a mile to the north of the New Town, near
the mouth of the river Don, which is spanned by a fine
Gothic bridge, of a single arch, resting on a rock on each
30 ABE
Aberdeen. si(je. . This arch, said to have been built by a bishop of
Aberdeen about the beginning of the 14th century, is 67
feet wide, and 34^ feet high above the surface of the river,
which at ebb tide is here 19 feet deep. The town, which
consists chiefly of one long street, was formerly the see of
a bishop, and had a large cathedral dedicated to St Machar.
The only remains of it are two lofty spires, and the nave,
which is in a state of complete repair, and used as a church.
The present cathedral, the third from the original translation
of the see, was commenced about the end of the 14th cen¬
tury, and required 150 years for its completion, but did not
remain entire above one-third of that time. It was greatly
injured at the Reformation: and Cromwell’s troops, time,
and storms, did the rest. What remains is the oldest part,
and is built chiefly of granite {out-layer), a remarkable, if
not, as is most probable, a unique circumstance for its age.
The principal structure is the King’s College, on the south
side of the town, which is a large and stately fabric. It
is built in form of a square, with cloisters on the south side.
In the chapel, which has been thoroughly repaired, and is
used for public worship during session, there still remain
the original fittings of the choir, of most tasteful design, and
executed with a precision and delicacy not surpassed by the
oak-carving of any ancient church in Europe. This was pre¬
served by the spirit of the Principal at the time of the Re¬
formation, who armed his people, and checked the blind zeal
of the barons of the Mearns, when, after stripping the cathe¬
dral of its roof, and robbing it of the bells, they were about
to violate this seat of learning. The steeple is vaulted with
a double cross arch ; above which is an imperial crown, sup¬
ported by eight stone pillars, and closed with a globe and two
gilded crosses. In the year 1631, this steeple was thrown
down by a storm, but was soon after rebuilt, in a style re¬
sembling that of the cathedrals of Edinburgh and Vienna.
This college was founded in 1494, by William Elphinston,
bishop of Aberdeen, lord chancellor of Scotland in the reign
of James III. and lord privy seal in that of James IV.; but
James IV. claimed the patronage of it, and it has since
been called the King’s College. The library is consider¬
able, and now contains upwards of 50,000 volumes. Hec¬
tor Boethius was the first principal of the college, and was
invited from Paris for that purpose, on an annual salary
of forty merks Scots, L.2, 3s. 4d. sterling. The profes¬
sorships are Divinity, Medicine, Civil Law, Moral Philo¬
sophy, Mathematics, Natural Philosophy, Greek, Humanity,
and Oriental Languages. There are numerous bursaries, of
which about thirty are bestowed annually by public compe¬
tition, various patrons presenting to the rest, being in all about
forty. {See Marischal College, in next Articled) The yearly
amount of bursaries and prizes is about L.2000. The num¬
ber of students, both at King’s College and at Marischal Col¬
lege, but particularly the former, has been increasing of late
years. In 1852, the number who graduated in arts at King’s
College was 35 ; in medicine 24 ; and in divinity 2. Pop.
in 1853, about 2000.
Aberdeen, New, the capital of the county of Aber¬
deen. It is situate on the German Ocean, at the mouth of
the river Dee, and in point of population, wealth, and com¬
merce, ranks as the chief town and seaport in the north of
Scotland. As early as 1179, it received a charter from Wil¬
liam the Lion, who is said to have had a residence here;
and it seems to have been even then a place of some im¬
portance. In 1800, an act was obtained for the general im¬
provement of the city; and since that period its whole appear¬
ance and plan have been changed. New and spacious streets
have been opened, bridges of communication have been built,
and other improvements executed, ornamental as well as use¬
ful. Union street, which affords a splendid access from the
south and west, extends from the market-place 1350 yards,
ABE
and is 70 feet wide. The houses are built of dressed granite; Aberdeen,
and the street, being now almost filled up with handsome pri-
vate dwellings, besides various public buildings, has a very
imposing appearance. To facilitate the access into the town
by means of this street, an elegant bridge of a single arch,
the span of which is 132 feet, was erected at an expense of
L.l3,000. A new opening to the north has been made by
King’s street; and on the line of this street is a bridge
over the Don, constructed at an expense of L.14,000. It
consists of five arches, each with a span of 75 feet. Since
1800, numerous other new streets have been opened, and
many of them completed. In consequence of these improve¬
ments, Aberdeen may be considered as a spacious, elegant,
and well-built city. The public buildings are numerous.
There are about 50 places for divine worship. Connected
with the Established religion are the East and West churches,
forming a continuous building 170 feet in length, and adorned
with a spire 150 feet in height, besides four other parish
churches. There are four quoad sacra churches; three Epis¬
copal chapels; six connected with the United Secession;
fifteen with the Free Church; eight with Congregationalists
and Baptists; one with the Methodists; a Unitarian chapel;
one for Roman Catholics ; and a Quaker meeting-house. At
the Disruption, all the Established ministers of Aberdeen se¬
ceded, carrying with them about 10,000 lay-members. The
West church was planned by the architect Gibbs; the East
by Mr Archibald Simpson; the North and South by Mr John
Smith, all natives of Aberdeen.
The charitable institutions are numerous, and, on the whole,
well managed and prosperous. The royal infirmary was lately
rebuilt at an expense of nearly L.20,000, from a plan by Mr
Simpson. It is large, commodious, and well-situated, and im¬
posing in point of architectural effect. The managers were ori¬
ginally incorporated by royal charter in 1773; but a new char¬
ter, greatly extending the management, was obtained in 1852.
The institution is supported, partly by funds invested in land,
and partly by donations and contributions. The number of
patients, at the end of 1852, was 134. There is a large and
efficient staff of medical officers, with a numerous attendance
of pupils. The lunatic asylum was opened in 1800. It is
under the same management as the infirmary, and is capable
of accommodating 300 patients. The average number, in
1852, was 268.
Gordon’s hospital was founded by Robert Gordon (of the
Straloch family) by deed of mortification, dated 1729. The
president and governors were incorported by royal charter,
in 1772. The institution, which was avowedly framed after
the model of Heriot’s hospital, is for the maintenance and
education of the sons and grandsons of decayed burgesses of
Aberdeen. There are at present 150 boys in the house, who
are instructed in the ordinary branches of education, besides
mathematics, natural philosophy, French, Latin, drawing, and
music. They are admitted from 8 to 11 years of age, and
may continue in the hospital until 15. On leaving, each
boy is entitled to L.10, in shape of apprentice-fee, or to
L.7, 10s., if allowed to go abroad. The female orphan
asylum, instituted in 1840, at a cost of L.30,000, is a pri¬
vate endowment, for maintaining and educating orphan
daughters of parents who have lived in the city of Aber¬
deen, and the adjoining parishes of Old Machar and Nigg,
for three years previous to their decease; admitted from
the age of 4 to 8, and trained chiefly for domestic ser¬
vice.
The other charitable institutions are,—a general dispen¬
sary, lying-in, and vaccine institution, founded in 1823, and
supported by voluntary contribution ; two ophthalmic insti¬
tutions ; an asylum for the blind, established in 1843, on the
foundation of the late Miss Cruickshank; an hospital for
orphan and destitute female children, endowed by the late
ABE
Aberdeen. Dr John Carnegie; the Midbeltie fund, founded in 1848, by
v~—' the late James Allan, Esq. of Midbeltie, for pensions, ranging
from L.5 to L.15 annually, to widows of good character and
reduced circumstances. A commodious poorhouse, accord¬
ing to act of Parliament, was opened four years ago. The
number of paupers in the house, in 1852, was 212, besides
902 on the permanent roll. The gross assessment amounted
to L.6627. The cost per head of the out-door paupers was
L.4, 3s. 6d. per annum; of the in-door L.7, 3s. per annum.
In the four years ending 1852, the number of paupers had
decreased by 231. In Old Machar parish the total number
of out and in door paupers, including children and lunatics,
in 1852, was 969; the average cost of each inmate of the
poorhouse being L.5, 12s. per annum.
Marischal College was founded by George Keith, Earl
Marischal, in 1593. It was lately rebuilt at a cost of about
L.30,000,—half of which was a grant from government and
the rest raised by subscription,—and has been occupied
since 1840. There are professors of Humanity, Greek, Na¬
tural History, Mathematics, Natural Philosophy, Moral Phi¬
losophy, Divinity, Oriental Languages, Chemistry, Medicine,
Anatomy, and Surgery, with lecturers on Materia Medica,
Midwifery, Scots Law, &c. It has a good library, observa¬
tory, museum, and an excellent collection of philosophical
instruments. The session commences in the first week of
November, and ends in the first week of April. The cur¬
riculum of arts extends over four sessions ; and a student’s
expenses, during each session, may be from L.35 to L.40.
The fees for each of the classes are mostly from two to
three guineas. Connected with the college are numerous
bursaries founded for the purpose of assisting students in
poor circumstances. About thirty bursaries are bestowed
annually, some by competition and others by presentation,
and are continued during the four sessions of the curricu¬
lum. There are sixteen competition bursaries, varying from
L.16 to under L.5 each; and in the case of bursars, the fees
of the session are so restricted as to be more than covered
by the bursary. The annual sum expended in prizes and
bursaries is about L.1500. In 1852, the number of gradu¬
ates in A.M. was 21; in M.B. 7; in M.D. 12; and in LL.D.
1. In the west end of the town is the Free Church Divi¬
nity Hall. The grammar school, which is mentioned as
being in existence in 1418, is a preparatory school to the
colleges, and is under a rector and three masters. There
are several academies, and a number of parish and other
schools, including two on Dr Bell’s foundation ; one for boys
and the other for girls. The industrial or ragged schools,
which owe their establishment mainly to Sheriff Watson, are
thriving, and have been the means of doing great good, as
proved by the remarkable diminution of juvenile crime in
the city. The average number on the roll for 1852, was 297.
The average annual cost of each child, about L.3, 4s.
On the north side of Castle Street are the town-house and
the old tolbooth, which is surmounted by a handsome spire
120 feet in height; and connected with it there has been
erected a new court-house, which combines the advantages of
elegance, convenience, and comfort; with a prison in the
rear. Bridewell, now called the west prison, was built in
1809, at an expense of L.12,000. The cross, a singularly
beautiful erection at the east end of Castle Street, is adorned
with medallions cut in stone, in very high relief, of all the
royal family of Scotland, from James I. to James VII. in¬
clusive, with a fine column of the composite order, sur¬
mounted by the royal unicorn rampant rising from the cen¬
tre. It was planned and executed about 1682, by John
Montgomery, a native architect. Near it is a fine granite
colossal statue of the late Duke of Gordon. The assembly-
rooms, in Union Street, were built in 1821, by subscription.
They are constructed of beautiful granite, handsomely orna-
A B E 31
mented. The rooms, which are ninety feet in front, and 156 Aberdeen,
feet at the back of the edifice, are splendidly finished in the V—-
interior. It has military barracks, erected in 1796, a neat
theatre, and public baths.
The commerce and manufactures of Aberdeen are exten¬
sive and flourishing. One of the most important branches
of manufacture is the cotton, which was introduced about the
year 1779, and has given rise to several large establishments,
in the greater number of which steam-engines are employed.
There are other smaller works, which manufacture stripes,
winseys, druggets, &c. The whole, when in full work, give
employment to about 4000 hands. There are two large houses
engaged in the woollen trade, and four or five small ones. In
these are manufactured broad and narrow cloths, blankets,
serges, stockings, &c., but chiefly worsted yarns. They give
employment to about 3500 persons. The manufacture of car¬
peting for the London, but particularly the American markets,
has been carried on with success for upwards of twenty
years. The linen manufacture, particularly that of thread,
is carried on in all its branches to a great extent. The num¬
ber of persons employed, when all the mills are on full work,
is about 8000, of whom nearly one-third are engaged at the
bleach-fields, or as out-door weavers. There are breweries
of porter and ales, of which considerable quantities are an¬
nually exported to America and the West Indies. There are
likewise several distilleries, the number of which has been
increased since the reduction of the duty on spirits. Some
extensive iron-works have also been established, in which are
manufactured every kind of spinning machinery, and both
land and marine steam-engines. Boiler-making, chain-mak¬
ing, and the forging of anchors employ about 1500 men.
Iron ship-building was introduced about sixteen years ago,
and has since been successfully carried on. The quantity
of iron imported in 1852 was 3861 tons. There are also
manufactories of soap, candles, leather, &c. The granite
stones, so famous for their durability, which are quarried,
dressed, and shipped from this port, form a staple commodity
for exportation, and are a great source of wealth to the place,
by giving employment to many thousands of industrious
labourers. These stones are chiefly used for paving streets ;
for building bridges, wharfs, and docks; and for erecting
lighthouses, and other works. At the extensive granite
works of Messrs Macdonald and Leslie, that stone is manu¬
factured into exquisitely polished vases, tables, chimney-
pieces, fountains, funeral monuments, and columns, with a
skill and elegance hitherto unrivalled in Great Britain ; and
in execution quite equal to the famous granite sculptures
of Sweden or of Russia. Among their other works, we may
mention the magnificent granite columns of St George’s
Hall in Liverpool, and the colossal statue of the last Duke
of Gordon, that ornaments Castle Street in Aberdeen,
sculptured in the same stubborn material. Comb-making
has been, since 1830, an important branch of local industry,
employing about 450 hands. The whale-fishery, once car¬
ried on to a great extent, has much declined. Forty years
ago, it employed 17 vessels; now there are only two.
Salmon-fishing formerly carried on with much spirit and re¬
markable success, has continued declining for a good many
years. The quantity exported in 1852 was 1014 barrel-bulk.
Herring-fishing has been prosecuted with considerable suc¬
cess for about 17 years.
There are now three paper-mills in the vicinity of Aber¬
deen, all in a very flourishing condition, and giving em¬
ployment to between 500 and 600 hands. Another prosper¬
ous branch of local industry is ship-building, for which the
city has lately become famous. Within the last 15 years
many fine sailing and steam vessels have been built here
A ship of 1200 tons was lately (1852) launched, and another
of 1500 is being built. There are eight banking establish
32 ABE
Aberdeen, ments in Aberdeen, besides a savings bank, established in
1815. The amount at the credit of depositors in the sav¬
ings bank on 12th February 1853 was L.133,484.
The aggregate tonnage of the vessels belonging to the
port of Aberdeen in 1852 was 52,868 tons. They trade to
North and South America, the West Indies, the Mediter¬
ranean, the Baltic, Davis’ Straits, and most of the ports of
the united kingdom. The want of a proper harbour was long
a detriment to the trade of Aberdeen, and occasioned the loss
of many lives and of much property. To remedy this defect
a pier was built in 1776, by Smeaton, on the north side of
the old harbour, extending a considerable way into the Ger¬
man Ocean; and by an act obtained in 1810, it was still far¬
ther enlarged. This extensive work is built of large masses
of dressed granite, and measures in length 2300 feet. In con¬
sequence of this improvement the depth of water on the bar
is at spring-tides upwards of nineteen feet, and at neap-tides
fourteen feet, where there was formerly only a few feet. The
flood-gates, and other works necessary for the completion of
Telford’s plan of 1810, were completed in 1848. The wet
dock, where the largest vessels may float in safety, has a sur¬
face of nearly 40 acres, and about 9000 feet of quay-room.
It is called the Victoria Dock, in honour of her Majesty’s visit
in 1848. The harbour dues which, in 1765, produced only
L.126—amounted in 1800 to L.1300. The shore-dues for
the year ending 30th Sept. 1852, were L.15,236; revenue,
L.19,953; expenditure, L.18,376; debt, L.282,263. The re¬
gistered tonnage charged inwards, was 298,418 tons ; out¬
wards 33,343 tons; for wintering, 16,106 tons. Commodious
steam-vessels sail statedly to London, Leith, Inverness, &c.
The introduction of steam-navigation in 1821 effected a com¬
plete and beneficial revolution in various branches of indus¬
try, more especially in the cattle-trade; and the benefits have
been greatly increased by the recent introduction of railways.
The bay affords safe anchorage with off-shore winds, but not
with those from E. or N.E. A lighthouse has been erected
on Girdleness, the south point of the bay, having two fixed
lights, one above the other, 115 and 185 feet above high-
water spring-tides, in Lat. 57. 8. N. Long. 2. 3. W. On
the north pier head, there is also a tidal fixed red light, seen
at the distance of four miles, and two leading lights further
up the harbour on its south side. The affairs of the har¬
bour are managed by a board of Commissioners.
No place in the empire is better supplied with water and
gas. The former is brought from the Dee, a little above
the bridge. It is filtered through a bed of gravel, conveyed
in a tunnel to a well, whence it is pumped by steam, and
propelled into a reservoir at the west end of Union Place,
The quantity of water raised in twenty-four hours is about
900,000 gallons.
Aberdeen possesses a very complete public market, built
by a company established by act of parliament in 1839.
The building was designed by Mr Archibald Simpson, and
consists of two floors of about 300 by 100 feet, with gal¬
leries going round the whole building. The upper and lower
floors are fitted up with shops for the sale of butcher-meat,
fish, fowls, &c. On the upper floor is a fountain of polished
granite, the principal basin of which is 7 feet 3 inches dia¬
meter, cut out of a single block of stone. Connected with
this undertaking was the laying out of a new street leading
from Union Street to the quay, an improvement of great im¬
portance. In this street are the Post-Office and Mechanics’
Hall, both handsome buildings of recent erection. The
Aberdeen Railway Company was incorporated in 1845, with
a capital (including additions) of L.1,256,000; the total
number of shares being 78,600. The main line is 65 miles
in length, with 7 miles of branches. The total receipts for
the week ending 1st January 1853, were L.1647: and for
the corresponding week of 1852, L.1560. In 1846, the
ABE
Great North of Scotland Railway Company was incorporated, Aberdeen-
with a capital of L.l,107,440, divided into 110,744 shares. ^ s^ire' j
The works were not commenced until last year (1852), but ^J
are now in steady progress, with every prospect of early com¬
pletion. The line will reach from Aberdeen to Elgin, in the
first instance, and will be of immense importance to the
northern counties. A railway, reaching from Aberdeen to
Banchory-Ternan, along the north side of the river Dee, has
also been recently commenced.
The oldest charter extant held by Aberdeen is from Wil¬
liam the Lion, and of the probable date of 1178. Reference,
however, is made in it to certain privileges conferred on the
burgesses of Aberdeen, in common with all those north of
the “ mounth,” by David I. The records of the burgh com¬
mence in 1398, and are complete to the present time, with
the exception of a short break about the beginning of the
15th century. An interesting selection from these records
has been published by the Spalding Club, the establishment
of which has been the means of amply illustrating many other
matters of local antiquity. The town is governed by a magis¬
tracy, consisting of a provost, four bailies, a dean of guild,
and a treasurer. The other members of the council amount
to twelve, all being chosen by the electors within the parlia¬
mentary bounds. In 1333 and 1336 the town was burnt by
a fleet of Edward III.; but it was speedily afterwards rebuilt,
and was thereafter known by the name of New Aberdeen.
The total revenue of the burgh for 1852 was L.19,780;
the total expenditure, for the same period, L.l 8,100; sur¬
plus, L.l680. In 1817, the affairs of the burgh became em¬
barrassed to a great extent, and were placed under trust. By
prudent management, however, they gradually recovered,
and all liabilities were paid in full. The population of Aber¬
deen, in 1396, was about 3000; in 1643, 8750; in 1708,
5556; in 1801, 27,608; in 1831, 58,019; in 1841,63,262;
and in 1851, 71,945. The number of parliamentary electors
is 2947; of municipal electors, 2413. It returns one mem¬
ber to parliament. Aberdeen is distant 108 miles north of
Edinburgh, and 118 from Inverness. Long. 2. 5. 42. W.
Lat. 57. 8. 58. N.
ABERDEENSHIRE, a county in Scotland, situate in
the north-east, between 56. 52. and 57. 42. north latitude,
and between 1. 49. and 3. 48. of longitude west from Green¬
wich. It is bounded by the German Ocean on the north
and east; by the counties of Kincardine, Forfar, and Perth,
on the south; and by those of Inverness and Banff on the
west. Its greatest length is 87, and breadth 36 miles ; with
a circuit of about 200 miles, of which 60 are on the sea-
coast. It has an area of 1985 square miles, or 1,270,740
acres, of which somewhat more than one-third is under
cultivation; and contains 83 parishes, with parts of six
others. This county is popularly divided into five districts.
First, Marr, which is a mountainous district, particularly
Braemar, the highland part of it; and is much frequented
by tourists, on account of its wild and majestic beauties. Ben
Macdhui, the highest mountain in Scotland, rises here to the
height of 4299 feet, and in the vicinity are Cairntoul, Ben
Avon, and Cairngorum, which attain respectively the height
of 4245, 3967, and 4050 feet. The last is famous for a pe¬
culiar kind of rock crystals, known as Cairngorum stones. A
few miles below Braemar is “ dark Lochnagar,” which rises
to the height of 3800 feet. Second, Formartin, of which the
land on the sea-coast is low and fertile ; but hills and mosses
are spread over the interior. Third, Buchan, the most exten¬
sive division next to Marr, having a bold precipitous shore
of 50 miles, but generally a flat surface, the soil of which
has been greatly improved. The Bullers of Buchan, about
6 miles south from Peterhead, is a natural curiosity, which
has been often described by tourists. Fourth, Garioch, a
large and beautiful valley, naturally very fertile. Before the
ABE
Aberdeen- introduction of modern husbandry, it was termed the gra-
v. S^“e~ / nary Aberdeen. Fifth, Strathbogie, the greater part of
“ v ^ which consists of hills, mosses, and moors. On a compre¬
hensive review, it may be said, that, with the exception of
the low grounds of Buchan, and the highlands of the south¬
west division, Aberdeenshire consists for the most part of
tracts nearly level, but often bleak, naked and unfertile,
though interspersed with many rich spots in a high state of
cultivation. In extent, it is very nearly one-sixteenth part
of Scotland. 1
The chief mineral wealth of the county is its granite, for
which it has long been famous, and which has brought con¬
siderable sums into the county, besides supplying the inha¬
bitants with excellent stones for building and other purposes.
As many stones have been raised from an acre of land under
preparation for tillage, as brought from L.30 to L.50, for
paving the streets of London. The exportation of granite
to the capital employed at one time about 70 vessels of
7000 tons, and 400 mesn ; and the value of all the stones
exported yearly was stated at L40,000. The quantity
exported in 1852, was 38,595 tons. Gneiss, grauwacke,
and old red sandstone, are also abundant; limestone, basalt,
trap, and clay-slate, are found in various parts; sandstone,
and millstone are quarried at Aberdour, slate at Culsal-
mond and Lambhills; blacklead has been found near
Huntly ; and there is a manganese quarry in the vicinity of
Aberdeen.
^ The principal rivers are the Dee and the Don. The
A than and Ugie within the county, and the Deveron and
Bogie on its boundaries, are also considerable streams. Mus¬
sels are plentiful near the mouth of the Ythan; and pearl
mussels have been sometimes discovered at its lower ex¬
tremity. One of the jewels of the ancient crown of Scot¬
land, a valuable pearl, is said to have been found here. There
are also several lakes well stored with pike, trout, eels, and
other kinds of fish. The county is noted for its chalybeate
springs at Peterhead, Fraserburgh, and at Pananich on the
Dee, near Ballater.
The climate of Aberdeenshire, except in the mountain¬
ous districts, is rendered comparatively mild by its being
bounded on two sides by the sea. The winters are not so
severe as in some of the southern counties, but the springs are
late, owing to the prevalence of easterly winds; and in au¬
tumn the weather is often wet and stormy. Wheat, how¬
ever, and all the other crops cultivated in Scotland, come
to perfection; and the inhabitants, who are not subject to
any organic diseases, sometimes live to a great age.
The district of Marr, containing almost half the county,
abounds in natural woods, which are a source of wealth to
their proprietors, and of profitable employment to the inha¬
bitants. This county is so well adapted to the growth of
trees, that it is only necessary to shut out the cattle by in¬
closures, and the birds and winds supply it with seeds that
soon rise into vigorous plants. These woods consist chiefly
of Scotch fir; and the timber, especially what grows in the
forests of Braemar, has been thought superior to any that
Scotland has imported from the north of Europe. About a
tenth part of the whole surface of the county is under wood;
and the trees found in the peat mosses indicate the exist¬
ence of still more extensive forests in former ages. The
forests abound in deer and grouse; and partridges, and
other kinds of game, are plentiful in all the higher parts of
the county.
Ruins of ancient edifices are seen in different parts of the
county. In the Garioch district, on the summit of a coni¬
cal hill called Dun-i-deer, are the remains of a castle, sup¬
posed to be about 700 years old. They stand within a still
older vitrified wall, which encircles the summit of the hill,
and formed a British fort of unascertainable antiquity. Such
VOL. ir.
ABE 33
forts would seem to have been rather places of temporary Aberdeen-
refuge than of permanent residence. The ruins of two build- shire-
ings, supposed to have belonged to Malcolm Canmore, Kino-
of Scotland, are still pointed out. One of them, situate at
Castletown of Braemar, was his hunting seat; the other
stands in a small island in the Loch of Kinnoir. A wooden
bridge, which connected it with the land, has been found in
the lake. The castle of Kildrummy, which in 1150 was the
property of David Earl of Huntingdon, must have been a
princely edifice, covering nearly an acre of ground; and its
venerable remains still show the power and grandeur of the
chieftains by whom it was inhabited. In the same district
are some ancient subterraneous retreats, supposed to have
been used by the Piets as places of refuge from an invading
enemy.
The agriculture of Aberdeenshire has been very greatly
improved of late years: potatoes, turnips, and clover, as well
as wheat and other crops, are now cultivated according to
the best courses of modern husbandry. Farms, however, are
still generally of a small size, compared with those of the
south-eastern counties ; and the buildings, though much im¬
proved, are for the most part less convenient and comfort¬
able. Here, as in every other part of Scotland, a lease for
nineteen years is the most common bond of connection be¬
tween the landholder and farmer.
In most parts of Aberdeenshire, cattle are a more impor¬
tant object to the tenantry than corn. Great numbers of
cattle are now sent to London, the annual value of which is
estimated at L360,000. The whole value of agricultural
exports is estimated at L.750,000 a-year. The productive
qualities of the county have been greatly enhanced by gene¬
ral drainage, and the introduction of bone-dust and guano.
Of the former, there were imported in 1852, 3861 tons, and
of the latter, 5508 tons. During the same year, there were
exported, of oats, barley, and bear, 56,132 quarters ; of but¬
ter, 2568 cwt.; eggs, 7273 barrel-bulk; pork, 6950 cwt.;
sheep and lambs, 5240. About two-thirds of the population
depend entirely on agriculture; oatmeal, prepared in dif¬
ferent ways, is the principal food of the labouring classes.
The sea-fishing employs a number of hands. The Green¬
land whale-fishery is carried on by ships fitted out from
Peterhead and Aberdeen.
The old staple manufacture, the knitting of stockings, has
declined greatly for many years ; but those in wool, cotton,
and flax, are upon an extensive scale, and employ a large
proportion of the inhabitants. There are also establishments
for making sail-cloth, twine, paper, &c.; and, from the cha¬
racteristic ingenuity and enterprise of the people, Aberdeen¬
shire has been gradually assuming a high rank among the
manufacturing counties of Britain.
A share of our foreign trade, chiefly with the north of
Europe, has been long enjoyed by this county; and the re¬
cent improvements on the harbour of Aberdeen must con¬
tribute essentially to the extension of its commerce. In 1807
a canal was opened from the harbour of Aberdeen to the
town of Inverury, a distance of 18j miles, the expense of
which was about L.44,000. The facilities which this canal
affords for the conveyance of coal, lime, and the excellent
stone so abundant in the tract of country through which it
is cut, have already proved highly beneficial to the agricul¬
ture of the county, as also to the prosperity of Aberdeen;
but it will be superseded by the North of Scotland Rail¬
way.
The valued rent of the county is L.235,665, 8s. lid.
Scots; but the real rent for the lands and houses is probably
not less than L.800,000 sterling.
1 he principal seats in Aberdeenshire are, Aboyne Castle,
the Earl of Aboyne ; Haddo House, the Earl of Aberdeen ;
Huntly Lodge, the Duke of Richmond; Keith Hall, the
E
34
ABE
ABE
Aberdour Earl of Kintore; Marr Lodge, the Earl of Fife ; Philorth
II House, Lord Saltoun; Strichen, Lord Lovat; Castle Forbes,
AberfFrau. Lor(j Eorbes ; Skene House, Duff; Slaines Castle, the Earl
of Errol. Her Majesty has lately purchased, from the Fife
trustees, the lands and house of Balmoral, in the parish
of Crathie, Braemar, which is the residence of the Court for
a few weeks towards the end of summer. This year (1853)
will see the commencement of a palace, every way suitable
for “ the royal dwelling.” The prevailing names among the
proprietors are, Gordon, Forbes, Grant, Fraser, Duff, and
Farquharson. The county has four parliamentary burghs,
which, with their respective populations in 1851, are as fol¬
lows: Aberdeen, 71,945; Peterhead, 7242; Inverury,
2264 ; and Kintore, 476. The first returns a member to
parliament, and the other three are contributory burghs to
Elgin. The county also sends a member to parliament.
The parliamentary constituency is 4022. Besides a sheriff,
the county has two sheriffs-substitute, one at Aberdeen, the
other at Peterhead; and circuit courts are held at Tarland,
Inverury, Huntly, Turriff, Old Deer, and Fraserburgh.
There are about 450 schools in the county, and, along with
Banff and Elgin, it participates in Dick’s bequest for parish
schools. Five miles from Aberdeen, on the river Dee, is
the Roman Catholic College of Blairs. By the census of
1851, there were 32,110 inhabited houses, 768 uninhabited,
and 179 building. In that census the county is divided
into eight districts, with populations as under.
DISTRICTS.
Aberdeen,
Alford, .
Deer,
Ellon,
Glarioch,
Kincardine O’Keil,
Strathbogie, .
Turriff, .
1851.
MALES. FEMALES. TOTAL
38,645
6,368
19,166
7,701
9,082
7,966
5,131
6,998
47,582
6,293
22,004
7,671
9,072
7,963
5,620
7,396
86,227
12,661
41,170
15,372
18,154
15,929
10,751
14,394
Total Population of the County of Aberdeen, (ex¬
clusive of absent Seamen), . . . 214,658
Population in 1841, ...... 192,387
Increase, . . 22,271
ABERDOUR, a small town in Fifeshire, Scotland, on
the northern shore of the Firth of Forth, about ten miles
north-west of Edinburgh, with which there is now a frequent
and easy communication by steam-boats. In old times it
belonged to the Viponts; in 1126 it was transferred to the
Mortimers by marriage, and afterwards to the Douglases.
William, lord of Liddesdale, surnamed the Flower of Chi¬
valry, in the reign of David II. conveyed it by charter to
James Douglas, ancestor of the present noble owner, the Earl
of Morton. The monks of Inchcolm had a grant for a burial-
place here from Allen de Mortimer, in the reign of Alex¬
ander III. It is a pleasantly situated town, and is greatly
resorted to in summer for sea-bathing. Coarse cloths are
manufactured to a small extent in the village. Pop. in 1851,
1945.
Aberdour is also the name of a parish in Aberdeenshire,
containing 1857 inhabitants. It lies six miles west of Fraser¬
burgh.
ABERFELDIE, a village in Perthshire, celebrated in
Scottish song, one mile from the falls of Moness.
ABERFFRAU, a small seaport and parish in Anglesey,
in Wales, with a population of 1336, chiefly engaged in
fisheries.
ABERFORD, a market-town in the west riding of York- Aberford
shire, about a mile in length, and pretty well built. In the II
vicinity is a Roman road, considerably elevated; and not far ^berne°iy'
off flows the river Cock, between which and the town the
foundation of an old castle is still visible. It is 181 miles
north by west from London. Pop. in 1851, 996.
ABERFOYLE, a village and parish, eight miles S.W. of
Callender, on one of the gorges leading into the highlands
of Perthshire.
ABERGAVENNY, a decayed corporate town in Mon¬
mouthshire, 14 miles west of Monmouth, at the confluence
of the Usk and Gavenny. It was once a walled town, and
has the remains of a castle built at the time of the Conquest.
The river Usk is here spanned by a noble stone bridge of
fifteen arches. It has a town-hall, two banks, gas-works, and
a free grammar school, with a fellowship and exhibitions at
Jesus College, Oxford. The rich coal and iron mines in the
vicinity afford employment to the people, who also engage
in the weaving of flannel, &c. Abergavenny appears to have
been the Gohannium of Antoninus, and the town of Usk
his Furrium. Pop. in 1851, 4797.
ABERNETHY, John, an eminent dissenting minister,
was the son of Mr John Abernethy, a dissenting minister in
Coleraine, where he was born on the 19th of October 1680.
When about nine years of age he was separated from his
parents, his father being obliged to attend some public af¬
fairs in London; and his mother, to shelter herself from the
fury of the Irish rebels, retiring to Derry, a relation who *
had him under his care, having had no opportunity of con¬
veying him to her, carried him to Scotland; and thus he
escaped the hardships and dangers of the siege of Derry, in
which Mrs Abernethy lost all her other children. He after¬
wards studied at the University of Glasgow, where he re¬
mained till he took the degree of master of arts; and, in
1708, he was chosen minister of a dissenting congregation
at Antrim, in which situation he continued above 20 years.
About the time of the Bangorian controversy (for which see
Hoadly), a dissension arose among his brethren in the mi¬
nistry at Belfast, on the subject of subscription to the West¬
minster Confession of Faith. In this controversy he became
a leader on the negative side, and incurred the censure of
a general synod. The agitation of parties on this occasion
induced him to accept of an invitation to settle in Dublin,
where his preaching was much admired. Here he continued
for ten years, respected and esteemed; and died in Decem¬
ber 1740, in the 61st year of his age. His writings, like his
character, are distinguished for candour, liberality, and manly
sentiment. He published a volume of sermons on the Di¬
vine Attributes; after his death a second volume was pub¬
lished by his friends; and these were succeeded by four
other volumes on different subjects.
Abernethy, John, an eminent surgeon, was born in
London in 1765. His professional studies and career began
and terminated in the metropolis, where he obtained a high
reputation. He was an apprentice to Sir Charles Blick; and
succeeded the celebrated Mr Pott in 1787, as assistant-sur¬
geon in St Bartholomew’s Hospital. Not long after, Aber¬
nethy was also his successor as Lecturer on Anatomy and
Surgery ; an office in which he acquired just celebrity, from
an easy, impressive manner, and a style of illustration at once
amusing and instructive. On the death of Blick, he was
elected surgeon to St Bartholomew’s Hospital, of which he
was long a distinguished member. His reputation began
with his success as a teacher ; but it rested on the more solid
foundation of his efforts for the practical improvement of
surgery. The philosophic views developed in his work en¬
titled “ The Constitutional Origin and Treatment of Local
Diseases,” are of great practical importance, and are founded
on two general principles;—1st, That topical diseases are
\
ABE
ABE
35
Aberne- often mere symptons of constitutional maladies, and then can
thy only be removed by general remedies; 2d, That the dis-
Aberra- Pr(^ere^ state the constitution very often originates in, or
tion. h closely allied to deranged states of the stomach and bowels;
and can only be remedied by means that beneficially affect
the functions of those organs. Besides these essays, we are
indebted to Mr Abernethy for the original suggestion and
practice of the daring operation of securing by ligature the
carotid and external iliac arteries. This eminent surgeon
had one peculiar eccentricity, which candour compels us to
notice. In the private circle of his family and of his friends
he was kind, courteous, and affectionate, was just and honour¬
able in his intercourse with all; but, in his latter days, espe¬
cially with his patients, he was often rude and capricious,
and sometimes assumed an offensive coarseness, at variance
with a character otherwise estimable. (t.s.t.)
Abeknethy, a town in Scotland, in Perthshire, situated
at a short distance to the southward of the right bank of the
river Tay, a little above the mouth of the Earne. It is of
very ancient date, and is said to have been the seat of the
Pictish kings ; and there are some uncertain traditions of its
existence prior to this period. It is distinguished by a cu¬
rious piece of antiquity, a circular tower, 74 feet high and
16 feet in diameter, consisting of 64 courses of hewn stone.
It continued long to be the see of an archbishop, which
was afterwards transferred to St Andrews. The inhabitants
are engaged in the manufacture of linen. The population in
1851. 2026. Abernethy is seven miles from Perth.
ABERR ATION, in Astronomy, a remarkable pheno¬
menon, by which all the stars appear, at certain seasons of
the year, to deviate in a slight degree from their true si¬
tuation in the heavens, in consequence, as is now ascer¬
tained, of the motion of the light from every star com¬
bining itself with the motion in the eye of the observer,
caused by the earth’s annual revolution round the sun.
All vision, it is well known, is performed by the particles
or rays of light from any object striking against the eye,
and the object invariably appears in that direction in
which the rays finally impinge. Hence, for example,
arise the effects of refraction, by which the heavenly bo¬
dies appear more elevated in the horizon than they really
are; the rays of light, as they penetrate the atmosphere,
bending gradually downwards towards the surface of the
earth, so as at last to reach the eye of the spectator in a
direction more inclined from the horizon than that in which
they issue from the object: and thus the latter appears
more elevated in the sky than it really is, as in the an¬
nexed sketch.
y SHar clcvatctf Inj refraction.
%,&tar in its lTue\fla.ce.
In a similar manner the rays of light which fall directly
from the stars, in certain circumstances, owing to the mo¬
tion of the earth, really impinge on the eye of a spectator
in a direction somewhat oblique, so that they appear on
this account in a situation different from "what they really
occupy; and this constitutes the aberration. Suppose, for
example, the earth is moving in a direction at right angles
to that of the light from any star, then it is evident there
will be a mutual collision between them; the light will Aberra-
not only strike the eye of a spectator, but the eye will tion-
also strike the light; the effect will be exactly the same v^v^>
as if the eye had been at rest, and the light had been en¬
dowed with an equal motion in the contrary direction; so
that in addition to its direct motion, it has also a slight
motion laterally; and the true direction of the impact,
therefore, or of the compound motion of the light, ac¬
cording to the well-known laws of the composition of
forces, will be the diagonal of the rectangle, the sides
of which represent the directions and velocities of the
light and of the eye, as in the annexed
sketch, where S E represents the direc¬
tion and velocity of the light, F E the
direction and velocity of the motion of the
earth, and E F, therefore, the direction
and velocity of the contrary motion in the
light, the earth being supposed at rest.
When the light arrives at the eye there¬
fore at E, it has not only the direct motion
S E or E G, which is made by construction
equal to S E, but also a lateral motion E F;
so that the compound motion will be re¬
presented by the diagonal E H, which is the
true direction in which the light will really
impinge on the eye; so that the star, instead
of appearing at S, will appear at s, as far in
advance of its true position as the earth has
moved in the time the light travels from
the star to the eye. To determine the
amount of this aberration, therefore, we
have only to compare the motion of light
with that of the earth in its orbit. Now,
from the celebrated discovery of the Danish
astronomer Roemer, regarding the successive propagation
of light, as found by the observations of the eclipses of Ju¬
piter s satellites at different seasons of the year, it appears
that light actually employs about 15 minutes to travel from
the one circumference to the other of the earth’s orbit;
and from other still more accurate observations, its velo¬
city has been determined at about 194,000 miles per se¬
cond, while the mean velocity of the earth in her orbit
does not exceed 19 miles. Hence it is easy to calculate
that the aberration in this case will amount to an angle of
about 20" of a degree ; and this case in which the earth’s
motion is perpendicular to that of the light is that in
which the aberration is the greatest of all; for, as the
motion of the earth becomes oblique to that of the light,
the aberration gradually diminishes, until at last it disap¬
pears altogether, when the two motions become in one
straight line, that is, when the earth is moving either
directly from or directly towards the stars. In all cases
the apparent direction of the stars will be in the diagonal
of the parallelogram, the sides of which represent the
direction and the relative motions of the light and of the
earth.
The aberration of light having been discovered by
means of the telescope, this has given rise to a familiar
illustration of the subject, which it may be proper to
state. It is evident, that before the star can be visible
in the telescope, the light in its progress through it must
be continually in the axis. Were the telescope, there¬
fore, affected with any considerable lateral motion, this
could not take place if the telescope were held directly
up to the star; because, though the light might enter the
telescope in the axis, the lateral motion would quickly with¬
draw the axis from the line of the light, which would
strike against the side of the telescope and never reach
the eye. If, for example, the light moved successively
36
aberration.
II G F
to the points A, B, C, D, E, while the telescope or tube
moved successively parallel to itself into the positions E A,
F/, Gg,Uh,li; then h, f i Fig. 2.
A the light entering at A,
by the time it reaches
B the tube is off into
the position F f, and by
B the time it could reach
E the tube is removed
to I * ; so that it is evi¬
dent the star will not be
visible at all in the true
direction of the light.
In order that this may
always remain in the
telescope, and traverse
it from end to end, this
must be set in the posi¬
tion E i, oblique to E A;
then the light entering
at i, Fig. 2. will advance to b in the same time that the
axis of the tube advances parallel to itself to F/; so that
the light will still remain in the axis. In the same manner
the light and the tube will continue to advance by pro¬
portional steps till the former reaches the eye, where
the star will appear in the direction of the tube, and that
as formerly in the diagonal of the parallelogram formed
by the directions and velocities of the two motions. An¬
other illustration was suggested by Clairaut in the Memoircs
de VAcademic des Sciences for the year 1746, by supposing
drops of rain to fall rapidly and quickly after each other
from a cloud, under which a person moves with a very
narrow tube ; in which case, it is evident that the tube
must have a certain inclination, in order that a drop which
enters at the top may fall freely through the axis of the
tube, without touching the sides of it; which inclination
must be more or less, according to the velocity of the
drops in respect to that of the tube: then the angle
made by the direction of the tube and of the falling
drops is the aberration arising from the combination of
those two motions.
In all cases it will be observed the aberration takes
place in the direction of the earth’s motion. Hence it is
easy to deduce, from what we have stated, the effects on the
different stars. Consider, for example, those situated in
the pole of the ecliptic. To the rays of light from these,
the earth’s motion will always be at right angles; the
aberration on them, therefore, will always be of the same
amount, viz. about 20"; but as
the earth changes the direction
of its motion along the ecliptic,
the aberration will change its di¬
rection also, so that the star will
appear to move in a little orbit,
similar to, and parallel with the
ecliptic; the apparent situation
of the star revolving annually
round the true place, as the earth
revolves round the sun. Con¬
sider again the stars situated in
the plane of the ecliptic. To
the rays of light from these, the
earth’s motion will be at one
time at right angles, as at A. and
B in the annexed sketch, and
at another in the same direction,
as at C and D ; for in all these
cases we may hold the dimensions of the earth’s orbit as
nothing compared with the distance of the star. At A,
therefore, the earth being supposed to move in the di- Aberra-
rection A D B, so as to make the star appear at a, thei tl0n-
aberration will be 20" in the direction S a, and at B 20 ^ in
the direction S b, so as to make the star appear at 6, while
at C and D it will be nothing, and the star will appear in
its true place at S. The apparent situation will, therefore,
appear annually to oscillate on each side of the true, to
the extent of 20". Between the two extremes therefore,
namely, the pole of the ecliptic, where the aberration
causes the star to revolve in a circle, and the plane of
the ecliptic, where it causes it to oscillate in a straight
line, the stars will all describe elliptic curves, elongated
40" in a direction parallel to the plane of the ecliptic,
and the breadth or lesser axis diminishing continually
from the pole towards the plane of the ecliptic, where the
curve passes into a straight line. These motions in the
stars are confirmed by the observations of astronomers,
(see Astronomy,) and they furnish one among many
other beautiful examples of that remarkable and perfect
accordance which in this science subsists everywhere be¬
tween theory and fact. The effects of aberration also
present a striking, and one of the few direct proofs
which astronomy furnishes of the motion of the earth,
these being quite unaccountable on any other hypo¬
thesis.
Such are the principal phenomena of aberration. This
great discovery, one of the finest in modern astronomy,
we owe to the accuracy and ingenuity of the distinguish¬
ed astronomer Dr Bradley, who was led to it in the year
1727, by the result of some observations which he made,
with a view of determining the annual parallax of the fixed
stars. See Parallax.
The annual motion of the earth about the sun had been
much doubted and warmly contested. The defenders of
that motion, among other proofs of the reality of it, con¬
ceived the idea of adducing an incontestible one from the
annual parallax of the fixed stars, if the stars should be
within such a distance, or if instruments and observations
could be made with such accuracy, as to render that pa¬
rallax sensible. And with this view various attempts have
been made. Before the observations of M. Picard, made
in 1672, it was the general opinion that the stars did not
change their position during the course of a year, lycho
Brahe and Ricciolus fancied that they had assured them¬
selves of it from their observations ; and from thence they
concluded that the earth did not move round the sun, and
that there was no annual parallax in the fixed stars. M.
Picard, in the account of his Voyage d' Uranibourg, made
in 1672, says that the pole star, at different times of the
year, has certain variations, which he had observed for
about 10 years, and which amounted to about 40" a year :
from whence some, who favoured the annual motion of the
earth, were led to conclude that these variations were the
effect of the parallax of the earth s orbit. But it was im¬
possible to explain it by that parallax, because this mo¬
tion was in a manner contrary to what ought to follow
only from the motion of the earth in her orbit.
In 1674 Dr Hooke published an account of observations
which he said he had made in 1669, and by which he had
found that the star y Draconis was 23" more northerly in
July than in October; observations which, for the pre¬
sent, seemed to favour the opinion of the earth s motion,
although it be now known that there could not be any
truth or accuracy in them.
Flamsteed having observed the pole star with his mural
quadrant, in 1680 and the following years, found that its
declination was 40" less in July than in December; which
observations, although very just, were yet, however, im¬
proper for proving the annual parallax; and he recoro-
ABERR
Aberra- mended the making of an instrument of 15 or 20 feet ra¬
tion. diUSj to be firmly fixed on a strong foundation, for decid¬
ing a doubt which was otherwise not soon likely to be
brought to a conclusion.
In this state of uncertainty and doubt, then, Dr Brad¬
ley, in conjunction with Mr Samuel Molineux, in the year
1725, formed the project of verifying, by a series of new
observations, those which Dr Hook had communicated to
the public almost 50 years before. And as it was his at¬
tempt that chiefly gave rise to this, so it was his method
in making the observations, in some measure, that they
followed; for they made choice of the same star, and
their instrument was constructed upon nearly the same
principles : but had it not greatly exceeded the former in
exactness, they might still have continued in great uncer¬
tainty as to the parallax of the fixed stars. For this, and
many other convenient and useful astronomical instru¬
ments, philosophers are indebted to the ingenuity and ac¬
curacy of Mr Graham.
The success of the experiment evidently depending so
much on the accuracy of the instrument, this became a
leading object of consideration. Mr Molineux’s appara¬
tus then having been completed, and fitted for observing,
about the end of November 1725, on the third day of
December following, the bright star in the head of Draco,
marked y by Bayer, was for the first time observed, as it
passed near the zenith, and its situation carefully taken
with the instrument. The like observations were made
on the fifth, eleventh, and twelfth days of the same
month ; and there appearing no material difference in the
place of the star, a further repetition of them, at that sea¬
son, seemed needless, it being a time of the year in which
no sensible alteration of parallax, in this star, could soon
be expected. It was therefore curiosity that chiefly
urged Dr Bradley, who was then at Kew, where the in¬
strument was fixed, to prepare for observing the star
again on the 17th of the same month; when, having ad¬
justed the instrument as usual, he perceived that it passed
a little more southerly this day than it had done before.
Not suspecting any other cause of this appearance, it was
ascribed to the uncertainty of the observations, and that
either this or the foregoing was not so exact as had
been supposed. For which reason they proposed to re¬
peat the observation again, to determine from what cause
this difference might proceed : and upon doing it, on the
20th of December, the doctor found that the star passed
still more southerly than at the preceding observation.
This sensible alteration surprised them the more, as it
was the contrary way from what it would have been had
it proceeded from an annual parallax of the star. But
being now pretty well satisfied that it could not be en¬
tirely owing to the want of accuracy in the observations,
and having no notion of any thing else that could cause
such an apparent motion as this in the star, they began
to suspect that some change in the materials or fabric of
the instrument itself might have occasioned it. Under
these uncertainties they remained for some time; but
being at length fully convinced, by several trials, of the
great exactness of the instrument, and finding, by the
gradual increase of the star’s distance from the pole, that
there must be some regular cause that produced it, they
took care to examine very nicely, at the time of each ob¬
servation, how much the variation was ; till about the be¬
ginning of March 1726, the star was found to be 20" more
southerly than at the time of the first observation : it now
indeed seemed to have arrived at its utmost limit south¬
ward, as in several trials, made about this time, no sen¬
sible difference was observed in its situation. By the
middle of April it appeared to be returning back again
A T 1 O N. 37
towards the north ; and about the beginning of June it Aberra-
passed at the same distance from the zenith as it had tion.
done in December, when it was first observed.
From the quick alteration in the declination of the star
at this time, increasing about one second in three days, it
was conjectured that it would now proceed northward, as
it had before gone southward, of its present situation ;
and it happened accordingly; for the star continued to
move northward till September following, when it again
became stationary; being then near 20" more northerly
than in June, and upwards of 39" more northerly than it
had been in March. From September the star again re¬
turned towards the south, till, in December, it arrived at
the same situation in which it had been observed twelve
months before, allowing for the difference of declination
on account of the precession of the equinox.
This was a sufficient proof that the instrument had not
been the cause of this apparent motion of the star; and
yet it seemed difficult to devise one that should be ade¬
quate to such an unusual effect. A nutation of the earth’s
axis was one of the first things that offered itself on this
occasion; but it was soon found to be insufficient; for
though it might have accounted for the change of declina¬
tion in y Draconis, yet it would not at the same time accord
with the phenomena observed in the other stars, particu¬
larly in a small one almost opposite in right ascension to
y Draconis, and at about the same distance from the north
pole of the equator: for though this star seemed to move
the same way as a nutation of the earth’s axis would
have made it, yet changing its declination but about half
as much as y Draconis in the same time, as appeared
on comparing the observations of both made on the
same days, at different seasons of the year, this plainly
proved that the apparent motion of the star was not
occasioned by a real nutation ; for had this been the
case, the alteration in both stars would have been nearly
equal.
The great regularity of the observations left no room to
doubt, but that there was some uniform cause by which
this unexpected motion was produced, and which did not
depend on the uncertainty or variety of the seasons of the
year. Upon comparing the observations with each other,
it was discovered that, in both the stars above mentioned,
the apparent difference of declination from the maxima
was always nearly proportional to the versed sine of the
sun’s distance from the equinoctial points. This was an
inducement to think that the cause, whatever it was, had
some relation to the sun’s situation with respect to those
points. But not being able to frame any hypothesis suf¬
ficient to account for all the phenomena, and being very
desirous to search a little further into this matter, Dr
Bradley began to think of erecting an instrument for him¬
self at Wanstead; that, having it always at hand, he
might with the more ease and certainty inquire into the
laws of this new motion. The consideration likewise of
being able, by another instrument, to conform the truth
of the observations hitherto made with that of Mr Moli¬
neux, was no small inducement to the undertaking; but
the chief of all was, the opportunity he should thereby
have of trying in what manner other stars should be af¬
fected by the same cause, whatever it might be. For
Mr Molineux’s instrument being originally designed for
observing y Draconis, to try whether it had any sensible
parallax, it was so contrived as to be capable of but little
alteration in its direction ; not above seven or eight mi¬
nutes of a degree: and there being but few stars within
half that distance from the zenith of Kew bright enough
to be well observed, he could not, with his instrument,
thoroughly examine how this cause affected stars that
aberration.
Aberra- were differently situated with respect to the equinoctial
tion. and solstitial points of the ecliptic.
These considerations determined him ; and by the con¬
trivance and direction of the same ingenious person, Mr
Graham, his instrument was fixed up the 19th of August
1727. As he had no convenient place where he could
make use of so long a telescope as Mr Molineux s, he con¬
tented himself with one of but little more than half the
length, namely of 12 feet and a half, the other being 24
feet and a half long, judging from the experience he had
already had, that this radius would be long enough to ad¬
just the instrument to a sufficient degree of exactness:
and he had no reason afterwards to change his opinion;
for by all his trials he was very well satisfied, that when
it was carefully rectified, its situation might be securely
depended on to half a second. As the place where his
instrument was hung in some measure detei mined its ra¬
dius, so did it also the length of the arc or limb, on which
the divisions were made, to adjust it; for the arc could
not conveniently be extended farther, than to reach to
about fii degrees on each side of the zenith. This how¬
ever was sufficient, as it gave him an opportunity of mak¬
ing choice of several stars, very different both in magni¬
tude and situation; there being more than two hundred,
inserted in the British Catalogue, that might be observed
with it. He needed not, indeed, to have extended the
limb so far, but that he was willing to take in Capetta,
the only star of the first magnitude that came so near his
zenith.
His instrument being fixed, he immediately began to
observe such stars as he judged most proper to give him
any light into the cause of the motion already mentioned.
There was a sufficient variety of small ones, and not less
than twelve that he could observe through all seasons of
the year, as they were bright enough to be seen in the
day-time, when nearest the sun. He had not been long
observing, before he perceived that the notion they had
before entertained, that the stars were farthest north and
south when the sun was near the equinoxes, was only
true of those stars which are near the solstitial colure.
And after continuing his observations a few months, he
discovered wdiat he then apprehended to be a general
law observed by all the stars, namely, that each of them
became stationary, or was farthest north or south, when
it passed over his zenith at six of the clock, either in the
evening or morning. He perceived also, that whatever
situation the stars were in with respect to the cardinal
points of the ecliptic, the apparent motion of every one
of them tended the same way when they passed his in¬
strument about the same hour of the day or night; for
they all moved southward when they passed in the day,
and northward when in the night: so that each of them
was farthest north when it came in the evening about six
of the clock, and farthest south when it came about six
in the morning.
Though he afterwards discovered that the maxima, in
most of these stars, do not happen exactly when they
pass at those hours; yet, not being able at that time to
prove the contrary, and supposing that they did, he en¬
deavoured to find out what proportion the greatest alter¬
ations of declination, in different stars, bore to each other;
it being very evident that they did not all change their
inclination equally. It has been before noticed, that it
appeared from Mr Molineux’s observations, that y Dra-
conis changed its declination above twice as much as the
before-mentioned small star that was nearly opposite to
it; but examining the matter more nicely, he found that
the greatest change in the declination of these stars was
as the sine of the latitude of each star respectively. This
led him to suspect that there might be the like propor- Aberra¬
tion between the maxima of other stars; but finding that
the observations of some of them would not perfectly cor¬
respond with such an hypothesis, and not knowing whe¬
ther the small difference he met with might not be owing
to the uncertainty and error of the observations, he de¬
ferred the further examination into the truth of this hy¬
pothesis till he should be furnished with a series of ob¬
servations made in all parts ot the year; which would
enable him not only to determine what errors the obser¬
vations might be liable to, or how far they might safely
be depended on, but also to judge whether there had
been any sensible change in the parts of the instrument
itself.
When the year was completed, he began to examine
and compare his observations; and having satisfied him¬
self as to the general laws of the phenomena, he then en¬
deavoured to find out the cause of them. He was already
convinced that the apparent motion of the stars was not
owing to a nutation of the earth’s axis. The next circum¬
stance which occurred to him, was an alteration in the direc¬
tion of the plumb-line, by which the instrument was con¬
stantly adjusted; but this, upon trial, proved insufficient.
Then he considered what refraction might do; but here
also he met with no satisfaction. At last, in a state of great
perplexity, the discovery of Roemer occurred to him, that
the motion of light, however incredibly swift, was not al¬
together instantaneous, but took a certain interval in
passing from the sun to the earth; and then the truth
flashed on his mind. He immediately perceived that the
motion of the earth being also extremely rapid, might
have though a small yet a perceptible relation to that
of light, and might thus come by combining its influence
to affect the direction of the visual rays, and with them
the apparent situation of the stars, in the manner above
explained. Pursuing this happy idea, he calculated the
aberration from the relative velocities of the earth and of
light, and comparing it with his own observations, was
delighted to find them agree in every particular; so that
no doubt could remain of the truth of his discovery. For
further information on this subject, see Astronomy, in
this Encyclopaedia; and also the following works, Phil.
Transactions, vol. xxxv.; vol. Ixxii. Mem. Acad. Paris,
1737; Mem. Acad. Berlin, tom. ii.; Nov. Acad. Pelrop.
tom. i.; Connoissances des Temps, 1788; T. Simpson’s
Essays on Several Subjects, 1740; Boscovichii Opera,
tom. v. 1785; Trade sur VAberration, par Fontaines des
Crutes; Cagnoli’s Trigonometrie; Vince’s Astronomy, vol. i.;
Delambre, Astronomic ; Woodhouse s Astronomy, (g. b.)
Aberration of the Planets. This is quite of the same
nature with that of the stars, only that its amount and
direction are greatly affected by the motion of the planet
itself combining itself with that of the earth, and pro¬
ducing on the whole a more complex result. When the
planet is stationary, the aberration disappears altogether,
because the light itself, participating of the motion of the
planet, strikes the earth not only with its usual direct
motion, but also with a lateral motion exactly the same
as that of the earth itself. The eye of the spectator,
therefore, and the light have the same motion lateral¬
ly ; and thus the effect is quite the same as if they had
relatively no lateral motion at all. It is the same as if
both the earth and the planet were at rest, and therefore
there cannot be any aberration. In every other case, the
aberration is determined by combining the motion of light
not only with the earth’s, but with the planet’s motion
also; and doing this it is found, that in every case the
aberration is equal to the motion of the planet about the
earth or its geocentric motion, during the interval that
ABE ABE 39
Abcrra- light employs in passing from the planet to the earth, spherical form is much more easily constructed, and as the Aberra-
Thus, in the sun, the aberration in longitude is constant- aberration from it is not generally attended with serious tion
ly 20", that being the space moved by the sun, or, what inconvenience, this form has been universally adopted. II
is the same thing, by the earth, in 8' 7", the time in which The amount of the aberration is measured either by the ( Abex‘
light passes from the sun to the earth. In like manner, distance longitudinally at which the rays meet from
knowing the distance of any planet from the earth, by the true focus, or by the distance laterally by which
proportion it will be, as the distance of the sun is to the they are dispersed from it. In all double convex lenses
distance of the planet, so is 8' 7" to the time of light of equal spheres, the longitudinal aberration of the ex-
passing from the planet to the earth : then computing the treme ray is If of the thickness of the lens. The small-
planet s geocentric motion in this time, that will be the est aberration takes place when the radii of the spheres
aberration of the planet, whether it be in longitude, lati- are as 1 to 6, the more convex surface being exposed to
tude, right ascension, or declination. the rays ; in that case, it is only lTUh of the thickness of
bince the motion of the planets affects so much the the lens. See Optics.
aberration, ought not the motion of the fixed stars rela- The aberration of refrangibility is of far more import-
tively to our system, if they have any, as some have sus- ance. It arises from this circumstance, that in a homo-
pected, be rendered sensible in this manner ? Their pro- geneous lens of glass the violet rays are greatly more
digious distance has hitherto rendered these motions, if refracted than the red. The latter are therefore thrown
t ley do exist, almost insensible. But this would not affect to a greater distance, and the others in proportion almost
the motion of light. This element flies through the re- all deviating from the true focus: hence arises that con-
motest parts of the system ; and if it be really material, the fusion of images, and that fringe of extraneous colour with
motion with which it is propelled from one point must con- which objects are surrounded when seen through glasses of
tlnUrc i eVer a^terwar(^s t0 affect it, unless opposed or this description, which has ever formed the great obstacle
modified by extraneous influence. If the stars, therefore, to the perfection of the refracting telescope ; so much so,
have any motion laterally in respect of the earth, so will that Sir Isaac Newton, misled at the time by a partial
the light which issues from them, and which, preserving view of the subject, and others after him, were led to de-
undimimshed its original impulse, must strike the eye of spair of success in correcting this defect, and thus direct-
a spectator on the earth not only with a direct motion, ed their chief attention to those of the reflecting kind.
but also with one to the right or left similar to that of the Subsequent discoveries, however, led to the invention of
star; and this ought to affect the aberration just in the achromatic glasses, by which the refracting telescope has
same manner as if the star were no farther off than any been wonderfully improved; and some important experi-
o the planets. The same thing would be observed if the ments, we understand, are now going on at the Royal In¬
earth along with the whole solar system, as the late Dr stitution in London, by M. Faraday, under the direction
Heiscliei and other astronomers have attempted to prove, of the Board of Longitude, in the manufacture of a more
be advancing forward among the stars. Since, however, perfect glass than has hitherto been used, from which we
no such effect has ever been noticed, it would seem to may hope to see these instruments carried to a yet higher
ollow that the stars, as well as the sun, are really at rest; degree of perfection. See Achromatic Glasses ; also
or if they have any motion, it is but a slow one, even Phil. Trans, vols. xxxv. xlviii., and from 1. to Iv.; Mem.
compared with that of the earth or the planets round the Acad. Par. from 1737 to 1770; Mem. Acad. Berlin, from
sun. This is certainly a curious speculation, which we 1746 to 1798; Nov. Comment. Petrov. 1762; Mem. Irish
have never seen discussed by astronomers. See Astro- Academy, vol. iv.; Edinb. Trans, vol. iii.; Comment. Got-
N0^IY‘ . . . . . (G;B*) tingen, vol. xiii.; Huygenii Dioptrica; Boscovichii Opera;
Arerration, in Optics, a certain deviation in the Klingensteirna de Aberrationibus Luminis, &c. (g. b.)
rays of light, from the true or geometrical focus of re- ABERYSTW1TR, a market-town of Cardiganshire, in
flection or refraction in curved specula or lenses, arising Wales, seated on the Rheidol, near its confluence with the
from two causes, viz. ls£, the figure of the speculum or Ystwith, where it falls into the sea. It has a considerable
lens, giving rise to what is called the spherical aberration ; trade in lead, flannels, oak bark (which is mostly sent to Liver-
and, 2d, the unequal refrangibility of the rays of light pool); and the fishery of whiting, cod, and herrings is valu-
gmng rise, in lenses only however, to a far more mate- able. It was formerly surrounded with walls, and fortified
rial, and in other respects inconvenient aberration, term- with a castle of great strength, the ruins of which occupy the
ed the chromatic, or the aberration of colour, or of refran- summit of a Mijfpromontory on the S.W. of the town. The
gibility. The object of all specula or lenses, is to collect harbour has been oflate much improved; and the picturesque
the rays of light proceeding from any object into a single situation of the place draws many visitors, especially for sea-
point, so as to form there a distinct image of the object, bathing. The municipal government consists of a mayor
either enlarged or diminished, according as our purposes four aldermen, and twelve councillors. Pop. in 1841 4916-
may require: and on this principle depends the whole in 1851, 5231.
operation of the telescope, the microscope, and other opti- ABESTA, or Avesta, the name of one of the sacred
cal instruments. The more completely the rays can be books of the Persian magi, which they ascribe to their great
collected into a focus, so much the more distinctly, in every founder Zoroaster. The Abesta is a commentary on two
case, does the image of the object appear at that point, others of their religious books, called Zend and Pazend;
and so much the more perfect is the operation of the the three together including the whole system of the lo-ni-
mstrument. But there are certain curves or figures in coke or worshippers of fire.
the speculum or lens, which are necessary to produce this ABETTOR, a law term implying one who encourages
ettect. Parallel rays, for example, can only be collected another to the performance of some criminal action, or as-
mto one focus by a reflecting speculum of a parabolic sists in the performance itself. Treason is the only crime in
form, or by a refracting lens of parabolic or hyperbolic, which abettors are excluded by law, every individual con-
combined with spherical curves: all other forms cause cerned being considered as a principal. It is the same with
more or less a dispersion or aberration of the rays from art-and-part in the Scottish law.
the focus. In practice, however, it is extremely difficult ABEX, a country of Africa, bordering on the Red Sea,
to form the lenses into these complex curves; and as the by which it is bounded on the east. It has Nubia or Sen-
40
Abeyance
II
Abhebbad
A B H
A B I
1 Hist. Heel
lib. i. cap.
13.
naar on the north ; Sennaar and Abyssinia on the west ; and
Abyssinia on the south. Its principal tovvns are Suakim ana
Arkeko. It is subject to the sheriffe of Mea, and has he
name of the beglerbeglik of Habeleth. It xs about 500 miles
in length and 100 in breadth; is a mountainous country,
sandy, barren, and unhealthy, much infested mth wild
beasts; and the forests abound with ebony trees.
ABEYANCE, in Law, the expectancy of an estate.
Thus if lands be leased to one person for life, with rever¬
sion to another for years, the remainder for years is m abey¬
ance till the death of the lessee. , .i
ABGAR, or Abgarus, a name given to several of the
kings of Edessa in Syria. The most celebrated of them was
one, who, it is said, was contemporary with Jesus Christ; and
who, having a distemper in his feet, and hearing of Jesus s
miraculous cures, requested him by letter to come and cure
him. Eusebius,1 who believed that this letter was genuine,
and also an answer our Saviour is said to have returned to
it, has translated them both from the Syriac, and asserts that
they were taken out of the archives of the city of Edessa.
The first is as follows“ Abgarus, prince of Edessa to
Jesus the holy Saviour, who hath appeared in the flesh in
the confines of Jerusalem, greeting. I have heard of thee,
and of the cures thou hast wrought without medicines or
herbs. For it is reported thou makest the blind to see, the
lame to walk, lepers to be clean, devils and unclean spirits
to be expelled, such as have been long diseased to be healed,
and the dead to be raised; all which when I heard concern-
ino- thee, I concluded with myself, that either thou wast a
God come down from heaven, or the Son of God sent to do
these things. I have therefore written to thee, beseeching
thee to vouchsafe to come unto me and cure my disease.
For I have also heard that the Jews use thee ill, and lay
snares to destroy thee. I have here a little city, pleasant y
situated, and sufficient for us both. Abgarus. lo this let¬
ter Jesus, it is said, returned an answer by Ananias, Ab-
garus’s courier, which was as follows : “ Blessed art thou,
O Abgarus! who hast believed in me whom thou hast not
seen ; for the Scriptures say of me, ‘ They who have seen me
have not believed in me, that they who have not seen may,
bv believing, have life.’ But whereas thou wntest to have
me come to thee, it is of necessity that I fulfil all things here
for which I am sent; and having finished them, to return to
Him that sent me: but when I am returned to Him, I wall
then send one of my disciples to thee, who shall cure thy
malady, and give life to thee and thine. Jesus. Aftei
Christ’s ascension, Judas, who is also named Thomas, sent
Thaddeus, one of the seventy, to Abgarus; who preached
the gospel to him and his people, cured him of his disorder,
and wrought many other miracles: which was done, says
Eusebius, a.i>. 43.—Though the above letters are acknow¬
ledged to be spurious by the candid writers of the church of
Home, several Protestant authors, as Dr Parker, Dr Cave,
and Dr Grabe, have maintained that they are genuine, and
ought not to be rejected.
ABGILLUS, John, surnamed Prester John, was son to
a king of the Friscii; and, from the austerity of his life, ob¬
tained the name of Prester, or Priest. He attended Charle¬
magne in his expedition to the Holy Land; but instead of
returning with that monarch to Europe, it is pretended that
he gained mighty conquests, and founded the empire of the
Abyssines, called, from his name, the empire of Prester John.
He is said to have written the history of Charlemagne’s jour¬
ney into the Holy Land, and his own into the Indies ; but
they are more probably trifling romances, written in the ages
of ignorance. , . . „
ABHEBBAD, or the Lake of Ausa, in the country of
Adel, is the receptacle of the great river Hawash, which
drains the eastern regions of Abyssinia. During the rains
the lake acquires a superficial extent of about 50 leagues in
circumference. It has no outlet.
ABIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Messema, on the ^
Messenian Gulf, supposed to be the Ire of Homer, 11 ix. 292.
ABIAD, Bahr el, a great river of interior Africa, which,
at Halfaia, below Sennaar, joins the Bahr-el-Azrek, or river
of Abyssinia; and these unite at Khartoum and form the true
Nile. The Abyssinian river was long considered by Europeans
as the main stream ; but more accurate observation has now
clearly determined, that the Abiad, both as to magnitude and
length of course, is entitled to the pre-eminence. Its sources,
however, and the upper part of its course, have not been
reached by any European. The nearest approaches to the
source that have been made were in 1842, when an expedi¬
tion from Egypt reached so far south as 4.42. N. Lat., nearly
in the meridian of Cairo; and in January 1850, when Dr
Knoblicher, the Pope’s vicar-general in Central Africa,
reached about six miles farther south. The former saw no
mountains, though they had passed the latitude commonly
assigned to the Mountains of the Moon; on the contrary,
they observed immense marshes and large islands. Di Kno¬
blicher twice ascended a mountain in the latitude above
mentioned, and saw the river trending away in a southerly
direction, till it vanished between two mountains. The last
natives he met with, the Bary negroes, informed him that be¬
yond those mountains the river came straight from the south.
ABIANUS, a river of ancient Scythia, falling into the
Euxine; on which the Abii dwelt, a nation who subsisted
on milk, and the flesh of their herds and flocks.. .
ABIATHAR, {the Father of abundance,) high priest of
the Jews, son to Ahimelech, who had borne the same office,
and received David into his house. This so enraged Saul,
who hated David, that he put Ahimelech to death, and 81
priests; Abiathar alone escaped the massacre. He after¬
wards was high priest, and often gave King David testimo¬
nies of his fidelity, particularly during Absalom’s conspiracy,
at which time Abiathar followed David, and bore away the
ark. But after this he conspired with Adonijah, in order to
raise him to the throne of King David his father; which so ex¬
asperated Solomon against him, that he divested him of the
priesthood, and banished him, a.m. 3021, before Christ 1014*
ABIB, signifying an ear of corn, a name given by the
Jews to the first month of their ecclesiastical year, afterwards
called Nisan. It commenced at the vernal equinox; and ac¬
cording to the course of the moon, by which their months
were regulated, answered to the latter part of our March
and beginning of April.
ABIES, the Fir-Tree. See Planting.
ABIGAIL, the wife of Nabal, on whose death she be¬
came the wife of King David, to whom she bare a son named
both Chileab and Daniel, which has given rise to the idea that
she had two sons by David. 2 Sam. hi. 3 ; 1 Chron. in. 1.
ABIHU, {the Father of Him,) the second son of Aaron,
with his brothers consecrated for the priesthood; but who
with his brother Nadab, disregarding the divine injunction
as to offering incense, and kindling their censers with un¬
hallowed fire, were struck dead by lightning before the altar
they had profaned. . , r ^
ABILA, a city of ancient Syria, the capital of the te-
trarchy of Abilene. Its site is indicated by some ruins and
inscriptions, near the village of Souk, on the banks of the
river Barrada, on the road between Baalbec and Damascus,
a little to the east of the range of Esh Sharki, or Anti-hba-
33. 40. N. Lat., 36. 91. E. Long. It was the capital of
Atria
Abila.
nus
the Abilene of which Lysanias was tetrarch in the time of
John the Baptist (Luke hi. 1). From the tradition of this
being the scene of Abel’s murder, it is now called Nebi-
Abel. It lies between Baalbec and Damascus, in Lat.
33. 38. N., Long. 36.18. E.
A B I
Abildgaam ARILDGAARD. Nicolas, a modern Danish historical
!l painter, and a writer on art. Born in 1744, died in 1809.
Abiponians Thorwaldsen was one of his pupils.
ABIMELECH, signifying Father of the King, the name
of the Philistine king of Gerar, in the time of Abraham;
but from its recurrence among that people it was perhaps
rather a titular distinction than a proper name, like Pha¬
raoh among the Egyptians. After the destruction of “ the
cities of the plain,” Abraham removed into his territory; and
fearing that the beauty of Sarah might bring him into diffi¬
culties, he declared her to be his sister: whereupon Abime-
lech, in virtue of the royal prerogative to appropriate any un¬
married female that pleased him, placed Sarah in his harem.
But, in obedience to a divine warning, he forthwith restored
her to her husband, with a strong and merited reproof for
the deceit he had practised. Abimelech, however, made a
league of peace and amity with Abraham, the first recorded
in the Scriptures, and confirmed by a mutual oath. (Gen.xx.)
Abimelech, another king of Gerar, probably the son
of the former, in the time of Isaac. During a famine Isaac
sought refuge in this king’s territories; and Rebekah’s beauty
induced her husband to employ the same subterfuge as his
father had done in the case of Sarah ; which deceit met with
a similar rebuke from the king.
In that country, wells were of such vast importance, that
the digging of them conferred a proprietary right to the soil
not previously appropriated. During his sojourn there Abra¬
ham had dug wells, which were again cleared out by Isaac,
who proceeded to cultivate the ground to which they gave
him a right. This gave rise to disputes between the herds¬
men of Isaac and Abimelech, which ended in the removal
of the patriarch to Beersheba, where he concluded a treaty
of amity with the king. (Gen. xxvi.)
Abimelech, the natural son of Gideon, by his concu¬
bine. His violent acts and death (a.m. 2769) are recorded
in Judges, chap. ix.
ABINGDON, a market-town in Berkshire, on a branch
of the Thames, derives its name from an ancient abbey.
The streets, which are well paved, terminate in a spacious area,
in which the market is held. In the centre of this area stands
the market-house, supported on lofty pillars, with a large hall
of freestone above, appropriated to the summer assizes for the
county, and the transaction of other public business; the
Lent assizes being held at Reading. It has two churches,
which are said to have been erectedby the abbots of Abing¬
don, one dedicated to St Nicholas, and the other to St Helena,
the latter adorned with a spire: two hospitals, one for six,
and the other for thirteen poor men, and as many poor women;
a free grammar school, with ten scholarships at Pembroke Col¬
lege, Oxford; charity schools; a mechanics’ institution, &c.,
and two banks. The town was incorporated by Queen Mary.
It sends one member to parliament, and is governed by a
mayor, four aldermen, and twelve councillors. During the
war it manufactured much sail-cloth and sacking; but its
chief trade now is in corn and malt, with a few carpets and
coarse linen. It is seven miles south of Oxford, 47 east of
Gloucester, and 55 W.N.W. of London. This town is sup¬
posed by Bishop Gibson to be the place called in the Saxon
annals Cloveshoo. Population in 1841, 5585; in 1851, 5954.
ABINTESTATE, in Laiv, is applied to a person who
inherits the right of one who died intestate, or without making
a will.
ABIPONIANS, a tribe of American Indians, who for¬
merly inhabited the district of Chaks in Paraguay ; but the
hostilities of the Spaniards have now obliged them to remove
southward into the territory lying between Santa Fe and St
Jago. M. Dobrizhoffer, who lived seven years in their
country, informs us, in his account of them published in
1785, that they are not numerous, the whole nation not much
YOL. II.
A B L 41
exceeding 5000; for which he assigns as a reason an unna- Abiram
tural custom among their women of sometimes destroying II
their own children, from motives of jealousy lest their hus-Ab^4^ea"
bands should take other mates during the long time they v ^ y
give suck, which is not less than two years. They are na-
turally white, but, by exposure to the air and smoke, become
of a brown colour. They are a strong and hardy race of
people, which our author attributes to their marrying so late,
an Abiponian seldom or never thinking of marriage till 30
years of age. They are greatly celebrated on account of
their chastity and other virtues; though, according to our au¬
thor, they have no knowledge of a Deity. They make fre¬
quent incursions into the territories of the Spaniards, mounted
on the horses which run wild in those parts. They have a
kind of order of chivalry for their warriors; and are so for¬
midable, that 100 of their enemies will fly before ten of these
horsemen. The hatred which these savages, whose manners,
though rude and uncultivated, are in many respects pure and
virtuous, bear to the Spaniards, is invincible. “ These pre¬
tended Christians,” says our author, “ who are the scum of
the Spanish nation, practise every kind of fraud and villany
among these poor barbarians ; and their corrupt and vicious
morals are so adapted to prejudice the Abiponians against
the Christian religion, that the Jesuit missionaries have, by
a severe law, prohibited any Spaniard from coming, without
a formal permission, into any of their colonies.” From his
account of the success of the Jesuits in converting them to
Christianity, however, it does not appear that they have been
able to do more than bribe them to a compliance with the
ceremonies of the Popish religion ; so that in general they
are quite ignorant and uncivilized; a most striking instance
of which is, that in counting they can go no further than
three; and all the art of the Jesuits to teach them the sim¬
plest use and expression of numbers has proved unsuccessful.
Dobrizhoffer’s account of this people was translated into Eng¬
lish by Mr Southey, and published in 1822, in 3 vols. 8vo.
ABIRAM, a seditious Reubenite, who, in concert with
Korah and Dathan, rebelled against Moses and Aaron, in
order to share with them in the government of the people;
when Moses ordering them to come with their censers be¬
fore the altar of the Lord, the earth suddenly opened under
their feet, and swallowed up them and their tents; and at
the same instant fire came from heaven and consumed 250
of their followers. (Numb, xvi.)
ABISHAI, son of Zeruiah, and brother to Joab, was one
of the celebrated warriors who flourished in the reign of
David: he killed with his own hand 300 men, with no other
weapon but his lance; and slew a Philistine giant, the
iron of whose spear weighed 300 shekels. (1 Sam. xxvi.;
2 Sam. xxiii.)
ABJURATION, in our ancient customs, implied an oath
taken by a person guilty of felony, and who had fled to a
place of sanctuary, whereby he solemnly engaged to leave
the kingdom for ever.
Abjuration was used also to signify the renouncing, dis¬
claiming, and denying upon oath, the Pretender to have any
kind of right to the crown of these kingdoms.
Abjuration of Heresy, the solemn recantation of any doc¬
trine as false and wicked.
ABLACTATION, (ah and lacto, I suck,) the ancient
term for what is now called Grafting by approach, a method
of ingrafting, by which the scion of one tree being for some
time united to the stock of another, is afterwards cut off, and,
as it were, weaned from the parent tree.
ABLAIKET, in the government of Orel. It is situated
on a river of the same name which flows into the Irtysch,
and contains the remains of a temple built in the 17th cen¬
tury, by the Kalmuck Prince Ablai.
ABLAQUEATION, (ah and laquear, a roof or cover-
F
42
A B L
Ablative ing,) an old term in Gardening, signifies the operation of
|] removing the earth, and baring the roots of trees in winter,
Ablegminato expose them more freely to the air, rain, snow, &c.
ABLATIVE, in Grammar, the sixth case of Latin nouns.
The word is formed from ablatus, the participle of auferre,
“ to take away.” Priscian calls it also the comparative case;
as serving among the Latins for comparing, as well as taking
away.
The ablative is opposite to the dative ; the first ex¬
pressing the action of taking away, and the latter that of
giving.
In English, French, &c., there is no precise mark where¬
by to distinguish the ablative from other cases; and we only
use the term from analogy to the Latin.
The question concerning the Greek ablative has been the
subject of a famous literary war between two great gramma¬
rians, Frischlin and Crusius; the former maintaining, and
the latter opposing, its existence. The dispute still subsists
among their respective followers. The chief reason alleged
by the former is, that the Roman writers often joined Greek
words with the Latin prepositions which govern ablative
cases, as well as with nouns of the same case. To which
their opponents answer, that the Latins anciently had no
ablative themselves, but instead thereof made use, like the
Greeks, of the dative case ; till at length they formed an ab¬
lative, governed by prepositions, which were not put before
the dative: that, at first, the two cases had always the same
termination, as they still have in many instances; but that
this was afterwards changed in certain words. It is no won¬
der, then, that the Latins sometimes join prepositions which
govern an ablative case, or nouns in the ablative case, with
Greek datives, since they were originally the same ; and that
the Greek dative has the same effect as the Latin ablative.
Ablative Absolute, in Grammar, is applied to a noun
with a participle in the ablative case detached or independ¬
ent of the other parts of a sentence or discourse. In the
Latin language it is frequent, and it has been adopted by
the moderns.
ABLAVIUS, a Roman who wrote a history of the Goths,
quoted by Jornandes, De Reb. Getic. iv. 14. 23.
ABLAY, a country of Great Tartary, governed by a Kal¬
muck chief, but subject to Russia, in return for its protec¬
tion. It lies east of the river Irtysch, and extends 400
leagues along the southern frontiers of Siberia.
ABLE, or Abel, Thomas, chaplain to Queen Catherine,
consort to Henry VIII., distinguished himself by his zeal in
opposing the proceedings against that unfortunate princess
for a divorce. For this purpose he wrote a piece entitled
Tractatus de non dissolvendo Henrici et Catharina; matri-
monio. But the title of the book, according to Bishop Tan¬
ner, was Invicta Veritas. He took the degree of bachelor
of arts at Oxford on the 4th of July 1513, and that of mas¬
ter of arts on the 27th July 1516. In 1534 he fell under a
prosecution for being concerned in the affair of Elizabeth
Barton, called the Holy Maid of Kent. This was an in¬
famous impostor, suborned by the monks to use strange ges¬
ticulations, exhibit fictitious miracles, and to feign the gift
of prophecy; and so well did she act her part, that she drew
some persons of respectability to her interest: but being de¬
tected, she was condemned and executed, after discovering
the names of her principal accomplices and instigators. On
her account Able was charged with misprision of treason ;
and being also one of those who denied the king’s supremacy
over the church, he was apprehended and imprisoned. Lie
was afterwards hanged, drawn, and quartered, at Smithfield,
in 1540.
ABLECTI, in Roman antiquity, a select body of soldiers
chosen from among those called Extraoedinarii.
ABLEGMINA, in Roman antiquity, those choice parts
ABN
of the entrails of victims which were offered in sacrifice to Ablution
the gods. They were sprinkled with flour, and burnt upon II
the altar ; the priests pouring some wine on them. Abnoba.
ABLUTION, a ceremony in use among the ancients, and
still practised in several parts of the world : it consisted in
washing the body, which was always done before sacrificing,
or even entering their houses. Ablutions appear to be as
old as any ceremonies, or as external worship itself. Moses
enjoined them, the heathens adopted them, and Mahomet and
his followers have continued them ; thus they have got foot¬
ing among most nations, and make a considerable part of
many established religions. The ceremony of ablution, the
symbol of spiritual purity, was at first, perhaps, graciously
designed as an incitement to personal cleanliness ; and there
can scarce be a doubt that this salutary end chiefly was
proposed in its adoption by the legislators of succeeding
times. In the desert, when no water is to be found, the
Arabs perform this rite, according to Mohammedan law, with
sand.
ABNER, the cousin of Saul (being the son of his uncle
Ner), and the commander-in-chief of his army. When Saul
was slain in the battle of Gil boa, David was made king over
his own tribe of Judah, and reigned in Hebron. In the other
tribes an influence adverse to Judah existed, and was con¬
trolled chiefly by the tribe of Ephraim. Abner availed him¬
self of this state of feeling, and took Ishbosheth, a surviving
son of Saul, whose known imbecility had excused his absence
from the fatal fight in which his father and brothers perished,
and made him king over the tribes, and ruled in his name.
A sort of desultory warfare arose between them, in which
the advantage appears to have been always on the side ol
David. In one of the engagements, Abner was beaten and
fled for his life ; and when pursued by Asahel, the brother of
Joab, slew him by a back thrust with the pointed heel of his
spear (2 Sam. ii. 8-32). This put a strife of blood between
Abner and Joab ; for the law of honour which in early times
existed among the Hebrews, and which still prevails in Ara¬
bia, rendered it the conventional duty of Joab to avenge the
blood of his brother upon the person by whom he had been
slain.
As time went on, Abner had occasion to feel more strongly
that he was himself not only the chief, but the only remain¬
ing prop of the house of Saul: and this conviction, acting
upon a proud and arrogant spirit, led him to more presump¬
tuous conduct than even the mildness of the feeble Ishbosheth
could suffer to pass without question. Abner having taken
into his harem a woman who had been a concubine-wife
of Saul, was rebuked by the nominal king for his presump¬
tion. Being offended by the language of Ishbosheth, Abner
resolved to abandon his cause and transfer his allegiance to
the son of Jesse. He repaired to Hebron where he made
certain overtures to David, which were gladly received, and
David in return agreed that he should have the command of
the combined armies on the union of the kingdoms. Abner
had just left Hebron as Joab who had been absent returned
to it, and learning what had taken place between Abner and
David, he determined, under the influence of revenge and
jealousy, to avenge himself of his adversary. Without the
knowledge of the king, he treacherously sent a messenger to
call Abner back, under the pretence that he wanted to confer
peaceably with him, and while engaged in this conference,
Joab led him aside and suddenly plunged his sword into his
side. This assassination of Abner might have been danger¬
ous to David, but his deep and genuine grief and lamen¬
tation over the cruel and treacherous act of Joab obviated
the dangers which it might have produced.
ABNOBA, now Abenau, in Geography, a long range of »
mountains in Germany, extending from the Rhine to the
Necker, having different names in the different countries i
ABO
Abnormal through which they stretch. About the river Maine they
1} . are called the Oden or Otenwald ; between Hesse and Fran-
°ist10n" con'a’ ^le Spessart; and about the duchy of Wirtemberg,
v . w^ere the Danube takes its rise, they receive the name of
Baar.
ABNORMAL, (ab and norma, a rule or pattern,) is em¬
ployed, in physical science, to denote any state of irregu-
larity or deviation from the general form, or law, of nature.
ABO, a district in the province of Finland, in 1809 trans¬
ferred to Russia from Sweden. By the new division, it ex¬
tends over 12,145 square miles, between Lat. 59. 50. and 62.
20. N., and Long. 19. 10. and 23. 46. E. It is bounded on
the north by the circle of Wasa; on the east by Tavastehus;
on the south by the Gulf of Finland ; on the south-east by
the Baltic Sea ; and on the west by the Gulf of Bothnia,
in which the Aland group of islands comprehended in this
circle are situated. It contains 6 cities, and 4980 hamlets.
The number of inhabitants may be estimated at 208,000;
of whom about 20,000 live in cities, and the remainder in the
country places. On the sea-coast, and on the eastern side
of the circle, it is rather hilly; but the centre is chiefly a
level country. The land is of medium fertility, producing
rye, potatoes, hemp, flax, hops, and tobacco. The forests
produce plants, pitch, and tar, and some potash. The coasts
yield abundance of fish. It is divided into nine horads or
baronies.
Abo, a city in the Russian province of Finland, and chief
town of the circle of the same name. It is situated near the
extremity of the promontory, formed by the gulfs of Bothnia
and Finland, and is divided into two parts by the river Au-
rajoki. Abo is the seat of a Lutheran archbishop, and of
the supreme court of justice for South Finland; and was the
chief place of export from Finland to Sweden. It has a bank
and gymnasium, carries on several manufactures of sail¬
cloth, linen, glass, leather, tobacco, &c.; and its ship-build¬
ing is considerable. Previous to 1819, Abo was the capital
of Finland; in 1743, the peace between Russia and Sweden
was concluded here. By a most extensive fire in Novem¬
ber 1827, nearly the whole city was destroyed, including the
university and its valuable library. Immediately before this
calamity, Abo contained 1100 houses, and 13,000 inhabi¬
tants ; and its university had 40 professors, more than 500
students, and a library of upwards of30,000 volumes, together
with a botanical garden, an observatory, a chemical labora¬
tory, &c. The university has since been removed to Hel¬
singfors. The entrance of the Aurajoki is defended by a
castle. Vessels drawing 9 or 10 feet water go up to the
town ; but those drawing more, anchor 3 miles south-west
of the river, where there is a good harbour; and thence the
goods are sent by small craft to Abo. Population in 1846,
12,000. The great church is in Lat. 60. 27. 14. N. and in
Long. 22. 18. 10. E.
ABOARD, the inside of a ship. Hence any person who
enters a ship is said to go aboard: but when an enemy enters
in the time of battle, he is said to board; a phrase which
always implies hostility.—To fall aboard of, is to strike or
encounter another ship when one or both are in motion, or
to be driven upon a ship by the force of the wind or current.
—Aboard-main-tack, the order to draw the main-tack, i. e.
the lower corner of the mainsail, down to the Chess-Tree.
ABOLITION, the act of abolishing or annulling, abro¬
gation. The putting an end to slavery ; emancipation.
ABOLITIONIST, a person who favours abolition of
slavery, or the immediate emancipation of slaves.
This term is usually applied to the members of the Ame¬
rican Anti-Slavery Society. The condition of the negro
population of the United States had, at an early period, at¬
tracted the attention of some of its philanthropic citizens,
and a society was organized for the purpose of planting
ABO 43
colonies of liberated American slaves on the western coast Abolition-
of Africa, where it was anticipated they would open the way ist.
for the introduction of Christianity, and operate as an effec- ^
tual check upon the slave-trade. The spirit and tendency
of this colonization scheme, however, soon began to be
viewed with suspicion and dislike by the more earnest and
uncompromising opponents of slavery, and on the 1st of
January 1832, William Lloyd Garrison, and a few other
ardent emancipationists, formed themselves at Boston into
a society, which became the nucleus of a larger and more
influential association, subsequently organized at Philadel¬
phia, under the name of the “ American Anti-Slavery So¬
ciety on the principle of immediate and unconditional
emancipation. Its members include persons of both sexes,
and of all diversities of sentiment on religious and political
questions, who agree in the opinion that slavery is a sin, and
should be immediately abandoned. The measures adopted
by the Abolitionists to promote the object which they have
in view, have been prosecuted with untiring energy and
zeal, in the face of the most virulent opposition; and the
question which they have stirred has awakened great excite¬
ment, not only in the United States, but also in Great
Britain. Their movements, however, have been weakened
by divisions in their own ranks. In 1839, what is called the
“ Women’s Rights Question” was raised, and a large ma¬
jority of the members of the Anti-Slavery Society having
decided that females as well as males should sit on the Com¬
mittee, the minority immediately seceded, and organized a
new association, under the name of the “ American and
Foreign Anti-slavery Society.” In connection with this
movement, another element of discord arose. The new
society is composed of persons holding evangelical senti¬
ments, and they have made it matter of charge against the
original association that many of its members and most pro¬
minent office-bearers are the enemies of Christianity, and
have mingled infidel arguments and appeals with their advo¬
cacy of emancipation.
Mr Garrison and his friends decline to vote or hold office
under the present constitution of the United States, on the
ground that it sanctions slavery—ordains that fugitive slaves
shall be returned to their masters, on proof of their condi¬
tion ; that slave insurrections shall be suppressed by the strong
arm of the nation; and that the slaveholders shall virtually
have three votes for every five slaves they hold. A pre¬
liminary oath to support the constitution is required of every
person holding public office in the country, and as the mem¬
bers of the Anti-Slavery Society do not mean to support the
constitution in these particulars, they refuse to hold office
under such an oath, or to appoint others by their votes to
do so.
There are several other Anti-Slavery Societies in the
United States, such as the “Liberty Party;” the “Free
Soil Party;” and the “ Christian Anti-Slavery Association.”
The “Liberty Party” had its origin in the unconquerable
passion of the Americans for political action. Its members
aim to be “a Third Party” with the abolition of slavery for
their gathering cry. They enter into direct competition
with the Whigs and Democrats, they nominate candidates
for office, and adopt the usual tactics of party warfare to
carry the election of their nominees. The object of the
“ Free Soil Party ” is chiefly to maintain the balance of
power in favour of the free states, by preventing the intru¬
sion of slavery into the territories of the union which may
eventually become States, and as such, exercise an influence
on Congress in favour of the North or the South, as they
happen to reject or retain the institution of slavery. The
“ Christian Anti-Slavery Association ” was established at a
convention held in Chicago in July 1851. Its name suffi¬
ciently explains its constitutional object. (j. t.)
ABO
ABOLLA, in antiquity, a warm kind of garment, lined
or doubled, worn by the Greeks and Homans, chiefly out
of the city, in following the camp. Critics and antiquaries
are greatly divided as to the form, use, kinds, &c. of this gar-
^BOMEY, capital of the kingdom of Dahomey, 7. 30.
N. Lat. 2. 17. E. Long.
ABON, Abona, or A bonis, in Ancient Ueograptiy, a
town and river of Albion, probably Abingdon.
ABONI-TEICHOS, afterwards lonopohs, now Ineboh,
a town of Paphlagonia, on the Black Sea, the birth-place of
the impostor Alexander, of whom Lucian gives an amusing
account.—(Lucian. Alex?)
ABOO (Abu, Abuje, Abughad,) a celebrated mountain
of Raipootana, in India, rising from a very broad base, to an
elevation of 5000 feet above the level of the sea, N. Lat. 42
40 E Lono-. 72.48. Its elevations and platforms are covered
with shrines, temples, castles, and tombs, adorned with sculp¬
tures and statues, relieved at intervals by wild and beautiful
scenery. On the very top is a small round platform con¬
taining a cavern, with a block of granite, bearing the impres¬
sion of the feet of Data-Briga, (an incarnation of Vishnu,)
which is the grand object of pilgrimage to the Jains,Shrawaks,
and Banians. But in that part of the mountain called Dail-
warra, or Dewulwarra, (the region of temples,) are fom Jain
temples, all of marble, and two of them of the richest kind.
One of these, indeed, is considered the most superb of all the
temples of India, to which no edifice but the Taj-Mahal, at
Agra, can be compared. It is sacred to Vrishabdeva, the
first of the Jains, was erected by Bimul Sal, a merchant of
Auhulwarra, and attracts pilgrims from every part of India.
The principal building is surrounded by numerous smaller
temples, the chief features of which are not mere vastness
and solidity. Their merits consist rather in the proportions,
the endless variety and richness of their sculptures, their long
colonnades and vaulted roofs, which bear evidence not only
of unbounded wealth in the founders, but also of high re¬
finement in the arts.—Colonel Todds Travels in Western
India.
ABORIGINES, in History, originally a proper name,
given to a certain people in Italy, who inhabited the ancient
Latium, or country now called Campagna di Roma. Whence
this people came by the appellation is much disputed. St
Jerome says, they were so called, as being absque origine,
the primitive planters of the country after the flood: Diony¬
sius of Halicarnassus accounts for the name, as denoting them
the founders of the race of inhabitants of that country: others
think them so called as being originally Arcadians, who
claimed to be earth-born, and not descended from any people.
The term Aborigines, in modern geography, is applied to
the primitive inhabitants of a country, in contradistinction to
colonies, or new races of people.
ABORRHAS, in Ancient Geography, a branch of the
Euphrates which joins that river on the east side, near Ar-
cesium. It is called Araxes by Xenophon. Its modern
name is Khabur. Xen. Anab. i.; Strabo, xvi.
ABORTION, in Midwifery, the premature exclusion of
a foetus. It has sometimes been doubted whether this un¬
natural practice was ranked as a crime in the laws of Greece
and Rome. This question has been revived, and elaborately
discussed in France, by some members of the Institute. The
subject, it seems, had been incidentally alluded to in a dis¬
course of Gregoire’s upon the influence of Christianity on the
condition of the female sex, read in the early part of 1814.
This produced two dissertations, one by M. Clavier, and the
other by M. Boissonade ; the first maintaining the impunity
of the practice among the ancients, the last, that it was on
the contrary viewed as a penal office.
We find, says M. Clavier, that in one of Plato s dialogues
ABO
(Thecetf Socrates is made to speak of artificial abortion, as Abortion,
a practice not only common, but allowable ; and Plato him-
self authorises it in his Republic, (lib. v.). Aristotle (Poht.
lib. vii. c. 17) gives it as his opinion, that no child ought to
be suffered to come into the world, the mother being above
forty, or the father above fifty-five years of age. Lysias
maintained, in one of his pleadings quoted by Harpocration,
that forced abortion could not be considered homicide, be¬
cause a child in utero was not an animal, or separate exist¬
ence. M. Clavier admits, that, in a treatise ascribed to Galen,
{An animal sit quod in utero est ?) there is mention made
of enactments by Solon and Lycurgus against this crime;
but he maintains that this is a spurious production, and that,
at any rate, his testimony cannot be opposed to that of so
many writers who lived long before his age. Among the
Romans, Ovid {Amor. lib. ii), Juvenal {Sat. vi. 594), and
Seneca {Consol, ad Helv. 16), though they lament in strong
terms the frequency of this enormity, yet they never allude
to any laws by which it might be suppressed. Various other
writers, it is said, preserve the same silence on this point
whilst joining in general reprobation of the crime.
On the other hand, M. Boissonade appeals not only to the
authority of Galen, but of Cicero {Pro Cluentid), as plac¬
ing it beyond a doubt, that, so far from being allowed to pass
with impunity, the offence in question was sometimes punished
with death. With regard to the authority of Lysias, he
states, that the pleading referred to is quoted by Harpocra-
tion himself as of dubious authenticity; and, as to Plato and
Aristotle, he observes, that their speculative reasonings, m
matters of legislation, ought not to be confounded with the
actual state of the laws. And he adds, that Stobseus {Serm.
73) has preserved a passage from Musonius, in which that
philosopher expressly states, that the ancient lawgivers in¬
flicted punishments on females wTho caused themselves to
abort. _ ...
It seems indeed difficult to believe, that the practice in
question should have been allowed to prevail without being
denounced as criminal by the lawgivers of Greece and
Rome ; but it is not so clear that there was any law which
punished it with death. Those readers who have any clUl"
osity to enter more deeply into the inquiry, will be enabled
to do so by consulting the various authorities to which M.
Clavier and M. Boissonade have appealed, in support of their
respective views of the question. The notorious fr equency
of the practice forms an odious feature in the manners of
ancient times. Seneca makes it a ground of distinction for
Helvia, that she had never, like others of her countrywomen,
destroyed the child in her womb, in order to preserve ho
shape. ., .
By the law of England till lately, the only party held to be
o-uilty of murder in forcing abortion was the woman, when
she was proved to have taken means to destroy a child quick
in the womb, and actually to have thereby destroyed it.
But in 1803, an act was passed, inflicting the punishment of
death upon all concerned in administering any noxious sub¬
stance with the intent to procure the miscarriage of any
woman quick with child. 1 he procuring or attempting it
before the child had quickened, was punishable only with
imprisonment or transportation. This law was evidently
grounded upon a false hypothesis, that the foetus is not quick
or alive till its motion in the womb becomes perceptible to
the mother; and, what is of more importance, it made no
provision against the attempt to procure abortion by manual
application. The reader will find a curious illustration of
this defect, in a trial which occurred at the assizes held at
Bury St Edmunds in 1808. See Trial of William Pizzy
&c. Ipswich, 1808. An act however was passed in Will. IV.
7, & Viet. 1. to remove all those anomalies ; and pronounces
as guilty of felony all who shall procure the miscarriage of
ABO ABO 45
Abortion a female by administering to her medicaments or poisons,
II or by any manual operation, in any period of her preg-
Aboulfeda. nanCy>
The case of John Fenton, tried at Perth in 1763, was the
first instance of a criminal prosecution for this offence in
Scotland ; and here the public prosecutor restricted the libel
to an arbitrary punishment. Our writers indeed agree, that,
by the law of Scotland, the forcing of abortion was not homi¬
cide, whether the child be quick or not, except where the
mother is killed in the process.
Abortive Vellum, is made of the skin of an abortive or
immature calf.
ABOUKIR, a small town of Egypt, with a castle and a
little island adjoining, with which it is connected by a chain
of rocks. It stands at the eastern extremity of the long neck
of land between the sea and the lakes Mareotis and Maadie,
upon which Alexandria, about twelve miles to the westward,
is also situated. Eastward lies the spacious bay of Aboukir,
reaching to the mouth of the Nile. This vicinity was the
scene of some of the greatest events which distinguished
the late war between Britain and France. In the bay of
Aboukir, Nelson found the French fleet which had conveyed
Buonaparte to Egypt, and on the 1st of August 1798, gained
that signal victory usually called the “ Battle of the Nile,”
in which the whole of the enemy’s fleet, with the exception
of two vessels, were destroyed or captured. It was at Abou¬
kir also that Sir Ralph Abercromby, in 1801, effected his
landing, and having driven the enemy up the sand hills, took
possession of the place. In other respects Aboukir is not of
much importance. Eat. 31. 20. N. Long. 30. 5. E. It is
said to be the ancient Canopus.
ABOULFEDA, or Abulfeda, the most celebrated of
the Arabian writers on history and geography. Among his
contemporaries he was also distinguished both as a ruler and
a warrior. His descent was in a direct line from Ayoub,
father to Saladin, and from whom the house of that conqueror
received the appellation of Ayoubites. Omar, the grand¬
son of Ayoub, was one of Saladin’s most distinguished ge¬
nerals, and enjoyed the privilege, which he transmitted to
his posterity, of being placed always on the right of the
army. In reward of his services, he was created Prince of
Hamah, the ancient Apamea, which, with some territories
adjoining, became hereditary in his family. They were trans¬
mitted, in the course of succession, to Mahommed Mahmoud,
and to Mahommed, the uncle of Aboulfeda. Although none
of these princes equalled the military glory of Omar, they
were yet distinguished both in arms and letters. Continually
engaged in military expeditions, their court was at the same
time open to learned men. It is mentioned, among the proofs
of their zeal for science, that Mahmoud caused to be con¬
structed at Hamah, a gilded sphere of great magnitude, on
which all the stars then known were represented.
Aboulfeda was son to Ali, the brother of Mahommed. He
was born at Damascus in the year 672 of the Hegira, (1273
A. d.) His early years were spent in the study of the Koran
and of the sciences. By the age of twelve, however, he was
summoned to the field, and was present at the attack of Mar-
cab, a castle belonging to the knights of St John. Syria was
then shaken by continual war, and thus scarcely a year
elapsed, in which the young prince was not called out upon
some military expedition. He successively assisted at the
sieges of Tripoli, Acre, and Roum. In 1298, Prince Mah¬
moud, his cousin, who held the sovereignty, died, and left
Aboulfeda his heir. The succession, however, being violent¬
ly disputed by his two brothers, the court, in consequence of
their dissensions, took occasion to supersede all the three ;
and the Ayoubites lost the principality which they had en¬
joyed for more than a century. Aboulfeda, however, by his
valour and other eminent qualities, soon recommended him¬
self to the favour of the Sultan Melik-el-Nassir. He was Aboulfeda.
present, and took an active part in the victory gained at Al-
koroum in 1302, and in the still more signal one near Da¬
mascus in 1303, by which Syria was for the time delivered
from the incursions of the Tartars. But peace was soon fol¬
lowed by internal dissensions. The throne of Egypt was
disputed with Melik-el-Nassir by Bibars, who at first suc¬
ceeded in obtaining possession of it. His rival, however,
being supported by the great men of Syria, among whom
Aboulfeda took a conspicuous part, finally triumphed. Aboul¬
feda, who had always stood well with Melik-el-Nassir, rose
then into peculiar favour. The sultan took the first oppor¬
tunity of establishing him in his patrimonial dignity of‘Prince
of Hamah. Honours continued to shower upon him; he
was invested with the distinctive marks of sovereignty, which
consisted in the power of coining money, and in having prayers
said in his name. The epithet Melik Moivayyad, victorious
Prince, was conferred upon him; and it is stated by an
Arabian author, that the sultan, in writing, addressed him by
the appellation of brother.
The rest of Aboulfeda’s life was spent in splendour and
tranquillity, devoted to the government of his territory, and
to the pursuits of science. Besides cultivating, he patronised
literature ; and his court became the rendezvous of all the
learned men of the East. He conversed with them familiarly,
bestowed upon them honours and pensions, and being him¬
self superior to all in learning, felt no jealousy of their ac¬
quirements. During the same period he composed the works
which have transmitted his name to posterity. In this en¬
viable manner he spent the period of twenty years, when an
illness, of which the particulars are not related, carried him
off on the 26th October 1331. He was succeeded by his
son Melik-el-Afdhal, of whom little is recorded, and who was
the last Prince of Hamah.
The two works by which Aboulfeda is known in Europe,
are his Geography and his History. The former ranks at
least equal to any composed upon that subject by the Ara¬
bian writers. It partakes indeed of their general defects;
for, although he seems to have paid more attention to the
latitudes and longitudes than the rest of his countrymen, yet
the imperfect application of astronomy, and the obscurity of
his notation, have much diminished the value of this part of
his labours. It is chiefly in the historical and descriptive parts
that he can now be regarded as an authority. Here, too, his
knowledge, as he himself candidly confesses, is chiefly con¬
fined to the circle of Moslem dominion; but within those
limits, the information conveyed by him is undoubtedly valu¬
able.
His History possesses still higher claims to distinction.
His method, as was usual with his countrymen, is entirely
that of annals, and is in many parts too much abridged; but
the work contains much valuable information with regard to
the Saracen, and even to the Greek empire. It is divided
into five parts, beginning at the creation of the world, and
ending with the year 1328.
There are copies of his Geography in manuscript in the national
library of France, in that of the university of Leyden, and in the
Bodleian. It has hitherto been published only in fragments, of
which the following are the principal. Chorasmia et Mawaral-
nahra a Joan. Gravio, Londini; reprinted along with Arabia, in
Hudson’s Geographi Grceci Minores, Oxford, 1698-1712.— Tabula
Syri, Arab, et Lat. by Koehler and Reiske, 4to. Leipsic, 1766.—De-
scriptioAEgypti, Arab. et Lat. Michaelis, Getting. 8vo, 1776.—Africa
Arab, cum notis J. G. Eichhorn, Getting. 1791.—Arabia cum com
mentario, Chr. Rommel, Getting. 4to. 1801. Complete editions
were undertaken by Bishop Hyde, by D’Arvieux in conjunction
with Thevenot, and by Gagnier, the translator of the life of Ma¬
homet : but different circumstances prevented their execution.
The History of Aboulfeda is also found in manuscript in the
French, Bodleian, and Escurial libraries. A great part of the copy
46 ABE,
Aboutige preserved in the first is believed to be autograph. This work has
|| been published only in fragments. Life of Mahomet, Arab, et Lat.
Abraham. Gagnier, fol. Oxoniae, 1723. Annales Moslemici, Lat. Reiske, Lip-
J sife, Annales Moslemici, sumptibus P. F. Suhmii, 5 tom. 4to.
^ Hafniae, 1789-94. Sulim was historiographer and chamberlain to
the King of Denmark. The edition is excellent, and enriched with
notes by Reiske.
See Notice Historique sur Abulfeda et ses Ouvrages,^par Am. Jour-
dain. Malte-Brun. Annales des Voyages, torn, xviii. (h.M.)
ABOUTIGE, a town of Upper Egypt, in Africa, near
the Nile, where they made the best opium in all the Levant.
It was formerly a large, but now is a mean place. N. Lat.
26. 50.
ABRABANEL, Abakbanee, or Avravanel, Isaac, a
celebrated rabbi, claiming descent from King David, was
born at Lisbon, a.d. 1437. He became counsellor to Al¬
phonse V., king of Portugal, and afterwards to Ferdinand
the Catholic ; but in 1492 was obliged to leave Spain with
the other Jews. In short, after residing at Naples, Corfu,
and several other cities, he died at Venice in 1508, aged
71. Abrabanel passed for one of the most learned of the
rabbis ; and the Jews gave him the names of the Sage, the
Prince, and the Great Politician. We have a commentary
of his on all the Old Testament, which is pretty scarce : he
there principally adheres to the literal sense ; and his style
is clear, but a little diffuse. His other works are, A Treatise
on the Creation of the world ; in which he refutes Aristotle,
who imagined that the world was eternal: A Treatise on
the Explication of the Prophecies relating to the Messiah,
against the Christians: A book concerning Articles of Faith;
and some others less sought after. Though Abrabanel dis¬
covers his implacable aversion to Christianity in all his writ¬
ings, yet he treated Christians with politeness and urbanity
in the common affairs of life.
ABRACADABRA, a magical word, recommended by
Serenus Samonicus as an antidote against agues and several
other diseases. It was to be written upon a piece of paper
as many times as the word contains letters, omitting the last
1 letter of the former every time, as in the margin,1 and re¬
abracadabra peate(j in ^ same order; and then suspended about the
abracadabr neck by a ]inen thread. Abracadabra was the name of a
abracada g°d worshipped by the Syrians, the wearing of whose name
abracad was a sort of invocation of his aid.
abraca ABRADATAS, a King of Susa, whose wife, Panthea,
abrac Was taken captive on the conquest of the Assyrian camp by
abra Cyrus. In consequence of the honourable treatment which
ab she received, Abradatas joined Cyrus with all his forces, but
a soon after perished in battle ; and Panthea, inconsolable for
her loss, put an end to her life. Xen. CyropcecL ; Lucian,
Imag.
ABRAHAM, the founder of the Hebrew nation. Up to
Gen. xvii. 4, 5, he is uniformly called Abeam father
' of elevation, or high father ; Sept/'AjSpap,), and this was his
original name; but the extended form, which it always af¬
terwards bears, was given to it to make it significant of the
promise of a numerous posterity which was at the same time
made to him.
Abraham was descended through Heber, in the ninth ge¬
neration, from Shem the son of Noah. His father was Terah,
who had two other sons, Nahor and Haran. Haran died pre¬
maturely “before his father,” leaving a son Lot, and two
daughters, Milcah and Iscah. Lot attached himself to his
uncle Abraham; and Milcah became the wife of her uncle
Nahor.
Abraham was born a.m. 2008, b.c. 1996 (Hales, a.m. 3258,
B.c. 2153), in “ Ur of the Chaldees.” The concise history
in Genesis states nothing concerning the portion of his life
prior to the age of 60. He took to wife Sarai, who was his
sister by the father’s side (Gen. xx. 12), though some sup¬
pose that Iscah and Sarai were the same person.
ABE
Although Abraham is, by way of eminence, named first, Abraham,
it appears probable that he was the youngest of Terah’s sons,
and born by a second wife, when his father was 130 years
old. Terah was seventy years old when the eldest son was
born (Gen. xi. 32; xii. 4; xx. 12: comp. Hales ii. 107).
It is shown by Hales (ii. 107), that Abraham was 60 years old
when the family quitted their native city of Ur, and went and
abode in Charran. The reason for this movement does not
appear in the Old Testament; but the real cause transpires
in Acts. vii. 2-4 : “ The God of glory appeared to our father
Abraham while he was (at Ur of the Chaldees) in Mesopota¬
mia, before he dwelt in Charran, and said unto him, Depart
from thy land, and from thy kindred, and come hither to a land
(yyjv) which I will shew thee. Then departing from the land
of the Chaldees, he dwelt in Charran.” This^r^ call is not
recorded, but only implied in Gen. xii.: and it is distinguished
by several pointed circumstances from the second, which, alone
is there mentioned. Accordingly Abraham departed, and his
family, including his aged father, removed with him. They
proceeded not at once to the land of Canaan, which indeed
had not been yet indicated to Abraham. At that convenient
station he tarried fifteen years, until Terah died, at the age
of 205. Abraham, now 75 years old, received a second and
more pointed call to pursue his destination: “ Depart from thy
land, and from thy kindred, and from thy father1 s house, unto
the land which I will shew thee” (Gen. xii. 1). The diffe¬
rence of the two calls is obvious: in the former the land is
indefinite, being designed only for a temporary residence ;
in the latter it is definite, intimating a permanent abode. He
went forth “ not knowing whither he went” (Heb. xi. 8), but
trusting implicitly in the Divine guidance, taking with him
his nephew Lot, whom, having no children of his own, he
appears to have regarded as his heir.
On arriving in the land of Canaan, the rich pastures
tempted Abraham to form his first encampment in the vale
of Moreh, which lies between the mountains of Ebal and Ge-
rizim. Here the strong faith which had brought him thus far
from his home w as rewarded by the grand promise:—“ I will
make of thee a great nation, and I will bless thee and make
thy name great, and thou shaft be a blessing; and I will bless
them that bless thee, and curse them that curse thee : and in
thee shall all the families of the earth be blessed’ (Gen. xii.
2, 3). He soon after removed to the district between Bethel
and Ai, where he also built an altar to that “Jehovah”
whom the world was then hastening to forget. His farther
removals tended southward, until at length a famine in Pa¬
lestine compelled him to withdraw into Egypt, where corn
abounded. Here, apprehending that the beauty of his wife
Sarai might bring him into danger with the Egyptians, he
concealed the fact that she was his wife, and gave out that she
was his sister; whereupon she was carried to the king’s harem.
A grievous disease inflicted on Pharaoh and his household
relieved Sarai from her danger, by revealing to the king that
she was a married woman ; on which he sent for Abraham,
and, after rebuking him for his conduct, restored his wife to
him, and recommended him to withdraw from the country.
He accordingly returned to the land of Canaan, much richer
than when he left it “ in cattle, in silver, and in gold” (Gen.
xii. 8 ; xiii. 2). Not long after, he removed to the pleasant
valley of Mamre, in the neighbourhood of Hebron (then
called Arba), and pitched his tent under a terebinth tree
(Gen. xiii).
It appears that fourteen years before this time the south
and east of Palestine had been invaded by a king called Che-
dorlaomer, from beyond the Euphrates, who brought several
of the small disunited states of those quarters under tribute.
Among them were the five cities of the Plain of Sodom, to
which Lot had withdrawn. This burden was borne impa¬
tiently by these states, and they at length withheld their tri-
A B Ft
Abraham, bute. This brought upon them a ravaging visitation from
Chedorlaomer and four other (perhaps tributary) kings, who
scoured the whole country east of the Jordan, and ended by
defeating the kings of the plain, plundering their towns, and
carrying the people away as slaves. Lot was among the
sufferers. When this came to the ears of Abraham, he im¬
mediately armed such of his slaves as were fit for war, in
number 318, and being joined by the friendly Amoritish
chiefs, Aner, Eschol, and Mamre, pursued the retiring in¬
vaders. They wrere overtaken near the springs of the Jor¬
dan ; and their camp being attacked on opposite sides by
night, they were thrown into disorder, and fled. Abraham
and his men pursued them as far as the neigbourhood of
Damascus, and then returned with all the men and goods
which had been taken away.
After ten years’ residence in Canaan (b.c. 1913), Sarai,
being then 75 years old, persuaded Abraham to take her
handmaid Hagar, an Egyptian, as a secondary or concubine
w ife. The son who was born to Abraham by Hagar, re¬
ceived the name of Ishmael, and was brought up as the heir
of his father and of the promises (Gen. xvi.). Thirteen years
after, when Abraham was 99 years old, he was favoured with
still more explicit declarations of the Divine purposes, and
his name was now changed from Abram to Abraham. The
Lord then solemnly renewed the covenant to be a God to him
and to the race that should spring from him; and in token
of that covenant directed that he and his should receive in
their flesh the sign of circumcision. It was then first an¬
nounced, in distinct terms, that the heir of the special pro¬
mises was not yet born, and that Sarai, then 90 years old,
should twelve months thence be his mother. Then also her
name was changed from Sarai to Sarah {the princess); and
to commemorate the joy with which the patriarch received
such strange tidings, it was directed that the name of Isaac
{he laughed) should be given to the future child. After the
destruction of Sodom, Abraham removed into the territories
of Abimelech, king of Gerar, where he allowed himself to
stoop to the same foolish prevarication in denying his wife,
which, twenty-three years before, had occasioned him so
much trouble in Egypt, and with a similar result.
The same year Sarah gave birth to the long-promised son,
and according to previous direction, the name of Isaac was
given to him. This greatly altered the position of Ishmael,
who with Hagar his mother, was sent to a distance from his
paternal home.
When Isaac was about twenty years old (b.c. 1872) it
pleased God to subject the faith of Abraham to a severe
trial. He was commanded to go into the mountainous coun¬
try of Moriah (probably where the temple afterward stood),
and there offer up in sacrifice the son of his affection, and
the heir of so many hopes and promises. But Abraham’s
faith shrunk not, assured that what God had promised he
would certainly perform, and that he was able to restore Isaac
to him “even from the dead” (Heb. xi. 17-19). When Abra¬
ham’s hand was uplifted to slay his son, the angel of Jehovah
interposed at the critical moment and arrested the fatal
stroke.
Twelve years after (b.c. 1860) Sarah died at the age of
127 years, being then at or near Hebron; and Abraham
purchased for a family sepulchre the cave of Machpelah, with
the field in which it stood and the trees that grew' thereon.
This was the only possession he ever had in the Land of
Promise (Gen. xxiii). Some time after Abraham took a
wife named Keturah, by whom he had several children.
These, together with Ishmael, seem to have been portioned
off by their father in his lifetime, and sent into the east and
south-east, that there might be no danger of their interfer¬
ence with Isaac, the divinely appointed heir. There was
time for this: for Abraham lived to the age of 175 years,
A B R 47
] 00 of which he had spent in the land of Canaan. He died Abraham
in b.c. 1822 (Hales 1978), and was buried in the family se- II
pulchre which he had purchased of the Hittites (Gen. xxv.
Abraham, Ben Chaila, a Spanish rabbi, in the 13th
century, who professed astrology, and assumed the cha¬
racter of a prophet. He pretended to predict the coming
of the Messiah, which was to happen in the year 1358 ; but
fortunately he died in 1303, fifty-five years before the time
wfoen the prediction was to be fulfilled. He wrote a book,
De Nativitatibus, which was printed at Rome in 1545.
Abraham, Usque, a Portuguese Jew, who, in conjunc¬
tion with Tobias Athias, translated the Hebrew Bible into
Spanish. It was printed at Ferrara in 1553, and reprinted
in Holland in 1630. This Bible, especially the first edition,
which is most valuable, is marked with stars at certain words,
which are designed to shew that these words are difficult to
be understood in the Hebrew, and that they may be used in
a different sense.
Abraham, or Abram, Nicholas, a learned Jesuit, born
in the diocese of Toul, in Lorrain, in 1589. He obtained
the rank of divinity professor in the university of Pont-a-
Mouson, which he enjoyed 17 years, and died September 7,
1655. He wrote Notes on Virgil and on Nonnius; A
Commentary on some of Cicero’s Orations, in two vols. folio;
an excellent collection of theological pieces in folio, en¬
titled Pharus Veteris Testamenti ; and a Hebrew Grammar
in verse.
ABRAHAMITES, an order of monks exterminated for
idolatry by Theophilus in the ninth century. Also the
name of another sect of heretics who had adopted the errors
of Paulus.
ABRALHOS, a cluster of islets and sand-banks on the
coast of Brazil, between 17 and 18 degrees S. Lat. The
islets are low, covered with grass and a little scattered brush¬
wood. They consist of gneiss and sandstone in horizontal
strata, and their highest point rises about 100 feet above
the level of the sea.
ABRANTES, a town of Portugal, province of Estrema-
dura, on the Tagus, near its junction with the Zezare, which
is navigable for barges. Lat. 39. 26. N. Long. 8. 15. W.
Situation delightful, on the upper part of a sloping hill, with
a country below it covered with olive trees, and interspersed
with vineyards. Junot, one of Napoleon’s marshals, was
created duke of Abrantes. It has an hospital and poor-
house. Pop. 4500.
ABRASAX, or Abraxas, the supreme god of the Basi-
lidian heretics. It is a mystical or cabalistic word, com¬
posed of the Greek letters, a, /3, p, a, f, a, s, which, to¬
gether, according to the Grecian mode of numeration, make
up the number 365. For Basilides taught, that there were
365 heavens between the earth and the empyrean ; each of
which heavens had its angel or intelligence, which created
it; each of which angels likewise was created by the angel
next above it; thus ascending by a scale to the Supreme
Being, or first Creator. The Basilidians used the word
Abraxas by way of charm or amulet.
ABRASION is sometimes used among medical writers
for the effect of sharp corrosive medicines or humours in
wearing away the natural mucus which covers the mem¬
branes, and particularly those of the stomach and intestines.
The word is composed of the Latin ab and rado, to shave
or scrape off.
Abrasion is also used to denote the wear and tear of
Coins. The deficiency in the weight of the old worn coins,
on their being called in to be recoined, falls upon the public.
Mr McCulloch reckons, that if the currency of the United
Kingdom consisted wholly of gold, it would amount to at least
sixty millions of sovereigns, and that the loss sustained by
48
A B R
Abridg¬
ment.
Abraum abrasion, including what results from shipwreck, fire, and
other accidents, would amount to a hundredthpart ofthesum
in circulation, or £600,000 annually.—Culloch s Treatises
and Essays on Economical Policy, p. 33. ..
ABRAUM, a name that has been given by some writers
to a species of red clay, used in England by t e^a™e
makers &c., to give a red colour to new mahogany woe .
We have it from the Isle of Wight; but it is also found m
GeABRAVANNUS, in Ancient Geography, the name of
a promontory and river of Galloway in Scotland, ^ called
from the Celtic term Aher, signifying either the mouth of
a river or the confluence of two streams, and Avon, a river.
ABRAXAS, an antique stone with the word abraxas
engraven on it. They are of various sizes and most of
them as old as the third century. I hey are frequent in the
cabinets of the curious ; and a collection of therrq as com¬
plete as possible, has been desired by several There is a
fine one in the abbey of St Genevieve, which has occa
sioned much speculation. Most of them seeni to have come
from Eo-ypt; whence they are of some use for explaining
the antiquities of that country. Sometimes they have no
other inscription besides the word : but others have the
names of saints, angels, or Jehovah himself annexed ; thoug i
most usually the name of the Basilidian god. Sometimes
there is a representation of Isis sitting on a lotus, or Apis
surrounded with stars ; sometimes monstrous compositions
of animals, obscene images, Phalli and Ithyphalh. 1 he ern
graving is rarely good, but the word on the reverse is some¬
times said to be in a more modern style than the other. I he
characters are usually Greek, Hebrew, Coptic, or Hetru-
rian, and sometimes of a mongrel kind, invented, as it would
seem, to render their meaning the more inscrutable, ft is
disputed whether the Veronica of Montreml, or the granite
obelisk mentioned by Gori, be Abraxases.
ABRAZITE, a crystallized mineral, a silicate of lime and
alumina, called also Gismondine, and Zeagonite. . _
ABRESCH, Frederic Louis, a celebrated critic born
at Hamburg in 1699. His scholia on Greek authors are
greatly esteemed. He died in 1782.
ABRIDGMENT, in Literature, is the reduction of a
book into a smaller compass ; the book so reduced is some¬
times called also an epitome, or compendium. To condense
a work, without detriment to the symmetry and connection
of the whole, demands the exercise of both judgment and
skill, and not unfrequently of taste ; to the absence of which
requisites must be imputed the frequent imperfection of this
class of works. The advantage of epitomes or abridgments,
when ably executed, can scarcely be too highly estimated,
for, by the enormous increase of literature, they are yearly
o-rowing more important, and will eventually become a mat¬
ter of necessity. “ The universal progress of science dur¬
ing the last two centuries,” says Robertson, “the art of
printing, and other obvious causes, have filled Europe with
such a multiplicity of histories, and with such vast collec¬
tions of historical materials, that the term of human life is
too short for the study or even the perusal of them.”—
Charles V.; preface to edit. 1796. The Reviews and perio¬
dicals of the day may be said in a manner to have com¬
menced the great era of abridgment; but whether this
gyg^gn'i may not tend to superficialness, remains to be
seen.
The art of abridgment, though practised before, first
came into general use among the Romans about the fifth
century ; and posterity owes a debt of gratitude to those
authors who thus preserved, among less important materials,
many valuable fragments of antiquity which otherwise had
been lost. Among these abridgments and collections may
be noticed the histories of Lucius A. Floras, and of C.
A B it
Veil. Paterculus ; the Epitome de Ccesaribus of S.Aur. Abrogation
Victor; the Breviarium of S. Ruf. Festus; that o?Eutro-
pius ; and the Chronicon of Mag. Aur. Cassiodorus. As v ^ ,
examples of excellence in the art of abridgment, may be
cited—iT/ezeray’s Abrege Chronologique de VHistoire de
France, by the author ; Renault's Nouvel Abrege Chrono¬
logique de VHistoire de la France ; Nouvel Abreg6 Chro¬
nologique de VHistoire d’Allemagne, by Pfeffel; Hazlitts
Abridgment of Tucker's Light of Nature ; and the Epi¬
tome Historiarum of Tursellinus.
ABROGATION, the act of abolishing a law, by authority
of the maker ; in which sense the word is synonymous with
abolition, repealing, and revocation.
ABROTONUM, in Ancient Geography, a town and har¬
bour on the Mediterranean, one of the three cities that formed
Tripolis j called also Sabrata and J\eapolis.
ABRUD-B ANYA, a town of Austria, province of Tran¬
sylvania, and circle of Unter-Weissenburg. It is situate
on the river Ampoy, has one Reformed and one Gjeek
church, is the seat of a board of mining, and in its vicinity
mines of gold and of silver are wrought. Eat. 46. 14. 9. N.
Long. 23. 49. 3. E. Population 4100.
ABRUS, in Botany, a genus of diadelphia.
ABRUZZO, one of the four provinces into which the
continental part of the kingdom of Naples, or of the two
Sicilies, was formerly divided, but now the name given to
three out of the 15 provinces of the later division of that
country. It is the most northern part of the kingdom of
Naples, being bounded on the north and west by the States
of the Church, east by the Adriatic, and south by the pro¬
vinces of Terra di Lavoro, Molise, and Capitanata. It has an
area of somewhat more than 5000 square miles, extending
from Eat. 41. 40. to 42. 55. N.; and though presenting to the
Adriatic a coast of about 80 miles in length, yet it has not
a single good port. , ,
This territory is mostly rugged, mountainous, and covered
with extensive forests, but contains also many fertile and
well-watered valleys. The Apennines traverse its whole ex¬
tent, running generally from N.W. to S.E., and here they at¬
tain their greatest elevation. Near Aquila is Monte Corno,
the loftiest peak of that chain, called U gram Sasso d Ralm,
or the great rock of Italy, which rises to the freight of 9o21^
feet. Monte Majella and Monte Velino attain the height of
8500 and 8397 feet respectively. From the main range of
the Apennines numerous smaller branches run off towards
the west. The country is watered by numerous rivers and
streams, most of which fall into the Adriatic. They are often
suddenly swollen by the rains, especially in the spring, and
thus cause considerable damage to the lands through which
they pass. The principal rivers are the Tronto, Trentmo,
Pescara, and the Sangro. A little to the south oi the vi -
lao-e of Albi in Abruzzo Ulteriore Seconda is lake Ceiano,
the Lacus Fucinus of the Romans; see Fucinus Lacus.
The climate differs considerably with the elevation of the
soil, but generally speaking, it is temperate and healthy; on
the mountains it is cold and bracing, and in the valleys com-
’'^Agricultureis but little attended to or understood, although
in many of the lower parts of the country the land is of con¬
siderable fertility. The art of irrigation is not understood
nor the embankment of the rivers practised so that the best
of the land is frequently rendered useless. Its principal pro¬
ductions are corn, hemp, flax, almonds, olives, figs, grapes,
and chestnuts. In the neighbourhood of Aquila, saffron is
extensively cultivated, although not to such an extent now
as formerly. The rearing and tending of sheep is the prin¬
cipal occupation of the inhabitants of the high anus. ie
wool, which is of a superior quality, is an important ar ic e
of commerce, and the skins are sent in large quanti ics o
A B R
Abruzzo the Levant. On the approach of winter, the shepherds with
<itertore. their flocks and families migrate to the more temperate ter-
ritories on the south. Bears, wolves, and wild boars inhabit
the mountain fastnesses; and in the extensive oak forests
numerous herds of swine are fed, the hams of which are in
high repute. The manufactures are very inconsiderable, being
chiefly woollen, linen, and silk stuffs, and earthen and wood
wares.
“Abruzzo,” says Sir R. C. Hoare, “has been represented as
a country uncivilised with regard to society, infested by rob¬
bers, inaccessible from mountains, and fitter for the residence
of wild beasts than of rational beings. But I must here
repeat with gratitude, that in these romantic unfrequented
tracts, we met with that genuine and cordial hospitality which
is too seldom to be found in more favoured and more popu¬
lous countries.” The inhabitants are a stout, well-built, brave,
and industrious race. Many of them emigrate annually to
the States of the Church to work during the harvest, and re¬
turn home in winter with their wages. Their houses are
generally miserable dirty huts; their food principally maize,
and their beverage bad wine. Abruzzo is of great import¬
ance to the kingdom of Naples, as being its chief defence
on the north. It has only three roads through which a hostile
army could pass, only one of these being practicable for ar¬
tillery ; and they all afford such facilities for defence, that a
passage could only be effected at a great loss, in the face of
even a small body of defenders. The three provinces into
which it is now divided are Abruzzo Ulteriore Prima, Ab¬
ruzzo Ulteriore Seconda, and Abruzzo Citeriore, being so
named from their position relative to Naples.
Abruzzo Ulteriore I., is the most northern of the
three provinces, and has an area of 1239 square miles, with
a population in 1845 of 216,486. The western part of the
province is very mountainous; the highest crest of the Apen¬
nines divides it from Abruzzo Ulteriore Seconda, and extends
towards the sea. The district on the sea-coast is flat, but
everywhere else hilly. The valleys between the hills pos¬
sess a rich soil, well watered by rivulets and brooks in the
winter and spring, but which are generally dried up in the
summer months. These streams either run into the Pescara,
which bounds the province towards Abruzzo Citeriore, or
into the Tronto,which is the boundary on the Papal frontier.
The province is divided into two districts, Teramo and Civita
di Penne. The city of Teramo is the capital of the province.
Abruzzo Ulteriore II., is an inland district, bound¬
ed on the north and west by the Papal States, on the north¬
east by Abruzzo Ulteriore I., on the south-east by Ab¬
ruzzo Citeriore, and on the south by the province Terra di
Lavoro. The whole province is nearly covered with moun¬
tains of various heights, one of which is the Gran Sasso
dItalia. There are no plains; but among these mountains
some beautiful and fruitful valleys have been formed by the
various streams that run through them. None of the rivers
are navigable, but all of them have abundance of water,
except in the hottest of the summer months. It has an area
of 2523 square miles, and in 1845 contained 307,708 inha¬
bitants. Its chief town is Aquila.
Abruzzo Citeriore is bounded on the north-west by
Abruzzo Ulteriore I., on the north-east by the Adriatic
Sea, on the south-west by the province Molise, and on the
west by that of Abruzzo Ulteriore Seconda. This province
is less hilly than the other two Abruzzi, but the Apennines
are extended through the south-west part. They, however,
gradually decline in height, and extend themselves in wide
plains of sand and pebbles. The rivers all run to the Ad¬
riatic, and are very deficient in water during the summer
months. Agriculture is in a very backward state, and the
soil is rather ungrateful when labour is bestowed upon it;
but the inhabitants prefer the chase and the fishery. It con-
VOL. II.
A B S 49
tains 1245 square miles, with a population of 301,746 in 1845. Absalom.
Its chief town is Civita di Chieti.
ABSALOM, the third son of David, and his only son bv
Maachah, daughter of Talmai, king of Geshur (2 Sam. iii. 3).
He was deemed the handsomest man in the kingdom; and
was particularly noted for the profusion of his beautiful hair.
David’s other child by Maachah was a daughter named Ta¬
mar, who was also very beautiful. She became the object
of lustful regard to her half-brother Amnon, David’s eldest
son ; and was violated by him. In all cases where polygamy
is allowed, we find that the honour of a sister is in the guar¬
dianship of her full brother, more even than in that of her
father, whose interest in her is considered less peculiar and
intimate. It was not until two years had passed, and when
this wound seemed to have been healed, that Absalom found
opportunity for the bloody revenge he had meditated. He
then held a great sheep-shearing feast at Baal-hazor near
Ephraim, to which he invited all the king’s sons; and, when
they were warm with wine, Amnon was set upon and slain
by the servants of Absalom, according to the previous di¬
rections of their master. Absalom, after this bloody deed,
hastened to Geshur, and remained there three years with
his grandfather, king Talmai; at the end of which time,
through the contrivance of Joab, he was permitted to return ;
but David, still mindful of his duties as a king and father,
controlled the impulse of his feelings, and declined to admit
him to his presence. After two years, however, Absalom,
impatient of his disgrace, found means to compel the atten¬
tion of Joab to his case; and through his means a complete
reconciliation was effected, and the father once more indulged
himself with the presence of his son. (2 Sam. xiii. xiv.)
Absalom was the third son of David, Amnon and Chileab
being his elder brothers. But he alone was of royal descent
by the side of his mother; and royal or noble descent by the
mother is even now (as we see by the recent instance of Ab¬
bas Meerza in Persia) of itself a sufficient ground of prefe¬
rence over an elder brother whose maternal descent is less
distinguished. This circumstance may suggest that he early
entertained a design upon the succession to the throne,
and that the removal of Amnon was quite as much an act of
policy as of revenge. His position must have been greatly
strengthened when, on his return from exile, he found him¬
self the eldest surviving son, and according to the ordinary
laws of primogeniture, the heir apparent of the crown ; and
there is every reason to think that David, if left to himself,
would have been glad to have seen the rule of succession
take its ordinary course in favour of his best loved son. But
then, under the peculiar theocratical institutions of the He¬
brews, the Divine king reserved and exercised a power of
dispensation, over which the human king, or viceroy, had no
control. The house of David was established as a reigning
dynasty; and although the law of primogeniture was allowed
eventually to take in general its due course, the Divine king
reserved the power of appointing any member of that house
whom he might prefer. David had known many years be¬
fore that his dynasty was to be established in a son not yet
born (2 Sam. vii. 12); and when Solomon wras born, he could
not be ignorant, even if not specially instructed, that he was
the destined heir. J his fact must have been known to many
others as the child grew up, and probably the mass of the
nation was cognizant of it. In this we find a clear motive
for the rebellion of Absalom—to secure the throne which he
deemed to be his right by the laws of primogeniture, during
the lifetime of his father; lest delay, while awaiting the na¬
tural term of his days, should so strengthen the cause of So¬
lomon with his years, as to place his succession beyond all
contest.
Four years after his return from Geshur, he repaired to
Hebron and there proclaimed himself king. The great body
G
50 A B S
Absalom’s of the people declared for him; and so strong ran the tide
Tomb 0f opinion in his favour, that David found it expedient to
11 quit Jerusalem and retire to Mahanaim, beyond the Jor-
Absentee.
When Absalom heard of this, he proceeded to Jerusalem
and took possession of the throne without opposition. 1 e
king soon raised a large force, which he properly organised
and separated into three divisions, commanded severally by
Joab, Abishai, and Ittai of Gath. A battle took place in the
borders of the forest of Ephraim ; and the tactics ot Joab, m
drawing the enemy into the wood, and there hemming them
in so that they were destroyed with ease, eventually decided
the action against Absalom. Twenty thousand of his troops
were slain, and the rest fled to their homes. Absalom him¬
self fled on a swift mule; but as he went, the boughs ot a
terebinth tree caught the long hair in which he gloried and
he was left suspended there. The charge which David had
given to the troops to respect the life of Absalom prevented
any one from slaying him: but when Joab heard of it, he
hastened to the spot, and pierced him with three darts. His
body was then taken down and cast into a pit in the forest,
and a heap of stones was raised upon it.
Absalom’s Tomb, a remarkable monument in the valley
of Jehoshaphat, near Jerusalem, and close by the lower
bridge over the Kedron. The identity of this monument
withthat mentioned in 2 Sam. xviii. 18, insisted on by some,
is disproved by the character of the architectural ornaments,
and neither this nor the adjoining monument called that of
Zecharias, have any connection with the era of the persons
whose names they bear.
Absalom, archbishop of Lund in Denmark, an eminent
statesman and warrior, a patron of learning, and the counsel¬
lor and friend of Waldemar, his sovereign. By the vigour
of his administration, and his successes in the field, he gave
a lustre to the Danish name, and he is said to have been the
founder of the city of Copenhagen. He was born A.D. 1128,
and died in 1191.
ABSCESS, in Surgery; from abscedo, to separate; a
cavity containing pus, or a collection of puriform matter in a
part: so called, because the parts which were joined are now
separated; one part recedes from another, to make May for
the collected matter.
ABSCISSE, in Conics, a part of the diameter or trans¬
verse axis of a conic section, intercepted between the vertex
or some other fixed point and a semiordinate. See Conic
Sections.
AB SCONS A, a dark lantern used by the monks at the
ceremony of burying their dead.
ABSENTEE is a term applicable to those landlords who
reside in another country than that from which they draw
their rents. The discussions which have taken place on this
subject have generally had a reference to Ireland.
Mr McCulloch maintains that, in so far as the question of
expenditure is concerned, absenteeism is not injurious to a
country. On the contrary, that it is in the majority of cases
advantageous, as its tendency is to turn industry into those
channels into which it is most for the public advantage that
it should be turned, and eventually to increase the national
capital. He allows that a resident landed proprietor has the
means of doing a vast deal of good, by setting an example of
good order, virtue, and piety, and protecting his tenants and
dependents. But, in the case of Ireland, the superiority of
resident over absentee landlords must be tried, not by what
they ought to have been, but by their actual conduct. And
he maintains that nine-tenths of the proprietors of Ireland
being the lineal descendants of those who purchased or re¬
ceived grants of the property confiscated during the 17th
century, and being almost all Englishmen and Protestants,
 intruders on their soil, and enemies of their religion,—the
A B S
residence of such landlords was more likely to produce dis- Absinthi*
cord than good-will. And by a comparison of the actual con- at®d
dition of the baronies where absenteeism prevailed, he has Al)go5ution
brought forward evidence to shew that the estates are better y  _| i
managed, and the inhabitants have been more contented and
tranquil in these, than in the districts most thickly occupied
by resident landlords.
The opposite side of this question has been ably argued by
writers in the Quarterly Review. J)t<'Culloch s Ircutises
and Essays on Economical Policy; Quarterly Review, vol.
xxxiii., p. 455.
ABSINTHIATED, any thing tinged or impregnated
with absinthium or wormwood. Bartholin mentions a woman
whose milk was become absinthiated, and rendered as bitter
as gall, by the too liberal use of wormwood.
Vinum absinthites, or poculum absinthiatum, “ wormwood
wine,” is much spoken of among the ancients as a wholesome
drink, and even an antidote against drunkenness. Its medical
virtues depend on its aromatic and bitter qualities. Infused
in wine or spirits, it may prove beneficial in cases of indiges¬
tion or debility of the stomach.
ABSOLUTE {ah, and solvo, I loose), in a general sense,
something that stands free or independent.
Absolute is more particularly understood of a being or
thing which does not proceed from any cause, or does not
subsist by virtue of any other being, considered as its cause ;
in which sense God alone is absolute. Absolute, in this sense,
is synonymous with independent, and stands opposed to de¬
pendent.
Absolute also denotes a thing that is free from conditions
or limitations ; in which sense the word is synonymous with
unconditional. We say, an absolute decree, absolute pro¬
mise, absolute obedience.
Absolute Government, that in which the prince is left
solely to his own will, being not limited to the observance of
any laws except those of his own discretion.
Absolute Equations, in Astronomy, is the aggregate of
the optic and eccentric equations. The apparent inequality
of a planet’s motion, arising from its not being equally dis¬
tant from the earth at all times, is called its optic equation,
and would subsist even if the planet’s real motion were uni¬
form. The eccentric inequality is caused by the planet’s mo¬
tion being uniform. To illustrate which, conceive the sun to
move, or to appear to move, in the circumference of a circle,
in whose centre the earth is placed. It is manifest, that if
the sun moves uniformly in this circle, it must appear to move
uniformly to a spectator on the earth ; and in this case there
will be no optic nor eccentric equation : but suppose the earth
to be placed out of the centre of the circle, and then, though
the sun’s motion should be really uniform, it would not ap¬
pear to be so, when seen from the earth; and in this case
there would be an optic equation, without an eccentric one.
Imagine further, the sun’s orbit to be not cucular but ellip¬
tic, and the earth in its focus; it will be as evident that the
sun cannot appear to have a uniform motion in such eclipse:
so that his motion will then be subject to two equations, the
optic and the eccentric.
Absolute Number, in Algebra^ is any pure number stand-
inn- in any equation without the conjunction of literal charac¬
ters ; as 2 a: + 36 = 48 ; where 36 and 48 are absolute num¬
bers’ but 2 is not, as being joined with the letter x.
ABSOLUTION, in Civil Law, is a sentence whereby
the party accused is declared innocent of the crime laid to his
charge.
Absolution, in the Canon Law, is a juridical act, whereby
the priest declares the sins of such as are penitent remitted.
—The Romanists hold absolution a part of the sacrament of
penance ; the council of Trent, sess. xiv. cap. iii., and that of
Florence, in the decree ad Armenos, declare the form or es-
A B S
Absolution sence of the sacrament to lie in the words of absolution, 111
II absolve thee of thy sins.” The formula of absolution, in the
psteimi^ Roman church, is absolute ; in the Greek church, it is depre-
” catory; and in the churches of the Reformed, declarative.
Absolution is chiefly used among Protestants for a sen¬
tence by which a person who stands excommunicated is re¬
leased or freed from that punishment.
ABSORBENT, in general, any thing possessing the fa¬
culty of absorbing, or swallowing up another.
Absorbent Medicines, testaceous powders, or substances
into which calcareous earth enters, as chalk, crabs eyes, &c.,
which are taken inwardly, for drying up or absorbing any acid
or redundant humours in the stomach or intestines. They
are likewise applied externally to ulcers or sores with the same
intention.
Absorbents, or Absorbing Vessels, in Anatomy, a name
given promiscuously to the lacteal vessels, lymphatics, and
inhalant arteries; a minute kind of vessels found in animal
bodies, which imbibe fluids that come in contact with them.
On account of their minuteness and transparency, they escape
observation in ordinary dissection. They have, however, been
detected in every tribe of animals, and, in the animals which
have been examined, in every part of the body.
ABSORPTION, in the animal economy, is the function
of the absorbent vessels, or that power by which they take
up and propel substances. This power has been ascribed to
the operation of different causes, according to the theories
which physiologists have proposed. Some attribute it to capil¬
lary attraction, others to the pressure of the atmosphere, and
others to an ambiguous or unknown cause, which they deno¬
minate suction ; for this last is nothing else than the elastic
power of one part of the air restoring the equilibrium, which
has been destroyed by the removal or rarefaction of another
part. See Physiology.
Absorptions of the Earth, a term used by Kircher and
others for the sinking in of large tracts of land by means of
subterranean commotions, and many other accidents.
Pliny tells us, that in his time the mountain Cybotus, with
the town of Curites, which stood on its side, were wholly ab¬
sorbed into the earth, so that not the least trace of either re¬
mained ; and he records the like fate of the city of Tantalis
in Magnesia, and after it of the mountain Sipylus, both thus
absorbed by a violent opening of the earth. Galanis and
Gamales, towns once famous in Phoenicia, are recorded to
have met the same fate; and the vast promontory called
Phegium, in Ethiopia, after a violent earthquake in the night¬
time, was not to be seen in the morning, the whole having dis¬
appeared, and the earth closed over it. These and many other
histories, attested by the authors of greatest credit among
the ancients, abundantly prove the fact in the earlier ages.
(Kircher’s Mund. Subter., p. 77.)
Picus, a lofty mountain in one of the Molucca isles, which
was seen at a great distance, and served as a landmark to sail¬
ors, was entirely destroyed by an earthquake; and its place
is now occupied by a lake, the shores of which correspond
exactly to the base of the mountain. In 1556, a similar acci¬
dent happened in China. A whole province of the moun¬
tainous part of the country, with all the inhabitants, sunk in
a moment, and was totally swallowed up: the space which
was formerly land was also covered with an extensive lake
ot water. And, during the earthquakes which prevailed in
the kingdom of Chili, in the year 1646, several whole moun¬
tains of the Andes sunk and disappeared. In Java the volcano
of Papandayang disappeared during an eruption in 1772.
ABSORUS, Apsorus, Absyrtis, Absyrtides, (Strabo,
Mela, Ptolemy), islands in the Adriatic, in the gulf of Car-
nero; said to be so called from Absyrtus, Medea’s brother,
there slain. They are now called Cherso and Osero.
ABSTEMII, in Church History, a name given to such per-
A B s 51
sons as could not partake of the cup of the eucharist on ac-Abstention
count of their natural aversion to wine. Calvinists allow these II
to communicate in the species of bread only, touching theAbstinence
cup with their lip; which, on the other hand, is by the Lu-
therans deemed a profanation.
ABSTENTION, in Laic, is the act of preventing an heir
from taking possession.
ABSTERGENT Medicines, those employed for resolv¬
ing obstructions, concretions, &c., such as soap, &c.
ABSTINENCE, in a general sense, the act or habit of
refraining from something to which there is a strong propen¬
sity. Among the Jews, various kinds of abstinence were or¬
dained by their law. The Pythagoreans, when initiated, were
enjoined to abstain from animal food, except the remains
of sacrifices; and to drink nothing but water, unless in the
evening, when they were permitted to take a small portion
of wine. Among the primitive Christians, some denied them¬
selves the use of such meats as were prohibited by that law,
others regarded this abstinence with contempt; of which St
Paul gives his opinion, Rom. xiv. 1-3. The council of Je¬
rusalem, which was held by the apostles, enjoined the Chris¬
tian converts to abstain from meats strangled, from blood,
from fornication, and from idolatry. Abstinence, as prescribed
by the gospel, is intended to mortify and restrain the passions,
to humble our vicious natures, and by that means raise our
minds to a due sense of devotion. But there is another sort
of abstinence, which may be called ritual, and consists in ab¬
staining from particular meats at certain times and seasons.
It was the spiritual monarchy of the western world which
first introduced this ritual abstinence, the rules of which were
called rogations; but grossly abused from the true nature
and design of fasting. In England, abstinence from flesh has
been enjoined by statute since the Reformation, particularly
on Fridays and Saturdays, on vigils, and on all commonly
called//,y/t days. The like injunctions were renewed under
Queen Elizabeth ; but at the same time it was declared that
this was done, not out of motives of religion, as if there were
any difference in meats, but in favour of the consumption of
fish, and to multiply the number of fishermen and mariners,
as well as to spare the stock of sheep. The great fast, says
St Augustin, is to abstain from sin.
Abstinence is more particularly used for a spare diet or
a slender parsimonious use of food. Physicians relate won¬
ders of the effects of abstinence in the cure of many disor¬
ders, and protracting the term of life. The noble Venetian
Cornaro, after all imaginable means had proved vain, so that
his life was despaired of at 40, recovered, and lived to near
100, by the mere effect of abstinence; as he himself gives
the account. It is indeed surprising to what a great age the
primitive Christians of the East, who retired from the perse¬
cutions into the deserts of Arabia and Egypt, lived, healthful
and cheerful, on a very little food. Cassian assures us, that
the common rate for 24 hours was 12 ounces of bread, and
pure water: with such frugal fare St Anthony lived 105
years ; James the Hermit, 104 ; Arsenius, tutor of the Em¬
peror Arcadius, 120; St Epiphanius, 115; Simeon the Sty-
lite, 112; and Romauld, 120. Indeed, we can match these
instances of longevity at home. Buchanan informs us, that
one Laurence arrived at the great age of 140 by force of
temperance and labour; and Spotswood mentions one Ken-
tigern, afterwards called St Mongah or Mungo, who lived
to 185 by the same means. Abstinence, however, is to be
recommended only as it means a proper regimen ; for in ge¬
neral it must have bad consequences when observed without
a due regard to constitution, age, strength, &c. According,
to Dr Cheyne, most of the chronical diseases, the infirmities’
of old age, and the short lives of Englishmen, are owing to
repletion, and may be either cured, prevented, or remedied ’
by abstinence ; but then the kinds of abstinence which ought
^9.
A B S
Abstinents to be observed, either in sickness or health, are to be e-
il duced from the laws of diet and regimen.
Abstract. \m0ng the inferior animals, we see extraordinary instances
' v V long abstinence. The serpent kind, in particular, bear
abstinence to a wonderful degree. We have seen ratt e-
snakes which had lived many months without any tood, yet
still retained their vigour and fierceness. Dr bhaw speaks
of a couple of cerastes (a sort of Egyptian serpents), w ic
had been kept five years in a bottle close corked, without
any sort of food, unless a small quantity of sand m whicl t y
coiled themselves up in the bottom of the vessel may be
reckoned as such; yet when he saw them, they had newly
cast their skins, and were as brisk and lively as if just taken.
But it is natural for divers species to pass four, five, or six
months every year, without either eating or drinking. Ac¬
cordingly, the tortoise, bear, dormouse, serpent, &c. are ob¬
served regularly to retire, at those seasons, to their respective
cells, and" hide themselves, some in the caverns of rocks or
ruins; others dig holes under ground; some get into woods,
and lay themselves up in the clefts of trees; others bury
themselves under water, &c. And these animals are found
as fat and fleshy, after some months’ abstinence, as before.
Phil. Trans. Sir G. Ent1 weighed his tortoise several years successively,
No. 134. at its going to earth in October, and coming out again in
March; and found, that of four pounds four ounces, it only
used to lose about one ounce.
We have alleged instances of men passing several months
as strictly abstinent as other creatures. In particular, the
records of the Tower mention a Scotsman imprisoned tor
felony, and strictly watched in that fortress for six weeks,
during which time he did not take the least sustenance; and
on this account he obtained his pardon. Numberless in¬
stances of extraordinary abstinence, particularly from morbid
causes, are to be found in the different periodical Memoirs,
Transactions, Ephemerides, &c., as Birch's History oj the
Royal Society, in the writings of Planque, of Hooghed and
Haller; but the investigations of this latter author led to the
conclusion, that the extreme cases of persons sustaining in¬
anition for months, or even years, are more than apocrypha ,
the consequences of very inaccurate observation in toe in¬
vestigators, or of deception in the pretended sufferers ; yet
Haller gives instances of persons affected by peculiar ceie-
bral diseases, or in extremely low states of the system, sur-
viving inanition until the 8th, 9th, 13th, and even the 21st
day. The recent cases of John Brown, an Ayrshire miner,
who lived 23 days buried in a coal-mine, without swallowing
anything but small quantities of a chalybeate water sucked
through a straw, is a well-authenticated instance of how little
will sustain life, especially in a contaminated atmosphere,
which, by diminishing nervous excitability, would mitigate
the cravings of hunger. The fasting woman of Rosshire,
described by Pennant, is not one of absolute want of food,
but one in which we see how small a quantity of nutriment
will sustain life for years in a person suffering under a cere¬
bral affection. Anne Moore, the fasting woman of Tutbury,
was an impostor detected at length by Dr Alexander Hen¬
derson. How far nutrition is aided by absorption by the
lungs and the skin, is not ascertained; and it is not impro¬
bable that each process may contribute to prolong life in
real cases of starvation.
ABSTINENTS, or Abstinentes, a set of heretics that
appeared in France and Spain about the end of the third
century. They are supposed to have borrowed part of their
opinions from the Gnostics and Manicheans, because tlic\
opposed marriage, condemned the use of flesh meat, and
placed the Holy Ghost in the class of created beings. We
have however, no certain accounts of their peculiar tenets.
ABSTRACT (gbs, and traho, I draw), in a general sense,
any thing separated from something else.
A B T
Abstract Ideas, in Metaphysics. See Abstbacton. Abstoct
Abstract Mathematics, otherwise called / are Matlema-
tics is that which treats of magnitude or quantity, absolutely w ,
and generally considered, without restriction to any species
of particular magnitude ; such are Arithmetic and Geome¬
try In this sense, abstract mathematics is opposed to mixed
mathematics; wherein simple and abstract properties, and
the relations of quantities primitively considered m pure ma¬
thematics, are applied to sensible objects, and by that means
become intermixed with physical considerations: such are
Hydrostatics, Optics, Navigation, &c.
Abstract Numbers, are assemblages of units, considered
in themselves, without denoting any particular and deter¬
minate things. Thus, six is an abstract number when not
applied to any thing; but if we say 6 feet, 6 becomes a con¬
crete number. , . .
Abstract Terms, words that are used to express abstract
ideas. Thus beauty, ugliness, whiteness, roundness, Uje,
death, are abstract terms. .
Abstract, in Literature, a compendious view of any
large work; shorter and more superficial than an abndg-
meABSTRACTION, in Metaphysics, is a term used to de¬
note the mind’s power of considering certain qualities or at¬
tributes of an object apart from the rest; or the power which
the understanding has of separating the combinations which
are presented to it. t?. .
Abstraction is chiefly employed in these three ways. 1 irst,
When the mind considers any one part of a thing, in some
respect distinct from the whole; as a man’s arm, without the
consideration of the rest of the body. Secondly, W hen we
consider the mode of any substance, omitting the substance
itself; or when we separately consider several modes which
subsist together in one subject. This abstraction the geo¬
metricians make use of when they consider the leng i o a
body separately, which they call a line, omitting the con¬
sideration of its breadth and thickness. Thirdly, It is by ab¬
straction that the mind forms general ideas. Thus, when
we would understand a thinking being m general, we gather
from our self-consciousness what it is to think; and omitting
those things which have a particular relation to our own
minds, or to the human mind, we conceive a thinking being
Ideas formed in this manner, which are what we Pfoperly
call abstract ideas, become general representatives of all ob¬
jects of the same kind. Thus the idea of colour that we
receive from chalk, snow, milk, &c. is a representative of all
of that kind; and has a name given it, whiteness, which sig¬
nifies the same quality wherever found or imagined, bee
the article Metaphysics. , 7 j ,
ABSURDUM, reductio ad absurdum, is a mode ot de¬
monstration employed by mathematicians when they prove
the truth of a proposition by demonstrating that the contraiy
is impossible, or leads to an absurdity. It is in this manner
that Euclid demonstrates the fourth proposition of the first
book of the Elements, by showing that the contrary involves
a manifest absurdity, viz. That two straight lines can inclose
a ABSYRTUS, in heathen mythology, the son of Metes
and Idyia, and brother of Medea. When the latter fled with
Jason, she carried Absyrtus with her ; but being closely pur¬
sued by her father she slew him, and scattered his limbs m
the way, that he might be diverted from the pursuit in ga¬
thering the mangled remains of his child.
ABTHANES, in History, a title of honour used by the
ancient inhabitants of Scotland, who called their nobles
thanes, which in the old Saxon signifies kings ministers ;
and of these the higher rank were styled abthanes, and those
of the lower underthanes.
Abu-
Arisch
II
Abul
Cassim
ABU
ABU-ARISCH, a narrow strip of land in the S.W. of
Arabia, lying on the borders of the Red Sea, between Lat.
15. 50. and 17. 40. N. and Long. 41. 30. and 43. E. It is a
very dry and barren country, and only preserved from utter
j sterility by periodical inundations of rain from the neigh¬
bouring mountains. Its principal traffic is in coffee and senna
leaves, and its breed of asses is highly esteemed.
Abu-Arisch, the capital of the territory of the same name,
is situated about 24 miles from the Red Sea, in Lat. 16. 40.
N. and Long. 42. 20. E. The town is supposed to have been
once much nearer the sea, both from the appearance of the
surrounding country, and from the fact that the land here
is rapidly gaining upon the sea. In its neighbourhood are
several rock-salt mines. Population about 5000.
ABUBEKER, or Abu-Bekr, the first caliph, the imme¬
diate successor of Mahomet, and one of his first converts.
His original name was Abdulcaaba, signifying servant of the
caaba or temple, which, after his conversion to Mahometan¬
ism, was changed to Abdallah, servant of God; and on the
marriage of the prophet with his daughter Ayesha, he re¬
ceived the appellation of Abu-Bekr, Father of the virgin.
Illustrious by his family, and possessed of immense wealth,
his influence and example were powerful means of propagat¬
ing the faith he had adopted, and in gaining converts to the
new religion. Abubeker was a sound believer; and although
he lived in the greatest familiarity with Mahomet, he had
always the highest veneration for his character. He vouched
for the truth of his revelations after his nightly visits to
heaven, and thus obtained the appellation of the faithful.
He was employed in every mission of trust or importance,
was the constant friend of the prophet, and when he was
forced to fly from Mecca, was his only companion. But not¬
withstanding his blind devotion to Mahometanism, his mode¬
ration and prudence were conspicuous in checking the fana¬
tical zeal of the disciples of the new religion on the death of
Mahomet. This event threatened destruction to the doc¬
trines of Islamism. Its followers could not doubt that it had
taken place, and they were afraid to believe it. In this un¬
certainty and fluctuation of belief, Omar drew his sword, and
threatened to cut in pieces all who dared to assert that the
prophet was dead. Abubeker, with more coolness and wis¬
dom, addressed the people, Is it, says he, Mahomet whom
you adore, or the God whom he has revealed to you ?
Know that this God is alone immortal, and that all those
whom he has created are subject to death. Appeased and
reconciled by this speech, they elected him successor to Ma¬
homet, and he assumed the modest title of caliph, which has
continued with all his successors. Ali, the son-in-law of the
prophet, regarding the elevation of Abubeker as a violation
of his legal rights to the succession, refused at first to recog¬
nise the appointment, till he was forced by threats into com¬
pliance and submission. His partisans, however, still con¬
sidered him as the legitimate successor, and their opinion
has prevailed among many Mussulmans, who believe that the
sovereign authority, both spiritual and temporal, remains with
his descendants.
Abubeker first collected and digested the revelations of
Mahomet, which had hitherto been preserved in detached
fragments, or in the memories of the believers; and to this
the Arabians gave the appellation Almoshaf, or the Book.
He died in the 13th year of the Hegira, respected as a pru¬
dent and equitable ruler.
ABUKESO, in commerce, the same with Aslan.
ABULAHOR, a market town of Greece, on the Aspro-
potamus, in the province of Acarnania. It exports silk, oil,
and fruits.
ABLE CASSIM, the pretended author of a Spanish
chronicle of the Conquest of Spain by the Arabs, long sup¬
posed to be a translation from the Arabic, and used as such
ABU
53
by Mariana and others in writing their histories, but now
proved to be spurious.
ABULFARAGIUS, Gregory, son of Aaron, a physi¬
cian, born in 1226, in the city of Malatia, near the source of
the Euphrates in Armenia. He at first followed the profes- >
sion of his father, and practised with great success; but he
acquired a higher reputation by the study of the Greek,
Syriac, and Arabic languages, as well as by his knowledge
of philosophy and divinity. He wrote a history in Arabic,
which does great honour to his memory. It is divided into
dynasties, and consists of ten parts, forming an epitome of
universal history from the creation of the world to his ow n
time. The parts of it relating to the Saracens, Tartar Mo¬
guls, and the conquests of Jenghis Khan, are esteemed the
most valuable. He was bishop of Guba and then of Aleppo.
About 1266, being elected primate of the Jacobites in the
East, he held that dignity till his death in 1286. His con¬
temporaries speak of him in a strain of most extravagant pa¬
negyric. He is styled the king of the learned, the pattern
of his times, the phoenix of the age, and the crown of the vir¬
tuous. Dr Pococke published his history with a Latin trans¬
lation in 1663, in two vols. 4to.
ABUL FARAJ ALI, a celebrated Arabian poet, born
a.d. 897. Of his numerous works, the only one published
in Europe is the Kiteb Agnani, a collection of ancient poems.
Leipsic, 2 vols. 4to, 1789.
ABULFAZL, who is called by Sir William Jones, “ a
learned and elegant,” and by others, “ the most elegant”
writer that the East has produced, was vizier and historio¬
grapher to the great Mogul, Akbar. We have not been
able to discover the year of his birth, but his death took place
in 1602, when he was assassinated on his return from a mis¬
sion to the Deccan. According to some writers, this foul
act was perpetrated at the instigation of the heir apparent to
the throne, who had become jealous of the minister’s influ¬
ence with the emperor. Akbar greatly lamented the loss
of a man who was not only an able minister of state, but of
such talents as a writer, as to make it a common saying in
the East, “ that the neighbouring monarchs stood more in
awe of his pen than of the sword of his master.” He wrote,
by the emperor’s command, a history of his reign, which came
down to the forty-seventh year, in which he was assassinated.
In connection with this, he also compiled a volume, intended
to exhibit a geographical and statistical view of the empire,
and of the revenue, household, and expenses of the sove¬
reign. It likewise embraces an account of the religion of
the Hindoos, of their sacred books, and their several sects in
religion and philosophy. This work, which is fraught with
much curious and valuable information, is known under the
name of the Ayeen Akbery. It has been translated into
English with great accuracy by Mr Francis Gladwin. The
translation was undertaken and published at Calcutta, under
the intelligent patronage of Mr Hastings. “ Such a work,”
he said, in a minute of council, “ could not but prove pecu¬
liarly useful; as it comprehends the original constitution of
the Mogul Empire, described under the' immediate inspec¬
tion of its founder, and will serve to assist the judgment of
the Court of Directors on many points of importance to the
first interests of the company.”—The Calcutta edition, pub¬
lished in 1783-6, in three volumes quarto, is a splendid book,
and the most valuable in every respect, as the London re¬
prints are by no means accurate.
^ ABULGAZI, Bayadur, (1605-1663,) a khan of the
Tartars, who wrote an esteemed history of Tartary, which has
been translated into Russian, German, and French.
ABU MANSUR, a celebrated Arabian astronomer of
the 9th and 10th centuries, who did much service to science
by his observations. He wrote the lives of the Arabian poets;
but this work has not appeared in Europe.
Abul'fara-
gius
II
Abu
Mansur.
54
ABU
A B Y
Abuna
ABUNA, the title given to the archbishop or metropoli¬
tan of Abyssinia. . ,
ABUNDANT Number, in Arithmetic, is a number, tne
sum of whose aliquot parts is greater than the number itsel •
Thus, the aliquot parts of 12 being 1, 2,3, 4, and 6, they make,
when added together, 16. An abundant number is oppose
to a deficient number, or that which is greater than all its
aliquot parts taken together; as 14, whose aliquot parts are ,
2, and 7, which make no more than 10; and to a.perfect num¬
ber, or one to which its aliquot parts are equal, as 6, whose
aliquot parts are 1, 2, and 3. . •£
ABUNDANTIA, a heathen divinity, a personification ot
plenty, represented in ancient monuments under the figure
of a woman with a pleasing aspect, crowned with garlands
of flowers, pouring all sorts of fruit out of a horn which she
holds in her right hand, and scattering grain with her left
taken promiscuously from a sheaf of corn. On a medal ot
Trajan she is represented with two cornucopise.
ABURY. See Ayiburt. .
ABUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Britain, now
the Humber. „ . „ ,
ABUSAID, Ern Aljaptu, sultan of the Moguls, suc¬
ceeded his father anno 717 of the Hegira. He was the last
monarch of the race of Jenghis Khan, who held the undi¬
vided empire of the Moguls; for after his death, which hap¬
pened the same year that Tamerlane was born, it became a
scene of blood and desolation, and was broken into separate
sovereignties.
ABUSUMBOL, or Ebsamboue, or Ipsamboul, an¬
ciently Ahoccis, or Abuncis, a town on the Nile, in Nubia,
to the south of the island of Kogos, in Eat. 22. 20. 11. N.
and Long. 31. 40.57. E. About twenty feet above the river
is a temple hewn out of the perpendicular face of the rock.
At the entrance are several colossal figures of young persons,
in bas-relief, the space between them being filled with hiero¬
glyphics indicating a very high antiquity. A description of
this famous temple is given in the article Nubia.
ABU-TEMAN, an Arabian poet, of whom, though but
little can be said, it would be improper to omit all notice,
seeing he was held to be the prince of Arabian poets, dur¬
ing the best periods of Arabian literature. He was born
about the year 787; and, happily for him, under sovereigns
whose love and patronage of literature made poetical emi¬
nence an unfailing road to wealth and honour. Part of his
early life was passed in Egypt, in the servile capacity of ad¬
ministering drink to those who frequented a mosque. It is
also said, that he was for some time employed in the trade of
a weaver at Damascus. But his talents for poetry soon lifted
him from this humble sphere, and removed him to Bagdad,
where the caliphs loaded him with presents, and treated him
with the greatest respect. If we are to believe the Arabian
historians, a single poem sometimes procured for him many
thousand pieces of gold. So highly was he esteemed by his
countrymen, that it was said “ no one could ever die whose
name had been praised in the verses of Abu-Teman!” His
own life was very short, for he died in his fortieth year; “ the
ardour of his mind,” says one of his contemporaries, “ having
wasted his body, as the blade of an Indian scimitar destroys
its scabbard.” Besides being a great original poet, he was the
compiler of three collections of select pieces of the poetry
of the East; the most esteemed of which collections is that
called the Hamasa. Sir William Jones speaks of it as a
very valuable compilation. Many of the elegant specimens
of Arabian poetry contained in Professor Carlyle’s well-
known work, were translated from pieces contained in this
miscellany. A large portion of it, with a Latin version, was
annexed by Schultens to his edition of Erpenius’s Arabic
Grammar, published at Leyden in 1748 ; and there are also
many extracts from it in the collection entitled Anthologia
Arabica, published at Jena in 1774. #
ABYDOS, in Ancient Geography, a city of Mysia, in
Asia Minor, situated on the Hellespont, which is here scarcely
a mile broad. It probably was originally a Thracian town,
but was afterwards colonised by Milesians. Nearly opposite,
on the European side of the Hellespont, stood Sestos; and
it was here that Xerxes crossed the strait on his celebrated
bridge of boats when he invaded Greece. Abydos was ce¬
lebrated for the vigorous resistance it made when besieged
by Philip of Macedon; and is famed in story for the loves
of Hero and Leander. The old castle of the Dardanelles,
built by the Turks, lies a little southward of Sestos and
Abydos.
Abydos, in Ancient Geography, an inland town of Egypt,
between Ptolemais and Diospolis Parva, famous for the
palace of Memnon and the temple of Osiris. In the latter
was discovered by Mr Bankes in 1818, the tablet contain¬
ing a double series of twenty-six shields of the predecessors
of Rameses the Great, which is now deposited in the Biitish
Museum.
ABYLA (Ptolemy, Mela), one of Hercules s pillars, on
the African side, called by the Spaniards Sierra de las Monas,
opposite to Calpe in Spain, the other pillar; supposed to
have been formerly joined, but separated by Hercules, and
thus to have given entrance to the sea now called the Me¬
diterranean ; the limits of the labours of Hercules. (Pliny.)
ABYSS (’'A/Suo-o-os). The Greek word means literally
‘ ivithout bottom] but actually, deep, profound. It is used
in the Septuagint for the Hebrew term Oinrh which we find
applied either to the ocean or to the under world. In the
New Testament it is used as a noun to describe Hades, or
the place of the dead generally, but more especially that part
of Hades in which the souls of the wicked were supposed to
be confined.
Most of these uses of the word are explained by reference
to some of the cosmological notions which the Hebrews en¬
tertained in common with other Eastern nations. It was
believed that the abyss, or sea of fathomless wateis, encom-^
passed the whole earth. The earth floated on the abyss, of
which it covered only a small part. According to the same
notion, the earth was founded upon the waters, or, at least,
had its foundations in the abyss beneath. Under these
waters, and at the bottom of the abyss, the wicked weie re¬
presented as groaning, and undergoing the punishment of
tlicix sms.
The notion of such an abyss was by no means confined
to the East. It was equally entertained by the Celtic Druids,
who held that Annum (the deep, the low port), the abyss
from which the earth arose, was the abode of the evil prin¬
ciple (Gwarthawn), and the place of departed spirits, com¬
prehending both the Elysium and the Tartarus of antiquity.
With them also wandering spirits were called Plant annwn,
“the children of the deep,” (Davis’s Celtic Researches, p. 175;
Myth, and Rites of the B. Druids, p. 49).
Abyss is also used in Heraldry to denote the centre of
an escutcheon. In which sense a thing is said to be borne
in abyss, en abysme, when placed in the middle of the shield,
clear from any other bearing: He bears azure, a fleur-de-lis,
in abyss.
Abvdos
Abyss.
55
ABYSSINIA.
ssinia. ABYSSINIA is an extensive country on the eastern coast
^ of Africa, lying between 8° and 16° N. Lat. and 34° and
43° E. Long., bounded on the north-west by Nubia, on the
north-east by the Red Sea, on the south by the country of
the Gallas, and on the west by countries almost unknown,
in the interior of Africa. Its extent is estimated at about
245,000 geographical square miles, and its population at from
four to five millions.
Abyssinia is pre-eminently an alpine country. It rises from the
low arid district on the borders of the Red Sea, in lofty ranges of
mountains, with extensive and elevated table-lands, intersected by
numerous valleys. Its mountains assume wild and fantastic forms,
with sides frequently abrupt and precipitous, and are only accessi¬
ble by very difficult passes. The summits of the more lofty are fre¬
quently, if not always, covered with snow, a statement not admitted
by Bruce, but asserted by both Pearce and Salt, the former of whom
was overtaken by a snow-storm on the Samen Mountains in the
middle of October; the latter saw snow there from a distance on
the 8th of May; and the more recent traveller, Dr Riippell, found
newly-fallen snow on the same mountains in the month of July. The
Samen range of mountains are the highest in Abyssinia, and to¬
gether with the Lamalmon and Lasta mountains, form a long but
not continuous chain running north-east and south-west. Several
of these mountains, as the Amba-Hai and the Beyeda, are upwards
of 12,000 feet high, while the Abba Yaret and the Buahat rise to a
height of almost 15,000 feet. Lying between the Samen mountains
and the Red Sea, and almost parallel to the coast, is the Taranta
range, which attains a height of upwards of 7000 feet. The table¬
lands or plateaux have been classed by that celebrated geographer
Ritter, into three distinct groups or terraces, rising one above an¬
other from the borders of the Red Sea. The first of these is the
plain of Baharnegash, lying to the west of the Taranta mountains,
and extending to the river Mareb. On a higher elevation, lying be¬
tween the rivers Mareb and Tacazze, is the Tigre plateau. The third
or Amhara plateau is separated from the preceding by the Samen
mountains, and has a mean elevation of 8000 feet. Prom this the
country descends to unknown regions on the west.
Of the rivers of Abyssinia the most important are the Abai, called
also the Bahr-el-Azrek, or Blue River, and the Tacazze. The former,
which is the eastern branch of the Nile, and was considered by Bruce
to be the main stream of that river, rises from two mountains near
Geesh, in Lat. 10. 59. 25. N., 36. 55. 30. E. Long., at an elevation of
about 10,000 feet above the level of the sea. It flows first north to the
lake of Dembea, through which it has a perceptible current; it then
takes a long semicircular sweep round the province of Gojam, and
afterwards flows northward till about the 15th degree of north lati¬
tude, when it unites with the Bahr-el-Abiad, or White River, which is
now considered to be the true Nile. The Tacazze or Atbara rises
in the mountains of Lasta, and after draining those of Samen and
Tigre, at length falls into the Nile in north latitude 17. 40. The
Hawash rises in the south of Abyssinia, about latitude 9. 30. N.,
and longitude 38. E., and flowing in a north-easterly direction to¬
wards the Red Sea, is lost in Lake Abbebad, in latitude 11. 30. N.,
longitude 41. 40. E. The Mareb rises in the mountains of Taranta,
and, flowing nearly parallel to the Tacazze, is afterwards lost in the
sand ; but Bruce says that in the rainy season it reaches that river.
Besides these, there are numerous smaller rivers which rise in the
mountains and are lost in the sandy plains below, or fall into
larger rivers or lakes. The principal lake of Abyssinia is the
Dembea or Tzana in the country of Amhara. It is about 60 miles
long, and 40 broad, is fed by numerous rivulets, and abounds in
small islands. Lake Ashangee is in the country of Tigre, and about
30 miles long by 15 broad. In the south of Abyssinia, near the Bay
of Tajura, in the gulf of Bab-el-Mandeb, is the remarkable lake of
Assal. This lake, which has only recently become known to travel¬
lers, is of an elliptical form, and about seven miles long. It is half
filled with water of the deepest cerulean blue, and half with a solid
sheet of glittering snow-white salt, and is no less than 570 feet be¬
low the level of the neighbouring gulf.
Abyssinia, from its more or less elevated situation, presents al¬
most every variety of climate, from the burning heat of a tropical
sun on the coast, to severe cold on the summits of its snow-crowned
mountains. On the table-lands one breathes a pure mountain air,
while in the valleys the heat is almost suffocating.
Few countries are more richly endowed by nature than Abys¬
sinia. Its fertility is so great as in some places to produce three Abyssinia,
crops annually: vegetation gradually increases as it rises from the \ . ^ /
sandy coast. On the table-lands are found extensive pastures, and
cedar forests crown the tops of many of its mountains. Among its
fruit trees are numbered the date, orange, lemon, pomegranate, and
banana. Coffee grows wild on the western mountains, and on its
western declivities the cotton plant is found in great abundance.
On the table-lands are extensive maize fields, and there, as well as
in other parts of the country, the sugar-cane and vine are cultivated.
On the higher grounds, wheat and barley are raised in large quan¬
tities, and the low grounds are chiefly covered with teff, Poa abys-
sinica, with grains not larger than the head of a pin, of which is
made the bread in general use throughout the country. The low
grounds produce also a kind of corn called tokussa, a species of
Eleusine, of which a black bread is made, which constitutes the food
of the lowest classes. Durra, or Holcus Sorghum, in Abyssinian,
Maschella, is common. In some provinces Schami, Zea Mais, has
been introduced ; and the natives cultivate other esculent vegetables
as Schimbera, Circe arietinum; Misani, lentils; Atar, vetches;
Bagela, lupines; Nuck, oriental sesame; Telwa, a species of lintseed ;
Schankurte, a small onion; Gamal, a species of cabbage. Myrrh,
senna, and various kinds of costly medicinal plants, are very plen¬
tiful.
Most of the domestic animals of Europe are found here. The
horses are strong and active, and the oxen very numerous—a re¬
markable species of which, the Galla ox, has horns sometimes four
feet long. Goats and sheep are very plentiful, but the latter are
small, and have black wool. Of the animals of prey, the most nu¬
merous is the striped hyaena, which is very fierce and untameable,
and, protected by superstition, roams unchecked in immense numbers
over the country, entering the towns and even the houses of the in¬
habitants. The elephant and rhinoceros are numerous in the low
grounds. The Abyssinian rhinoceros has two horns; its skin, which
has no folds, is used for shields ; as well as for lining drinking-ves¬
sels, being regarded as an antidote to poison. Crocodiles and hip¬
popotami are plentiful in the rivers; lions, panthers, and the com¬
mon and black varieties of leopards, are seen occasionally, and buffa¬
loes frequently. Besides these, there are found several species of
monkeys ; the common, the caracal, and the booted lynx ; the wild
cat, a small species of wolf, the Barbary jackal, common fox, fen-
neck, zibet, weasel, rat, mouse, marmot, Barbary and palm squirrel,
jerboa, hare, Syrian hyrax, wild boar, cameleopard, zebra, quagga,
camel, and antelopes of the species oryx, areas, bubalis, euehore,
grimmia, and dorcas. The number of birds in this country is im¬
mense. Great numbers of eagles, vultures, hawks, and other birds
of prey are met with; and partridges, snipes, pigeons, and swal¬
lows, are very plentiful. Among the birds of Abyssinia are the bar-
batus and perenopterus species of vulture, the occipital eagle, seve¬
ral species of falcons, the p olio cep halus, cubla, and ferruginous species
of shrikes, Psittacus Taranta, or Taranta parrakeet, Coracias Bengal-
ensis, or Bengal roller, Bucco Saltii or Salt’s bucco, Oriolus monachus,
Cuculus Senegalensis, Pious Abyssinicus, Alcedo Abyssinica or cheli-
cuti, Merops erythropterus, and forficatus or furcatus, Certhia Ta¬
cazze, Tanagra erythrorhynca, Sylvia pammelania, Colius striatus,
and Senegalensis, Loxia leucotis, Emberiza capensis, Fringilla Sene¬
galensis and Bengalensis, Muscicapa paradisea and mutata, Alauda
desertorum, Struthio camelus or ostrich, Cursorius Europceus, Columbia
Guinea, or Guinea pigeon, Columba Abyssinica, Numida mitrata,
Tringa Senegalensis, and Abyssinica, Ardea Pondiceriana, or rather
Erodia Amphilensis, and the Phoenicurus musicus, capensis, and the
nitens species of the T urdus. Serpents of different species are not
uncommon, among which of the venomous sort are Naja Haje, Vipc-
ra Arcelaus, V. Echis, and probably V. Cerastes. Among its insects
the most numerous and useful is the bee; for honey everywhere
constitutes an important part of the food of the inhabitants, and
several of the provinces pay a large proportion of their tribute in
this article. Of an opposite class is the locust, the ravages of which
here, as in the other parts of Northern Africa, are terrible.
Abyssinia, according to MM. Galinier and Ferret, ought to be
ranked among the most complex and remarkable countries in a geo¬
logical point of view. The formations range from the first to the last
degree of the geological scale. They found the primary and tran¬
sition formations in the country of the Chohos in Tigre; secondary
formations at the extremity of Tigre; tertiary and modern forma¬
tions on the shores of the Red Sea, &c.; besides a great variety
of sedimentary rocks, rocks of plutonic and volcanic origin; and
besides those commonly named metamorphic rocks, a number of
56 ABYSSINIA.
Abyssinia, extinct volcanoes, hot springs, repositories of sulphur, rock salt,
combustible substances, malachite, and native copper, lead, iron,
&c.
Of the mineral wealth of Abyssinia little is known. Granite,
slate, and gneiss, form a great part of its mountains ; antimony and
iron ore, with small quantities of gold and silver, are mentioned
among its productions. South-east of Tigre, and about 50 miles
from Amphila bay, is an extensive plain of salt, which to the depth
of two feet is perfectly pure, and so hard as to require to be cut
with a hatchet; at a greater depth it is much coarser and softer, till
purified and hardened by exposure to the air. The savage tribes in
the vicinity, ever on the watch for plunder, render the digging and
carrying off the salt very dangerous to those engaged in these ope¬
rations, who are therefore obliged to associate in numerous and
well-armed bands. This salt is used by the Abyssinians, not only
to season and preserve food, but also as a medium of exchange, in¬
creasing in value the farther it is carried into the country.
The ancients included Abyssinia under the general name
of Ethiopia, and the people under that of Ethiopians, from
a word in the Greek language signifying of a dark colour;
and the Abyssinians of the present day call themselves Itio-
pians, and their country Itiopia. Abyssinia, or more cor¬
rectly Habessina, is a corruption of Habesch, a name
given to the country by the Arabs, and signifying a mixed
people.
The ancient history of Abyssinia is very imperfectly
known. The story of the Abyssinians, that their country is
the Sheba mentioned in Scripture whose queen visited Solo¬
mon, is unworthy of credit; equally so is the assertion that
Solomon had a son by that queen, named Menilebek, from
whom sprang the Abyssinian kings. The kingdom of the
Auxumitae flourished in Abyssinia, in the first or second cen¬
tury of our era. Its chief town was Auxume, whose site is
now occupied by the modern Axum in Tigre, where many
vestiges of its greatness are to be found. It appears that at
this time the arts of the Greeks and Egyptians had pene¬
trated into the country; and we find the Greek language
used in their monumental inscriptions, as in the famous monu¬
ment at Axum, executed before the introduction of Christian¬
ity, in which the king calls himself “ son of the invincible
Mars.” In the year 522, the Abyssinians, under the command
of their king Elesbaan, the most powerful, and the only con¬
quering prince that occupied the throne, attacked and de¬
stroyed the kingdom of the Homerites, on the opposite coast
of the Red Sea. Elesbaan afterwards resigned the government,
and ended his life in a monastery. About 60 years later, the
Abyssinians were expelled from Arabia, and from this time till
about the year 960 we have very little information respecting
them that can be depended on. About the latter period, Queen
Judith, a Jewish princess, of more than manly courage and
ruthless ambition, conceived the bloody design of murdering
all the members of the royal family, and establishing herself in
their stead. During the execution of the project the infant
king was carried off by some faithful adherents, and conveyed
to Shoa, where his authority was acknowledged; while Judith
reigned for 40 years over the rest of the kingdom, and trans¬
mitted the crown to her posterity. In 1268, however, the
kingdom was restored to the royal house, in the person of
Icon Amlac. On the accession of this prince the royal resi¬
dence was removed from Axum to Shoa, and the Amharic
became the language of the court. About the close of the
loth century, the Portuguese missions into Abyssinia com¬
menced, and were continued from time to time, till Mendez,
by his arrogance and cruelty, brought about their expulsion.
This Portuguese Jesuit had so ingratiated himself with the
Emperor Lusneius, as to be intrusted with the management
of the religious affairs of the country. The emperor himself
swore obedience to the Roman Pontiff, and commanded his
people to embrace the Roman Catholic religion. But the
people had not suffered papal tyranny sufficiently long to sub¬
mit tamely to the inquisitorial punishments that Mendez ad¬
ministered to the recusants. Civil commotions and insurrec- Abyssinia,
tions were the consequence, till at length, in 1631, the em-
peror freed the people from the tyranny of Mendez, by grant¬
ing them liberty to exercise the religion they preferred; and
Basilides, who succeeded his father in 1632, drove Mendez
and the whole Jesuitical persecutors out of the country.
Abyssinia then became the seat of anarchy and confusion, oc¬
casioned by the encroachments of the Gallas from without,
and the contests between the governors of the different pro¬
vinces in the interior. Might everywhere triumphed over
right; cities and villages were burned down, and the inhabi¬
tants driven out and sold for slaves. In these circumstances,
the king, who lived in Gondar, with only a small retinue
of servants, received but little respect or obedience from
the governors of the different provinces, each of whom was
anxious to obtain that title for himself, and was only pre¬
vented by the jealousy of the others. The result of these
contests has been that Abyssinia, as a kingdom, has ceased to
exist. It is now divided into numerous independent king¬
doms or provinces, governed either by Galla princes, or by
the successors of former governors, who had raised them¬
selves to independence. These petty kings are constantly at
war with each other, and the most deadly animosities exist
between them.
The most important of the kingdoms of Abyssinia are
those of Tigre, Amhara, Gondar, Shoa, and Angot. Tigre
is situate in the north-eastern part of Abyssinia, separated
from Amhara by the river Tacazze, and comprehends the
provinces of, 1. Tigre proper, with Adowathe chief town, and
Axum the ancient capital of Abyssinia; 2. Agame ; 3. En-
derta ; 4. the Lasta country, consisting of rude and almost
inaccessible mountains; 5. Lamen; 6. Baharnegash ; 7.
Woijerat; 8. Wofila ; besides these are the districts of Tem-
bea, Shire, Waldubha, &c.
Amhara consists of the large province of Amhara, lying
along the Dembea lake, and several of the neighbouring
districts ; and is governed by a Galla prince.
Gondar is in the possession of a Mahommedan Galla
prince and contains, 1. The province of Dembea, named after
the lake in its vicinity, with the city of Gondar, which was
formerly the chief town of Abyssinia. 2. The province of
Bejemder. 3. The province of Maidsha, besides the dis¬
tricts of Godsham, Damot, See.
Shoa is situate in the south of Abyssinia, and at present
seems to be the most powerful and flourishing kingdom in
that country. It is inhabited chiefly by Gallas, and is governed
by a Galla prince, who resides at Ankobar; the population
is estimated at one and a-half million. Angot also in the
south of Abyssinia, is inhabited by Gallas and governed by a
Galla prince. Its capital is Agof.
The aborigines, who are the most numerous people of
Abyssinia, belong to the Caucasian race, and are of a dark
olive colour, approaching to black, and generally handsome,
with long hair and lively eyes. They are divided into tribes, as
the Tigreans, Amharans, Agows, &c. Other races have, at va¬
rious times, established themselves in the country. A Jewish
race inhabit the district of Lamen, and are known by the
name of Talashas. They affirm that their forefathers came
into the country as early as the days of Rehoboam ; but it
seems more probable that they had come about the time of
the destruction of Jerusalem. From the tenth century they
enjoyed their own constitutional rights, and were subject to
their own kings, who, they pretend, were descended from
king David, until the year 1800, when the royal race be¬
came extinct, and since then they have been subject to Ti¬
gre. The Gallas are a wild and savage race from the south,
who have overrun the greater part of Abyssinia, so that at pre¬
sent there are few chiefs who have not an intermixture of
Galla blood. They are mostly idolaters, but many have
ABYSSINIA.
Abyssinia, adopted the Mahommedan faith, and not a few the Christi-
anity of the Abyssinians. Their young men are denied cer¬
tain privileges, and are despised by their seniors, and even
by the women, till they have given proof of their manhood
by killing an enemy.
The principal languages of Abyssinia belong to the Ethi-
opic class, and are divided into several branches. The Geez,
which is the language of Tigre, and of which the modern
Tigre is a dialect, is that of the religion and literature of the
country; and while Tigre was dominant, it was that of the
court. From its affinity to the Arabic, it may reasonably be
supposed to have been introduced by conquerors or settlers
from the opposite shores of the Red Sea. The Amharic,
which is the language of the present dominant race, is that
used by the court and merchants, and that which travellers
who penetrate beyond Tigre, generally have occasion to
use. Though this language has many words in common with
the Geez, yet whether it be a dialect of that or an ancient
African language, is a question which has not been settled.
The Agow in its various dialects is the language of the people
generally; in some provinces it is used almost exclusively,
and in others where it has been superseded by the language
of the dominant race, it still exists among the lowest classes.
The Gallas have introduced their own language into various
parts of the country; but in many cases they have adopted
the language of the people whose place they have usurped.
The religion of the Abyssinians is a very degraded form of
Christianity. It was introduced as early as the beginning of
the fourth century by Frumentius, who was consecrated first
Bishop of Abyssinia by St Athanasius of Alexandria. Since
that time, it has been so corrupted by errors of various kinds,
as to have now become little more than a dead formality
mixed up with superstition and Judaism. Their children
are circumcised, and the Mosaic commandments with respect
to food and purification are observed. Fasts and feast-days
are very frequent; baptism and the Lord’s Supper are dis¬
pensed after the manner of the Greek church. Their wor¬
ship consists merely in reading passages of Scripture, and
dispensing the Lord’s Supper without any preaching or sing¬
ing. Of the more ignorant of the clergy, the greater part
are married; and even among the monks, marriage is not
rare, though contrary to the rules of their order; and indeed,
some of them even live in polygamy, which among the Abys¬
sinians is not uncommon. Their primate or chief bishop, whom
they call Abuna {i.e. our father) is nominated by the Patri¬
arch of Cairo, whom they acknowledge as their spiritual
father. The ecclesiastical body is very numerous, consisting
of priests of various kinds, with monks and nuns, and is
looked upon with great awe and reverence. They have in¬
numerable saints, but above all is the Virgin, whom they
consider as queen of heaven and earth, and the great inter¬
cessor for the sins of mankind. Their churches are rude
edifices, chiefly of a circular form, with thatched roofs, and
surrounded by pillars of cedar. Like the Greek church,
they have no images of any kind in their places of worship,
but paintings are very common ; and on entering, every one
must leave his shoes at the door. Legends of saints, and works
of religious controversy, form almost their entire literature.
The Abyssinians are very rude and barbarous. Engaged
as they are in continual wars, and accustomed to bloodshed,
human life is not respected among them. Murders and exe¬
cutions are frequent, and at Gondar Bruce seldom went out
without seeing dead bodies in the streets, left to be devoured
by the dogs and hyaenas. When one commits murder, he
must make satisfaction to the relatives of the deceased, who
may either put him to death or accept of a ransom. When
the murdered person has no relatives, the priests take upon
themselves the office of avengers. Raw flesh is with them
a favourite article of food. At their brinds, or raw flesh feasts,
vol. n.
the cattle are brought to the door and slaughtered; and the Abyssinia,
flesh, while yet warm and quivering, is brought in to the guests, v—■vr—-^
and devoured by them with great gusto. Marriage is a very
slight connection, dissolvable at any time by either party.
The engagement is concluded between the lover and the
bride’s parents, her consent not being considered at all neces¬
sary to the agreement. The lover then carries off the bride
on his shoulders, and the ceremony concludes with a brind
feast. Their principal liquor is mead; but the common drink
of the lower classes is bouza, a species of sour beer, made
from the fermentation of their bread, principally of that left
at their feasts. Their dress consists of a large folding mantle
and close drawers; their houses are very rude, of a conical
form, and covered with thatch.
The inhabitants of Abyssinia are chiefly engaged in agri¬
cultural and pastoral pursuits. Their industrial productions
are insignificant, consisting chiefly in preparations of leather,
parchment, cotton cloths, and tapestry fabricated from wool
and goats’ hair, and in manufactures of iron and brass.
Abyssinia is equally unimportant in a commercial point
of view. It only possesses a single harbour; and there is no
road or navigable river to facilitate intercourse with the inte¬
rior of the country. In addition to these obstacles, merchants,
when travelling, are exposed to the attacks of wild maraud¬
ing hordes, and subjected to high taxes and duties, which an¬
nually amount to a considerable sum. Massuah, its principal,
or rather only seaport town, is the chief place for foreign traf¬
fic. Caravans bring here the merchandise of this and some
of the western countries, and carry away European and In¬
dian goods. Its principal imports are lead, tin, copper, silk,
gunpowder, glass, Indian goods, Persian carpets, French
cloths, coloured skins from Egypt; the exports are ivory,
gold, slaves, cattle, cotton cloth, mules, honey.
The steam navigation of the Red Sea has given an in¬
creased degree of importance to Abyssinia in the eyes of se¬
veral of the European powers. The British, since they got
possession of Aden, have been very anxious to establish com¬
mercial intercourse with this country; while the French have
been no less desirous to attain the same object. The latter
have despatched several embassies for the purpose of ascer¬
taining the mercantile capabilities of the country, and have
also, in order to effect a union between that country and the
See of Rome, established a Catholic mission at Adowa. The
English, in the beginning of 1841, sent a political mission to
Shoa, with the view to a commercial union with that kingdom.
Major Harris, who commanded the expedition, afterwards
published an account of his travels there, in three volumes.
In 1829, the Church Missionary Society sent Messrs Gobat
and Kugler as missionaries to Abyssinia. Mr Kugler died
shortly after his arrival, but his place was supplied by Isen-
berg, who was followed by Messrs Blumhardt and Krapf. Mr
Gobat returned to Europe in 1833, and next year published
a journal of his residence in Abyssinia. On account of the
opposition of the native priests, the missionaries were, in 1838,
compelled to leave the country; and after several fruitless
attempts to re-establish themselves, the mission was aban¬
doned in 1843. Dr Edward Ruppell, a German naturalist,
arrived at Massuah in 1831, and remained in the country
nearly two years. His researches have thrown much light
on the nature and productions of the country. He brought
to Europe a large collection of animals, including many new
species, which he deposited in the museum of his native city,
Frankfort on the Maine; and in 1838 he published an ac¬
count of his travels, in two volumes, entitled, Reise in Abys-
sinien. But of all the travellers to this country, perhaps none
have done more to extend our knowledge of it than Dr Beke.
He reached several places which had never before been visited
by Europeans, collected vocabularies of no fewer than thir¬
teen of its languages and dialects, and is the first traveller
H
58 A C A
Abyssinian who has described the sources of Abai since the days of Bruce,
II whose statements he confirms. He arrived at Tajura in No-
Acacia. vember 1840, and travelling through Shoa, Gojam, Lasta,
and Tigre, arrived at Massuah in May 1843. From time to
time he communicated an account of his travels to the Royal
Geographical Society, which is published in their journal.
ABYSSINIAN, in Ecclesiastical History, is the name
of a sect in the Christian church, established in the empire
of Abyssinia. The Abyssinians Are a branch of the Copts
or Jacobites, with whom they agree in admitting but one
nature in Jesus Christ, and rejecting the council of Chalce-
don: whence they are called Eutychians or Monophysites,
and stand opposite to the Melchites. They are only distin¬
guished from the Copts, and other sects of Jacobites, by some
peculiar national usages. The Abyssinian sect or church is
governed by a bishop or metropolitan styled Abuna, sent
them by the Coptic patriarch of Alexandria residing at Cairo,
who is the only person that ordains priests. The next dignity
is that of Komos, or Hegumenos, who is a kind of archpres¬
byter. They have canons also, and monks: the former of
whom marry; the latter, at their admission, vow celibacy, but
with a reservation: these, it is said, make a promise aloud,
before their superior, to keep chastity ; but add in a low
voice, as you keep it. The emperor has a kind of supremacy
in ecclesiastical matters. He alone takes cognizance of all
ecclesiastical causes, except some smaller ones reserved to
the judges, and confer all benefices, except that of Abuna.
See Abyssinia.
AC A, Ace, or Agon, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Phoenicia, on the Mediterranean; afterwards called Ptole-
mais; now Acre.
ACACIA, Egyptian Thorn, or Binding Bean-tree, in
Botany, a species of mimosa, according to Linnaeus, though
other botanists make it a distinct genus. Several species of
acacia produce gum arabic, especially A. Ehrenbergii, A.
tortilis, A. arabica, A. vera, A. Seyal, A. Verek. An in¬
ferior sort is produced by A. Adansonii, A. albida, and A.
Karro. These are natives of Egypt, Arabia, or Africa. The
inspissated gum of the bark of A. catechu forms the astrin¬
gent substance name catechu; which, however, is also pro¬
duced in India from several other trees. The bark of seve¬
ral species of acacia produce a tannin ; of which a large
quantity is now imported from Van Diemen’s Land, for the
purposes of the tanner, and is chiefly the produce of A. de-
currens and A. mollissima.
A. julibrissin, a native of Persia, has, on account of its ele¬
gant foliage and flowers, been long acclimated in England;
A. sophora is a fragrant species, that has more lately been
introduced, and is nearly acclimated in the south of our
island. It flowers early in spring, and bears many clusters of
rich yellow flowers.
The flowers of a species of the acacia are used by the
Chinese in making that yellow which we see bears washing
in their silks and stuffs, and appears with so much elegance
in their painting on paper. The method is this: They gather
the flowers before they are fully open ; these they put in a
clean earthen vessel over a gentle heat, and stir them continu¬
ally about as they do the tea-leaves, till they become dryish
and of a yellow colour; then to half a pound of flowers they
add three spoonfuls of fair water, and after that a little more,
till there is just enough to hold the flowers incorporated to¬
gether ; they boil this for some time, and the juice of the
flowers mixing with the water, it becomes thick and yellow;
they then take it from the fire, and strain it through a piece
of coarse silk. To the liquor they add half an ounce of com¬
mon alum, and an ounce of calcined oyster-shells reduced to
a fine powder. All is then well mixed together; and this
is the fine lasting yellow they have so long used.
The dyers of large pieces use the flowers and seeds of the
A C A
acacia for dyeing three different sorts of yellow. They roast Acacia
the flowers, as before observed ; and then mix the seeds with II
them, which must be gathered for this purpose when fully ^Acacius.
ripe ; by different admixtures of these they give the different '
shades of colour, only for the deepest of all they add a small
quantity of Brazil wood.
Mr Geoffrey attributes the origin of bezoar to the seeds of
this plant; which being browsed by certain animals, and vel-
licating the stomach by their great sourness and astringency,
cause a condensation of the juices, till at length they be¬
come coated over with a stony matter which we call Bezoar.
Acacia, in the Materia Medica, the inspissated juice of
the unripe fruit of the Mimosa Nilotica.
The juice is brought to us from Egypt, in roundish masses
wrapt up in thin bladders. It is outwardly of a deep brown
colour, inclining to black; inwardly of a reddish or yellowish
brown; of a firm consistence, but not very dry. It soon
softens in the mouth, and discovers a rough, not disagreeable
taste, which is followed by a sweetish relish. This inspis¬
sated juice entirely dissolves in watery liquors, but is scarce
sensibly acted on by rectified spirit.
This acacia is a mild astringent medicine. The Egyptians
give it in spitting of blood, in the quantity of a drachm, dis¬
solved in any convenient liquor; and repeat this dose occa¬
sionally : they likewise employ it in collyria for strengthening
the eyes, and in gargarisms for quinsy. Among us, it is little
otherwise used than as an ingredient in mithridate and the-
riaca, and is rarely met with in the shops. What is usually
sold for the Egyptian acacia, is the inspissated juice of unripe
sloes; this is harder, heavier, of a darker colour, and some¬
what sharper taste, than the true sort. See the next article.
German Acacia, the juice of unripe sloes inspissated nearly
to dryness over a gentle fire, care being taken to prevent its
burning. It is moderately astringent, similar to the Egyp¬
tian acacia, for which it has been commonly substituted in
the shops. It is given in fluxes, and other disorders where
styptic medicines are indicated, from a scruple to a drachm.
Acacia, among Antiquaries, something resembling a roll
or bag, seen on models, as in the hands of several consuls
and emperors. Some take it to represent a handkerchief
rolled up, wherewith they made signals at the games ; others,
a roll of petitions or memorials ; and some a purple bag full
of earth, to remind them of their mortality.
AC ACI AN S, in Ecclesiastical History, the nameof several
sects of heretics; some of which maintained, that the Son
was only a similar, not the same, substance with the Father;
and others, that he was not only a distinct but a dissimilar
substance. Two of these sects had their denominations from
Acacius, bishop of Caesarea, who lived in the fourth century,
and changed his opinions so as, at different times, to be head
of both. Another was named from Acacius, patriarch of Con¬
stantinople, who lived in the close of the fifth century.
ACACIUS, surnamed Luscus, because he was blind of
one eye, was bishop of Caesarea in Palestine, and succeeded
the famous Eusebius: he had a great share in the banish¬
ment of Pope Liberius, and bringing Felix to the see of
Rome. He gave name to a sect, and died about the year
365. He wrote the life of Eusebius, which is lost, and se¬
veral other works.
Acacius, Saint, bishop of Amida in Mesopotamia, in 420,
was distinguished by his piety and charity. He sold the
plate belonging to his church, to redeem seven thousand
Persian slaves who were perishing with hunger. He gave each
of them some money and sent them home. Yeranius, their
king, was so affected with this noble instance of benevolence,
that he desired to see the bishop; and this interview procured
a peace between that prince and Theodosius I.
There have been several other eminent persons of the
same name; particularly, a martyr under the Emperor Decius;
A C A
A C A
59
a patriarch of Antioch, who succeeded Basil in 458, and died
in 459 ; a bishop of Melitenein the fifth century; a famous
rhetorician in the reign of the Emperor Julian ; and a patri¬
arch of Constantinople in the fifth century, who was ambi¬
tious to draw the whole power and authority of Rome by de¬
grees to Constantinople, for which he was excommunicated
by Pope Felix II. He in his turn passed sentence of ex-
communication against the pope. Still, however, he held his
patriarchate till his death in 488.
ACAD, Accad, or Achad, one of the five cities in “ the
land of Shinar,” or Babylonia, said (Gen. x. 10) to have been
built by Nimrod. Their situation has been much disputed.
Without giving the details of the question, it is sufficient to
say that Colonel Taylor, the British resident at Baghdad,
who has given much attention to the subject, has, with great
probability, identified the ancient Achad (or Achar, as it is
given in some Hebrew MSS.), with the remarkable pile of
ancient buildings called Akker-koof, in Sittacene, and which
the Turks know as Akker-i-Nimrood and Akker-i-Babil.
Akker-koof is about nine miles west of the Tigris, at the
spot where that river makes its nearest approach to the Eu¬
phrates. The heap of ruins to which the name of Nimrod’s
Hill—Tel-i-Nimrood, is more especially appropriated, con¬
sists of a mound surmounted by a mass of brick-work, which
looks like either a tower or an irregular pyramid, according
to the point from which it is viewed. It is about 400 feet
in circumference at the bottom, and rises to the height of
125 feet above the sloping elevation on which it stands. The
mound, which seems to form the foundation of the pile, is a
mass of rubbish accumulated by the decay of the superstruc¬
ture. In the ruin itself, the layers of sun-dried bricks, of
which it is composed, can be traced very distinctly. They
are cemented together by lime or bitumen, and are divided
into courses varying from 12 to 20 feet in height, and are
separated by layers of reeds, as is usual in the more ancient
remains of this primitive region. The use of this remark¬
able monument has been a subject of doubt and conjecture.
The embankments of canals and reservoirs, and the rem¬
nants of brick-work and pottery occupying the place all around,
evince that the Tel stood in an important city; and, as its
construction announces it to be a Babylonian relic, the greater
probability is that it was one of those pyramidal structures
erected upon high places, which were consecrated to the
heavenly bodies, and served at once as the temples and the
observatories of those remote times.
ACADEMICS, or Academists, a denomination given to
the cultivators of a species of philosophy originally derived Academy,
from Socrates, and afterwards illustrated and enforced by
Plato, who taught in a grove near Athens, consecrated to
the memory of Academus, an Athenian hero; from which
circumstance this philosophy received the name of Academi¬
cal. Before the days of Plato, philosophy had in a great mea¬
sure fallen into contempt. The contradictory systems and
hypotheses which had successively been advanced were be¬
come so numerous, that, from a view of this inconstancy
and uncertainty of human opinions, many were led to con¬
clude, that truth lay beyond the reach of our comprehension.
Absolute and universal scepticism was the natural conse¬
quence of this conclusion. In order to remedy this abuse of
philosophy and of the human faculties, Plato laid hold of the
principles of the academical philosophy; and, in his Phsedo,
reasons in the following manner: “ If we are unable to dis¬
cover truth,” says he, “ it must be owing to two circumstan¬
ces : either there is no truth in the nature of things; or the
mind, from a defect in its powers, is not able to apprehend
it. Upon the latter supposition, all the uncertainty and fluc¬
tuation in the opinions and judgments of mankind admit of
an easy solution: Let us therefore be modest, and ascribe
our errors to the real weakness of our own minds, and not
to the nature of things themselves. Truth is often difficult
of access : in order to come at it, we must proceed with cau¬
tion and diffidence, carefully examining every step; and,
after all our labour, we will frequently find our greatest efforts
disappointed, and be obliged to confess our ignorance and
weakness.”
Labour and caution in the researches, in opposition to rash
and hasty decisions, were the distinguishing characteristics
of the disciples of the ancient academy. A philosopher
possessed of these principles will be slow in his progress, but
will seldom fall into errors, or have occasion to alter his opi¬
nion after it is once formed. In his essay on the academical
or sceptical philosophy, Mr Hume has confounded two very
opposite species of philosophy. After the days of Plato, the
principles of the first academy were grossly corrupted by
Arcesilaus, Carneades, &c. This might lead Mr Hume into
the notion, that the academical and sceptical philosophy were
synonymous terms. But no principles can be of a more op¬
posite nature than those which were inculcated by the old
academy of Socrates and Plato, and the sceptical notions
which were propagated by Arcesilaus, Carneades, and the
other disciples of the new academical school.
ACADEMUS, an Athenian hero. See Academy.
A C A D E MY.
ACADEMY, aKaS7]pLa, aKaS^eta, or eKaSrjpaa, (the first
two forms being probably derived from ukos, medela
and S?7/aos, populus, and the last from ekos, procul or seorsim,
and Stj/ao?, populus,) a garden, villa, or grove, situate in
the Ceramicus, one of the suburbs of Athens, about six
stadia, or nearly a Roman mile to the north-west of the
city. The common tradition is, that it took its name from
one Academus or Ecademus, the original owner, who was
contemporary with Theseus, and made it a kind of gym¬
nasium ; and that after his death it retained his name,
and was consecrated to his memory. When Castor and
Pollux came to Athens to reclaim by force of arms the
person of their sister Helena, who, according to the legend,
had been carried off by Theseus, and concealed in some
obscure retreat by the ravisher, the Athenians declared
that they knew not where the lady was to be found; but
as this answer was not deemed satisfactory by the warlike
brothers, Academus, cognisant with the secret, and anxi¬
ous to avert a contest about so frivolous a subject of dis¬
pute, apprised them that she was concealed in the town
of Aphidna; which was immediately attacked, taken by
assault, and razed to the ground. Grateful for this tradi¬
tionary service, the Lacedemonians, who worshipped the
Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux), spared the house and gar¬
dens known by the name of the Academy, when they
ravaged the suburbs of Athens; and, in consideration
of the disclosure just mentioned, they honoured the me¬
mory of the original owner, from whom the place took its
ACADEMY.
60
Academy, name.1 Such is the legend which the Greek writers have
transmitted to us. With regard to the spot itself, which
afterwards became so famous, in connection with the name
of Plato and his philosophical disciples, it appears to have
remained almost in a state of nature, covered with stag¬
nant water, and exceedingly insalubrious, until the time of
Cimon, when it was drained, planted with alleys of trees,
and embellished with groves and with fountains: after
which it became the promenade of the most distinguished
Athenians, and particularly of the Platonic philosophers,
thence called the Academics ; just as the Lyceum, another
gymnasium, situated to the south-east of Athens, became
the promenade of the Aristotelian sect of philosophers,
called also Peripatetics (a mymnw, obambulo), from the
locomotive fashion in which they communicated or dis¬
coursed concerning their peculiar doctrines. The Aca¬
demy formed part of the Ceramicus (a word derived from
y.igayjOi, signifying potter s earth or earthen vase, from its
being filled with cinerary urns), and was therefore devoted
to purposes of sepulture; it being then the practice to
inter in a public garden or grove, as in a sort of elysian
field, those who had signalized themselves by rendering
important services to their country. Cicero, desirous to
revive or preserve the name of the Academy, bestowed it
on his villa or country-seat near Puzzuoli, where he loved
to converse with his friends on philosophical subjects, and
where, also, he composed his Academical Questions, his
treatise on the Nature of the Gods, and his celebrated
work on the Commonwealth, a considerable portion of
which was, several years ago, recovered from rescribed or
palimpsest manuscripts, by Signor Angelo Maio, libra¬
rian of the Vatican.
Academy, in its generalized acceptation, is employed to
signify a society of learned men, established for the im¬
provement of science, literature, or the arts. This term,
as we have seen, is one of very high antiquity. It was
amidst the umbrageous recesses of the gardens of Aca-
demus, so favourable to philosophical meditation, that the
divine Plato, surnamed the swran of the Academy, esta¬
blished his school, collected his disciples, and taught his
sublime morality; wherefore the sect of this illustrious
philosopher was called the Academic, and the philosophers
who adopted his doctrines Academics. For a long pe¬
riod, accordingly, this title marked out the disciples of
Plato alone; but it came afterwards to be applied to all
those who belonged to the different learned or literary
societies instituted, under the name of Academies, in imi¬
tation of the school of Athens, and in order to extend the
boundaries of human knowledge. Of these institutions
several were established in Athens itself, but none ever
equalled the renown of that founded by Plato; and, in
point of fact, they were merely schools where Arcesilaus,
Carneades, Philo, Antiochus, and other philosophers of
less note, explained the different systems with which each
in his turn sought to supersede those of his predecessors,
but which have since fallen into the most profound neglect Academy,
and oblivion.
Ptolemy Soter, having by his victories secured undis¬
turbed possession of the throne of Egypt, and wishing to
unite to the title of conqueror the more glorious appella¬
tion of patron of learning, founded, under the name of
Musaeon, the celebrated Academy of Alexandria, and
provided it with a collection of books, which formed the
nucleus of the Alexandrian library. Here he assembled the
most distinguished philosophers and scholars of his time,
charging them with the investigation of philosophical truth
and the improvement of art; and it was to the care and re¬
searches of these eminent men and their successors that
the famous library, commenced by Ptolemy, and after¬
wards so barbarously given up to the flames by the Caliph
Omar, was enlarged and improved, until it became the
pride of Egypt and the glory of the world. This academy,
distinguished alike for its useful labours and its improve¬
ments in science, has served as a model to modern aca¬
demies, both as regards the principles on which it was
founded, and the object and end of its institution. It
admitted into the number of its associates the poets and
philosophers of all countries: persons came from every
part of the earth to seek instruction, or to deposit new
information in its bosom : and all parties were enriched by
the continual interchange of ideas and discoveries. For a
long period it was the great centre of knowledge. All
the literary treasures, scattered throughout the different
countries which the tide of barbarism had overflowed, were
there collected together: towards the period when Greece
began to decline, the spirit and the genius which once pre¬
sided in her schools of philosophy were in some degree
revived in that of Alexandria; and it shone forth like a
resplendent beacon-light in the midst of the surrounding
darkness, shooting forth rays which have traversed the
long course of ages, and guided the academies of modern
times in their researches and investigations.
Rome had no academies. In the eyes of the conque¬
rors and masters of the world, the sciences appeared only
a secondary object, and of comparatively little importance
This Virgil has admitted in his iEneid, where he says, that
in art and in science the Romans must yield the palm to
other nations, and content themselves with the glory of
conquest, and a knowledge of the means by which it
might be secured and maintained.2 The Latin poets and
writers, indeed, were formed by the study of Greek models.
But no national establishment fostered their genius and
favoured their progress, either under the republic, which
despised letters, or under the imperial tyrants, who dread¬
ed them. Augustus himself only patronised and reward¬
ed the poets who flattered him ; while Maecenas, in sur¬
rounding himself with assemblages of celebrated writers,
thought less of extending the boundaries of learning, than
of tasting the pleasures of learned society, and wearing
off the fatigues of business amidst the sweets of an inter-
A,v,ri r°m ^ ain expressions of Eupolls, and this among others, ev tutrxiois t^vtionriv AxaSyipov 3si>v, “ in the umbrageous groves of the god
a emus, i wou appear that this person was accounted not merely a hero, but a sort of divinity. Hence the Academy was con-
^ ,C.a eA T yCC us ,ca en?iU^ ?.r t0 t ,e beneficent sun of the ascending signs ; as the Lyceum with its temenos or lucus was dedicat-
cJbr. ^ ycseu* (so e r.om a wolf), or to the destroying sun of the descending signs of the zodiac: and hence also
hifrhpr nnH iVip 6 as syrnbols or representatives of the celestial houses of the two solstices; the Academv, of the
higher, and the Lyceum, of the lower solstice. J
2 Excudent alii spirantia mollius sera,
Credo equidem ; vivos ducent de marmore voltus;
Orahunt caussas melius, coelique meatus
Hescribent radio, et surgentia sidera dicent •
Tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento;
Hse tibi erunt artes; pacisque imponere morem,
Parcere subjectis, et debellare superbos.
JEneid. lib. vi. 1. 848.
ACADEMY.
f)l
Academy, course entirely Epicurean, or of enjoyments such as lite-
rature alone can afford to men of refined and cultivated
minds.
When the darkness which had settled down upon Eu¬
rope after the fall of the Western Empire began at length
to disperse, and when a faint glimmering of light, symp¬
tomatic of slowly approaching day, began to flicker and
tremble on the dusky brow of the long night of ignorance
and barbarism, a passion for instruction became in some
measure the mode, and gave birth simultaneously to a
multitude of learned associations; and these proceeded at
once to the study and improvement of the sciences and
arts, long neglected, and almost lost in those very coun¬
tries where they had formerly been cultivated with the
greatest success. The Gauls, however, although partial¬
ly civilized by the Romans and by Julian the philosopher
(vulgarly called the Apostate), had relapsed, under the in¬
dolent and imbecile monarchs of the first race, into the
most profound ignorance ; while the monks, who passed for
learned men when they could read, were from policy op¬
posed to the instruction of the people. The spirit of mo¬
nopoly and exclusion was then, as afterwards, a prominent
characteristic of the ecclesiastical system ; and the danger
of educating the people was as vehemently exaggerated as
by certain alarmists of our own day. “ The clergy,” said
Charlemagne, “ wish to monopolize all learning, and to
continue the sole expounders of the sciences and the
laws.” Nevertheless this prince, who would have done
honour to an age far less barbarous, attempted to resusci¬
tate letters, with which he had some acquaintance ; and
with this view he, encouraged by the celebrated Alcuin,
founded in his palace an academy for promoting the study
of grammar, orthography, rhetoric, poetry, history, and the
mathematics. This academy was composed of the principal
wits of the court, Charlemagne himself being a member.
In their academical conferences, every member was to give
an account of the ancient authors which he had read ; and
in order to efface all distinctions of rank among the acade¬
micians, he required each of them to choose a name pure¬
ly literary (as, for example, that of some ancient author
or celebrated person of antiquity), which should in no
degree serve to recall the birth, station, or dignity of the
person assuming it. Accordingly, Egilbert, a young lord,
and one of the grandees about the court, modestly took
the name of Homer; the archbishop of Mayence called
himself Damoetas; Alcuin became Flaccus Albinus;
Eginhard, Calliopus ; Adelard, abbot of Corbie, Augustin;
Theodulph, Pindar; and Charlemagne himself, somewhat
forgetful of his own rule, David.1 Fantastical as all this
may appear to us, it was nevertheless productive of good.
The nobles, who had been accustomed to value themselves
solely on their birth and ancestry, began to acquire a re¬
lish for more substantial distinctions, and to feel the force
of Charlemagne’s remark, that the state was likely to be
better served by men who had improved their minds and
cultivated their talents, than by those who had no other re¬
commendation than overweening pride and a long pedigree.
Hence the academy of Charlemagne soon obtained great
celebrity; and although few monuments of its labours
remain, yet it unquestionably gave an impulse to learning, Academy,
diffused a taste for knowledge, and probably laid the first
foundations of the French language, which was then a rude
idiom, composed of a barbarous mixture of the language
of the Goths, of Latin, and of the dialect of Celtic spoken
by the ancient Gauls. This idiom the academy subject¬
ed to principles, forming it into a regular language, which
afterwards became the provencal, or language of romance:
and when it had thus, as it were, been licked into shape,
Charlemagne proposed to have the hymns, the prayers,
and the laws translated into it, for the benefit of the peo¬
ple ; a proposal which reflects the greatest honour on his
memory. But the clergy resolutely set their faces
against an innovation which would have deprived them of
part of their influence as the sole expounders both of the
civil and the divine laws, and thus in a great measure
frustrated the principal object which Charlemagne had in
view in founding his academy. Still its labours, though
in some respects neutralized by the personal interest of
the monks, were not altogether useless, but, on the con¬
trary, were instrumental in diffusing the first gleams of
light throughout France, and in preparing it to emerge
from a state of barbarism.
In the following century, Alfred, a man worthy of being
classed with the first French legislator, founded an aca¬
demy at Oxford, which formed the basis of the University
afterwards established there; but this being a school for
instruction rather than an institution for exciting emula¬
tion among the instructed, it does not, for that reason,
fall within the scope of the present article. About the
same period the Moors of Spain, celebrated for their gal¬
lantry, their chivalrous manners, and their taste for poetry,
music, and letters, had also their academies at Granada
and Cordoba; but of the precise nature and object of
these institutions little or nothing is known. In the year
1325, the Academy of the Floral Games was established
at Toulouse. This academy is still in existence, and is of
course the most ancient establishment of the kind in
Europe. The members assumed the somewhat fantastical
name of Maintainers of the Gay Science; and the
prizes which it awarded, consisting of flowers of gold and
silver, excited a strong spirit of emulation among the
Troubadours of Languedoc and Provence. This society,
to which Clemens Isaurus bequeathed the whole of his pro¬
perty, still enjoys a considerable reputation; and many of
the young poets of France, who aspire to be one day
crowned with the genuine laurels of Parnassus, repair to
it, at the commencement of their career, to dispute for the
violet, the marigold, the amaranth, and the eglantine.
A whole host of academies sprung up in different coun¬
tries immediately after the revival of letters in the fifteenth
century; but it was in Italy that they were most nume¬
rous, every city in fact having its own; and they were
frequently distinguished by appellations remarkable either
for their oddity or extravagance. Thus, Rome had its
Lined; Naples, its Ardenti; Parma, its Insensati; and
Genoa, its Addormentati;—names which some modern
academicians might adopt without the slightest impro¬
priety. Many flourishing academies existed in France
1 Some modern writers have supposed that this assumption of ancient or classical names originated in an ardent admiration of an¬
tiquity, blended with the genius of an age essentially pedantic; and thus they have endeavoured to account for Alcuin taking the
surname of Horace as a pnenomen, and calling himself Flaccus Albinus. But from what is stated in the text, this appears to be a
mistake. With regard to the circumstance of Charlemagne taking the name of David, which, as a royal one, appears to have been
a contravention of his own rule, it is evident that his choice was determined by his passion for the composition of canticles or psalms,
in which he believed himself to be eminently skilful, and also by his decided preference of sacred to profane literature. The empe¬
ror, in fact, had great pretensions as a theologian; and on one occasion, when reproaching Iteibode, archbishop of Treves, with his
admiration of Virgil’s poetry, he remarked of himself, that he would much rather possess the spirit of the four evangelists than that
of the twelve books of the iEneid.
62
ACADEMY.
Academy, before the Revolution, most of them having been esta-
blished and endowed by the munificence of Louis XIV.
In Britain we have but few, and those of the greatest
note fall to be classed under a different appellation, name¬
ly, Society.
In giving an account of the principal academies, which
is all that this article professes to do, we shall, for the sake
of clearness, arrange them under different heads, accord¬
ing to the subjects for the cultivation and improvement of
which they were instituted. And we shall commence with
I. Medical Academies. Of this description are, the
Academy of the Natures Curiosi of Germany; that found¬
ed at Palermo in 1645; that established at Venice in
1701, which used to meet weekly in a hall near the grand
hospital; and an institution which took its rise at Geneva
in 1715. The Royal Colleges of Physicians at London
and Edinburgh have also been ranked by some in the
number of academies, but, in our opinion, erroneously; for
they are rather of the nature of corporations, organized
with a view to guard the privileges and promote the in¬
terests of a particular profession, than academies insti¬
tuted for facilitating the advancement of medical science.
This is the exclusive object of the Royal Medical Society,
and other institutions of the same sort; which, however,
fall to be treated of under a different head, viz. that of
Society.
The Academy of Natures Curiosi, called also the Leo-
poldine Academy, was founded in 1662, by J. L. Bau-
schius, a physician, who, imitating the example of the
English, published a general invitation to medical men
to communicate all extraordinary cases that occurred in
the course of their practice : and, the scheme meeting
with success, the institution was regularly organized, and
Bauschius elected president. The works of the Natures
Curiosi were at first published separately; but this being
attended with considerable inconvenience, a new arrange¬
ment was formed, in 1770, for publishing a volume of obser¬
vations annually. From some cause, however, the first
volume did not make its appearance until 1784, when it
came forth under the title of Ephemerides ; and the work
was afterwards continued, at irregular intervals, and with
some variations in the title. In 1687, the Emperor Leo¬
pold took the society under his protection, and granted
its members several privileges, the most remarkable of
which was, that its presidents should be entitled to enjoy
the style and rank of counts palatine of the holy Roman
empire; and hence the title of Leopoldine which it in
consequence assumed. But though it thus acquired a
name, it had no local habitation or fixed place of meeting,
and no regular assemblies; instead of which there was
a kind of bureau or office, first established at Breslau,
and afterwards removed to Nuremberg, where letters,
observations, and communications from correspondents,
were received, and persons properly qualified admitted
as members. By its constitution, the Leopoldine Aca¬
demy consists of a president, two adjuncts or secre¬
taries, and colleagues or members, without any limita¬
tion as to numbers. At their admission, the last come
under a twofold obligation; first, to choose some subject
for discussion out of the animal, vegetable, or mineral
kingdom, provided it has not been previously treated of
by any colleague of the academy; and, secondly, to apply
themselves to furnish materials for the annual Epheme¬
rides. Each member also bears about with him the
symbol of the academy, consisting of a gold ring, whereon
is represented a book open, with an eye on one side, and
on the other the academical motto of Nunquam otiosus.
II. Chirurgical Academies. An association of this
sort was, not many years ago, instituted, by public au¬
thority, at Paris; the members of which were not only
to publish their own observations and improvements, and
those of their correspondents, but also to give an account
of the various publications on surgery, and to compose a
complete history of the art from the works of all the
authors, ancient and modern, who have treated of it. Be¬
sides, a question in surgery was to be annually proposed,
as the subject of a prize essay, and a gold medal of the
value of 200 livres given to the successful competitor.
The Academy of Surgery at Vienna was instituted by
the present emperor, under the direction of the celebrat¬
ed Brambella. In it there were at first only two profes¬
sors ; and to their charge the instruction of a hundred
and thirty young men was committed, thirty of whom had
formerly been surgeons in the army. But latterly the
number both of teachers and pupils was considerably in¬
creased. Gabrielli was appointed to teach pathology and
practice ; Boecking, anatomy, physiology, and physics;
Streit, medical and pharmaceutical surgery; Hunczowsky,
surgical operations, midwifery, and the chirurgia forensis ;
and Plenk, chemistry and botany. To these was also
added Beindel, as prosector and extraordinary professor
of surgery and anatomy. Besides this, the emperor pro¬
vided a large and splendid edifice in Vienna, which af¬
fords accommodation both for the teachers, the students,
pregnant women, patients for clinical lectures, and ser¬
vants. For the use of this academy the emperor also pur¬
chased a medical library, which is open every day ; a com¬
plete set of chirurgical instruments ; an apparatus for ex¬
periments in natural philosophy; a collection of natural
history ; a number of anatomical and pathological prepa¬
rations ; a collection of preparations in wax, brought from
Florence ; and a variety of other useful articles. Adjoin¬
ing to the building, also, there is a good botanical garden.
With a view to encourage emulation among the students
of this institution, three prize medals, each of the value
of 40 florins, are annually bestowed on those who return
the best answers to questions proposed the year before.
These prizes, however, are not entirely founded by the
emperor, but are in part owing to the liberality of Bren-
dellius, formerly protochirurgus at Vienna.
III. Ecclesiastical Academies. Under this head may
be mentioned the academy at Bologna in Italy, instituted
in 1687, for the purpose of investigating the doctrine,
discipline, and history, of each age of the church.
IV. Cosmographical Academies ; as that at Venice,
called the Argonauts. This was instituted at the solicita¬
tion of F. Coronelli, for the improvement of geographical
knowledge. Its design was to publish exact maps, parti¬
cular as well as general, both of the celestial and terres¬
trial sphere, together with geographical, historical, and
astronomical descriptions. Each member, in order to
defray the expense of such a publication, was to subscribe
a proportional sum, for which he was to receive one or
more copies of each piece published. To this end three
societies were established ; one under F. Moro, provincial
of the Minorites in Hungary; another under the Abbot
Laurence au Ruy Payenne au Marais ; and the third un¬
der F. Baldigiani, Jesuit, professor of mathematics in the
Roman College. The device of this academy is the ter¬
raqueous globe, with the motto Plus ultra; and at its
expense all the globes, maps, and geographical writings
of F. Coronelli have been published.
In the year 1799, a Geographical Academy was esta¬
blished at Lisbon, principally for the purpose of elucidat¬
ing the geography of Portugal. By the labours of the
members of this academy, an accurate map of the coun¬
try, which was much wanted, has been completed.
V. Academies of Science. These comprehend such
A C A r
Academy, as have been erected for improving natural and mathe-
matical knowledge, and are otherwise called Philosophical
and Physical Academies.
The first of these was instituted at Naples, about the
year 1560, in the house of Baptista Porta. It was called
the Academy Secretorum Natures; and was succeeded
by the Academy of Lincei, founded at Rome by Prince
Frederic Cesi, towards the end of the same century.
This academy was afterwards rendered famous in conse¬
quence of the discoveries made by some of its members,
among whom, the first place is due to the celebrated Ga¬
lileo, one of the most illustrious names of which the his¬
tory of science can boast. Several other academies, in¬
stituted about this time, also contributed to the advance¬
ment of the sciences; but none of them was in any re¬
spect comparable to that of the Lincei.
Some years after the death of Torricelli, the Accademia
del Oimento made its appearance, under the protection of
Prince Leopold, afterwards Cardinal de’ Medici. Redi was
one of its chief members. In so far as regards the studies
pursued by the other academicians, a very correct idea of
them may be formed from the curious experiments pub¬
lished in 1667, by their secretary Count Laurence Magu-
lotti, under the title of Saggi di Naturali Esperienze ; a
copy of which was presented to the Royal Society, trans¬
lated into English by Mr Waller, and published at Lon¬
don in 4to.
The Accademia deghInquieti, afterwards incorporated
into that of Della Tracia, in the same city, followed the
example of that of Del Cimento. Some excellent dis¬
courses on physical and mathematical subjects, by Gemi-
niano Montenari, one of the chief members, were published
in 1667, under the title of Pensieri Fisico-Matematici.
The Academy of Rossano, in the kingdom of Naples,
was originally an academy of belles lettres, founded in
1540, and transformed into an academy of sciences in
1695, at the solicitation of the learned abbot Don Giacin-
to Gimma; who being made president, under the title of
Promoter General of the institution, gave it a new set of
regulations. He divided the academicians into the fol¬
lowing classes: grammarians, rhetoricians, poets, histo¬
rians, philosophers, physicians, mathematicians, lawyers,
and divines; with a class apart for cardinals and persons
of quality. To be admitted a member, it was requisite to
have taken a degree in one or other of the faculties. The
members were not allowed to take the title of Academi¬
cians in the title-pages of their works, without a written
permission from their president, which was not granted
till their works had been examined by the censors of the
academy; and this permission was the greatest honour the
academy could confer, as they thereby adopted the works
thus examined, and became answerable for them against
all criticisms that might be made upon them. To this law
the president or promoter himself was subject; and no aca¬
demician was allowed to publish anything against the writ¬
ings of another without leave obtained from the society.
But Italy boasts of a number of scientific academies
besides those above mentioned. The Royal Neapolitan
Academy was established in 1779; and the published
memoirs contain some valuable researches on mathema¬
tical subjects. The Royal Academy of Turin was esta¬
blished by the late king when duke of Savoy. Its memoirs
were originally published in Latin, under the title of Mis¬
cellanea Philosophica Mathematica Societatis Privates Tauri-
nensis; and the first volume appeared in 1759. Among
the original members of this institution the most cele¬
brated was Lagrange, who burst on the scientific world
quite unexpectedly, by the novelty and depth of his
papers in the first volume of the transactions. An Aca-
) E M Y. 03
demy of Sciences, Belles Lettres, and Arts, was established Academy,
at Padua by the senate, near the close of the eighteenth
century. It is composed of twenty-four pensionaries,
twelve free associates, twenty-four pupils, twelve asso¬
ciates belonging to the ci-devant Venetian States, and
twenty-four foreigners, besides honorary members. It
has published several volumes of memoirs in the Ita¬
lian language. The Academy of Sciences and Belles
Lettres of Genoa was established in 1783. It consists
of thirty-two members; but their labours have been
chiefly directed to poetry, nor are we aware that they
have published any memoirs. The Academy of Milan
was preceded, and perhaps introduced, by a literary as¬
sembly, consisting of ten persons, who published a sheet
weekly, containing short remarks on subjects of science,
belles lettres, and criticism. This society terminated in
1767. But soon afterwards another was established, the
transactions of which, published under the title of Scelta
d’ Opuscoli Scientifici, contain several very interesting pa¬
pers. The Academy of Sciences at Siena, instituted in
1691, published the first volume of its transactions in
1761, and has since continued them, at long intervals, un¬
der the title of Atti dell'Accademia di Siena. Between
the years 1770 and 1780, M. Lorgna established at Ve¬
rona an academy of sciences of a novel description. The
object of it was to form an association among the princi¬
pal scientific men in all parts of Italy, for the purpose of
publishing their memoirs. The first volume appeared in
the year 1782, under the title of Memorie di Matematica
e Fisica della Societa Italiana. The most celebrated
names that appear in this volume are those of Boscovich,
the two Fontanas, and Spallanzani. There are also sci¬
entific academies at Mantua, Pisa, Pavia, and Modena;
but several of these do not publish their transactions.
Towards the beginning of the seventeenth century, F.
Mersenne is said to have given the first idea of a philoso¬
phical academy in France, by the conferences of naturalists
and mathematicians occasionally held at his lodgings. At
these Gassendi, Descartes, Hobbes, Roberval, Pascal,
Blondel, and other celebrated persons, assisted. F. Mer¬
senne proposed to each certain problems to be examined,
or certain experiments to be made, and acted, to use a
Gallic idiom, as the centre of re-union. By and by these
private assemblies were succeeded by more public ones,
formed by M. Montmort, and by Thevenot the celebrated
traveller. Nor was this spirit confined to France. Ani¬
mated by the example which had been set in that coun¬
try, several Englishmen of learning and distinction insti¬
tuted a kind of philosophical academy at Oxford towards
the close of Cromwell’s government; and this, after the
Restoration, was erected into a Royal Society. And the
English example, in its turn, re-acted upon France; for,
in 1666, Louis XIV., assisted by the counsels of Colbert,
founded at Paris
The Royal Academy of Sciences. Being desirous of
establishing the sciences, arts, and literature upon a solid
foundation, Louis, immediately after the peace of the Py¬
renees, directed M. Colbert to form a society of men of
known abilities and experience in the different branches
of knowledge, who should meet together under the king’s
protection, in order to communicate freely their respective
discoveries ; and with the view of carrying his design the
more effectually into execution, he appropriated a suffi¬
cient revenue, not only to defray the charge of experi¬
ments, but likewise to afford moderate salaries to the mem¬
bers. The commands of the Grand Monarque were execut¬
ed with equal zeal and ability by his minister. For having
conferred with those who were at that time most celebrat¬
ed for their learning, M. Colbert resolved to form a society
64
A C A D E M Y.
Academy, of such persons as were conversant in natural philosophy
mathematics; to join to them persons skilled in his¬
tory and other branches of erudition ; and, lastly, to draw
together those who were engaged in the cultivation of
what was then called the belles lettres, as well as of
grammar, eloquence, and poetry. The geometricians
and natural philosophers were ordered to meet on Tues¬
days and Saturdays, in a great hall of the king’s library,
where the books of mathematics and natural philosophy
were contained; the learned in history to assemble, on
Mondays and Thursdays, in the hall where the books of
history were arranged; and the class of belles lettres
to meet on Wednesdays and Fridays; while all the dif¬
ferent classes were directed to assemble together upon
the first Thursday of every month, and by their respective
secretaries to make a report of the proceedings of the pre¬
vious month. In a short time, however, the classes of
history and belles lettres were united to the French Aca¬
demy, which was originally instituted for the improvement
of the French language; in consequence of which the
Royal Academy contained only two classes, viz. that of
natural philosophy and that of mathematics.
In the year 1696, the king, by an ordonnance dated the
26th of January, gave this academy a new form, and put it
upon a footing still more respectable. By this decree it was
provided, that henceforth it should consist of four descrip¬
tions of members, viz. honorary, pensionary, associates,
and eleves; which last were a kind of pupils or scholars,
one of whom was attached to each of the pensionaries.
The first class was to contain ten persons, and each of the
rest twenty. The honorary academicians were to be all
inhabitants of France, the pensionaries were all to reside
in Paris, and the eleves were also to live in the capital;
but eight of the associates might be chosen from among
foreigners. The officers were, a president, named by the
king out of the class of honorary academicians, and a
secretary and treasurer, who held their offices for life. Of
the pensionaries, three were to be geometricians, three
astronomers, three mechanicians, three anatomists, three
botanists, and the remaining two perpetual secretary and
treasurer. Of the twelve associates, two were to apply
themselves to geometry, two to botany, and two to che¬
mistry ; while the eleves were to devote themselves to the
particular branches of science cultivated by the pension¬
aries to whom they were respectively attached, and not
to speak except when called to do so by the president.
JAencal persons, whether regular or otherwise, were de¬
clared inadmissible, except into the class of honorary
academicians; nor could any one be admitted an associate
or pensionary unless known by some considerable printed
work, some machine, or other discovery. The assemblies
vvere held on Wednesdays and Saturdays, except when
either chanced to be a holyday; in which case the meeting
was held on the day immediately preceding. To en
courage members to pursue their inquiries and researches
the king engaged to pay not only the ordinary pensions!
but even to confer extraordinary gratifications according
to the degree of merit displayed in their respective per¬
formances ; and, furthermore, his Majesty became bound
as we have already stated, to defray the whole expense
of experiments and other investigations which it might be
judged necessary from time to time to institute. Hence
if any member gave in a bill of charges for experiments he
had made, or desired the printing of any book, and ten¬
dered an account of the disbursements required to effect
that object, the money was immediately paid by the king
upon the president’s allowing and signing the bill. In like
manner, if an anatomist required, we shall say, live tor¬
toises in order to make experiments on the action and
functions of the heart, he had only to signify his intention Academy,
through the president, and as many as he pleased were
brought him at the king’s charge. The motto of the aca¬
demy was Invenit et perfecit.
In the year 1716, the Duke of Orleans, then regent,
made an alteration in the constitution of this body, aug¬
menting the number of honorary members and of associ¬
ates eligible from among foreigners, admitting regular
clergy among such associates, and suppressing the class
of eleves, the existence of which had been attended with
some inconveniences, particularly that of producing too
great an inequality among the academicians, and of giving
rise to misunderstandings and animosities among the mem¬
bers. At the same time he created two other classes;
the one consisting of twelve adjuncts, who, like the as¬
sociates, were allowed a deliberative voice in matters re¬
lative to science; and the other of six free associates,
who were not attached to any particular science, nor ob¬
liged to pursue any particular work.
From the period of its re-establishment in 1699, this
academy was very exact in publishing annually a volume
containing either the works of its own members, or such
memoirs as had been composed and read to the academy
during that year. To each volume was prefixed a his¬
tory of the academy, or an extract of the memoirs and of
the res gesta of the different sittings ; and appended to the
history were eloges pronounced on such academicians as
had died in the course of the year. M. Rouille de Mes-
lay, counsellor to the parliament of Paris, founded two
prizes, one of 2500 and the other of 2000 livres; the for¬
mer for the best Yvork, essay, or treatise, on physical as¬
tronomy, and the latter for any treatise or improvement
relating to navigation and commerce. But notwithstand¬
ing all the advantages which the members of this aca¬
demy enjoyed, and the great facilities afforded them for
the prosecution of their researches, the institution latterly
degenerated; in consequence, doubtless, of the perpetual in¬
terference of the court in behalf of its favourites, or to effect
the exclusion of men of unquestionable merit who had in¬
curred its displeasure. The effect of all this was, that persons
of inferior acquirements were frequently admitted, while
those of the most distinguished talents and reputation
Yvere excluded ; and hence it gradually sunk in public es¬
timation, until admission not only ceased to be an honour,
but even became a subject of contempt and derision.
Hence the well-known lines—
Ci git Pirot, qui ne fut rien,
Pas meme Acacffimicien.
The Revolution swept away the academy amidst the
wrecks of the monarchy. It was suppressed by the Con¬
vention in the year 1793; and being new-modelled and
re-organized upon a better and more efficient plan, it
received the name of Institute, an appellation which it
still bears, notwithstanding the great political changes
which have since taken place. See Institute.
The French had also considerable academies in most of
their great cities. Montpellier, for example, had a royal
academy of sciences on nearly the same footing as that
at Paris, of which, indeed, it was in some measure the
counterpart; Toulouse also had an academy under the
denomination of Lanternists; and there were analogous
institutions at Nismes, Arles, Lyons, Dijon, Bordeaux,
and other places. Of these several, Yve believe, are still
in existence, if not in activity.
• T]?6 Itoyal Academy of Sciences at Berlin Yvas founded
ky Frederic II. king of Prussia, on the model of
ie Royal Society of England; excepting that, besides
natural knowledge, it likewise comprehended the belles
e res. In 1710, it was ordained that the president should
ACADEMY. 65
one of the counsellors of state, and nominated by the month the society assembled for the first time. On the 1st Academy,
king. The members were divided into four classes : the of August 1726, Catharine honoured the meeting with her^-^v^^
first for prosecuting physics, medicine, and chemistry; the presence, when Professor Bulfinger, a German naturalist
second for mathematics, astronomy, and mechanics ; the of great eminence, pronounced an oration upon the ad-
third for the German language and the history of the vances made in the theory of magnetic variations, and
country; and the fourth for oriental learning, particularly also on the progress of research in so far as regarded the
in so far as it concerns the propagation of the gospel among discovery of the longitude. A short time afterwards the
heathen nations. Each class was empowered to elect a empress settled a fund of L.4982 per annum for the sup-
director for itself, who should hold his post for life. The port of the academy ; and fifteen members, all eminent
members of any of the classes were entitled to free ad- for their learning and talents, were admitted and pension-
mission into the assemblies of the other classes. ed, under the title of Professors in the various branches of
The great promoter of this institution was the celebrat- science and literature. The most distinguished of these
ed Leibnitz, equally distinguished as a jurist, philologist, professors were Nicholas and Daniel Bernoulli, the two
linguist, antiquary, mathematician, and philosopher, and De Lisles, Bulfinger, and Wolf.
who accordingly was chosen the first director. The first During the short reign of Peter II. the salaries of the
volume of their transactions was published in 1710, under members were discontinued, and the academy utterly ne-
the. title of Miscellanea Berolinensia ; and although the glected by the court; but it was again patronised by the
institution received but few marks of the royal favour for Empress Anne, who even added a seminary for the edu-
some time, they continued to publish new volumes in 1723, cation of youth, under the superintendence of the pro-
1727, 1734, and 1740. But Erederic III., the late king of fessors. Both institutions flourished for some time under
Prussia, at length imparted new vigour to this academy, the direction of Baron Korf; but upon his death, towards
by inviting to Berlin such foreigners as were most dis- the latter end of Anne’s reign, an ignorant person being
tinguished for their merit and literature, at the same time appointed president, many of the most able members
that he encouraged his own subjects to prosecute the study quitted Russia. At the accession of Elizabeth, however,
and cultivation of the sciences ; and thinking that the aca- new life and vigour were infused into the academy. The
demy, over which some minister or opulent nobleman had original plan was enlarged and improved; some of the
till that time presided, would derive advantage from having most learned foreigners were again drawn to Petersburg;
a man of letters at its head, he conferred that honour on and, what was considered as a good omen for the litera-
M. Maupertuis. At the same time he gave a new set ture of Russia, two natives, Lomonosof and Rumovsky,
of regulations to the academy, and took upon himself the men of genius and abilities, who had prosecuted their
title of its protector. studies in foreign universities, were enrolled among its
The effect of these changes, however, it is not neces- members. Lastly, the annual income was increased to
sary to enlarge upon, as innovations still more recent have L.10,659, and sundry other advantages were conferred
been introduced, with a view to direct the attention of upon the institution.
the members to researches of real utility, to improve the The late Empress Catharine II., with her usual zeal for
arts, to stimulate national industry, and to purify the dif- promoting the diffusion of knowledge, took this useful so-
ferent systems of moral and literary education. To attain ciety under her immediate protection. She altered the
these ends a directory was chosen, consisting of a presi- court of directors greatly to the advantage of the whole
dent and the four directors of the classes, and two men body, corrected many of its abuses, and infused a new
of business, not members of the academy, though at the vigour and spirit into their researches. By her Majesty’s
same time persons of acknowledged learning; and to the particular recommendation the most ingenious professors
body thus constituted was intrusted the management of visited the various provinces of her vast dominions; and
the funds, and the conduct of the economical affairs of as the funds of the academy were not sufficient to defray
the institution. The power of choosing members was the whole expense of these expeditions, the empress sup-
granted to the academy; but the king reserved to him- plied the deficiency by a grant of L.2000, which was re¬
self the privilege of confirming or annulling their choice, newed as occasion required.
as he might think fit. The public library at Berlin, and The purpose and object of these travels will appear
the collection of natural curiosities, were united to the from the instructions given by the academy to the several
academy, and intrusted to its superintendence. persons who engaged in them. They were ordered to
The academicians hold two public assemblies annually ; institute inquiries respecting the different sorts of earths
at the latter of which is given, as a prize, a gold medal of and waters; the best methods of cultivating barren and
fifty ducats value. The subject prescribed for this prize desert spots; the local disorders incident "to men and
is successively taken from natural philosophy, mathema- animals, together with the most efficacious means of re-
tics, metaphysics, and general erudition. lieving them; the breeding of cattle, particularly of
The Imperial Academy of Sciences at St Petersburg was sheep ; the rearing of bees and silk-worms ; the different
projected by the Czar Peter the Great. That despotic places and objects for fishing and hunting; minerals of
reformer, having in the course of his travels observed the all kinds ; the arts and trades; and the formation of a
advantage of public societies for the encouragement and Flora Russica, or collection of indigenous plants. They
promotion of literature, formed the design of founding an were particularly instructed to rectify the longitude and
academy of sciences at St Petersburg. By the advice latitude of the principal towns; to make astronomical,
of Wolf and Leibnitz, whom he consulted on this occa- geographical, and meteorological observations; to trace
sion, the society was accordingly regulated, and several the courses of the rivers; to construct the most exact
learned foreigners were invited to become members, charts; and to be very distinct and accurate in remark-
Peter himself drew the plan, and signed it on the 10th of ing and describing the manners and customs of the differ-
February 1724; but he was prevented, by the suddenness ent races of people, their dresses, languages, antiquities,
of his death, from carrying it into execution. His de- traditions, history, religion; in a word, to gain every
cease, however, did not prevent its completion; for on information which might tend to illustrate the real state
the 21st of December 1725, Catharine I. established it of the whole Russian empire. More ample instructions
according to Peter’s plan, and on the 27th of the same cannot well be conceived; and they appear to have been
VOL. II. t
66 ACADEMY.
Academy, very zealously and faithfully executed. The consequence
V^-'v^'^vlias been, that perhaps no country can boast, within the
space of so few years, such a number of excellent publi¬
cations on its internal state, its natural productions, its to¬
pography, geography, and history, and on the manners,
customs, and languages of the different tribes who inhabit
it, as have issued from the press of this academy.
The first transactions of this society were published in
1728, and entitled Commentarii Academia Scientiarum
Imperialis Petropolitanoe ad annum 1726, with a dedica¬
tion to Peter II. The publication was continued under
this form until the year 1747, when the transactions were
called Novi Commentarii Academia, &c.; and in 1777, the
academy again changed the title into Acta Academia
Scientiarv.m Imperialis Petropolitana, and likewise made
some alteration in the arrangement and plan of the work.
The papers, which had been hitherto published in the
Latin language only, are now written indifferently either
in that language or in French ; and a preface is added, en¬
titled Partie Historique, which contains an account of its
proceedings, meetings, the admission of new members, and
other remarkable occurrences. Of the Commentaries,
fourteen volumes were published: the first of the New
Commentaries made its appearance in 1750, and the
twentieth in 1776. Under the new title of Acta Aca¬
demia, a number of volumes have been given to the
public;; and two are printed every year. These transac¬
tions abound with ingenious and elaborate disquisitions
upon various parts of science and natural history; and it
may not be an exaggeration to assert, that no society in
Europe has more distinguished itself for the excellence of
its publications, particularly in the more abstruse parts of
the pure and mixed mathematics.
The academy is still composed, as at first, of fifteen
professors, besides the president and director. Each of
these professors has a house and an annual stipend from
L. 200 to L.600. Besides the professors, there are four
adjuncts, with pensions, who are present at the sittings of
the society, and succeed to the first vacancies. The
direction of the academy is generally intrusted to a per¬
son of distinction.
The buildings and apparatus of this academy are ex¬
traordinary. There is a fine library, consisting of 36,000
curious books and manuscripts; together with an exten¬
sive museum, in which the various branches of natural
history, &c. are distributed in different apartments. The
latter is extremely rich in native productions, having been
considerably augmented by the collections made by Pal¬
las, Gmelin, Guldenstaedt, and other professors, during
their expeditions through the various parts of the Russian
empire. The stuffed animals and birds occupy one apart¬
ment. The chamber of rarities, the cabinet of coins, &c.
contain innumerable articles of the highest curiosity and
value. The motto of the society is exceedingly modest:
it consists of only one word, Paulatim.
The Academy of Sciences at Bologna, called the Insti¬
tute of Bologna,, was founded by Count Marsigli in 1712,
for the cultivation of physics, mathematics, medicine,
chemistry, and natural history. Its history is written by
M. de Limiers, from memoirs furnished by the founder
himself.
The Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, or the Royal
Swedish Academy, owes its institution to six persons of
distinguished learning, amongst whom was the celebrated
Linnaeus. They originally met on the 2d of June 1739,
when they formed a private society, in which some dis¬
sertations were read ; and in the latter end of the same
year their first publication made its appearance. As the
meetings continued and the members increased, the so¬
ciety attracted the notice of the king; and, accordingly, Academy,
on the 31st of March 1741, it was incorporated under
the name of the Royal Swedish Academy. Not receiv¬
ing any pension from the crown, it is merely under the
protection of the king, being directed, like our Royal
Society, by its own members. It has now, however, a
large fund, which has chiefly arisen from legacies and other
donations; but a professor of experimental philosophy,
and two secretaries, are still the only persons who receive
any salaries. Each of the members resident at Stock¬
holm becomes president by rotation, and continues in
office during three months. There are two kinds of mem¬
bers, native and foreign; the election of the former de¬
scription takes place in April, that of the latter in July; and
no money is paid at the time of admission. The disserta¬
tions read at each meeting are collected and published
four times in the year: they are written in the Swedish
language, and printed in octavo; and the annual publica¬
tions make a volume. The first forty volumes, which
were completed in 1779, are called the Old Transac¬
tions ; for in the following year the title was changed into
that of New Transactions. The king is often present at
the ordinary meetings, and regularly attends the annual as¬
sembly in April for the election of members. Any per¬
son who sends a treatise which is thought worthy of being
printed, receives the Transactions for that quarter gratis ;
together with a silver medal, which is not esteemed for its
value, being worth only three shillings, but for its rarity
and the honour conveyed by it. All the papers relating
to agriculture are published separately under the title of
GEconomica Acta. Annual premiums, in money and gold
medals, principally for the encouragement of agriculture
and inland trade, are also distributed by the academy.
The fund for these prizes is supplied by private donations.
The Royal Academy of Sciences at Copenhagen owes its
institution to the zeal of six individuals, whom Christian
VI., in 1742, ordered to arrange his cabinet of medals.
These persons were, John Gram, Joachim Frederic Ramus,
Christian Louis Scheid, Mark Woldickey, Eric Ponto-
pidan, and Bernard Moelman, who, occasionally meeting
for this purpose, extended their designs ; associated writh
them others who were eminent in several branches of
science; and forming a kind of literary society, employed
themselves in searching into, and explaining the history
and antiquities of their country. The Count of Holstein,
the first president, warmly patronised this society, and
recommended it so strongly to Christian VI. that, in 1743,
his Danish majesty took it under his protection, called it
the Royal Academy of Sciences, endowed it with a fund,
and ordered the members to join to their former pur¬
suits, natural history, physics, and mathematics. In con¬
sequence of the royal favour, the members engaged with
fresh zeal in their pursuits; and the academy has pub¬
lished fifteen volumes in the Danish language, some of
which have been translated into Latin.
The American Academy of Sciences was established in
1780, by the council and house of representatives in the
province of Massachusetts Bay, for promoting a knowledge
of the antiquities of America, and of the natural history
of the country; for determining the uses to which its
various natural productions might be applied; for en¬
couraging medicinal discoveries, mathematical disquisi¬
tions, philosophical inquiries and experiments, astronomi¬
cal, meteorological, and geographical observations, and im¬
provements in agriculture, manufactures, and commerce;
and, in short, for cultivating every art and science which
may tend to advance the interest and increase the hap¬
piness of the people. The members of this academy can
never exceed 200, nor fall below forty.
ACADEMY.
67
■Academy. The Royal Irish Academy arose out of a society establish- established by the Empress Elizabeth, at the suggestion Academy.
' ~ ‘ ed at Dublin about the year 1782, and consisting of a num- of Count Shuvalof, and annexed to the Academy ofv
i c —..1  ^ -p—u—  j tt *— c'-:  The fund for its support was L.4000 joer em¬
ber of gentlemen, most of whom belonged to the Univer¬
sity. They held weekly meetings, and read essays in turn
on various subjects. The members of this society after¬
wards formed a more extensive plan, and, admitting only
such names as might add dignity to their new institution,
became the founders of the Royal Irish Academy; which
professed to unite the advancement of science with the
history of mankind and polite literature. The first
volume of their transactions for 1787 appeared in 1788,
and seven volumes were afterwards published. A society
was formed in Dublin, similar to the Royal Society in
London, as early as the year 1683; but the distracted
Sciences.
num> and the foundation admitted forty scholars. The late
empress formed it into a separate institution, augmented
the annual revenue to L.12,000, and increased the num¬
ber of scholars to three hundred: she also constructed,
for the use and accommodation of the members, a large
circular building, which fronts the Neva. The scholars
are admitted at the age of six, and continue until they
have attained that of eighteen. They are clothed, fed,
and lodged, at the expense of the crown; and are all in¬
structed in reading and writing, arithmetic, the French
and German languages, and drawing. At the age of
state of the country proved unpropitious to the cultivation fourteen they are at liberty to choose any of the follow-
of philosophy and literature. ing arts, divided into four classes, viz. first, painting in all
The Academy of Sciences at Manheim was established its branches, of history, portraits, battles, and landscapes,
by Charles Theodore, Elector Palatine, in the year 1755. architecture, mosaic, enamelling, &c.; secondly, engrav-
The plan of this institution was furnished by Schaepflin, ing on copperplates, seal-cutting, &c.; thirdly, carving on
according to which it was divided into two classes, the his- wood, ivory, and amber ; fourthly, watch making, turning,
torical and physical. In 1780, a sub-division of the latter instrument making, casting statues in bronze and other
took place, into the physical properly so called, and the
meteorological. The meteorological observations are
published separately, under the title of Ephemerides So-
cietatis Meteorologicce Palatince. The historical and phy¬
sical memoirs are published under the title of Acta Aca¬
demics Theodoro-Palatirus.
The Electoral Bavarian Academy of Sciences at Munich
was established in 1759, and publishes its memoirs under
the title of Ahhandlungen der Baierischen Akademie.
Soon after the Elector of Bavaria was raised to the rank
metals, imitating gems and medals in paste and other
compositions, gilding, and varnishing. Prizes are annually
distributed to those who excel in any particular art; and
from those who have obtained four prizes, twelve are se¬
lected, who are sent abroad at the charge of the crown.
A certain sum is paid to defray their travelling expenses;
and when they are settled in any town, they receive an
annual salary of L.60, which is continued during four
years. There is a small assortment of paintings for the
use of the scholars; and those whe have made great pro¬
of King, the Bavarian government, by his orders, directed gress are permitted to copy the pictures in the imperial
its attention to a new organization of the Academy of collection. For the purpose of design, there are models
Sciences of Munich. The design of the king was, to in plaster, all done at Rome, of the best antique statues
render its labours more extensive than those of any simi- in Italy, and of the same size with the originals, which the
lar institution in Europe, by giving to it, under the direc- artists of the academy were employed to cast in bronze,
tion of the ministry, the immediate superintendence over The Royal Academy of Arts in London was institut-
all the establishments for public instruction in the king- ed for the encouragement of designing, painting, sculp-
dom of Bavaria. The Privy-Councillor Jacobi, a man of ture, &c. &c. in the year 1768. This academy is under the
most excellent character, and of considerable scientific immediate patronage of the king, and under the direction
attainments, was appointed president
The Electoral Academy at Erfurt was established by
the Elector of Mentz, in the year 1754. It consists of a
protector, president, director, assessors, adjuncts, and as¬
sociates. Its object is to promote the useful sciences.
Their memoirs were originally published in the Latin lan-
of forty artists of the first rank in their several profes¬
sions. It furnishes, in winter, living models of different
characters to draw after; and in summer, models of the
same kind to paint after. Nine of the ablest academicians
are annually elected out of the forty, whose business it is
to attend by rotation, to set the figures, to examine the
guage, but afterwards in German. The Hessian Academy performance of the students, and to give them necessary
of Sciences at Giessen publish their transactions under instructions. There are likewise professors of painting,
the title of Acta Philosophico-Medica Academics Scien- architecture, anatomy, and perspective, who annually read
tiarum Principalis Hessiaccs. In the Netherlands there public lectures on the subjects of their several depart-
are scientific academies at Flushing and Brussels, both of ments; besides a president, a council, and other officers,
which have published their transactions. The admission to this academy is free to all students pro-
A branch of the royal family of Portugal established perly qualified to reap advantage from the studies culti-
at Lisbon, a number of years ago, a Royal Academy of vated in it; and there is an annual exhibition of paintings,
the sciences, agriculture, arts, commerce, and economy in sculptures, and designs, open to all artists of distinguish-
general. It is divided into three classes ; natural science, ed merit.
mathematics, and national literature. It is composed of The Academy of Painting and Sculpture at Paris.
honorary members, as ministers of state and persons of This took its rise from the disputes that happened be-
high rank in Lisbon; foreign members, called socios ve- tween the master painters and sculptors in the French
teranos; and acting members. The total number is sixty, capital; in consequence of which, MM. le Brun, Sarrazin,
of which twenty-four belong to the last class. They enjoy Corneille, and others of the king’s painters, formed a de¬
an allowance from government, which has enabled them sign of instituting a particular academy; and having pre-
to establish an observatory, a museum, a library, and a seated a petition to the king, obtained an arret dated
printing office. Their published transactions consist of January 20. 1648. In the beginning of 1655, they ob-
Memorias de Litteratura Portugueza, and Memorias Econo- tained from Cardinal Mazarin, a brevet, and letters pa-
micas, besides Scientific Transactions. They have also pub
lished Collecgao de Livros ineditos de Historia Portugueza.
VI. Academies or Schools of Arts. Under this we
may mention, first of all, the academy at Petersburg,
tent, which were registered in parliament; in gratitude
for which favour, they chose the cardinal their protector,
and made the chancellor their vice-protector. In 1663,
they obtained, through M. Colbert, a pension of 4000
ACADEMY-
Academy. livres. The academy consisted of a protector, a vice-
protector, a director, a chancellor, four rectors, adjuncts
to the rectors, a treasurer, four professors (one of whom
was professor of anatomy, and another of geometry), seve¬
ral adjuncts and counsellors, an historiographer, a secre¬
tary, and two ushers.
Every day for two hours in the afternoon, the Academy
of Painting held a public assembly, to which the painters
resorted either to design or to paint, while the sculp¬
tors modelled after the naked figure. There were twelve
professors, each of whom kept the school for a month; and
there was an equal number of adjuncts to supply then
places in case of need. The professor upon duty placed
the naked figure as he thought proper, and set it in two
different attitudes every week. This was what they call¬
ed setting the model. In one week of the month he set
two models together, which was called setting the group.
The paintings and models made after this model, were
called academics, or academical figures. They had likewise
a woman who stood as a model in the public school.
Three prizes for design were distributed among the eleyes
or disciples every quarter; and four others, two for paint¬
ing, and two for sculpture, every year.
There was also an Academy of Painting, Sculpture, &c.
at Rome, established by Louis XIV., wherein those who
had gained the annual prize at Paris were entitled to be
three years entertained at the king’s expense, for their
further improvement.
In 1778, an Academy of Painting and Sculpture was
established at Turin. Their meetings were held in the
palace of the king, who distributed prizes among the most
successful members. In Milan, an Academy of Architec¬
ture was established so early as the year 1380, by Galeas
Visconti. About the middle of the last century, an Aca¬
demy of the Arts was established there, after the exam¬
ple of those at Paris and Rome. The pupils were fur¬
nished with originals and models, and prizes were distri¬
buted annually. The prize for painting was a gold medal,
and no prize was bestowed till all the competing pieces
had been subjected to the examination and criticism of
competent judges. Before the effects of the French re¬
volution reached Italy, this was one of the best establish¬
ments of the kind in that kingdom. In the hall of the
academy were some admirable pieces of Correggio, as
well as several ancient paintings and statues of great me¬
rit ; particularly a small bust of Vitellius, and a statue of
Agrippina, of most exquisite beauty, though it wants the
head and arms. The Academy of the Arts, which had
been long established at Florence, but which had fallen
into decay, was restored by the late Grand Duke. In it
there are halls for naked and plaster figures, for the use of
the sculptor and the painter. The hall for plaster figures
had models of all the finest statues in Italy, arranged in two
lines; but the treasures of this, as well as all the other
institutions for the fine arts, were greatly diminished by
the rapacity of the French. In the saloon of the Aca¬
demy of the Arts at Modena, there are many casts of an¬
tique statues; but since it was plundered by the French
it has dwindled into a petty school for drawings from
living models : it contains the skull of Correggio. There
is also an Academy of the Fine Arts in Mantua, and an¬
other at Venice,
In Madrid, an Academy for Painting, Sculpture, and
Architecture, was founded by Philip V. The minister
for foreign affairs is president. Prizes are distributed
every three years. In Cadiz, a few students are supplied
by government with the means of drawing and modelling
from figures; and such as are not able to purchase the
requisite instruments are provided with them.
An Academy of the Fine Arts was founded at Stock-Academy,
holm in the year 1733 by Count Tessin. In its hall are^^v—'
the ancient figures of plaster presented by Louis XIV. to
Charles XL The works of the students are publicly ex¬
hibited, and prizes are distributed annually. Such of
them as display distinguished talents obtain pensions from
government, to enable them to reside in Italy for some
years, for the purposes of investigation and improvement.
In this academy there are nine professors, and generally
about four hundred students. In the year 1705, an Academy
of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture was established
at Vienna, with the view of encouraging and promoting
the fine arts.
The Royal Academy of Music is a name given in France
to the grand opera, which is considered as in some sort a
combination of all the liberal arts ; painting, music, and the
dance forming the principal part of that enchanting spec¬
tacle. The opera is of Venetian origin; and the Abbe
Perrin, who officiated as master of the ceremonies to Gas¬
ton, Duke of Orleans, was the first who introduced it at
Paris. He obtained letters patent from the king, dated
the 28th June 1669, conferring upon him the privilege of
establishing Operatic Academies in Music and in French
Verse throughout the kingdom. Latterly, the theatre
where operas are represented has been denominated the
Theatre des Arts; a name which has probably been sug¬
gested by the following verses of Voltaire, which convey
a just definition of this delightful entertainment:—
II faut se rendre a ce palais magique,
Oil les beaux vers, la danse, la musique,
L’art de tromper les yeux par les couleurs,
L’art plus heureux de sdduire les coeurs,
De cent plaisirs font un plaisir unique.
The Academy of Ancient Music was established in Lon¬
don in 1710, by several persons of distinction, and other
amateurs, in conjunction with the most eminent masters of
the time, in the view of promoting the study and practice of
vocal and instrumental harmony. This institution, which
had the advantage of a library, consisting of the most ce¬
lebrated compositions, both foreign and domestic, in ma¬
nuscript and in print, and which was aided by the per¬
formances of the gentlemen of the chapel royal, and the
choir of St Paul’s, with the boys belonging to each, con¬
tinued to flourish for many years. In 1731, a charge of
plagiarism brought against Bononcini, a member of the
academy, for claiming a madrigal of Lotti of Venice as
his own, threatened the existence of the institution. Dr
Greene, who had introduced the madrigal into the aca¬
demy, took part with Bononcini, and withdrew from the
society, taking with him the boys of St Paul s. In 1734,
Mr Gates, another member of the society, and master of
the children of the royal chapel, also retired in disgust;
so that the institution was thus deprived of the assistance
which the boys afforded it in singing the soprano parts.
From this time the academy became a seminary for the
instruction of youth in the principles of music and the
laws of harmony. Dr Pepusch, who was one of its foun¬
ders, was active in accomplishing this measure; and by
the expedients of educating boys for their purpose, and
admitting auditor members, the subsistence of the aca¬
demy was continued. The Royal Academy of Music was
formed by the principal nobility and gentry of the king¬
dom, for the performance of operas, composed by Mr
Handel, and conducted by him at the theatre in the Hay-
market. The subscription amounted to LAO,000, and the
king, besides subscribing L.1000, allowed the society to
assume the title of Royal Academy. It consisted of a
governor, deputy-governor, and twenty directors. A con¬
test between Handel and Senesino, one of the performers,
ACADEMY.
69
Academy, in which the directors took the part of the latter, occa-
'^v^>,sioned the dissolution of the academy, after it had subsist¬
ed with reputation for more than nine years.
The Academy of Architecture was founded, under
Louis XIV., by his celebrated minister Colbert in 1671,
and was composed of the most distinguished architects of
the time. It was provided, however, that the professor of
architecture, and the secretary to the academy, should al¬
ways be chosen from those architects intrusted with the
superintendence of royal edifices; and the title of acade¬
mician was conferred by brevet. The Academy of Archi¬
tecture held its sittings every Monday at the Louvre,
where it occupied the apartment called the Queens Sa¬
loon ; but at the commencement of the Revolution it was
remodelled, like the Academy of Sciences, and transform¬
ed into a school for the cultivation and improvement of
the fine arts. This school was divided into two sections,
the first of which was devoted to painting and sculpture,
and the second to architecture; and these two sections
received, by a royal ordonnance of the 11th August 1819,
the title of Royal Academy of the Fine Arts. The in¬
struction in architecture at this institution consists of
lessons given in special courses of lectures by four dif¬
ferent professors ; first, on the theory of the art; secondly,
on its history; thirdly, on the mathematical principles of
construction; and, fourthly, on perspective; which last
branch is common to both sections. By the munificence
of the government, this institution is amply provided with
means for supporting the pupils admitted within its walls,
as also for affording them every facility in the prosecution
of their studies ; and with the view of exciting emulation
as well as rewarding excellence, a grand prize is annually
given.
The Academy of Dancing was erected by Louis XIV.,
and had particular privileges conferred upon it.
VII. Academies of Law. Under this head we may
mention the famous academy at Berytus, and that of the
Sitientes at Bologna. We are not aware of any other.
VIII. Academies of History. The first of these to
which we shall advert, is the Royal Academy of Portuguese
History at Lisbon. This academy was instituted by King
John V. in 1720. It consists of a director, four censors,
a secretary, and fifty members, to each of whom is assign¬
ed some part of the ecclesiastical or civil history of the
nation, which he is required to treat either in Latin or
Portuguese. In the church history of each diocese, the
prelates, synods, councils, churches, monasteries, acade¬
mies, persons illustrious for sanctity or learning, and places
famous for miracles or relics, must be distinctly related in
twelve chapters. The civil history comprises the transac¬
tions of the kingdom, from the government of the Ro¬
mans down to the present time. The members who re¬
side in the country are obliged to make collections and
extracts out of all the registers, &c. where they live. Their
meetings take place once every fifteen days. A medal
was struck by this academy in honour of their prince, on
the obverse of which was his effigy, with the inscription
Johannes V. Lusitanorum Rex, and on the reverse, the
same prince represented standing, and raising History,
almost prostrate before him, with the legend, Historia,
Resurges. Underneath are the following words in abbre¬
viature : REGia ACADemia HISToriae LUSITanae, IN-
STITuta VI. Idus Decembris MDCCXX.
An Academy of History was some time ago established
by some learned men at Tubingen, for publishing the best
historical writings, the lives of the chief historians, and
compiling new memoirs on any matter of importance con¬
nected with either.
About the year 1730, a few individuals in Madrid agreed
to assemble at stated periods, for the purpose of pre- Academy,
serving and illustrating the historical monuments of Spain.
In the year 1738, the rules which they had drawn up
were confirmed by a royal cedula of Philip V. This aca¬
demy consists of twenty-four members. The device is a
river at its source ; the motto, In patriampopulumquefluit.
It has published editions of Mariana, Sepulveda, Solis,
and the ancient Chronicles relative to the affairs of Castile,
several of which were never before printed. All the di¬
plomas, charters, &c. belonging to the principal cities in
Spain, since the earliest period, are in its possession. It
has long been employed in preparing a geographical dic¬
tionary of that country.
IX. Academies of Antiquities j as that at Cortona in
Italy, and that at Upsal in Sweden. The first is designed
for the study of Hetrurian antiquities ; the other for illus¬
trating the northern languages, and the antiquities of
Sweden, in which valuable discoveries have been made by
it. The head of the Hetrurian academy is called Luco-
mon, a name by which the ancient governors of the coun¬
try were distinguished. One of their laws is, to give
audience to poets only one day in the year; and another is,
to fix their sessions, and impose a tax of a dissertation on
each member in his turn.
The Academy of Medals and Inscriptions at Paris was
set on foot by M. Colbert, under the patronage of Louis
XIV. in 1663, for the study and explanation of ancient mo¬
numents, and for perpetuating great and memorable events,
especially those of the French monarchy, by coins, relievos,
inscriptions, &c. The number of members was at first con¬
fined to four or five, chosen out of those of the French acade¬
my ; and they met in the library of M. Colbert, from whom
they received his Majesty’s orders. Though the days of
their meetings were not determined, they generally as¬
sembled on Wednesdays, especially in the winter season ;
but, in 1691, the king having given the inspection of this
academy to M. de Pontchartrain, comptroller-general of
the finances, he fixed their meetings on Tuesdays and
Saturdays. By a new regulation, dated the 16th of July
1701, the academy was composed of ten honorary mem¬
bers ; ten associates, each of whom had two declarative
voices; ten pensioners; and ten eleves, or pupils. They
then met every Tuesday and Wednesday, in one of the
halls of the Louvre; and had two public meetings yearly,
one the-day after Martinmas, and the other the 16th after
Easter. The class of eleves was suppressed, and united
to the associates. The king nominated their president
and vice-president yearly; but their secretary and treasur¬
er were perpetual. The rest were chosen by the mem¬
bers themselves, agreeably to the constitutions on that
head given to them. One of the first undertakings of this
academy wTas to compose, by means of medals, a con¬
nected history of the principal events of Louis XIV.’s
reign. In this design, however, they met with very great
difficulties, and consequently it was interrupted for a
number of years; but at length it was completed down
to the advancement of the L)uke of Anjou to the crown
of Spain. In this celebrated work, the establishment
of the academy itself was not forgotten. The medal on
this subject represents Mercury sitting, and writing with
an antique stylus on a table of brass; he leans with
his left hand upon an urn full of medals, and at his
feet are several others placed upon a card. The le¬
gend is, Rerum gestarum Jides, and on the exergue, Aca¬
demia Regia Inscriptionum et Numismatum, instituta
MDCLXIII.; signifying, that the Royal Academy of Me¬
dals and Inscriptions, founded in 1663, ought to give to
future ages a faithful testimony of all great actions. Be¬
sides this work, we have several volumes of their me-
70
ACADEMY.
Academy, moirs; and their history, written and continued by their
secretaries.
Under this class the Academy of Herculaneum ycoyer-
ly ranks. It was established at Naples about l at
which period a museum was formed of the antiquities
found at Herculaneum, Pompeii, and other places, by t ic
Marquis Tanucci, who was then minister of state. Its ob¬
ject was to explain the paintings, &c. which were discover¬
ed at those places ; and for this purpose the members met
every fortnight, and at each meeting three paintings weie
submitted to three academicians, who made their report
on them at their next sitting. The first volume of their
labours appeared in 1775, and they have been continued
under the title of Antichitd di Ercolano. They contain
engravings of the principal paintings, statues, bronzes,
marble figures, medals, utensils, &c. with explanations.
In the year 1807, an Academy of History and Antiquities,
on a new plan, was established at Naples, by Joseph Buona¬
parte. The number of members was limited to forty;
twenty of whom were to be appointed by the king, and
these twenty were to present to him, for his choice, three
names for each of those wanted to complete the full num¬
ber. Eight thousand ducats were to be annually allotted
for the current expenses, and two thousand for prizes to
the authors of four works, which should be deemed by the
academy most deserving of such a reward. A grand meet¬
ing was to be held every year, when the prizes were to be
distributed, and analyses of the works read. The first
meeting took place on the 25th of April 1807 ; but the sub¬
sequent changes in the political state of Naples have pre¬
vented the full and permanent establishment of this insti¬
tution. In the same year an academy was established at
Florence, for the illustration of Tuscan antiquities, which
has published some volumes of memoirs.
In consequence of the attention of several literary men
in Paris having been directed to Celtic antiquities, a Celtic
Academy was established in that city in the year 1807.
Its objects were, first, the elucidation of the history, cus¬
toms, antiquities, manners, and monuments of the Celts,
particularly in France ; secondly, the etymology of all the
European languages, by the aid of the Celto-British,
Welsh, and Erse ; and, thirdly, researches relating to
Druidism. The attention of the members was also parti¬
cularly called to the history and settlements of the Galatae
in Asia. Lenoir, the keeper of the museum of French
monuments, was appointed president. A fasciculus, con¬
sisting of 150 or 160 pages, was to be published monthly;
and the engravings illustrative of Celtic antiquities were
to be under the inspection of Lenoir. The devices are,
Gloria: Majorum, and Sermonem patriam moresque re-
quiret.
X. Academies of Belles Lettres are those wherein
eloquence and poetry are chiefly cultivated. These are
very numerous in Italy, and were not uncommon in
France.
The Academy of Umidi at Florence has contributed
greatly to the progress of the sciences by the excellent
Italian translations executed by some of its members, of
the ancient Greek and Latin historians. But their chief
attention was directed to Italian poetry, at the same time
that they applied themselves to the polishing of their lan¬
guage, which produced the Academy della Crusca.
The Academy of Humourists, Umoristi, had its origin
at Rome in the marriage of Lorenzo Marcini, a Roman
gentleman, at which several persons of rank were guests;
for it being carnival time, to give the ladies some diver¬
sion, they betook themselves to the reciting of verses,
sonnets, speeches, first extempore, and afterwards preme¬
ditately ; which gave them the denomination of Belli Hu¬
man. After some experience, and coming more and more A^xlemy.
into the taste of these exercises, they resolved to form an'^v^^'
academy of belles lettres, and changed the title of Belli
Humori for that of Humoristi; choosing for their de¬
vice a cloud, which, after being formed of exhalations
from the salt waters of the ocean, returns in a gentle
sweet shower; with this motto from Lucretius, Redit
agmine dulci.
In 1690, the Academy of Arcadi was established at
Rome, for reviving the study of poetry and of the belles
lettres. Besides most of the politer wits of both sexes
in Italy, this academy comprehended many princes, cardi¬
nals, and other ecclesiastics ; and, to avoid disputes about
pre-eminence, all appeared masked after the manner of
Arcadian shepherds. Within ten years from its first
establishment, the number of Academicians amounted to
six hundred. They held assemblies seven times a year
in a meadow or grove, or in the gardens of some noble¬
man of distinction. Six of these meetings were employed
in the recitation of poems and verses of the Arcadi re¬
siding at Rome, who read their own compositions; ex¬
cept ladies and cardinals, who were allowed to employ
others. The seventh meeting was set apart for the com¬
positions of foreign or absent members. This academy is
governed by a custos, who represents the whole society,
and is chosen every four years, with a power of electing
twelve others yearly for his assistance. Under these are
two sub-custodes, one vicar or pro-custos, and four depu¬
ties or superintendents, annually chosen. The laws of the
society are immutable, and bear a near resemblance to the
ancient model. There are five modes of electing members.
The first is by acclamation. This is used when sovereign
princes, cardinals, and ambassadors of kings desire to be ad¬
mitted ; and the votes are then given viva voce. The second
is called annumeration. This was introduced in favour of
ladies and academical colonies, where the votes are taken
privately. The third, representation, was established in
favour of colonies and universities, where the young gentry
are bred, who have each a privilege of recommending one or
two members privately to be balloted for. The fourth,
surrogation, whereby new members are substituted in the
room of those dead or expelled. The last, destination,
whereby, when there is no vacancy of members, persons
of poetical merit have the title of Arcadi conferred upon
them till such time as a vacancy shall happen. All the
members of this body, at their admission, assume new pas¬
toral names, in imitation of the shepherds of Arcadia.
The academy has several colonies of Arcadi in different
cities of Italy, who are all regulated after the same man¬
ner.
XI. Academies of Languages, called by some, Gram¬
matical Academies ; as,
The Academy della Crusca at Florence, famous for its voca¬
bulary of the Italian tongue, which was formed in 1582, but
scarce heard of before the year 1584, when it became noted
for a dispute between Tasso and several of its members.
Many authors confound this with the Florentine academy.
The discourses which Torricelli, the celebrated disciple of
Galileo, delivered in the assemblies, concerning levity,
the wind, the power of percussion, mathematics, and mili¬
tary architecture, are a proof that these academies applied
themselves to things as well as words.
The Academy of Fructiferi had its rise in 1617, at an
assembly of several princes and nobility of the country,
who met with a design to refine and perfect the German
tongue. It flourished long under the direction of princes
of the empire, who were always chosen presidents. In
1668, the number of members arose to upwards of nine
hundred. It was prior in time to the French academy.
A C A
Aeadie which only appeared in 1629, and was not established into an
Acantha ^a“emy before the year 1635. Its history is written in the
, ' German tongue, by George Neumarck.
The French Academy had its rise from a meeting of men
of letters in the house of M. Conrart, in 1629. In 1635, it
was erected into an academy by Cardinal Richelieu, for re¬
fining and ascertaining the French language and style. The
number of its members was limited to forty, out of whom a di¬
rector, chancellor, and secretary were to be chosen ; the two
former of whom were to hold their posts for two months; the
latter was perpetual. The members of this academy enjoyed
several privileges and immunities, among which was that of
not being obliged to answer before any court but that of the
king s household. They met three times a week in the
Louvre. At the breaking up of each meeting forty silver
medals were distributed among the members, having on one
side the king of France’s head, and on the reverse, Protec-
teur de l Academic, with laurel, and this motto, A Ulmmor-
talite. By this distribution, the attendance of the academi¬
cians was secured; for those who were present received the
surplus intended for the absent. To elect or expel a mem¬
ber, the concurrence of at least eighteen was required; nor
could any one be chosen unless he petitioned for it; by which
expedient the affront or refusals on the part of persons elected
was avoided. Religious persons were not admitted; nor
could any nobleman or person of distinction be elected on
any other footing than as a man of letters. None could be
expelled, except for base and dishonest practices; and there
were but two instances of such expulsions, the first of M.
Grainer for refusing to return a deposit, the other of the
Abbe Furetiere for plagiarism. The design of this academy
was to give not only rules, but examples, of good writing.
1 hey began with making speeches on subjects taken at plea¬
sure, about twenty of which were printed. At their first in¬
stitution they met with great opposition from the parliament;
it being two years before the patents granted by the king
could be registered. This institution has been severely sa¬
tirized, and the style of its compositions has been ridiculed
as enervating instead of refining the French language. They
were also charged with having surfeited the world by flattery,
and exhausted all the topics of panegyric in praise of their
founder; it being a duty incumbent on every member, at
his admission, to make a speech in praise of the king, the
cardinal, the chancellor Seguier, and the person in whose
room he is elected. The most remarkable work of this aca¬
demy is a dictionary of the French tongue; which, after
A C A 7i
fifty years spent in settling the words and phrases to be used Acanthou-
in writing, was at last published in 1694. terygious
An academy similar to the above was founded at Peters- 11
burg under the auspices of the Princess Dashkof; and the ^Tulco-
plan having been approved by the crown, a fund was esta- ^
blished for its support. It is attached to the Imperial Aca¬
demy of Sciences at St Petersburg.
The Royal Spanish Academy at Madrid held its first
meeting in July 1713, in the palace of its founder, the Duke
d’Escalona. It consisted at first of eight academicians, in¬
cluding the duke ; to which number fourteen others were
afterwards added, the founder being chosen president or di¬
rector. In 1714, the king granted them the royal confir¬
mation and protection. Their device is a crucible in the
middle of the fire, with this motto, Limpia Fixa, y da Es-
plendor ; “ It purifies, fixes, and gives brightness.” The
number of its members was limited to twenty-four; the
Duke d’Escalona was chosen director for life, but his suc¬
cessors were elected yearly, and the secretary for life. Their
object, as marked out by the royal declaration, was to culti¬
vate and improve the national language. They were to begin
with choosing carefully such words and phrases as have been
used by the best Spanish writers ; noting the low, barbarous
or obsolete ones; and composing a dictionary wherein these
might be distinguished from the former.
The Royal Swedish Academy was founded in the year
1786, for the purpose of purifying and perfecting the Swe¬
dish language. A medal is struck by its direction every year
in honour of some illustrious Swede. This academy does
not publish its transactions.
XII. Academies of Politics. Of this description was
that at Paris, consisting of six persons, who met at the Lou¬
vre, in the chamber where the papers relating to foreign
affairs were lodged. But this academy proved of little ser¬
vice, as the kings of France were unwilling to trust any but
their ministers with the inspection of foreign affairs.
Academy is a term also applied to those royal collegiate
seminaries in which young men are educated for the navy
and army. In our country there are three seminaries of this
description ; the Naval Academy at Portsmouth, the Royal
Military Academy at Woolwich, and the Royal Military
College at Farnham and Sandhurst. Besides these there are
the Colleges of Addiscombe and Haileybury for the educa¬
tion of young men destined for the military and civil service
of the Honourable East India Company. For an account
of each of these, see the respective articles.
ACADIE, or Acady, in Geography, a name formerly
given to Nova Scotia, or New Scotland, in America.
AC/ENA, in Antiquity, a Grecian measure of length,
being a ten feet rod, used in measuring their lands.
AC AMANTIS, the ancient name of the island of Cyprus,
taken from one of its promontories situated to the west, and
called Acamas, from the hero of that name.
ACAMAS, son of Theseus and Phaedra, was chosen to
accompany Diomedes to Troy, to demand the restoration of
Helen. During his residence at the court of Priam he gained
the affections of Laodice, the second daughter of the king,
by whom he had a son called Munitus. He is mentioned
by Virgil as one of the heroes who concealed themselves in
the wooden horse. He founded a city in Phrygia, called
Acamantium; and one of the Athenian tribes was called after
him, Acamantis. Homer mentions two other heroes of this
name : one a Thracian prince, who came to succour Priam ;
another a son of Antenor.
ACANTHA, in Botany, the prickle of any plant: in
Zoology, a term for the spine or prickly fins of fishes.
ACANTHOPTERYGIOUS Fishes, a term for those
fishes whose back fins are hard, osseous, and prickly.
AGAIN THUS, in Architecture, an ornament represent¬
ing the leaves of the Acanthus, used in the capitals of the
Corinthian and Composite orders, but the species of the
plant is still doubtful.
ACAPULCO, a town and port in Mexico, on a bay of
the Pacific Ocean, about 190 miles S.S.W. of Mexico, in Lat.
16.50. N. Long. 99. 46. W. The harbour, which is one of
the finest in the world, is easy of access, and the anchorage
is so secure that heavily-laden ships can anchor close to the
rocks which surround it. The town lies N. W. of the harbour,
and is defended by the castle of San Diego, which stands on
an eminence. During a part of the dry season the air is in¬
fected with the putrid effluvia of a morass eastward of the
town. This, together with the heat of the climate, which
ranges from 86 to 90 degrees Fahr., aggravated by the re¬
flection of the sun’s rays from the granite rocks that environ
the town, renders it very unhealthy, especially to Europeans,
though a passage cut through the rocks on the east side has
72
A C A
Acca.
Acarnania tended to improve its salubrity. The population amoun
" to about 4000, mostly people of colour. Ihe exports are
chiefly silver, indigo, cochineal, Spanish cloth, and some
’ peltry. Formerly, a galleon sailed annually from this port
to Manilla in the Philippine Islands, and another annually
returned from thence, laden with the treasures an uxuries
of the East. On the arrival of this galleon a great feir was
held, to which merchants resorted from all parts of Mexico.
The trade between Acapulco and Manilla has been anm i-
lated by the revolution in America; and the town has
dwindled into comparative insignificance. Captain Hall
found in it only 30 houses, and some reed-huts. In the be¬
ginning of December 1852 this town suffered severely from
^ ACARNANIA, a province of ancient Greece, now called
Carnia. It was bounded on the N. by the Ambracian gulf,
on the N.E. by Amphilochia, on the W. and S.W. by the
Ionian sea, and on the E. by the river Achelous. It was
a mountainous country, with numerous lakes and tracts ot
rich pasture, and its hills are to the present day crowned
with thick wood. It was celebrated for its excellent breed
of horses. The Acarnanians, according to Mr Grote, though
admitted as Greeks to the Pan-Hellenic games, were more
akin in character and manners to their barbarian neighbours
of Epirus. Up to the time of the Peloponnesian war, they
are mentioned only as a race of rude shepherds, divided into
numerous petty tribes and engaged in continual strife and
rapine. They were, however, favourably distinguished from
their iEtolian neighbours by the fidelity and stedfastness of
their character. They were good soldiers and excelled as
slino-ers. At the date above mentioned they begin, as the
allies of the Athenians, to make a more prominent figure m
the history of Greece. The chief town was Stratos, and
subsequently Leucas. . „
ACARON, or Accaron, a town of Palestine, called rJi-
ron in Scripture, now Akri.
ACASTUS, son of Pelias, king of lolcus, was one of
the Argonauts, and took part in the hunt of the Calydonian
boar. His sisters, at the instigation of Medea, cut their father
to pieces and boiled him in a cauldron, expecting to see him
restored to them in the bloom of youth. The sorceress hav¬
ing failed in her promise, Acastus drove her and Jason out
of lolcus, buried his father, and instituted games to his
memory. Peleus, after having been purified by Acastus
from the murder of Eurytion, appeared at these games, where
he contended with Atalanta. Astydamia, or Hippo lyte, the
wife of Acastus, falling in love with this hero, and finding him
proof against her solicitations, accused him to her husband
of having made an attempt on her virtue. Acastus, unwill¬
ing to slay his guest, took his revenge by depriving him of his
sword while he slept, after the fatigues of the chase, on Mount
Pelion. Peleus on awakening missed his sword, and found
himself in imminent danger of destruction by the hands of
the Centaurs, but was rescued by the timely intervention of
Chiron, who restored to him his sword. Returning, he slew
both Acastus and his wife, and took possession of lolcus.
(Apollod. i. 9, iii. 13.)
ACATALECTIC, a term in ancient poetry for such
verses as have all their feet or syllables, in contradistinction
to those that have a syllable too few.
ACCA, Saint, bishop of Hagustaldt, or Hexham, in
Northumberland, succeeded Wilfrid in that see in 709. He
ornamented his cathedral in a most magnificent manner ;
and erected a noble library, consisting chiefly of ecclesias¬
tical learning, and a large collection of the lives of the saints.
He was an able divine, and famous for his skill in church
music. He wrote several books, particularly Passiones
Sciiictoruni, and Pvo illustvandis ScviptuviSy. ad Pedum,
He died in 740.
ACC
ACCAPITARE, in Law, the act of becoming vassal ofAccapitare
a lord, or of yielding him homage and obedience. Hence, J
ACCAPITUM signifies the money paid by a vassal‘
upon his admission to a feu. v
Accapitum, in our Ancient Law, was used also to ex¬
press the relief or fee payable on the entry of an heir to
the chief lord. . ,
ACCEDAS ad curiam, m English Law, a writ used
where a man has received, or fears, false judgment in an
inferior court. It lies also for justice delayed, and is a
species of the writ Recordare.
ACCELERATION, in Natural Philosophy, denotes
generally an increase of motion or velocity, and is chiefly
applied to the motion of such bodies as go on, not with a
uniform motion, but one which becomes continually quick¬
er and quicker as they advance. A body, for example, roll¬
ing down a hill proceeds slowly at first, but gradually in¬
creases as it descends, until at last it acquires a velocity
and momentum which bears down every thingbefore it. The
same thing takes place when a body is dropped, and allowed
to fall freely in the air; although the acceleration is here
less observable, on account of the great rapidity of the de¬
scent. The earth, in its annual motion round the sun, is
subject to a continued acceleration from the apogee to
the perigee, while from thence again it suffers a similar
retardation. Many other examples occur of such ac¬
celeration ; but the most interesting is the Acceleration
of Falling Bodies. That such an acceleration does
take place, is obvious from many circumstances, particu¬
larly the increasing momentum which a body acquires in
proportion to the height of its descent. But it was only
by considering the cause of the descent that the true law
of the acceleration was determined. This great discovery
we owe to the genius of Galileo. Various theories had
been framed by philosophers to account for the accele¬
rated descent of falling bodies, but all of them incon¬
clusive and visionary. Some, for instance, ascribed it to
the weight of the pure air above increasing as the body
descended. The followers of Gassendi pretended that
there are continually issuing out of the earth certain
attractive corpuscles directed in an infinite number ot
rays; these, say they, ascend and then descend m such a
manner, that the nearer a body approaches to the earth s
centre, the more of these attractive rays press upon it, in
consequence of which its motion becomes accelerated.
The Cartesians again ascribed the effect to the reiterated
impulses of their materia suhtilis acting continually on
falling bodies, and propelling them downwards. It ap¬
pears now incredible how such dreams could have been
gravely proposed by men having the reputation of p i oso-
phers. Galileo, however, on considering the subject at¬
tentively, and applying the powerful aids of geometry and
mathematics, soon discovered that the true cause was
simply the continued action of the moving force or gravi¬
ty. This force, Galileo reasoned, must operate continu¬
ally on the body, not only at the moment of starting, but
also during every moment of its descent. And as t e
body retains and accumulates all these impressions ac¬
cording to the great and original law of moving bodies,
no wonder that its motion should become continually
accelerated: for, suppose that gravity were to act only
at certain small intervals, each second for instance,
and suppose that at first it communicates such a mo¬
tion to the body as causes it to descend, say ten teet
in the first second; the body could not stop here even
though gravity were ceasing altogether to act on it.
retaining the original impression, it would still go on
moving uniformly at the rate of ten feet every second of
its descent; but at the end of the first second, gravity
ACC
Accelera- again acts on it and communicates a second impression, by
tion. virtue of which it would descend ten feet during the se¬
cond interval, in addition to the ten feet arising from
the original impulse ; so that on the whole it descends 20
feet in the second interval. In the same manner, during
the third interval it would descend 30 feet, and during the
fourth 40, and so on ; the space described in each second
thus increasing regularly with the increase of the time.
Hence Galileo deduced the fundamental law of acce¬
leration in falling bodies, that the Velocity, which in
every case is just the space described in each second
or other fixed interval, increases in exact proportion to
the whole time of descent; so that whatever be the ve¬
locity at the end of the first second, then at the end
of any number of seconds the velocity would just be as
many times greater,—a law from which he easily deduced
all the others regarding the descent of falling bodies,
which are of so much importance in mechanical inquiries.
I he most remarkable is that which regards the Space1
described, or the total amount of the descent in a given
time. This Galileo deduced very elegantly from a simple
geometrical consideration. In every case of a body
moving uniformly without acceleration, the space describ¬
ed in any given time must be proportional to the time,
and must be found by multiplying the time by the velo¬
city : it may be represented, therefore, by a simple dia¬
gram. Let A B,for instance, de¬
note by its length the velocity of ^
the body, or the number of feet
described by it in a second, and     ^
C D the time or number of se¬
conds during which it is in motion; then, if we construct
a rectangle a E, of which one of the sides, a h, is equal
to A B, and the other, c d, equal to C D,
this rectangle, that is, the number of
square feet in it, will denote the space,
that is, the number of lineal feet described
during the whole period. Let us now
apply this principle to the case of a body
moving with an accelerated velocity, and
let AB, CD, EF, &c. denote the velocities
at the end of certain equal intervals of time,
of which let each be denoted by / m ; and
suppose also, that during each of these inter¬
vals the motion is uniform, and is only accelerated by a
sort of start which takes place at the end of each: then,
if we construct a rectangle a l h, oi
which a 6 is equal to A B, the velo¬
city at the end of the first interval, and
a l equal to l m the first interval, this
rectangle will denote the space de¬
scribed during that interval. Continue
now the line a / to m, making l m — / m ~
a l — l m, and continue also l c to d,
so that l d may be equal to D C, the velocity during the
second interval, and complete the rectangle dime, this
will denote the space de¬
scribed in the second in¬
terval ; and, in the same
manner, each of the
succeeding rectangles in
descending will denote
the space described in
ACC
73
A-
C-
E-
G-
35
-kr
%
the succeeding interval, so that the total amount of the Accelera-
descent will be denoted by the sum of all the rectangles tion*
together, or by the compound figure which they form.'
But what is the nature of this figure ? It is evidently, as
appears more clearly by taking out the parallel lines,
triangular, only that the longest side presents a ser¬
rated outline. What is the cause of this ? It is clearly
owing to the supposition we have made of the motion
continuing uniform during the intervals, and then in¬
creasing by starts; instead of growing continually, as it
really does. Suppose then that we shorten the intervals
one-half, for instance, and
double their number, we
shall then be much nearer
the truth ; but the inequa¬
lities in the hypothenuse of
the triangle are now great¬
ly reduced ; and the more
we thus diminish the intervals, and increase their num¬
ber, the more nearly does it approach to a straight line.
In the extreme case, therefore, where there are in re¬
ality no intervals, but where the velocity goes on con¬
tinually increasing, neither will there be any inequalities
in the outline; the figure will be really a triangle: and
while the vertical side A B denotes the
time of descent, and the horizontal B C
the velocity, the area of the triangle will
denote in square measure the space
descended in the given time. But the
areas of similar triangles are in every
case proportional to the squares of their
corresponding sides; that is, the area
ABCistoADEas the square of
A B or B C is to the square of A D or
D E. Hence in general it follows, that the spaces de¬
scribed in any given time or times are always pro¬
portional to the squares of these times, and also to the
squares of the velocities at the end of such times. Thus,
if a body describes 16 feet during the first second of its
descent, it will, during the next, descend 4 times as much,
or 64; during the third 9 times, or 144 feet; during the
fourth 16 times, or 256, and so on.
Such, then, is the great law of acceleration in re¬
gard to the spaces described. It is easily deducible also
from numerical or algebraical considerations. Let the
velocity, for example, at the end of any given time,
such as a second, be denoted by 1; then in the se¬
cond, third, and fourth, it will be 2, 3, 4, &c. But
the space described at the end of any time is evi¬
dently equal to the time multiplied by the mean velo¬
city ; that is, the velocity at the half-interval. During
the first second, therefore, the space described will
be during the second f, during the third f, during
the fourth and so on; adding these successively, the
whole space from the beginning at the end of each in¬
terval will be |, |, l£, &c., being each proportional to
the square of the time. Algebraically again, if we suppose
gravity to act only at the end of successive intervals, and
the motion to continue uniform during these, then the
spaces described will form an arithmetical progression,
such as a, 2 a, 3 a, 4 a, 5 a, &c. ... n a, and the whole
space will be the sum of this series, or a -|- w a x ” =
1 This phrase, we may remark, probably from Galileo’s geometrical illustration, has been rather awkwardly introduced in these
discussions, and in a way which tends to produce a little obscurity. Space generally includes the idea of extension, in at least two
dimensions, both length and breadth ; whereas it is here employed to denote merely the lineal extent, the length of the track
described by the moving body.
vol. n.
K
74 ACC
Accelera- ?i2 i w y —. Suppose now the intervals diminished
tion. ~ 2 11 . t . .
in extent and increased in number indefinitely, they will
bear no sort of proportion to n(J : the second term of the
above sum therefore may be neglected, and ultimately the
whole space will be proportional to n'2, the square of the
time. In every view, then, this great law is established;
and when we come to try it experimentally, which is done
by means of Atwood’s machine, it is confirmed by the
nicest observation; every falling body describing in the
first second 16y^ feet, and in every other a space propor¬
tional to the time. See Atwoods Machine, Dynamics,
Mechanics, &c. # . (J*B;)
Acceleration, in Astronomy, is applied in various
ways, and to different objects. Thus, the Acceleration of
the Fixed Stars denotes that apparent increase of motion
or velocity by which night after night they arrive sooner
and sooner upon the meridian than before. A star which
passes the meridian to-night at 10 o clock, for instance,
will to-morrow night arrive at it 3' 56" sooner, or at
56' 4" past nine, and so on each succeeding evening;
thus anticipating continually the motion of the sun,
which regulates the length of the day. A star which
passes the meridian to-day with the sun, will to-morrow
pass 3' 56" sooner; so that it appears to revolve with a
quicker or accelerated motion. It is in reality the sun,
however, moving continually backwards among the stars
which causes in them this apparent acceleration.
Acceleration of the Planets denotes that accelerated mo¬
tion with which they all, as well as the earth, advance from
the perigee to the apogee of their orbits. This acceleration
is most readily observed by comparing the successive diur¬
nal motions of the planet in its orbit. When the actual
diurnal motion exceeds the mean diurnal motion, the planet
is accelerated; and, on the other hand, when it falls short of
it, it is retarded, as takes place between the apogee and
perigee.
Acceleration of the Moon is a remarkable increase which
has been discovered in the moon’s motion in her orbit,
which has been going on increasing from age to age by a
gradation so imperceptible, that it was only discovered
or suspected by Dr Halley, on comparing the ancient
eclipses observed at Babylon and others with those of his
own time. The quantity of this acceleration was afterwards
determined by Mr Dunthorne from more accurate data
regarding the longitudes of Alexandria and Babylon, and
from the most authentic eclipse of which any good ac¬
count remains, observed at Babylon in the year 721 be¬
fore Christ. The beginning of this eclipse, as observed
at that time, was about an hour and three quarters sooner
than he found it would have been by computation; and
hence he found the mean acceleration, or what has since
been termed the moon’s secular equation, about 10" of a de¬
gree each century. According to Laplace, it amounts to
11*135". This remarkable fact had long excited the atten¬
tion of astronomers; as, along with several others of the
same kind among the heavenly bodies, it seemed to betray
imperfection ; exhibiting inequalities which were contin¬
ually increasing, instead of correcting themselves or being
somehow compensated by that admirable design which
prevailed in every other part of the system. At last, how¬
ever, it was discovered, by the application of a refined
analysis, that these inequalities were not perpetual; that
they actually terminate in the lapse of ages, and again
return in the opposite direction, thus preserving entire
the harmony of the celestial motions. This fine discovery,
which observation alone could never have disclosed, we
owe to the genius of Laplace. #See Astronomy in this
work; also Phil. Trans. No. 204, 218, and vol. xlvi. 1749,
ACC
1750, 1777 ; Mem. de lAcad. Par. 1157, 1763, 1786 ; Accelera-
Mem. de I’Acad. Berlin, 1773, 1782; Connoissances des
Temps, 1779, 1782, 1790; Newton’s Principia, second Ac(llent
edition ; Say’s Astronomy ; Vince’s Astronomy ; Astrono-
mie, par Lalande, &c. (J*B*)
Acceleration of Bodies on inclined Planes. The same
general law obtains here as in bodies falling perpendicu¬
larly : the effect of the plane is to make the motion
slower; but the inclination being everywhere equal, the
retardation arising therefrom will proceed equally in all
parts, at the beginning and the ending of the motion.
ACCENDENTES, a lower order of ministers in the Ro¬
mish church, whose office is to light and trim the candles.
ACCENDONES, in Roman antiquity, a kind of gladi¬
ators, whose office was to excite and animate the com¬
batants during the engagement. The orthography of the
word is contested: the first edition of Tertullian, by
Rhenanus, has it accedones ; an ancient manuscript, accen-
dones. Aquinas adheres to the former, Pitiscus to the
latter. The origin of the word, supposing it accendones, is
from accendo, I kindle ; supposing it accedones, from accedo,
I accede, am added to. The former places their distin¬
guishing character in enlivening the combat by their ex¬
hortations and suggestions: the latter supposes them to
be much the same with what among us are called seconds,
among the Italians, patroni; excepting that these latter
only stand by to see the laws of the sword duly observed,
without intermeddling to give advice or instruction.
ACCENSI, in the Roman armies, certain supernumer¬
ary soldiers, designed to supply the place of those who
should be killed or anywise disabled. They were thus
denominated, quia accensebantur, or ad censum adjicieban-
tur. Vegetius calls them supernumerarii legionum. Cato
calls them ferentarii, in regard they furnished those en¬
gaged in battle with weapons, drink, &c. Nonnius sug¬
gests another reason of that appellation, viz. because they
fought with stones, slings, and weapons, qua feruntur,
such as are thrown, not carried in the hand. They were
sometimes also called velites, and velati, because they
fought clothed, but not in armour ; sometimes adscriptitii,
and adscriptivi; sometimes rorarii. The accensi, Livy
observes, were placed in the rear of the army, because^
little was expected from them: they were taken out of
the fifth class of citizens.
Accensi, in antiquity, denotes an inferior order of
officers, appointed to attend the Roman magistrates, some¬
what in the manner of ushers, serjeants, or tipstaves among
us. They were thus called from accire, to send for ; one
part of their office being to call assemblies of the people,
summon parties to appear and answer before the judges, &c.
Accensi was also an appellation given to a kind of ad¬
jutants, appointed by the tribune to assist each centurion
and decurion; in which sense accensus is synonymous with
optio. In an ancient inscription, given by Torre, we meet
with Accensus Equitum Romanorum ; an office no¬
where else heard of. That author suspects it for a cor¬
ruption ; and instead thereof reads, A Censibus.
ACCENSION, the action of setting a body on fire:
thus the accension of tinder is effected by striking fire
with flint and steel.
ACCENT, in reading or speaking, an inflection of the
voice, which gives to each syllable of a word its due pitch
in respect of height or lowness. See Reading. The
word is originally Latin, accentus ; a compound of ad, to,
and cano, to sing. Accentus quasi adcantus, ovjuxta can-
turn. In this sense, accent is synonymous with the Greek
rmq; the Latin tenor, or tonor; and the Hebrew oi?o,
gustus, taste.
Accent, among grammarians, is a certain mark or
ACCENT.
Accent, character placed over a syllable to direct the stress of its
pronunciation. We generally reckon three grammatical
accents in ordinary use, all borrowed from the Greeks,
viz. the acute accent ('), which shows when the tone of
the voice is to be raised; the grave accent (v), when the
note or tone of the voice is to be depressed; and the circum¬
flex accent (*), which is composed of both the acute and
the grave, and points out a kind of undulation of the voice.
The Latins have made the same use as the Greeks of these
three accents.
The Hebrews have a grammatical, a rhetorical, and a
musical accent; though the first and last seem, in effect,
to be the same, both being comprised under the general
name of tonic accents, because they give the proper tones
to syllables; as the rhetorical accents are said to be
euphonic, because they tend to make the pronunciation
more sweet and agreeable. There are four euphonic ac¬
cents, and twenty-five tonic: of these some are placed above,
and others below the syllables; the Hebrew accents serving
not only to regulate the risings and fallings of the voice,
but also to distinguish the sections, periods, and members
ot periods, m a discourse, and to answer the same pur¬
poses with the points in other languages. Their accents
are divided into emperors, kings, dukes, &c. each bearing
a title answerable to the importance of the distinction it
makes. Their emperor rules over a whole phrase, and
terminates the sense completely; answering to our point.
Iheir king answers to our colon; and their duke to our
comma. The king, however, occasionally becomes a duke,
and the duke a king, as the phrases are more or less short,
t must be noted, by the way, that the management and
combination of these accents in Hebrew poetry differ from
their management and combination in prose. The use of
the tonic or grammatical accents has been much contro-
verted; some holding that they distinguish the sense,
while others maintain that they are only intended to re-
gwate the music or singing, alleging that the Jews sing
Cooper, rather than read the Scriptures in their synagogues.1 Be
saic.'cia-' tllS’ llowever’ as.lt: /t is certain the ancient Hebrews
p. 31 not ac(luamted with these accents. The opinion
winch prevails amongst the learned is, that they were
invented about the sixth century, by the Jewish doctors
, 01 the school of Tiberias, called the Massorets.
As to the Greek accents, now seen both in manuscripts
and printed books, there has been no less dispute about
their antiquity and use than about those of the Hebrews.
But, apart from the bewildering discussions of modern
scholars, more erudite than wise, the man who with a clear
knowledge of the phenomena of the living voice, shall draw
his ideas on this subject directly from the ancient gramma¬
rians and rhetoricians will find the following things to be un¬
doubted : (1.) That by accent (irpocraiSLa, roVos) the Greeks
understood the elevation or falling of the voice on a parti¬
cular syllable of a word, either absolutely, or in relation to
its position in a sentence, accompanied with an intension or
remission of the vocal utterance on that syllable (eTriWis,
aveo-i?,) occasioning a marked predominance of that syllable
over the other syllables of the word. The predominance
thus given, however, had no effect whatever on the quantity
long or short—of the accented syllable. The accented
syllable in Greek as in English, might be long or it might
be short; elevation and emphasis of utterance being one
thing, and prolongation of the vocal sound quite another
thing, as any one acquainted with the first elements of music
will at once perceive. The difficulty which many modern
scholars have experienced in conceiving how a syllable could
be accented and not lengthened, has arisen partly from a
complete want of distinct ideas on the nature of the ele¬
ments of which human speech is composed, and partly also
from a vicious practice which has long prevailed in the
British schools, of reading Greek, not according to the laws
of its own accentuation, but according to the accent of Latin
handed down to us through the Roman Catholic church,
h or the rules of Latin accentuation are, as Quintilian and
Cicero, and the grammarians expressly mention, very dif¬
ferent from the Greek; and the long syllable of a word has
the accent in Latin in a hundred cases, where the musical
habit of the Greek ear placed it upon the short. There is
besides a vast number of words in Greek accented on the
last syllable (flkzvoluntee'r, ambusca'de, in English), of which
not a single instance occurs in the Latin language. Partly,
however, from ignorance, partly from carelessness, and partly
from stupidity, our scholastic men transferred the pronun¬
ciation of the more popular learned language to that which
was less known; and with the help of time and constant
usage, so habituated themselves to identify the accented with
the long syllable, according to the analogy of the Latin,
that they began seriously to doubt the possibility of pro¬
nouncing otherwise, and even wrote learned works disavow-
ing the doctrine of accent altogether, as an element of
spoken speech among the classical Greeks. But since the
appearance of a more philosophical spirit in philology, under
the guidance of Hermann, Boeckh, and other master¬
minds among the Germans, the confused discussions arising
from these misunderstandings have ceased; and all our best
grammarians now recognise the importance of this element
of ancient Hellenic enunciation, while not a few carry out
their principles into a consistent practice. The only cir¬
cumstance, indeed, that prevents our English scholars from
practically recognising the element of accent in classical
teaching, is the apprehension that this would interfere se¬
riously with the practical inculcation of quantity; an ap¬
prehension in which they are certainly justified by the prac¬
tice of the modern Greeks, who have given such a predo¬
minance to accent, as altogether to subordinate, and in many
cases completely overwhelm quantity; and who also, in pub¬
lic token of this departure from the classical habit of pronun¬
ciation, regularly compose their verses with a reference to the
spoken accent only, leaving the quantity—as in modern lan¬
guage generally altogether to the discretion of the poet.
But as experiment will teach any one, that there is no neces¬
sity whatever in the nature of the human voice, fof this con¬
fusion of two essentially different elements, it is not unlikely
that British scholars will soon follow the example of the
Germans, and read Greek prose at least systematically ac¬
cording to the laws of classical speech, as handed down to
us by the grammarians of Alexandria and Byzantium. In
the recitation of classical verse, of course, as it was not con¬
structed on accentual principles, the skilful reader will na¬
turally allow the musical accent, or the emphasis of the
rhythm to overbear, to a great extent, or altogether to over¬
whelm, the accent of the individual word; though with
regard to the recitation of verse, it will always remain a pro¬
blem how far the ancients themselves did not achieve an
accentuum cum quantitate apta conciliation such as that
winch Hermann (De emendanda ratione, fyc.) describes as
t le perfection of a polished classical enunciation.
The subject of Greek accent has been frequently handled
y istmguished scholars both in this country and abroad;
but it may be sufficient to refer the reader for more minute in¬
formation to a paper in the Classical Museum, vol. i. p. 338 ;
i «/Menn*n^t0n S WOrk on Greek pronunciation, Cambridge,
1844; and to a work on the same subject by Blackie,
Edinburgh, 1853; and to the German work on Greek ac¬
cent by Gottling. (English.) London, 1831.
The use of accents to prevent ambiguities is most re¬
markably perceived in some eastern languages, particularly
the Siamese and Chinese. Among the people of China, every
Accent.
76
ACC
Accent word, or, which is the same thing, every syllable, admits of
II five accents, according as it is spoken more acutely or le-
Accession. m[ss\y. and thus stands for many different things. 1 he same
^ sound ya, according to the accent affixed to it, signi es 0 ’
a wall, excellent, stupidity, and a goose. The Chinese have
but 330 spoken words in their language; but these being
multiplied by the different accents or tones which affect the
vowels, furnish a language tolerably copious. ™^a.ns °_
accents, their 330 simple sounds come to denote 1650 things;
but this being hardly sufficient, they are increased further
by aspirates added to each word, to double the number.
The Chinese only reckon four accents, for which the mis¬
sionaries use the following marks, ad, d, d, a , to w ic t icy
have added a fifth, thus a. They make a kind of modula¬
tion, wherein, prolonging the duration of the sound of the
vowel, they vary the tone, raising and sinking it by a cer¬
tain pitch of voice ; so that their talking is a sort of music
or singing. Attempts have been made to determine the
quantitv of the rise or fall on each accent by means of mu¬
sical notes; but this is hard to effect, as being different in
different persons. Hence the great difficulty of the lan¬
guage to foreigners, who are forced to sing most scrupu¬
lously; for if they deviate ever so little from the accent, they
say quite a different thing from what was intended. Thus,
meaning to compliment the person you are talking of with
the title Sir, you call him a beast with the same word, only
a little varied in the tone. Magalhon, however, makes the
language easier to learn on this account. The Siamese are
also observed to sing rather than to talk. Their alphabet
begins with six characters, all only equivalent to a K, but
differently accented. For though in the pronunciation the
accents are naturally on the vowels, yet they have some to
diversify such of their consonants as are in other respects
the same.
Accent, in Music. See Music, § Melody.
ACCEPTANCE, in Commerce, is the subscribing, sign¬
ing, and making one’s self debtor for the sum contained in a
bill of exchange or other obligation.
ACCEPTER, or Acceptor, the person who accepts a
bill of exchange, &c.
ACCEPTILATION, among civilians, an acquittance or
discharge given by the creditor to the debtor without the
payment of any value.
ACCESSION, a coming to, applied where one object
comes into conjunction with another, as the accession of a
dynasty to a throne, an accession of a field to an estate.
In Law, it is a method of acquiring property, by which,
in things that have a close connection or dependence upon
one another, the property of the principal draws after it the
property of the accessory: thus, the owner of a cow becomes
likewise the owner of the calf. It sometimes likewise signi¬
fies consent or acquiescence. Thus, in the bankrupt law of
Scotland, when there is a settlement by a trust-deed, it is
accepted on the part of each creditor by a deed of accession.
The most important application of the term is its histori¬
cal and constitutional, in reference to monarchical govern¬
ment. The beginning of every monarch’s reign may he
called his accession, but it is generally said of a monarch
that he “ succeeds,” and the term is more distinctively ap¬
plied to the epoch of a new dynasty, as the accession of
the House of Capet in France, of the House of Austria or
of Bourbon in Spain, and of the House of Stuart or of Hano¬
ver in England. Such accessions are very frequent in Euro¬
pean history. In France alone, besides late changes, we
have the accession of the Carlovingian dynasty in Pepin
(752), of the Capetian in Hugh Capet (987), of the House
of Valois in Philip VI. (1328), and of the House of Bour¬
bon in Henry IV. (1485). A fixed principle of succession
by which the heir of a childless monarch is indicated with
ACC
certainty, is a great preservative of peace among monarchies. Accessory
The most desolating wars have arisen from disputed succes- . ^ent
sions. In Oriental despotisms, even the first step in cer- v ^ j
tainty—the indication of the particular son who shall sue- '
ceed his father—is often wanting, and it has been usual to put
to death or mutilate the brethren of the selected one, to
prevent contention. Even in this country it was long ere
the principle of succession wras so well established, as to
apply with certainty to distant relations. The great war of
independence in Scotland arose from the question, whether
a grandchild by the eldest child had any preference over a
younger. The same difficulty created the great wars of the
Roses. Edward HI. had three sons, the Black Prince, Lionel
Duke of Clarence, and John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster.
On the death of Richard II., the son of the Black Prince,
the descendant of his elder uncle, the Duke of Clarence,
should have succeeded by scientific principles of descent, but
Henry IV., the son of John of Gaunt, made good his ac-
cession.
The highest perfection in peaceful constitutional accession
is reached when the legislature of a country requires to
change the line of monarchs, and fixes beforehand on another
line, which, by virtue of the selection, has a peaceful acces¬
sion. This has been only accomplished in our own country,
when it was twice effected within a very short interval, when
at the Revolution the crown was settled on W illiam and
Mary, and the Princess Anne and her heirs. On the death of
her last child it was necessary to make a new settlement,
and going back to the descendants of King James L, the
grandson of his daughter the Queen of Bohemia, was selected
and made the accession of the House of Hanover.
ACCESSORY, or Accessary, something that accedes,
or is added to another more considerable thing; in which
sense it is opposed to principal.
In Common Law, it is applied to a person guilty ot a
felonious offence, not principally, but by participation; as
by advice, command, or concealment. There are two kinds
of accessories; before the fact, and after it. The first is lie
who commands or procures another to commit felony, and
is not present himself; for if he be present he is a principal.
The second is he who receives, assists, or comforts any man
that has done murder or felony, whereof he has knowledge.
A man may also be accessory to an accessory, by aiding,
receiving, &c. an accessory in felony. , ,
A ccessory Nerves, a pair of nerves which arise from the
medulla in the vertebrae of the neck, ascend and enter the
skull, and pass out of it again with the par vagum.
Accessory, among painters, an epithet given to such
parts of a history-piece as serve chiefly for ornament.
ACCIAIUOLI, Donato, a native of Florence, was born
in 1428, and was famous for his learning and the honourable
employments which he held. He wrote a Latin translation
of some of Plutarch’s Lives; Commentaries on Aristotle s
Ethics and Politics; and the lives of Hannibal, of bcipio,
and of Charlemagne. He was sent to trance by the r o-
rentines, to solicit aid from Louis XL against Pope Sixtus
IV., but on his journey died at Milan in 1478 : his body was
carried to Florence, and buried in the church of the Car¬
thusians at the public expense. The small fortune he left
his children is a proof of his probity and disinterestedness.
His daughters, like those of Aristides, were portioned by
his fellow-citizens, as an acknowledgment of his services.
His funeral eulogium was spoken by Christopher Landini,
and an elegant epitaph, by Politian,was inscribed on his tomb.
ACCIDENT, in Grammar, implies a property attached
to a word, without entering into its essential definition.
See Grammar.
Accident, in Heraldry, an additional point or mark in
a coat of arms, which may be either omitted or retained
Acciu-s.
ACC
Accident without altering the essence of the armour; such as
abatement, difference, and tincture.
^ Accident, among Logicians, is used in a threefold
sense. 1. W hatever does not essentially belong to a
thing; as the clothes a man wears, or the money in his
pocket. 2. Such properties in any subject as are not es¬
sential to it: thus, whiteness in paper is an accidental
quality. 3. In opposition to substance, all qualities what¬
ever are called accidents; as sweetness, softness, &c.
ACCIDENTAL, in Philosophy, is applied to that effect
which flows from some cause intervening by accident,
without being subject, or at least without any appearance
of being subject, to general laws or regular returns. In
this sense accident is opposed to constant and principal.
Thus the sun’s place is, with respect to the earth, the
constant and principal cause of the heat in summer and
the cold in winter; whereas winds, snows, and rains, are
the accidental causes which often alter and modify the
action of their principal cause.
Accidental Colours are those which depend upon
the affections of the eye, in contradistinction to those
which belong to light itself. The impressions made upon
the eye by looking stedfastly on objects of a particular
colour are various, according to the single colour or com¬
bination of colours in the object; and they continue for
some time after the eye is withdrawn, and give a false co-'
louring to other objects. M. Buffon has endeavoured to
trace the connections which these accidental colours have
with such as are natural, in a variety of instances. The
subject has also been considered by De la Hire and M.
vEpinus. M. d’Arcy has contrived a machine for deter¬
mining the duration of those impressions on the eye; and
from the result of several experiments, he inferred, that
the effect of the action of light on the eye continued about
eight thirds of a minute.
Accidental Point, in Perspective, is that point in the
horizontal line where the projections of two lines parallel
to each other meet the perspective plane.
ACCIPITER, among the Romans, signified a hawdv,
which, from its being very carnivorous, they considered
as a bird of bad omen :
ACC
Odimus accipitrem, quia semper vivit in armis. Ovid.
Pliny however tells us, that in some cases, particularly
in marriage, it was esteemed a bird of good omen, because
it never eats the hearts of other birds; intimating there¬
by, that no differences in a married state ought to reach
the heart. The accipiter was worshipped as a divinity by
the inhabitants of Tentyra, an island in the Nile, being
considered by them as the image of the sun; and hence
we find that luminary represented, in hieroglyphics, un¬
der the figure of a hawk.
In the Linnaean system this name is given to the first
order of birds.
ACCISMUS denotes a feigned refusal of something
which a person earnestly desires. The word is Latin ; or
rather Greek, aHKiayoi; supposed to be formed from Acco,
the name of a foolish old woman noted in antiquity for an
affectation of this kind.
ACCIUS, Lucius, a Latin tragic poet, the son of a
freedman, and, according to St Jerome, born in the con¬
sulship of Hostilius Mancinus and Attilius Serranus, in
the year of Rome 583; but there appears somewhat of
confusion and perplexity in this chronology. He made
himself, known before the death of Pacuvius by a dra¬
matic piece, which was exhibited the same year that Pa¬
cuvius brought one upon the stage; the latter being then
eighty years of age, and Accius only thirty. We do not
know the name of this piece of Accius’s, but the titles of
several of his tragedies are mentioned by various authors.
He wrote on the most celebrated stories which had been
represented on the Athenian stage; as Andromache, An¬
dromeda, Atreus, Clytemnestra, Medea, Meleager, Phi-
loctetes, the civil wars of Thebes, Tereus, the Troades,
&c. He did not always, however, take his subjects from
the Grecian story; for he composed one dramatic piece
wholly Roman : it was entitled Brutus, and related to the
expulsion of the Tarquins. It is affirmed by some that
he wrote also comedies; which is not unlikely, if he was
the author of two pieces, the Wedding, and the Merchant,
which have been ascribed to him. He did not confine
himself to dramatic writing; for he left other productions,
particularly his Annals, mentioned by Macrobius, Priscian,
Festus, and Nonnius Marcellus. He has been censured
for writing in too harsh a style, but in all other respects
has been esteemed a very great poet. He was so much
esteemed by the public, that a comedian was punished
for only mentioning his name on the stage. Cicero speaks
with great derision of one Accius who had written a his¬
tory ; and, as our author had written annals, some insist
that he is the person censured: but as Cicero himself,
Horace, Quintilian, Ovid, and Paterculus, have spoken of
our author with so much applause, we cannot think it is
the same person whom the Roman orator censures with
so much severity.
Accius, a poet of the 16th century, to whom is attri¬
buted A Paraphrase of yEsop's Fables, on which Julius
Scaliger bestows great encomiums.
ACCLAMATION, a confused noise or shout of joy,
by which the public express their applause, esteem, or
approbation.
Acclamation, in a more proper sense, denotes a cer¬
tain form of words, uttered with extraordinary vehemence,
and in a peculiar tone somewdiat resembling a song, fre¬
quent in the ancient assemblies. Acclamations were
usually accompanied with applauses, with which they are
sometimes confounded, though they ought to be distin¬
guished ; as acclamation was given by the voice, applause
by the hands: add, that acclamation was also bestowed
on persons absent, applause only on those present. Ac¬
clamation was also given by women, whereas applause
seems to have been confined to men.
Acclamations are of various kinds ; ecclesiastical, mi¬
litary, nuptial, senatorial, synodical, scholastical, theatri¬
cal, &c. We meet with loud acclamations, musical and
rhythmical acclamations ; acclamations of joy and respect,
and even of reproach and contumely. The former, wherein
words of happy omen were used, were also called Lauda-
tioncs et bona vota, or good wishes ; the latter, Execrationes
et convicia. Suetonius furnishes an instance of this last kind
in the Roman senate, on occasion of the decree for demo¬
lishing the statues of Domitian, when the fathers, as the
historian represents it, could not refrain from contume¬
lious acclamations of the deceased. The like were shown
after the death of Commodus, where the acclamations
run in the following strain :—Hosti patrice honores detra-
hantur, parricidce honores detrahantur ; hostis statuas un-
dique, parricidcr statuas undique, gladiatoris statuas undique,
&c. The formula, in acclamations, was repeated some¬
times a greater, sometimes a lesser number of times.
Hence we find in Roman writers, acclamatum est quin-
quies, et vicies; five times, and twenty times ; sometimes
also sexagies, and even octuagies; sixty and eighty times.
Acclamations w'ere not unknown in the theatres in the
earliest ages of the Roman commonwealth; but they
were artless then, and little other thau confused shouts.
Afterwards they became a sort of regular concerts. That
mentioned by Phaedrus, hectare incolumis, Roma, salvo Prin-
78
ACC
Acclama- cipe, which was made for Augustus, and proved the oeca-
ti°n. sion 0f a pleasant mistake of a flute-player called Princeps,
shows that musical acclamations were in use in that em¬
peror’s reign. Revertentem ex provincia modulatis carmi-
nibus prosequebantur, stays Suetonius, who gives anothei
instance in the time of Tiberius : a false report ot Geima-
nicus’s recovery being spread through Rome, the people
ran in crowds to the Capitol with torches and victims,
singing, Salva Roma, Salva Patria, Salvus est Germam-
cus. Nero, passionately fond of music, took special care
to improve and perfect the music of acclamations. Charm¬
ed with the harmony with which the Alexandrians, who
came to the games celebrated at Naples, had sung his
praises, he brought several over to instruct a number ot
youth, chosen from among the knights and people, in the
different kinds of acclamations practised in Alexandria.
These continued in use as long as the reign of Theodoric.
But the people did not always make a single chorus;
sometimes there were two, who answered each other al¬
ternately; thus, when Nero played in the theatie, Bui-
rhus and Seneca, who were on either hand, giving the sig¬
nal by clapping, 5000 soldiers, called Augustals, began to
chant his praise, which the spectators were obliged to re¬
peat. The whole was conducted by a music-master, call¬
ed mesochorus or pausarius. The honour of acclamations
was chiefly rendered to emperors, their children, and fa¬
vourites ; and to the magistrates who presided at the
games. Persons of distinguished merit also sometimes
received them, of which Quintilian gives us instances in
Cato and Virgil. The most usual forms were, Feliciter,
Loaigiorem vitam, Annas felices. The actors themselves,
and they who gained the prizes in the games of the cir¬
cus, were not excluded the honour of acclamations.
To theatrical acclamations may be added those of the
soldiery and the people in time of triumph. The victo¬
rious army accompanied their general to the Capitol; and,
among the verses they sung in his praises, frequently re¬
peated lo Triumphe, which the people answered in the
same strain. It was also in the way of acclamation that
the soldiers gave their general the title of Imperator, after
some notable victory; a title which he only kept till the
time of his triumph.
The acclamations of the senate were somewhat more
serious than the popular ones, but arose from the same
principle, viz. a desire of pleasing the prince or his fa¬
vourites ; and aimed likewise at the same end, either to
express the general approbation and zeal of the company,
or to congratulate him on his victories, or to make him
new protestations of fidelity. These acclamations were
usually given after a report made by some senator, to
which the rest all expressed their consent by crying, Om-
nes, Omnes; or else, iEauuM est, Justum est. Some¬
times they began with acclamations, and sometimes end¬
ed with them, without other debates. It was after this
manner that all the elections and proclamations of empe¬
rors, made by the senate, were conducted; something of
which practice is still retained at modern elections of
kings and emperors, where Vivat Rex, and Long live the
King, are customary forms of acclamation.
The Greeks borrowed the custom of receiving their
emperors in the public places from the Romans. Luit-
prand relates, that at a procession where he was present,
they sung to the Emperor Nicephorus, -roXXa srsa ; that is,
many years ; which Coddin expresses thus, by to ^aXXs/v
to ffoXuvgowoi/, or by ro voXu^on^e/v; and the wish or salu¬
tation by croXuj'gov/o/Aa. And at dinner, the Greeks then
present wished with a loud voice to the emperor and Bar-
das, Ui Deus annos multiplicet, as he translates the Greek.
Plutarch mentions an acclamation so loud, upon occasion
Accolade.
ACC
of Flaminius’s restoring liberty to Greece, that the very Acclama-
birds fell from heaven with the shout. The Turks prac-
tise something like this, on the sight of their emperors and
grand viziers, to this day.
For the acclamations with which authors, poets,. Sec.
were received, who recited their works in public; it is to
be observed, the assemblies for this purpose were held
with great parade in the most solemn places, as the Ca¬
pitol, temples, the Athenaeum, and the houses of great
men. The chief care was that the acclamations might
be given with all the order and pomp possible. Men of
fortune who pretended to wit, kept able applauders in
their service, and lent them to their friends. Others en¬
deavoured to gain them by presents and treats. Philo-
stratus mentions a young man named Vavus, who lent
money to the men of letters, and forgave the interest to
such as applauded his exercises. These acclamations
were conducted much after the same manner as those in
the theatre, both as to the music and the accompaniments ;
they were to be suited both to the subject and to the person.
There were particular ones for the philosophers, for ora¬
tors, for historians, and for poets. It would be difficult to
rehearse all the forms of them ; one of the most usual was
Sophos, which was to be repeated three times. Martial
comprehends several other usual forms in this verse:
Graviter, Cito, Nequiter, Enge, Rente.
Neither the Greeks nor Romans were barren on this
head. The names of gods and heroes were given to those
whom they would extol. It was not enough to do it
after each head of discourse, chiefly after the exordium;
but the acclamations were renewed at every fine passage,
frequently at every period.
The acclamations with which the spectators honoured
the victories of the athletse, were a natural consequence
of the impetuous motions which attended the gymnastic
games. The cries and acclamations of the people, some¬
times expressing their compassion and joy, sometimes
their horror and disgust, are strongly painted by different
poets and orators.
Acclamations made also a part of the ceremony of mar¬
riage. They were used for the omen’s sake, being the
Lceta Oynina sometimes spoken of before marriage in
Roman writers.
Acclamations, at first practised in the theatre, and pass¬
ing thence to the senate, &c. were, in process of time, re¬
ceived into the acts of councils, and the ordinary assem¬
blies of the church. The people expressed their appro¬
bation of the preacher variously; the more usual forms
were, Orthodox ! Third Apostle, &c. These acclamations
being sometimes carried to excess, and often misplaced,
were frequently prohibited by the ancient doctors, and at
length abrogated; though they appear to have been in
some use about the time of St Bernard.
Acclamation Medals, among Antiquaries, such as re¬
present the people expressing their joy in the posture of
acclamation. '
ACCLIVITY, the rise or ascent of a hill, in opposition
to the declivity or descent of it. Some writers on forti¬
fication use it for the talus of a rampart.
ACCOLA, among the Romans, signified a person who
lived near some place ; in which sense it differed from
incola, the inhabitant of such a place.
ACCOLADE, a ceremony anciently used in the con¬
ferring of knighthood.
Antiquaries are not agreed whei'ein the accolade pro¬
perly consisted. The generality suppose it to be the
embrace or kiss which princes anciently gave the new
knight, as a token of their affection: whence tlie word
ACC
Accolee accolade; q. d, a clasping, or taking round the neck. Others
Accommo- ^ rather have to be a blow on the chine of the neck,
dation. &lve.n on the same occasion. The Accolade is of some an-
—w/ tiquity, m whichsoever of the two senses it be taken. Gre¬
gory of Tours writes, that the kings of France, even of the
hrst race, m conferring the gilt shoulder-belt, kissed the
kt® on the left cheek. For the accolee, or blow, John
ot oalisbury assures us it was in use among the ancient Nor¬
mans ; by this it was that William the Conqueror conferred
the honour of knighthood on his son Henry. At first it was
given with the naked fist, but was afterwards changed into
a blow with the flat of the sword on the shoulder of the
knight.
ACCOLFE, sometimes synonymous with Accolade.
It is also used in various senses in heraldry: sometimes it
is applied to two things joined; at other times, to animals
with crowns, or collars about their necks, as the lion in the
gdvys arms; and lastly to keys, batoons, maces, swords,
&c., placed saltierwise behind the shield.
, ACCOLTI, Benedict, better known among jurists by
the name of Aretinus, was born at Arezzo in 1415. He
became a professor of law at Florence; and having been
admitted a citizen, was elected chancellor of the republic in
1459. His death took place in 1466. He wrote in Latin
a treatise concerning the war which the Christians carried
on against the infidels to recover Judea and the holy sepul-
chre. This work is the ground-plot of Tasso’s Jerusalem
delivered. It only includes, however, the history of the
hrst crusade. He also wrote an account of the Excellent
Personages of Ms Time, in the form of a dialogue.
Accolti, Francis, brother of Benedict. See P. Aretino.
ACCOM AC, a county in the Tideivater district of Vir-
ff'n1ia’ U-S-> North America, containing in 1850 a population
or 17,obi.
ACCOMMODATION, the application of one thing, by
analogy, to another; or the making two or more things agree
with one another. _ To know a thing by accommodation, is
to know it by the idea of a similar thing referred there-
A C C
A prophecy of Scripture is said to be fulfilled in various
ways : properly, as when a thing foretold comes to pass; and
improperly, or by way of accommodation, when an event
happens to any place or people, like to what fell out some
time before to another. Thus, the words of Isaiah, spoken
to those of his own time, are said to be fulfilled in those who
lived m our Saviour’s, and are accommodated to them: “ Ye
hypocrites, well did Esaias prophesy of you,” &c.; which
same words St Paul afterwards accommodates to the Jews
of his time.
The primitive church accommodated multitudes of Jewish,
and even Heathen ceremonies and practices, to Christian
purposes; but the Jew's had before done the same by the
Gentiles : some will even have circumcision, the tabernacle,
brazen serpent, &c. to have been originally of Egyptian
use, and only accommodated by Moses to the purposes of
1 Saurin, Judaism.1 Spencer maintains, that most of the rites of the
m,s. o. T old law were in imitation of those of the Gentiles, and par-
0in‘ ticularly of the Egyptians; that God, in order to divert the
children of Israel from the worship they paid to their false
deities, consecrated the greater part of the ceremonies per¬
formed by those idolaters, and had formed out of them a
body of the ceremonial law; that he had indeed made some
alterations therein, as barriers against idolatry; and that he
thus accommodated his worship to the genius and occasions of
Ins ancient people. To this condescension of God, accord-
b-us’lMr' mg t0 1SP1enc1er’2 Ls owing the origin of the tabernacle, and
diss 17 3 Particularly that of the ark. These opinions, however, have
p. 32.' " ’been controverted by later writers.
Accommodation Paper. See Exchange.
ACCOMPANIMENT, Accompagnamento, Accom-
pagnatura, in Music. See Music.
Accompaniment, in Painting, denotes such objects as
are added, either by way of ornament or fitness, to the prin¬
cipal figures; as dogs, guns, game, &c. in a hunting piece.
Accompaniment, in Heraldry, any thing added to a shield
by way of ornament; as the belt, mantling, supporters &c.
it is also applied to several bearings about a principal one;
as a saltier, bend, fesse, chevron, &c.
. ACCOMPLICE, one that has a hand in a business, or
is privy in the same design or crime with another. The
Council of Sens, and the statutes of several other synods, ex¬
pressly prohibit the revealing of accomplices.
ACCOMPLISHMENT, the entire execution or fulfill¬
ing of any thing.
ACCORD, in Painting, is used to express the harmonv
that reigns among the lights and shades of a picture. See
the article Painting.
ACCORDION, a musical instrument. For its principle
see Music. 1
ACCORSO (in Latin Accursius), Francis, an eminent
lawyer, born at Florence about 1182. He began the study
ot law at a late period of life; but such were his assiduity
and proficiency, that he soon distinguished himself. He was
appointed professor at Bologna, and became a very eminent
teacher. He undertook the great work of uniting and ar-
rangmg into one body the almost endless comments and re¬
marks upon the Code, the Institutes, and Digests, all which
tended to involve the subjects in obscurity and contra¬
diction. When he was employed in this work, it is said that,
hearing of a similar one proposed and begun by Odofred
another lawyer of Bologna, he feigned indisposition, inter-
rupted Ins public lectures, and shut himself up, till he had
with the utmost expedition, accomplished his design. His
work has the vague title of the Great Gloss. The best edi¬
tion of it is that of Godefroi, published at Lyons in 1589, in
6 vols. folio. Accursius was greatly extolled by the lawyers
of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, but those of the four-
teenth and of the sixteenth formed a much lower estimate
of his merits. There can be no doubt that he has disen¬
tangled with much skill the sense of many laws; but it is
equally undeniable that his ignorance of history and antiqui¬
ties has often led him into absurdities, and been the cause
of many defects in his explanations and commentaries. He
loen - t0ihaVe lived in °Pulence> and died at Bologna in
1260, in the seventy-eighth year of his age. His eldest son,
Trancis, who filled the chair of law at Bologna with great re-
putafton was invited to Oxford by King Edward L, and in
ioo^ ur 12/6 read lectures on Jaw in that university. In
1280 fie returned to Bologna, where he died in 1321.
Accorso, or Accursius, Mariangelo, a learned and in¬
genious critic, was a native of Aquila, in the kingdom of
Naples, and lived about the beginning of the sixteenth cen¬
tury. 1 o a perfect knowledge of Greek and Latin he added
an intimate acquaintance with several modern languages.
Classical literature was much improved and promoted by his
labours. In discovering and collating ancient manuscripts he
displayed uncommon assiduity and diligence. His work en-
titled Lhatribce in Ausonium, Solinum, et Ov\dium, printed
a Rome,in folio, in 1524, is a singular monument of erudition
and critical skill. He bestowed, it is said, unusual pains on
u audian, and made above seven hundred corrections on the
works of that poet, from different manuscripts. Unfortunately
the world has been deprived of the advantage of these criti-
eisms, for they were never published. An edition ofAmmianus
larcellinns, which he published at Augsburg in 1533, con¬
tains five books more than any former one. He was the first
Mitor of the Letters of Cassiodorus, with his Treatise on the
ooul. The affected use of antiquated terms, introduced by
79
Accom¬
paniment
Accorso.
80 ACC
Account some of the Latin writers of that age, is humorously ridi-
II culed by him, in a dialogue published in 1531, entitled Osco,
Accusation YoIscq, Itomanaque Eloquentia Interlocutoribus, Dialogus
Ludis Romanis actus. It was republished at Rome in 1574,
in 4to, with his name. He was also the author of a poem
entitled Rroirepticon ad Corycium, published in^ a scarce
collection named Coryciana, printed at Rome in 1524. Ac-
corso had been accused of plagiarism in his notes on Auso-
nius; and the solemn and determined manner in which he
repelled this charge of literary theft, presents us with a sin¬
gular instance of his anxiety and care to preserve his lite¬
rary reputation unstained and pure. It is in the following
oath : “ In the name of gods and men, of truth and sincerity,
I solemnly swear, and if any declaration be more binding
than an oath, I in that form declare, and I desire that my
declaration may be received as strictly true, that I have
never read or seen any author from which my own lucubra¬
tions have received the smallest assistance or improvement;
nay, that I have even laboured, as far as possible, whenever
any writer has published any observations which I myself
had before made, immediately to blot them out of my own
works. If in this declaration I am forsworn, may the pope
punish my perjury ; and may an evil genius attend my writ¬
ings, so that whatever in them is good, or at least tolerable,
may appear to the unskilful multitude exceedingly bad, and
even to the learned trivial and contemptible; and may the
small reputation I now possess be given to the winds, and
regarded as the worthless boon of vulgar levity.”
ACCOUNT, or Accompt, in a general sense, a compu¬
tation or reckoning of any thing by numbers.—Collectively,
it is used to express the books which merchants, traders,
bankers, &c. use for recording their transactions in business.
Accounts, Chamber of, in the French polity, a sovereign
court of great antiquity, which took cognizance of and regis¬
tered the accounts of the king’s revenue; nearly the same
with the English Court of Exchequer.
ACCOUNTANT, or Accomptant, in the most general
sense, is a person skilled in accounts. In a more restricted
sense, it is applied to a person or officer appointed to keep the
accounts of a public company or office.
ACCOUNTANT-Genebal, an officer in the court of
chancery, appointed by Act of Parliament to receive all
moneys lodged in court, instead of the masters, and convey
the same to the Bank of England for security. There is
also an accountant-general in the Irish Chancery, and one
in Scotland, who has charge of the accounts of the Court
of Session.
ACCRETION, among civilians, the property acquired in
a vague or unoccupied thing, by its adhering to or following
another already occupied: thus, if a legacy be left to two per¬
sons, one of whom dies before the testator, the legacy de¬
volves to the survivor by right of accretion.
ACCROCHE, in Heraldry, denotes a thing’s being
hooked with another.
ACCUBATION, a posture of the body, between sitting
and lying. The word comes from the Latin accubare, com¬
pounded of ad, to, and cubo, I lie down. Accubation, or
Accubitus, was the table posture of the Greeks and Romans ;
whence we find the words particularly used for the lying, or
rather (as we call it) sitting down to meat. The Greeks in¬
troduced this posture. The Romans, during the frugal ages
of the republic, were strangers to it; but as luxury got
footing, this posture came to be adopted, at least by the men;
for as to women, it was reputed an indecency in them to lie
down among the men, though afterwards this too was got
over. Children did not lie down, nor servants, nor soldiers,
nor persons of meaner condition. They took their meals
sitting, as a posture less indulgent. The Roman manner of
disposing themselves at table was thisA low round table
ACC
was placed in the ccenaculum, or dining-room, and about Accubitor
this, usually three, sometimes only two, beds or couches; II
and, according to their number, it was called biclinium or ^ ccusa 1()I>
triclinium. These were covered with a sort of bedclothes,
richer or plainer, according to the quality of the person, and
furnished with quilts and pillows, that the guests might lie
the more commodiously. There were usually three persons
on each bed; to crowd more was esteemed sordid. In eat¬
ing, they lay down on their left sides, with their heads rest¬
ing on the pillows, or rather on their elbows. The first lay
at the head of the couch, with his feet extended behind the
back of the second; the second lay with the back of his
head towards the navel of the first, only separated by a pil¬
low-, his feet behind the back of the third; and so of the
third or fourth. The middle place was esteemed the most
honourable. Before they came to table, they changed their
clothes, putting on what they called ccenatoria vestis, the
dining garment; and pulled off their shoes, to prevent soil¬
ing the couch. In the time of the emperors, couches higher
and softer than the triclinia, called accubita, came into use,
the clothes and pillows of which were termed accubitalia.
Accubation at meals was also a Jewish practice, as we learn
from Josephus, and from a passage in the gospel of St John
xiii. 24, 26.
ACCUBITOR, an ancient officer of the court of Con¬
stantinople, who lay near the emperor. He was the head of
the youth of the bed-chamber, and had the cubicularius and
procubitor under him.
ACCUMULATION, in a general sense^ the act of heap¬
ing or amassing things together. Among lawyers it is used
in speaking of the concurrence of several titles to the same
thing, or of several circumstances to the same proof.
Accumulation of Degrees, in a university, is the taking
of several of them together, or at shorter intervals than
usual, or than is allowed by the rules of the university.
Accumulation of Wealth. See Political Economy.
ACCURSED, something that lies under a curse, or sen¬
tence of excommunication.—In the Jewish idiom, accursed
and crucified were synonymous. Among them, every one
was accounted accursed who died on a tree. This serves
to explain the difficult passage in Rom. ix. 3, where the
apostle Paul wished himself accursed after the manner of
Christ, i. e. crucified, if happily he might, by such a death,
save his countrymen. The preposition airo, here made use
of, is used in the same sense, 2 Tim. i. 3, where it obvi¬
ously signifies after the manner of.
ACCUSATION, the charging of any person with a cri¬
minal action, either in one’s own name or in that of the
public. The word is compounded of ad, to, and causari, to
plead.
Writers on politics treat of the benefit and the inconve¬
niences of public accusations. Various arguments are al¬
leged both for the encouragement and discouragement of
accusations against great men. Nothing, according to
Machiavel, tends more to the preservation of a state than
frequent accusations of persons intrusted with the admini¬
stration of public affairs. This, accordingly, was strictly
observed by the Romans in the instance of Camillus, ac¬
cused of corruption by Manlius Capitolinus, &c. Accusa¬
tions, however, in the judgment of the same author, are not
more beneficial than calumnies are pernicious ; which is
also confirmed by the practice of the Romans. Manlius,
not being able to make good his charge against Camillus,
was cast into prison.
By the Roman law, there was no public accuser for public
crimes ; every private person, whether interested in the
crime or not, might accuse, and prosecute the accused to
punishment or absolution. Cato, the most innocent person
of his age, had been accused 42 times, and as often absolved.
ACE
Accusative But the accusation of private crimes was never received but
Acepha- - ^'e those who were immediately interested
lous. m. ,,t leIn ^one (e- 9 ) but the husband could accuse his
v m w,*e of adultery.
The ancient Roman lawyers distinguished between pos-
tulatio, delatio, and accusatio. For, first, leave was desired
to bring a charge against one, which was called postulare :
then he against whom the charge was laid was brought
before the judge, which was called deferre, or nominis de¬
latio: lastly, the charge was drawn up and presented, which
was properly the accusatio. The accusation properly com¬
menced, according to Pedianus, when the reus or party
charged, being interrogated, denied he was guilty of the
crime, and subscribed his name to the delatio made by his
opponent. J
In Britain, by Magna Charta, no man shall be imprisoned
or condemned on any accusation, without trial by his peers
or the law; none shall be vexed with any accusation, but
according to the law of the land; and no man shall be
molested by petition to the king, &c. unless it be by indict¬
ment or presentment of lawful men, or by process at com¬
mon law. Promoters of suggestions are to find surety to
pursue them, and if they do not make them good, shall pay
damages to the party accused, and also a fine to the king.
u P^rso1n is obliged to answer upon oath to a question
whereby he may accuse himself of any crime.
ACCUSATIVE, in Latin Grammar, is the fourth case
of nouns, and signifies the relation of the noun on which the
action implied in the verb terminates; and hence, in such
languages as have cases, these nouns have a particular ter¬
mination, called accusative, as, Augustus vicit Antonium,
ugustus vanquished Antony. Here Antonium is the noun
on which the action implied in the word vicit terminates,
and therefore must have the accusative termination. See
Grammar.
ACELDAMA, the field purchased with the money for
which Judas betrayed Christ, and wThich was appropriated
as a place of burial for strangers. It was previously a “ pot¬
ter s field.” 1 he field now shewn as Aceldama lies on the
slope of the hills beyond the valley of Hinnom, south of
Mount Zion. This is obviously the spot which Jerome
points out ( Onomast. s. v. “ Acheldamach,”) and which has
since been mentioned by almost every one who has de¬
scribed Jerusalem.
ACENTETUM, or Acenteta, in Natural History, a
name given by the ancients to the purest and finest kind
of rock-crystal.
ACEPHALA, Cuvier’s class of Mollusca, so called from
the animals’ having no head (a, and Ke^akrj).
ACEPHALI, or Acephalita:, a term applied to seve¬
ral sects who refused to follow some noted leader. Thus,
the persons who refused to follow either John of Antioch
or St Cyril, in a dispute that happened in the Council of
Ephesus, were termed Acephali, without a head or leader.
Such bishops, also, as were exempt from the jurisdiction
and discipline of their patriarch, were styled Acephali.
Acephali, the levellers in the reign of King Henry I.,
who acknowledged no head or superior. They were
reckoned so poor, that they had not a tenement by which
they might acknowledge a superior lord.
ACEPHALOUS, or Acephalus, in a general sense,
without a head. The term is more particularly used in
speaking of certain nations or people, represented by ancient
naturalists and cosmographers, as well as by some modern
travellers, as formed without heads ; their eyes, mouth, &c.
being placed in other parts. Such are the Blemmyes, a
nation of Africa, near the head of the Niger, represented
thus by Pliny and Solinus: Blemmyis traduntur capita
ahesse, ore et oculis pectori affixis. Ctesias and Solinus
VOL. II.
ACE
81
mention others in India, near the Ganges, sine cervice, Acepha-
oculos in humeris habentes. Mela also speaks of people, lus.
quibus capita et vultus in pectore sunt. And Suidas, Ste-
phanus Byzantinus, Vopiscus, and others after them, relate iAcesines-
the like. Some modern travellers have pretended to find
acephalous people in America.
Acephalus, an obsolete term for the taenia or tape¬
worm, which was long supposed to be acephalous. The
first who gave it a head was Tulpius, and after him Fehr:
the former even makes it biceps, or two-headed.
Acephalus is also used to express a verse defective in
the beginning.
ACER, the Maple Tree, a genus of trees; of which
A. campestre, the maple, and A. saccharinum, are the best
known. A. pseudoplatanus is a lofty tree, which is chiefly
found native in the south of Europe, but several varieties
grow in Britain.
ACERB, a sour rough astringency of taste, such as that
of unripe fruit.
ACERENZA, a town of the kingdom of Naples, in the
province of Basilicata, 80 miles east from Naples, contain¬
ing 3600 inhabitants ; anciently Acherontia.—Hor. Carm.
1. 3. iv.
ACERINA, in Ichthyology, a name given by Pliny and
other old naturalists to the fish we call the ruffe.
ACERNO, a town of Italy, in the citerior principality of
Naples, with a bishop’s see, and 2500 inhabitants. It is
situated 14 miles north-east of Salerno, in Long. 15. 4. E.
Lat. 40. 45. N.
ACERRA, in Antiquity, an altar erected among the
Romans, near the bed of a person deceased, on which his
friends daily offered incense till his burial. The real inten¬
tion probably was to overcome any offensive smell that
might arise about the corpse. The Chinese have still a
custom like this: they erect an altar to the deceased in a
room hung with mourning, and place an image of the dead
person on the altar, to which every one that approaches it
bows four times, and offers oblations and perfumes.
The acerra also signified a little pot, wherein were put
the incense and perfumes to be burnt on the altars of the
gods and before the dead. It appears to have been the
same with what was otherwise called thuribulum and pyxis.
1 he Jews had their acerrce, in our version rendered cen¬
sers ; and the Romanists still retain them under the name
of incense pots. In Roman writers we frequently meet with
plena acerra, a full acerra ; to understand which, it is to be
observed, that people were obliged to offer incense in pro¬
portion to their estate and condition; the rich in larger
quantities, the poor only a few grains: the former poured
out full acerrce on the altar, the latter took out two or three
bits with their fingers.
Acerra, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples, and
in the Terra di Lavoro, seated on the river Agno, 7 miles
north-east of Naples ; anciently Acerrce. It contains 6300
inhabitants. Long. 14. 23. E. Lat. 40. 55. N.
ACESAS, of Salamis in Cyprus, was famed for his skill in
weaving and embroidery ; but especially so for the peplus or
mantle which, with the assistance of his son Helicon, he made
for the Athena Polias. This peplus is mentioned by Euri¬
pides {Hecuba, 468.), and by Plato {Euthyphron, § 6.) See
Athenasus, ii.
ACESCENT, a word used to denote any thing which is
turning sour, or which is slightly acid. It is only applied
properly to the former of these two meanings. The second
may be expressed by either of the two words acidulous or
sub-acid.
ACESINES, in Ancient Geography, a large and rapid
river of India, which Alexander passed in his expedition into
that country. The kingdom of Porus, which was conquered
82 A C H
Acesius by Alexander, lay between the Hydaspes and this river,
II which, uniting with the former and other considerable rivers,
Acturans^ p0urs waters into the Indus. According to Major Rennell,
the modern Chunab is the Acesines of the ancients.
ACESIUS, abishop of Constantinople in the reign of Con¬
stantine, was a rigid adherent to the Novatian doctrines, ac¬
cording to which those whom persecutions had shaken from
the faith, or who were guilty of any mortal sin after baptism,
could not be admitted to the communion of the church, even
after exhibiting the most convincing proofs of sincere repen-
* tance. Constantine, who was extremely displeased with the
severity of this rigid sect, in discouraging and rejecting re¬
pentance, is said to have thus expressed himself: “ 1 hen,
Acesius, make a ladder for yourself, and go up to heaven
alone.”
ACESTES, son of Egesta, or Segesta, and the river-god
Crimisus, the reputed founder of the town of Segesta, and
the entertainer of ./Eneas on his arrival in Sicily.
ACESTOR, surnamed Sacas, a tragic poet at Athens, of
Thracian or Mysian origin, contemporary with Aristophanes.
Acestob, a sculptor of Cnossus mentioned by Pausanias,
vi. 17.
Acestok, a surname of Apollo, as patron of the healing
art; derived from aKtojxax, to heal.
ACETABULUM, in antiquity, a measure used by the
ancients, equal to one-eighth of our pint. It seems to have
acquired its name from a vessel in which acetum or vinegar
was brought to their tables, and which probably contained
about this quantity.
Acetabulum, in Anatomy, a cavity in any bone for re¬
ceiving the protuberant head of another, and thereby forming
that species of articulation called Enarthrosis.
Acetabulum, in Botany, the trivial name of a species of
the peziza, or cup peziza, a genus belonging to the crypto-
gamia fungi of Linnaeus. It has got the name of acetabu¬
lum from the resemblance its leaves bear to a cup.
ACETAL, the basis of Acetous Acid or vinegar, con¬
sisting of eight atoms of carbon, nine of hydrogen, and
three of oxygen. The compounds of Acetic Acid with va¬
rious bases are termed Acetates. It is the Acetic Acid of
chemists. See Chemistry.
ACETARY. Grew, in his Anatomy of Plants, applies
this term to a pulpy substance in certain fruits, e. g. the
pear, which is inclosed in a congeries of small calculous bodies
towards the base of the fruit, and is always of an acid taste.
ACETOMETER, a barbarous word used by chemists
for an instrument to determine the strength of vinegar. It
should be Oxometer.
ACETOSA, Sorrel; by Linnaeus joined to the genus
Bumex.
ACETOSELLA, in Botany, a species of Oxalis.
AC ILEA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the island of
Rhodes, in the district of lalysus, and the first and most an¬
cient of all; said to be built by the Heliades, or grandsons
of the sun.
ACILEANS, the inhabitants of Achaia Propria, a
Peloponnesian state. This republic was not considerable,
in early times, for the number of its troops, nor for its wealth,
nor for the extent of its territories; but it was famed for its
probity, its justice, and its love of liberty. Its high reputa¬
tion for these virtues was very ancient. The Crotonians and
Sybarites, to re-establish order in their towns, adopted the
laws and customs of the Achaeans. After the famous battle
of Leuctra, a difference arose betwixt the Lacedemonians
and Thebans, who held the virtue of this people in such ve¬
neration, that they terminated the dispute by their decision.
The government of the Achaeans was democratical. They
preserved their liberty till the time of Philip and Alexander ;
but in the reign of these princes, and afterwards, they were
A C II
either subjected to the Macedonians, who had made them- Achaeme-
selves masters of Greece, or oppressed by domestic tyrants. n|js
The Achaean commonwealth consisted of twelve inconside-
rable towns in Peloponnesus, Towards the 124th Olympiad, v, ,C /
about the time when Ptolemy Soter died, and when Pyr-
rhus invaded Italy, the republic of the Achaeans recovered
its old institutions and unanimity. This was the renewal of
the ancient confederation, which subsequently became so
famous under the name of the Achaean League ; having
for its object, not as formerly a common worship, but a sub¬
stantial political union. Though dating from the year B.c.
280, its importance may be referred to its connection with
Aratus of Sicyon about 30 years later,—as it was further aug¬
mented by the splendid abilities of Philopcemen. Thus
did this people, so celebrated in the heroic age, once more
emerge from comparative obscurity, and become the greatest
among the states of Greece in the last days of its national
independence. The inhabitants of Patrae and of Dymae
were the first assertors of ancient liberty. The tyrants were
banished, and the towns again made one commonwealth.
A public council was then held, in which affairs of import¬
ance were discussed and determined. A register was ap¬
pointed to record the transactions of the council. This
assembly had two presidents, who were nominated alter¬
nately by the different towns. But instead of two presidents,
they soon elected but one. Many neighbouring towns, which
admired the constitution of this republic, founded on equality,
liberty, the love of justice, and of the public good, were in¬
corporated with the Aclucans, and admitted to the full en¬
joyment of their laws and privileges.—Thirlwall, Hist, of
Greece. Helwing, Geschichte der Achdischen Bundes.
ACELEMENES, the ancestor of the Persian kings, and
founder of the Achaemenidm, which was the most illustrious
family of the Pasargadae, the noblest of the Persian tribes.
He is said to have been nourished by an eagle. The un¬
broken line of succession of this family of kings is given in
Herodotus, lib. vii. 11, where Xerxes declares himself sprung
“from Darius, son of Hystaspes, son of Arsames, son of
Ariaramnes (Ap/xveok), son of Teispes, son of Cyrus, son of
Cambyses, son of Teispes, son of Achaemenes.” The adjec¬
tive Achcemenius is sometimes used by the Roman poets in
the sense of Persian.—Hor. od. iii. 44. Epod. xiii. 8.
Acilemenes, son of Darius I. king of Persia, and brother
of Xerxes, had the government of Egypt bestowed on him,
after Xerxes had forced the Egyptians to return to their
allegiance. He some time after commanded the Egyptian
fleet in the celebrated expedition which proved so fatal to
all Greece. The Egyptians having again taken up arms after
the death of Xerxes, Achaemenes was sent into Egypt to
suppress the rebellion, but was vanquished by Inarus, chief
of the rebels, succoured by the Athenians.
AC ILEUS, cousin-german to Seleucus Ceraunus and
Antiochus the Great, kings of Syria, became a very power¬
ful monarch, and enjoyed the dominions he had usurped
for many years ; but at last he was punished for his usurpa¬
tions in a dreadful manner, in the year b.c. 214, as related
by Polybius,1 1 Lib. iv.
Acileus, son of Xuthus, the mythical ancestor of the2; viii- 18'
Achaeans.
Acileus of Eretria, a tragic poet, born b.c. 484. In the
satirical drama he displayed considerable abilities. The
fragments of his pieces were published at Bonn, 1834.
ACHAIA, a name taken for that part of Greece which
Ptolemy calls Hellas, the younger Pliny Grcecia; after¬
wards called Livadia, now Hellas Proper.
Achaia Propria, anciently a small district in the north
of Peloponnesus, running 65 miles along the bay of Corinth,
and bounded on the west by the Ionian Sea, on the south
by Elis and Arcadia, and on the east by Sicyonia. Its in-
A C II
A C II
83
Aohaia habitants were the Achceans, properly so called; its metro-
II polls PatrcB. It now foi’ms part of the kingdom of Greece.
Achcen. Achaia also denoted all those countries that joined in
'■“‘^'-^'^Ahe Achaean league, reduced by the Romans to a province.
Likewise the Peloponnesus.
Ac hale Presbyteri, or the Presbyters of Achaia, were
those who were present at the martyrdom of St Andrew
the apostle, a.d. 59; and are said to have written an epistle
in relation to it. Bellarmin, and several other eminent
writers in the church of Rome, allow it to be genuine;
while Du Pin and some others expressly reject it.
ACHAICUS, a follower of the apostle Paul. He, with
Stephanas andFortunatus, was the bearer of the First Epistle
to the Corinthians. (1 Cor. xvi.)
ACHAIUS, king of Scotland, a.d. 788. See Scotland.
ACHALALACTLI, a species of king-fisher.
ACHAN, the son of Carmi, of the tribe of Judah, at the
taking of Jericho, concealed two hundred shekels of silver,
a Babylonish garment, and a wedge of gold, contrary to
the express command of God. This sin proved fatal to the
Israelites, who were repulsed at the siege of Ai. In this
dreadful exigence, Joshua prostrated himself before the Lord,
and begged that he would have mercy upon his people.
Achan was discovered by casting lots, and he and his chil¬
dren were stoned to death. This expiation being made, Ai
was taken by stratagem. (Josh. vii. viii.)
A CHAN E, an ancient Persian corn measure, containing
45 Attic medimni.
ACHARACA, anciently a town of Lydia, situate be¬
tween Tralles and Nysa ; in which were the temple of Pluto
and the cave Charonium, where patients slept in order to
obtain a cure.
ACHARD, Carl Franz, a Prussian chemist, born at
Berlin, in 1754, who is chiefly known now by his process
for extracting sugar from beet-root, in which MargrafF had
before detected its existence. In 1800 the French Institute
voted him thanks for his paper, but considered his process
of little value; until it was taken up by Napoleon in 1812,
and tried at Rambouillet; since which it has been exten¬
sively carried on in France ; but it is doubtful if it can ever
compete with the produce of the sugar-cane, in a free market,
though the sugar manufactured from it is very white, and be¬
longs to the same kind of sugar as that from the sugar-cane.
His other works are physico-chemical experiments on the
adhesion of different bodies. Achard died in 1821.
ACHARN7E, the principal demus of Atticar, sixty stadia
north of Athens, inhabited by the tribe Gfrieis. The Achar-
nians carried on an extensive traffic in charcoal, which they
prepared from the wood of Mount Parnes, not far distant.
The district was fertile, and the population warlike. One
of the plays of Aristophanes is entitled ‘ The Acharnians.’—
See Leake’s Attica, p. 35.
ACHAT, in Law, implies a purchase or bargain. And
hence probably purveyors were called Achators, from their
making bargains.
ACHATES, the faithful friend and companion of Arneas,
celebrated in Virgil’s JEneid.
Achates, in Natural History, the same as Agate.
Achates, in Ancient Geography, a river in Sicily, now
the Dirillo ; which runs from north to south, almost parallel
with the Gela, and not far from the ancient Selinus. Plin.
It gave name to the achates, or agate, said to be first found
there.
ACHAZIB, or Achziii, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Galilee, in the tribe of Asher, nine miles from Ptolemais.
—Also a town in the more southern parts of the tribe of
Judah.
ACHEEN, an independent native state of Sumatra, in
the Eastern Archipelago, situate on the north-western part
of the island, and extending about 50 miles to the south¬
east. It is bounded by Tamiang on the eastern, and by the
Sinkel river on the western coast of Sumatra. A commercial
intercourse with Acheen has subsisted from the earliest pe¬
riod of British connection with the East. It was then a flou¬
rishing and extensive state, but subsequently declined from
its importance, having become a prey to anarchy, from the
contests of petty chiefs. Acheen is esteemed comparatively
healthy, being more free from woods and swamps than most
other portions of the island; and the fevers and dysenteries
to which these are supposed to give occasion, are there said
to be uncommon. The soil is light and fertile, and produces
a variety of the finest fruits and vegetables; also rice and
cotton in great plenty and perfection. Cattle are abundant,
and reasonable in price. Though no longer the great mart
of eastern commodities, it still carries on a considerable trade
with the natives of that part of the continent of India termed
the coast of Coromandel, who supply it with the cotton goods
of their country, and receive in return gold dust, sapan
wood, betel-nut, patch-leaf, a little pepper, sulphur, cam¬
phor, and benzoin. The country is supplied with Bengal
opium, and also with iron, and many other articles of mer¬
chandise, by the European traders. Gold dust is collected
in the mountains near Acheen, but the greater part is brought
from the southern ports of Nalaboo and Soosoo. Sulphur is
gathered from a volcanic mountain in the neighbourhood,
which supplies their own consumption for the manufacture
of gunpowder, and admits of a large exportation.
In their persons the Achenese differ from the rest of the
Sumatrans, being taller, stouter, and of a darker complexion.
They do not appear to be a distinct people, but are thought,
with great appearance of reason, to be a mixture of Battas,
Malays, and Moors from the west of India. In their dispo¬
sitions they are more active and industrious than their neigh¬
bours ; they possess more penetration and sagacity; have
more general knowledge ; and, as merchants, they deal upon
a more extensive and liberal footing. Their religion is Ma¬
hometanism ; and having a great number of mosques and
priests, its forms and ceremonies are strictly observed. They
speak a mixed language of Malay and Batta, with all the
other jargons used by the eastern Mahommedans. In writ¬
ing, they use the Malay character.
The monarchy is hereditary, and the king usually main¬
tains a guard of 100 sepoys about his palace. When Acheen
was a flourishing state, he ruled with despotic authority.
There was, however, according to Mr Marsden, a grand coun¬
cil of the nation, which consisted of the sultan at its head;
of four chief counsellors, and eight of a lower degree, who
sat on the king’s right hand; and of sixteen others who sat
on his left. How far this council shares or controls the royal
prerogative, does not seem to be ascertained. “ At the king’s
feet,” says Mr Marsden, “ sits a woman, to whom he makes
known his pleasure ; by her it is communicated to an eunuch,
who sits next to her ; and by him to an officer, who then pro¬
claims it aloud to the assembly. There are also present two
other officers, one of whom has the government of the bazaar
or market, and the other the superintending and carrying
into execution the punishment of criminals. All matters re¬
lative to commerce and the customs of the port come under
the jurisdiction of another f unctionary, who performs the ce¬
remony of giving the chap or licence for trade; which is
done by lifting a golden-hafted kris over the head of the mer¬
chant who arrives, and without which he dares not to land
his goods. Presents, the value of which is become pretty
regularly ascertained, are then sent to the king and his offi¬
cers. If the stranger be in the style of an ambassador, the
royal elephants are sent down to carry him and his letters to
the monarch’s presence ; these being first delivered into the
hands of an eunuch, who places them in a silver dish, covered
Acheen.
84 A C H
Acheen. with rich silk, on the back of the largest elephant, which is
provided with a machine for that purpose. Within about an
hundred yards of an open hall where the king sits, the caval¬
cade stops, and the ambassador dismounts, and makes his
obeisance by bending his body and lifting his joined hands
to his head. When he enters the palace, if an European, he
is obliged to take off his shoes; and having made a second
obeisance, is seated upon a carpet on the floor, where betel
is brought to him.” The crown revenues, which fluctuate
considerably, are derived from import and export duties le¬
vied on all goods. Monopolies, the approved resource of
despotism, also afford a revenue. These are managed by the
officer who has the superintendence of commerce, and who
frequently uses his power as an instrument of extortion.
Acheen was first visited by Portuguese adventurers in
1509, after they had discovered the passage to the East In¬
dies by the Cape of Good Hope. Hostilities immediately
commenced with the inhabitants, and continued with various
success, until the Portuguese lost Malacca in 1641. About
the year 1586 the monarchy of Acheen attained to its great¬
est height of power and prosperity. It had a flourishing com¬
merce ; and the port of Acheen was crowded with vessels
from all the Asiatic countries, which were allowed to carry
on their trade with the most perfect security. About the
year 1600, when the Dutch navigators had penetrated to
these seas, some of their vessels which had entered the port
of Acheen were nearly cut off by the treachery of the inha¬
bitants. It was in 1602 that Acheen was first visited by the
English ships under Captain Lancaster, where they were well
received. In 1607, the reigning sultan having greatly ex¬
tended his dominions on every side, assumed the title of
sovereign. He had some correspondence with King James;
and in answering one of his letters, he takes the title of King
of Sumatra, and intimates to the king of England his wish
that he would send out to him one of his countrywomen for
a wife. The French visited Acheen in 1621 under Com¬
modore Beaulieu. The Dutch were now become the power¬
ful rivals of the Portuguese in the eastern seas. They suc¬
ceeded in 1640, by the aid of their allies the Achenese, in
wresting from them Malacca, which they had so long main¬
tained. They afterwards commenced their encroachments
on the Achenese, and reduced the extent of their ancient
dominion, which, joined to the weakness of the government,
occasioned the decline of the Achenese power. In 1641, the
sultan Peducka Siri, who, though of a cruel disposition, was
a powerful sovereign, died; and the Achenese monarchy
continued in the female line till 1700, when a priest found
means to acquire the supreme power. The country was agi¬
tated during the whole of the eighteenth century by anarchy,
and the most sanguinary revolutions. In 1813, the state of
Acheen, formerly so flourishing, was found with hardly any
form of civil order existing, every port and village being oc¬
cupied by petty usurpers, who subsisted by piracy and smug¬
gling. At length, in 1815, the reigning monarch, Johawir
Allum Shah, was deposed, and Syful Allum Shah, the son
of a wealthy merchant of Prince of Wales Island, raised to
the throne. But in 1818, the ex-king recovered his princi¬
pality, and, in the following year, concluded a treaty of friend¬
ship and alliance with the East India Company. In 1824,
the British government agreed to cede all their possessions
in Sumatra to the King of the Netherlands, and entirely to
withdraw British authority from the island. But in taking
this step they were not unmindful of the interests of their
ally, and in the course of the preliminary negotiations, a con¬
fident expectation had been expressed by the British pleni¬
potentiaries, that no measures hostile to the king of Acheen
would be adopted by the new possessor of Fort-Marlborough.
The appeal was met in a liberal spirit on the part of the
Dutch authorities, and an assurance frankly given that the
A C H
Netherlands government would so regulate its relations with Acheen
Acheen as to ensure uninterrupted security to the merchant II
and the sailor, and at the same time to preserve unimpaired ^chGnwa11/
the independence of the native state.
Acheen, the capital of the above state, is situate on a
river at the north-western extremity of Sumatra, and about
a league from the sea, where a road is formed, in which the
shipping may be secure under the shelter of several islands.
The town is indifferently built of bamboos and rough tim¬
ber, and raised some feet from the ground on account of
the overflow of the river in the rainy season. Its appearance
and the nature of the buildings resemble the generality of
the Malay bazaars, excepting that the superior wealth of this
place has occasioned a great number of public edifices, which
do not however possess the smallest pretensions to magni¬
ficence. The sultan’s palace, which is the chief public build¬
ing, is a very rude and uncouth piece of architecture, de¬
signed to resist the force of an enemy, and surrounded with
a moat and strong walls, but without any regular plan, or
any view to the modern system of military defence. Several
pieces of ordnance are planted near the gate, some of which
are Portuguese; but two were sent from England by James
I., on which the founder’s name and the date are still legi¬
ble. Under the conditions of the treaty of 1819, already no¬
ticed, the British government were bound to furnish the
king of Acheen with four brass field-pieces and a specified
quantity of arms and military stores. The river on which the
town is situate is not large; and the stream being divided
into several channels, is rendered shallow at the bar. In the
dry season it will not admit boats of any burden, much less
large vessels, which lie without in the road formed by the
islands off the point. The chief exports are, brimstone, betel-
nut, ratans, benzoin, camphor, gold dust, pepper, and horses;
the imports, opium, salt, piece-goods, muslin, &c. The town
is estimated to contain about 8000 houses. Long. 95. 45.
E. Eat. 5. 35. N. Marsden’s Sumatra, Forrest’s Voyage,
Hamilton’s East India Gazetteer, Treaties and Engage¬
ments with Native Princes in Asia. Note addressed by Bri¬
tish to the Netherlands Plenipotentiaries. (e. t.)
ACHELOUS, in Fabulous History, wrestled with Her¬
cules, for no less a prize than Dejanira, daughter of King
CEneus; but as Achelous had the power of assuming all
shapes, the contest was long dubious. At last, as he took
that of a bull, Hercules tore off one of his horns, so that he
was forced to submit, and to redeem it by giving the con¬
queror the horn of Amalthea, the same with the cornucopia,
or horn of plenty; which Hercules, having filled with a
variety of fruits, consecrated to Jupiter. Strabo interprets
this fable as referring to the river Achelous, whose stream
was so rapid, that it roared like a bull, and overflowed its
banks; but Hercules, by confining it with embankments,
broke off one of the horns, and so restored plenty to the
country. Tauriformis is an ancient poetical epithet for
rivers. See the next article.
Achelous, a river of Acarnania, which rises in Mount
Pindus, and dividing Tkolia from Acarnania, falls into the
Ionian Sea. It was formerly called Thoas from its impe¬
tuosity, and king of rivers (Homer), being the largest in
Greece. It has a course of 130 miles. The epithet Ache-
loius is used for Aqueus (Virgil), the ancients calling all
water Achelous, especially in oaths, vows, and sacrifices,
according to Ephorus. It is now called Aspro Potamo.
4 here was also a river in Arcadia, and another in Thessaly,
of the same name.
ACHENWALL, Gottfried, a German writer, who
obtained considerable celebrity from having first reduced
statistics to a regular branch of study, and excited much of
the attention of others to the subject. He was born at El-
bing, in East Prussia, in October 1719. He studied, ac-
A C II
Acher cording to the custom of Germany, in several universities ;
\[ and was at Jena, Halle, and Leipsic, before he took a degree
c uar. ^ at f.jle ]agt 0p those cities. He removed to Marburg in 1746,
where he continued during two years to read lectures on
history, and on the law of nature and of nations, and com¬
menced those inquiries in statistics by which his name be¬
came known. In 1748 he removed to Gottingen, where
he resided till his death in 1772. He was married in 1752
to a lady named Walther, who obtained some celebrity by
a volume of poems published in 1750.
ACHER, a river in the grand duchy of Baden, rising in
the Mummel lake, and falling into the Rhine between Lich-
tenau and Greffern.
ACHERN, the chief city of the bailiwick of the same
name, in the Grand Duchy of Baden, on the river Acher,
with 1750 inhabitants. Near this place a monument marks
the spot where Marshall Turenne was killed by a random
shot, in 1675.
ACHERNER, or Acharner, a star of the first magni¬
tude, in the southern extremity of the constellation Eridanus,
but invisible in our latitude.
ACHERON, feigned by the poets to have been the son
of Ceres, whom she hid in hell for fear of the Titans, and
turned into a river, over which souls departed were ferried
on their way to Elysium.
Acheron, in Ancient Geography, a river of Thesprotia,
in Epirus; which, after forming the lake Acherusia, at no
great distance from the promontory of Chimerium, falls into
the sea opposite to the isle of Paxo.
Acheron, or Acheros, a river of Bruttii in Italy, run¬
ning from east to west, where Alexander, king of Epirus,
was slain by the Lucani, being deceived by the oracle of
Dodona, which bade him beware of Acheron.
ACHERSET, an ancient measure of corn, conjectured to
be the same with our quarter, or eight bushels.
ACHERUSIA PALUS, a lake between Cumae and the
promontory Misenum, now II Lago della Collucia. (Clu-
verius.) Some confound it with the Lacus Lucrinus, and
others with the Lacus Averni; but Strabo and Pliny dis¬
tinguish them.—Also a lake of Epirus, through which the
Acheron runs.—There is also a cave of the same name,
through which Hercules is fabled to have descended to hell
to drag forth Cerberus.—A small lake, near Hermione, in
Argolis, bore the same name; and mention is made of an¬
other Acherusian lake near Memphis in Egypt.
ACHERY, Jean-Luc d’, a learned Benedictine of the
congregation of St Maur, was born at St Quentin, in Picardy,
in 1609, and made himself famous by printing several works,
which till then were only in manuscript: particularly, the
Epistle attributed to St Barnabas ; the Works of Lanfranc,
archbishop of Canterbury ; a collection of scarce and curious
pieces, under the title of Spicilegium, i. e. Gleanings, in
13 volumes quarto. The prefaces and notes which he an¬
nexed to many of these pieces, show him to have been a man
of genius and abilities. There was an edition of this valu¬
able work published in 1725, in three volumes folio ; but the
editor appears to have taken some unwarrantable liberties
with the learned prefaces of his author. Achery had some
share in the pieces inserted in the first volumes of the Acts
of the Saints of the order of St Benedict; the title whereof
acquaints us that they were collected and published by him
and Father Mabillon. After a very retired life, till the age
of 76, he died at Paris the 29th of April 1685, in the abbey
of St Germain in the Fields, where he had been librarian.
ACHIAR is a Malayan word, which signifies all sorts
of fruits and roots pickled with vinegar and spice. The
Dutch import from Batavia all sorts of achiar, but particu¬
larly that of Bamboo, a kind of cane, extremely thick, which
grows in the East Indies. It is preserved there, while still
A C H 85
green, with very strong vinegar and spice; and is called ham- A elms
boo achiar. The name changes according to the fruit with II
which the achiar is made. Achillini.
ACHIAS, a Cuvierian and Fabrician genus of Dipterous
insects.
ACHICOLUM is used express the fornix, iholus, or
sudatorium of the ancient baths; which was a hot room
where they used to sweat. It is also called architholus.
ACHILLA, Acholla, or Ac hull a, an ancient town on
the eastern coast of Africa Propria. Its site is now occu¬
pied by the ruins known as El Aliah, of a late date, but
very extensive, among which has been found a curious bi¬
lingual inscription, in Phoenician and Latin. Barth, Wan-
derungende, vol. i. p. 176. Gesenius, Monum. Phrenic, p.
139.
ACHILL7EA, Yarrow, Milfoil, Nosebleed, or
Sneezewort.
ACHILLES, one of the greatest heroes of ancient Greece,
was the son of Peleus and Thetis. He was a native of
Phthia, in Thessaly. His mother, it is said, in order to
consume every mortal part of his body, used to lay him
every night under live coals, anointing him with ambrosia,
which preserved every part from burning but one of his lips,
owing to his having licked it. She dipped him also in the
waters of the river Styx; by which his whole body became
invulnerable, except that part of his heel by which she held
him. But this opinion is not universal, nor is it a part of
his character as drawn by Homer; for in the Iliad (B. xxi.
161.) he is actually wounded in the right arm by the lance
of Asteropaeus, in the battle near the river Scamander. Peleus
afterwards intrusted him to the care of the centaur Chiron,
who, to give him the strength necessary for martial toil, fed
him with honey and the marrow of lions and wild boars. To
prevent his going to the siege of Troy, she disguised him in
female apparel, and hid him among the maidens at the court
of King Lycomedes; but Ulysses discovering him, per¬
suaded him to follow the Greeks. Achilles distinguished
himself by a number of heroic actions at the siege. Being
disgusted, however, with Agamemnon for the loss of Brisei's,
he retired from the camp; but returning to avenge the death
of his friend Patroclus, he slew Hector, fastened his corpse
to his chariot, and dragged it round the walls of Troy. At
last Paris, the brother of Hector, wounded him in the heel
with an arrow, while he was in the temple treating about his
marriage with Polyxena, daughter of King Priam. Of this
wound he died, and was interred on the promontory of Si-
gaeum; and after Troy was taken, the Greeks sacrificed
Polyxena on his tomb, in obedience to his desire, that he
might enjoy her company in the Elysian fields. It is said
that Alexander, seeing this tomb, honoured it by placing a
crown upon it; at the same time crying out, that “ Achilles
was happy in having, during his life, such a friend as Pa¬
troclus, and, after his death, a poet like Homer.” Achilles
is supposed to have died 1183 years before the Christian era.
Achilles Tatius. See Tatius.
Tendo-Achillis, in Anatomy, is a strong tendinous cord
formed by the tendons of several muscles, and inserted into
the os calcis. It has its name from the fatal wound Achil¬
les is said to have received in that part from Paris, the son
of Priam.
ACPIILLEUS CURSUS (’A^tAAaos Spoyaos), in Ancient
Geography, a narrow tongue of land near the mouth of the
Borysthenes, where Achilles is said to have instituted races.
Opposite to it was the celebrated Achilles Insula, or
Leuce {Serpent's Isle), with a temple sacred to that hero.
Eurip. Iphig. in Taur. 438.
ACHILLINI, Alexander, was born at Bologna in 1463.
He was celebrated as a lecturer both in medicine and
philosophy, and was styled the Great Philosopher. Achil-
86 A C H
Achiotte lin; died in 1512. His philosophical works were printed in
II one volume folio, at Venice, in 1508, and reprinted with
v . considerable additions in 1545, 1551, and 1568.
ACHIOTTE,or Achiote, aforeign drug, usedin dyeing,
and in the preparation of chocolate. It is the same with
the substance more usually known as Arstotto.
ACHIROPOETOS (a, yap, and Trotew), a name given by
ancient writers to certain miraculous pictures of Christ and
the Virgin, supposed to have been made without hands.
The most celebrated of these is the picture of Christ pre¬
served in the church of St John Lateran at Rome ; said to
have been begun by St Luke, but finished by angels.
ACHLYS OxAvs), in Pagan Mythology, the eternal
night, more ancient than Chaos; described in Hesiod {Scat.
Here. 264,) as the personification of misery and sadness.
ACHMET, son of Seirim, an Arabian author, who wrote
a book on the interpretation of dreams, which was translated
into Greek and Latin. The original was supposed to be lost:
but it seems probable that Achmet is the same person as
Abu Bekr Mohammed Ben Sirin, who lived in the 7th cen¬
tury, and whose ’Oveipo/cpm/cd in Arabic is extant in the
Royal Library at Paris.
Achmet I., emperor of the Turks, the third son and suc¬
cessor of Mahomet III., ascended the throne before he
reached the age of 15. During his reign, the Turkish em¬
pire underwent great reverses. The Asiatic rebels, who took
refuge in Persia, involved the two empires in a war, during
which the Turks lost Bagdad, to recover which every effort
proved unsuccessful. In his reign, Transylvania and Hun¬
gary were the scenes of war between the Turks and Ger¬
mans. In addition to the calamities and distresses of war
abroad, and internal tumults and broils, a pretender to his
throne disturbed his repose, and made attempts on his life.
He was much devoted to amusements, and spent his time
chiefly in the harem and in the sports of the field. He
expended great sums of money in building, and particularly
on the magnificent mosque which he erected in the Hip¬
podrome. Achmet was less cruel than some of his predeces¬
sors, but he was haughty and ambitious. He died in 1617,
at the age of 29.
Achmet II., emperor of the Turks, son of Sultan Ibra¬
him, succeeded his brother Solyman in 1691. The adminis¬
tration of affairs during his reign was feeble and unsettled.
The Ottoman territory was overrun by the imperialists ; the
Venetians seized the Morea, took the isle of Chios, and
several places in Dalmatia; and the Arabs attacked and
plundered a caravan of pilgrims, and even laid siege to
Mecca. Though inefficient as a ruler, Achmet in private life
was mild, devout, and inoffensive, fond of poetry and music,
and amiable to those about his person. He died in 1695, at
the age of 50.
Achmet III., emperor of the Turks, son of Mahomet IV.,
succeeded his brother Mustapha II., who was deposed in
1 703. After he had settled the discontents of the empire,
his great object was to amass wealth. With this view he
debased the coin, and imposed new taxes. He received
Charles XII. of Sweden, who took refuge in his dominions
after the battle of Pultowa in 1709, with great hospitality ;
and, influenced by the sultana mother, he declared war
against the Czar Peter, Charles’s formidable rival. Achmet
recovered the Morea from the Venetians; but his expedition
into Hungary was less fortunate, for his army was defeated
by Prince Eugene at the battle of Peterwaradin in 1716.
As the public measures of Achmet were influenced by mini¬
sters and favourites, the empire during his reign was fre¬
quently distracted by political struggles and revolutions.
The discontent and sedition of his soldiers at last drove him
from the throne. He was deposed in 1730, and succeeded by
his nephew Mahomet V. He died in 1736, at the age of 74.
A C H
Achmet Gedtjc, a famous Turkish general in the fif- Achmet
teenth century. When Mahomet II. died, Bajazet and Zezan Ij
both claimed the throne. Achmet sided with the former, Achroma-
and by his bravery and conduct fixed the crown on his head. v tlc'_ y
Bajazet, in accordance with the usual policy of tyrants, re-
warded his too conspicuous merits by taking away his life.
ACHMIM, Akmim, or Echmim, a town of Upper Egypt,
situate in a very fertile district. The streets are better
than is usual in Egypt, though, being built only of unburnt
brick, they have a gloomy appearance. The Greeks have
a church, which they hold in great veneration, and which is
adorned with granite pillars from the ruins of the city of
Chemnis or Panopolis. Pop. 3000.
ACHMITE {aKp:f'i, a point), a mineral found in Nor¬
way, near Konigsberg, a silicate of soda and peroxide of
iron.
ACHOR, a valley of Jericho, between it and Ai; so
called from Achan, who was there stoned to death.
Achor, in Medicine, a species of Herpes.
Achor, in Mythology, the god of flies ; to whom, accord¬
ing to Pliny, the inhabitants of Cyrene offered propitiatory
sacrifices.
ACHRAS, a genus of plants, natural order Sapotece.
ACHRAY, a small but wildly picturesque lake in Perth¬
shire, near Loch Katrine, 15 miles N.W. from Stirling.
ACHROMATIC, an epithet expressing want of co¬
lour. The word is Greek, being compounded of a priva¬
tive, and yguyu, colour.
Achromatic Telescopes are telescopes contrived to
remedy the aberrations in colours. The invention of the Invention
telescope, by which the powers of vision are extended °fthe tele-
to the utmost boundaries of space, forms an epoch inSC0Pe*
the history of science. The human intellect had at
last emerged from the long night of error, and begun to
shine with unclouded lustre. The age of erudition, which
arose on the revival of letters, had been succeeded by
the age of science and philosophy. The study of the
ancient classics had infused some portion of taste and
vigour. But men did not long remain passive admirers;
they began to feel their native strength, and hastened to
exert it. A new impulsion was given to the whole frame
of society; the bolder spirits, bursting from the trammels
of authority, ventured to question inveterate opinions,
and to explore, with a fearless yet discerning eye, the
wide fields of human knowledge. Copernicus had partly
restored the true system of the world; Stevinus had ex¬
tended the principles of mechanics; the fine genius of
Galileo had detected and applied the laws of motion ; the
bold excursive imagination of Kepler had, by the aid of
immense labour, nearly completed his discovery of the
great laws which control the revolutions of the heavenly
bodies; and our countryman Napier had just rendered
himself immortal by the sublime discovery of logarithms.
At this eventful period, amidst the fermentation of talents,
the refracting telescope was produced by an obscure glass-
grinder in Holland,—a country then fresh from the struggle
against foreign oppression, and become the busy seat of
commerce and of the useful arts. Yet the very name of
that meritorious person, and the details connected with
his invention, are involved in much obscurity. On a
question of such peculiar interest we shall afterwards en¬
deavour to throw some light, by comparing together such
incidental notices as have been transmitted by contempo¬
rary writers. In the mean time, we may rest assured that
the construction of the telescope was not, as certain authors
would insinuate, the mere offspring of chance, but was,
like other scientific discoveries, the fruit of close and
patient observation of facts, directed with skill, and incited
by an ardent curiosity. A new and perhaps incidental
ACHROMATIC GLASSES.
Achroma- appearance, which would pass unheeded by the ordinary
tic spectator, arrests the glance of genius, and sets all the
Glasses. p0wers 0f fanCy to work. But the inventor of the tele¬
scope, we are informed, was acquainted besides with the
elements of geometry, which enabled him to prosecute his
views, and to combine the results with unerring success.
No sooner was this fine discovery—admirable for the very
simplicity of its principle—whispered abroad, than it fixed
the attention of the chief mathematicians over Europe.
Kepler, with his usual fertility of mind, produced a trea¬
tise on Dioptrics, in which he investigated at large the
distinct effects of the combinations of different lenses.1
Galileo, from some very obscure hints, not only divined
the composition of the telescope, but actually constructed
one, with a concave eye-glass, which still bears his name.
This telescope is shorter, but gives less light than another
one proposed by Kepler, and called the astronomical tele¬
scope, which inverts the objects, and consists likewise
of only two lenses, that next the eye being convex.
With such an imperfect instrument—the same, indeed,
though of rather higher magnifying power, with our mo¬
dern opera-glass—did the Tuscan artist, as our great poet
quaintly styles the philosopher, venture to explore the
heavens.2 He noticed the solar spots, surveyed the
cavernous and rocky surface of the moon, observed the
successive phases of the planet Venus, and discovered
the more conspicuous of Jupiter’s satellites. The truths
thus revealed shook the inveterate prejudices of the learn¬
ed, and furnished the most triumphant evidence to the
true theory of the universe.
It is painful to remark, that the application of the first
telescope in the country which had given it birth was
directed to a very different purpose. The maker, after
having finished one, judging it of singular use in the mili¬
tary profession, was naturally induced, by the hope of
patronage, to present it to the younger Prince Maurice,
whose bravery and conduct had so beneficially contribut¬
ed to the independence of the United Provinces. But at
this moment a bloody tragedy was acting in Holland.
The chief of the republic, not content with that high
station which the gratitude of his fellow-citizens had con¬
ferred upon him, sought to aggrandize his power by crush¬
ing all opposition. In the prosecution of his ambitious
designs, he artfully gained the favour of the undiscerning
populace, and joining his intrigues to the violence of the
Calvinistic clergy, he succeeded in preferring the charge
of a plot against the more strenuous supporters of the com¬
monwealth, which involved them in ruin. Not only was the
celebrated Grotius condemned to the gloom of perpetual
imprisonment, but the aged senator Barneveldt, whose
wise and upright counsels had guided the state amidst all
the troubles of a long revolutionary conflict, was led to the
87
scaffold, on the 14th of May 1619, while his persecutor, Achroma-
ashamed to approach the spectacle of his sufferings, beheld tic
at a distance, with the coolness of a tyrant, from the win-
dows of his palace, and by help of a telescope, the gesture
and aspect of the venerable patriot, and all the melancholy
circumstances attending the decollation.3
The skill and ingenuity of artists and mathematicians Improvers
were now exerted in attempts to improve the construction of the tele-
of an instrument so fortunately contrived. The perfec-SC0Pe-
tion of the telescope would require the union, as far as they
are capableof being conjoined, of three different qualities,—
distinctness of vision, depth of magnifying power, and ex¬
tent of field. Of these requisites, the first two are evidently
the most important, and to attain them was an object of
persevering research. For the condition of amplitude and
clearness, it was necessary that the principal image, or
the one formed by the eye-glass, should be large, bright,
and well defined. On the supposition then generally re¬
ceived, that, in the passage of light through the same
media, the angle of incidence bears a constant ratio to the
angle of refraction, which is very nearly true in the case
of small angles, it followed, as a geometrical consequence,
that the spherical figure would accurately collect all the
rays into a focus. To obtain the desired improvement of
the telescope, therefore, nothing seemed to be wanting but
to enlarge sufficiently its aperture, or to employ for the
eye-glass a more considerable segment of the sphere. On
trial, however, the results appeared to be at variance with
the hasty deductions of theory, and every sensible en¬
largement of aperture was found to occasion a correspond¬
ing glare and indistinctness of vision. But a discovery
made soon afterwards in optics led to more accurate con¬
clusions. Willebrord Snell, a very ingenious Dutch ma- Snell,
thematician, who was snatched away at an early age,
traced out by experiment, about the year 1629, the true
law that connects the angles of incidence and of refraction ;
which the famous Descartes, who had about this time
chosen Holland for his place of residence, published, in
1637, in his Dioptrics, under its simplest form, establish¬
ing, that the sines of those angles, and not the angles
themselves, bore a constant ratio in the transit of light
between the same diaphanous media. It hence followed,
that the lateral rays of the light which enter a denser
medium, bounded by a spherical surface, in the direction
of the axis, will not meet this axis precisely in the same
point, but will cross it somewhat nearer the surface. In
short, the constant ratio or index of refraction will be that
of the distances of the actual focus from the centre of the
sphere, and from the point of external impact. Since an
arc differs from its sine by a quantity nearly proportioned
to its cube, the deviation of the extreme rays from the
correct focus, or what is called the spherical aberration,
1 Kepler explained the construction of the astronomical telescope with two convex lenses; he likewise proposed a third glass to
restore the inverted image. But Scheiner first employed the astronomical telescope, and described his observations with it in 1630.
Father Itheita placed the third lens of Kepler near the primary focus, and thus enlarged the field of view. Such is the arrangement
in the common spy-glass, which he gave in 1665.
*   like the moon, whose orb
Through optic glass the Tuscan artist views
At evening from the top of Fesold,
Or in Valdarno, to descry new lands,
Rivers, or mountains, on her spotty globe. {Paradise Lost, book i. 286-290.)
* The discovery of the telescope, from the mystery at first practised, is involved in considerable uncertainty. The most probable
statement, however, ascribes the invention so early as 1590 to Zachary Jansen, an intelligent spectacle-maker at Middleburg. This
intelligent person, led by accident to exercise his ingenuity on the subject, appears to have in private matured the execution of that
wonderful though simple instrument. In a short time, however, the secret had transpired; and Laprey or Lippersheim, a townsman
of the same profession, produced telescopes for sale between the years 1600 and 1610. But, in 1608, Jansen likewise constructed the
compound microscope; and both instruments, by the activity of trade, were now spread quickly over Europe. The telescope was
copied, and perhaps improved, by Adrian Metius, son of the celebrated mathematician. It was publicly sold at Frankfort in 1608,
and in the following year the instruments were brought by Drebbel for sale to London.
88 ACHROMAT1
Achroma- must likewise proceed in that ratio, and consequently will
tic increase with extreme rapidity, as the aperture of the
Glasses, telescope is enlarged. It was now attempted to modify
the figure of the object-glass, and to give it those curved
surfaces which an intricate geometrical investigation marks
out as fitted to procure a perfect concentration of all the
refracted rays. Various contrivances were accordingly
proposed for assisting the artist in working the lenses into
a parabolic or spheroidal shape, and thus obtaining the
exact surfaces generated by the revolution of the different
conic sections. All those expedients and directions, how¬
ever, were found utterly to fail in practice, and nature
seemed, in this instance, to oppose insurmountable barriers
to human curiosity and research. Philosophers began to
despair of effecting any capital improvement in dioptrical
instruments, and turned their views to the construction of
those depending on the principles of catoptrics, or formed
by certain combinations of reflecting specula. In 1663,
Gregory, the famous James Gregory, who in many respects may be
regarded as the precursor, and in some things even the
rival of Newton, published his Optica Promota ; a work
distinguished by its originality, and containing much in¬
genious research and fine speculation. In this treatise, a
complete description is given of the reflecting telescope
now almost universally adopted, consisting of a large per¬
forated concave reflector combined with another very
small and deep speculum placed before the principal focus.
But such was still the low state of the mechanical arts in
England, that no person was found capable of casting and
polishing the metallic specula with any tolerable delicacy,
and the great inventor never enjoyed the satisfaction and
transport of witnessing the magic of his admirable contriv¬
ance. It was after the lapse of more than half a century,
Hadley, that Hadley—-to whom we likewise owe another instrument
scarcely less valuable, the quadrant, or sextant, known by
his name—at last succeeded in executing the reflecting
telescope. In the first attempt, silvered mirrors had been
substituted for the specula; nor did the reflectors come
to obtain much estimation, till, about the year 1733, the
ingenious Mr Short distinguished himself by constructing
them in a style of very superior excellence.
But though thus late in guiding the efforts of artists,
the optical treatise of Gregory proved the harbinger of
that bright day which soon arose to illumine the recesses
Aewton. of physical science. The capacious mind of Newton, nursed
in the calm of retirement and seclusion, was then teem¬
ing with philosophical projects. In 1665, when the tre¬
mendous visitation of the plague raged in London, and
threatened Cambridge and other places communicating
with the capital, this sublime genius withdrew from the
routine of the university to his rural farm near Grantham,
and devoted himself to most profound meditation. Amidst
his speculations in abstruse mathematics and theoretical
astronomy, Newton was induced to examine the opinions
entertained by the learned on the subject of light and co¬
lours. With this view he had recently procured from the
Continent some prisms of glass, to exhibit the phenomena
of refraction. Having placed the axis of the prism or
glass wedge at right angles to a pencil of light from the
sun, admitted through a small hole of the window-shutter
in a darkened room, he contemplated the glowing image
or spectrum now formed on the opposite wall or screen.
This illuminated space was not round, however, as the
young philosopher had been taught to expect, but appear¬
ed very much elongated, stretching out five times more
than its breadth, and marked by a series of pure and bril¬
liant colours. It was therefore obvious that the colours
were not confined to the margin of the spectrum, nor
could proceed from any varied intermixture of light and
[C GLASSES.
shade ; and the conclusion seemed hence irresistible, that Achroma.
the white pencil, or solar beam, is really a collection of tic
distinct rays, essentially coloured and dilferently refract-
ed; that the ray, for instance, which gives us the sensa¬
tion of the violet, is always more bent aside from its course
by refraction than the ray which we term green,—and that
this green ray again is more refracted than the red. WTien
the spectrum was divided, by interposing partially a small
screen, and each separate parcel of rays made to pass
through a second prism, they still retained their peculiar
colour and refractive property, but now emerged in parallel,
and not in diverging lines as at first. The sun’s light is
thus decomposed by the action of the prism into a set of
primary coloured rays; and these rays, if they be after¬
wards recombined in the same proportions, will always
form a white pencil. It was hence easy to discern the
real cause of the imperfection of dioptrical instruments,
which is comparatively little influenced by the figure of
the object-glass or spherical aberration, but proceeds
mainly from the unequal refraction of light itself. The
focal distance of the red ray being, in the most favourable
case, about one fortieth part shorter than that of the
violet ray, the principal image is necessarily affected with
mistiness, and its margin always encircled by a coloured
ring; for each point of the remote object from which the
light arrives is not represented by a corresponding point
in the image, but by a small circle composed of graduat¬
ing colours, the centre being violet and the circumference
red. This radical defect seemed at that time to be alto¬
gether irremediable. Newton had recourse, therefore, to
the aid of catoptrics, and contrived his very simple though
rather incommodious reflecting telescope, consisting of a
concave speculum, with a small plane one placed oblique¬
ly before it, to throw the image towards the side of the tube.
This instrument he actually constructed; and with all its
rudeness, it promised essential advantages to astronomy.
The Newtonian reflector, after having been long neglected,
was lately revived by Dr Herschel; and from its great
simplicity and moderate dissipation of light, it is perhaps
on the whole not ill calculated for celestial observations.
These unexpected and very important discoveries,
which entirely changed the face of optics, were soon com¬
municated to the Royal Society, and published in the
Philosophical Transactions for 1672. They were not re¬
ceived however by the learned with that admiration to
which they were justly entitled, but gave occasion to so
much ignorant opposition and obstinate controversy, that
the illustrious author, thoroughly disgusted at such un¬
merited reception, henceforth, pursuing his experimental
researches in silence, made no disclosure of them to the
world till more than thirty years afterwards, when his
fame being mature, and his authority commanding respect,
he suffered his Treatise on Optics to appear abroad. This
celebrated production has long been regarded as a model
of pure inductive science. The experiments which it re¬
lates appear ingeniously devised; the conclusions from
them are drawn with acuteness, and pursued with exqui¬
site skill; and the whole discourse proceeds in a style of
measured and elegant simplicity. Though the researches
were conducted by a process of strict analysis, the com¬
position of the work itself is cast into the synthetical or
didactic form, after the manner followed in the elemen¬
tary treatises of the ancient mathematicians. But with
all its beauty and undisputed excellence, it must be con¬
fessed that the treatise of optics is not exempt from faults,
and even material errors. We should betray the interests
of science, if we ever yielded implicit confidence even to
the highest master. It is the glory of Newton to have led
the way in sublime discovery, and to have impressed
ACHROMATIC GLASSES.
89
Achroma- whatever he touched with the stamp of profound and ori-
C lasses 8^na^ g6™118. The philosopher paid the debt of human
infirmity, by imbibing some tincture of the mystical spirit
of the age, and taking a slight bias from the character of
his studies. The difficult art of experimenting was still
in its infancy, and inquirers had not attained that delicacy
and circumspection which, in practice, are indispensable
for obtaining accurate results. Most of the speculations
in the second and third books of Newton’s Optics, as we
shall afterwards have occasion to observe, are built on
mistaken or imperfect views of some facts, which the ad¬
mixture of extraneous circumstances had accidentally
disguised. The very ingenious, but hasty, and often un¬
tenable hypotheses, which are subjoined, under the mo¬
dest and seemingly hesitating title of Queries, have, on
the whole, been productive of real harm to the cause of
science, by the splendid example thus held forth to tempt
the rashness of loose experimenters, and of superficial
reasoners. Even in the first book of Optics, some of the
capital propositions are affected by hasty and imperfect
statements. The term ref Tangibility, applied to the rays
of light, is at least unguarded; it conveys an indistinct
conception, and leads to inaccurate conclusions. The dif¬
ferent refractions which the primary rays undergo are not
absolute properties inherent in these rays themselves, but
depend on the mutual relation subsisting between them
and the particular diaphanous medium. When the me¬
dium is changed, the refraction of one set of rays cannot
be safely inferred from that of another. Nay, in the pas¬
sage among certain media, those rays which are designat¬
ed as the most refrangible will sometimes be the least re¬
fracted. To ascertain correctly, therefore, the index of re¬
fraction, it becomes necessary, in each distinct case, to
examine the bearing or disposition of the particular species
of rays; since the principle, that the refraction of the ex¬
treme rays is always proportioned to that of the mean rays,
involves a very false conclusion.
When Newton attempted to reckon up the rays of light
decomposed by the prism, and ventured to assign the
famous number seven, he was apparently influenced by
some lurking disposition towards mysticism. If any un¬
prejudiced person will fairly repeat the experiment, he
must soon be convinced, that the various coloured spaces
which paint the spectrum slide into each other by indefi¬
nite shadings; he may name four or five principal colours,
but the subordinate divisions are evidently so multiplied
as to be incapable of enumeration. The same illustrious
mathematician, we can hardly doubt, was betrayed by a
passion for analogy, when he imagined, that the primary
colours are distributed over the spectrum after the pro¬
portions of the diatonic scale of music, since those inter¬
mediate spaces have really no precise and defined limits.
Had prisms of a different kind of glass been used, the dis¬
tribution of the coloured spaces would have been mate¬
rially changed. The fact is, that all Newton’s prisms
being manufactured abroad, consisted of plate or crown
glass, formed by the combination of soda, or the mineral
alkali, with silicious sand. The refined art of glass-mak¬
ing had only been lately introduced into England, and
that beautiful variety called crystal, or flint-glass, which
has so long distinguished this country, being produced
by the union of a silicious material with the oxyde of lead,
was then scarcely known. The original experimenter had
not the advantage, therefore, of witnessing the varied ef¬
fects occasioned by different prisms, which demonstrate,
that the power of refraction is not less a property of the
peculiar medium than of the species of light itself. He
mentions, indeed, prisms formed with water confined by
plates of glass; but the few trials which he made with
VOL. II.
them had evidently been performed with no sufficient Achroma-
attention. In spite of his habitual circumspection, he t'c
could not always restrain the propensity so natural to G,asses'
genius, that of hastening to the result, and of trusting to
general principles more than to any particular details.
But the same indulgent apology will not be conceded to
some later authors. It is truly astonishing that systematic
writers on optics, in obvious contradiction to the most un¬
doubted discoveries related by themselves, should yet re¬
peat with complacency the fanciful idea of the harmonical
composition of light.
Admitting the general conclusion which Newton con¬
ceived himself entitled to draw from analogy and concur¬
ring experiment, that “ the sine of incidence of every ray
considered apart, is to the sine of refraction in a given
ratioit was strictly demonstrable, that no contrary refrac¬
tions whatever, unless they absolutely restored the pencil
to its first direction, could collect again the extreme
rays, and produce, by their union, a white light. Thus,
let the ratios of the sines of the angles of incidence and
refraction of the violet rays in their transit from air to
other two denser mediums, be expressed hy \ : M and
1 : m; and the like ratios of the red rays under the same
circumstances, by 1 : and 1 : « ; where M m and N n
respectively denote the refracting indices of those ex¬
treme rays. It is manifest that the refracting indices,
corresponding to the passage of the violet and red rays
from the first to the second medium, will be represented
by M-N, and mr-n. But by hypothesis, M: m : \ N: n,
and consequently M: m : : M-N: m-n; so that the ex¬
treme rays would not be still separated and dispersed in
proportion to the mean extent of the final refraction. The
great philosopher appears to have contemplated with re¬
gret the result of his optical principle; and he had the
penetration to remark, that if a different law had ob¬
tained, the proper combination of distinct refracting media
would have corrected the spherical aberration.
With this view, he would propose for the object- MrWk
glass of a telescope, a compound lens, consisting J||T J|||
of two exterior meniscuses of glass, their out- |§f 7|||
sides being equally convex, and their insides of
similar but greater concavity, and having the in-
terior space filled with pure water, as in the Wf-fB
figure annexed. He gives a rule, though without M.Ji'
demonstration, and evidently disfigured or im¬
perfect, for determining the curvature of the two sur¬
faces : “ And by this means,” he subjoins, “ might tele¬
scopes be brought to sufficient perfection, were it not for
the different refrangibility of several sorts of rays. But,
by reason of this different refrangibility, I do not see any
other means of improving telescopes by refractions alone,
than that of increasing their lengths.”
These remarks appeared to preclude all attempts to
improve the construction of the refracting telescope.
Brightness and range of sight were sacrificed to distinct¬
ness. Instead of enlarging the aperture, recourse was
had to the expedient of increasing the length of the
focus. For nice astronomical observations, telescopes were
sought of the highest magnifying powers, and their tubes
had by degrees been extended to a most enormous and
inconvenient size. But the famous Dutch mathemati- Huygens,
cian Huygens contrived to supersede the use of these
in certain cases, by a method which required, however,
some address. Many years afterwards the reflecting,
or rather catadioptric telescope, of the Gregorian con¬
struction, was executed with tolerable perfection. But a
long period of languor succeeded the brilliant age of dis¬
covery. Not a single advance was made in the science
of light and colours, till thirty years after the death of
M
90 A C H R O M A TI
Acliroma- Newton.1 His immortal Principia had not yet provoked
tic discussion, and philosophers seemed inclined to regard
t^ie conc^uslons in tlie Treatise of Optics with silent and
incurious acquiescence. This memorable fact not only
evinces the danger of yielding, in matters of science, im¬
plicit confidence even to the highest authority, but shows,
amidst all the apparent bustle of research, how very few
original experiments are made, and how seldom these are
repeated with the due care and attention.
The impossibility of correcting the colours in object-
glasses of telescopes was therefore a principle generally
adopted ; though some vague hopes, grounded chiefly on
the consideration of final causes, were still at times en¬
tertained of removing that defect. As the eye consists
of two distinct humours, with a horny lens or cornea in¬
terposed, it was naturally imagined that such a perfect
structure should be imitated in the composition of glasses.
This inviting idea is concisely mentioned by David Gre¬
gory, the nephew of James, in his little tract on Dioptrics.
It has also been stated that a country gentleman, Mr Hall
of Chesterhall, in Worcestershire, discovered, about the
year 1729, the proper composition of lenses by the united
segments of crown and flint-glass, and caused a London
artist, in 1733, to make a telescope under his directions,
which was found on trial to answer extremely well. But
whatever might be the fact, no notice was taken of it at
the time, nor indeed till very long after, when circum¬
stances had occurred to call forth public attention.
The Newtonian principle was first openly rejected, and
a discussion excited, which eventually led to a most valu¬
able discovery in optics, by a foreign mathematician of
great celebrity and transcendent talents. Leonard Euler
was one of those rare mortals who arise, at distant inter¬
vals, to shed unfading lustre on our species. Endowed
with a penetrating genius and profound capacity, he was
capable of pursuing his abstruse investigations with unre¬
mitting ardour and unwearied perseverance. To him the
modern analysis stands chiefly indebted for its prodigious
extension ; and he continued to enrich it in all its depart¬
ments with innumerable improvements and fine discove¬
ries, during the whole course of a most active, laborious,
and protracted life. Unfortunately the philosophical cha¬
racter of Euler did not correspond to his superlative emi¬
nence as a geometer. Bred in the school of Leibnitz, he
had imbibed the specious but delusive metaphysics of the
sufficient reason, and of the necessary and absolute con¬
stitution of the laws of nature. He was hence disposed
in all cases to prefer the mode of investigating a priori,
and never appeared to hold in due estimation the humbler
yet only safe road to physical science, by the method of
experiment and induction. Euler expressed the indices
of refraction by the powers of a certain invariable root,
and fancied that the exponents of those powers are pro¬
portional for the several rays in different media. Instead
of making, in short, the numbers themselves proportional,
as Newton had done, he assigned this property to their
logarithms. In the Berlin Memoirs for 1747, he inserted
a short paper, in which he deducted from his optical prin¬
ciple, by a clear analytical process, conducted with his
usual skill, the composition of a lens formed after certain
proportions with glass and water, which should remove
entirely all extraneous colours, whether occasioned by the
unequal refraction of the several rays, or by spherical
C GLASSES.
aberration; and in concluding, he remarked, with high Achroma-
satisfaction, the general conformity of his results with the tit-
wonderful structure of the eye. . _
But this paper met with opposition in a quarter where
it could have been least expected. John Holland, who John Dol.
had afterwards the honour of completing one of the finestlancl-
and most valuable discoveries in the science of optics, was
born in 1706, in Spitalfields, of French parents, whom
the revocation of the edict of Nantes had compelled to
take refuge in England, from the cruel persecution of a
bigoted and tyrannical court. Following his father’s oc¬
cupation, that of a silk-weaver, he married at an early
age ; and being fond of reading, he dedicated his leisure
moments to the acquisition of knowledge. By dint of so¬
litary application, he made some progress in the learned
languages ; but he devoted his main attention to the study
of geometry and algebra, and the more attractive parts of
mixed or practical mathematics. He gave instructions in
these branches to his son Peter, who, though bred to the
hereditary profession, soon quitted that employment, and
commenced the business of optician, in which he was
afterwards joined by his father. About this time the
volume of the Berlin Memoirs, containing Euler’s paper,
fell into the hands of the elder Dolland, who examined it
with care, and repeated the calculations. His report was
communicated by Mr Short to the Royal Society in
1752, and published in their Transactions for that year.
Dolland, as might well be expected, could detect no mis¬
take in the investigation itself, but strenuously conteste-d
the principle on which it was built, as differing from the
one laid down by Newton, which he held to be irrefrag¬
able. “ It is, therefore,” says he, rather uncourteously,
and certainly with little of the prophetic spirit, “ it is,
therefore, somewhat strange that any body now-a-days
should attempt to do that which so long ago has been
demonstrated impossible.” The great Euler replied with
becoming temper, but persisted in maintaining that his
optical principle was a true and necessary law of nature,
though he frankly confessed that he had not been able to
reduce it yet to practice. The dispute now began to pro¬
voke attention on the Continent. In 1754, Klingenstier-
na, an eminent Swedish geometer, demonstrated that the
Newtonian principle is in some extreme cases incompati¬
ble with the phenomena, and therefore ought not to be
received as an undoubted law of nature. Thus pressed
on all sides, Dolland at length had recourse to that ap¬
peal which should have been made from the beginning,—
to the test of actual experiment. He constructed a hol¬
low wedge with two plates of glass, ground parallel, in
which he laid inverted a common glass prism, and filled
up the space with clear water, as in the annexed figure.
He now continued to enlarge the angle of the wedge, till
the refraction produced by the water came to counterba¬
lance exactly the opposite refraction of the glass, which
* The fine discovery of the apparent aberration of the fixed stars, made by our countryman Dr Bradley in 1729, cannot be justly
deemed an exception to this remark. It belongs more to astronomy than to optics, and is indeed merely the result, however im¬
portant, of the progressive motion of light, detected near sixty years before by the Danish philosopher Roemer, combined with the
revolution of the earth in her orbit.
ACHROMATIC GLASSES.
91
Achroma- must obtain whenever an object is seen through the com-
tic pound prism, without change of direction, in its true place.
Glasses, contrary to what he so firmly expected, the external
objects appeared glaringly bordered with coloured fringes;
as much, indeed, as if they had been viewed through a
glass prism with an angle of thirty degrees. It was
therefore quite decisive that Newton had not performed
his experiment with scrupulous accuracy, and had trust¬
ed rather too hastily to mere analogical inference. But
to remove every shadow of doubt from
the subject, Mr Dolland, finding that
large angles were inconvenient for ob¬
servation, ground a prism to the very
acute angle of nine degrees, and adjust¬
ed, by careful trials, a wedge of water
to the same precise measure of refrac¬
tion. Combining the opposite refrac¬
tions as before, he beheld, on looking
through the apparatus (as here repre¬
sented), their various objects real posi¬
tion, but distinctly marked with the
prismatic colours. In these experi¬
ments, although the mean ray pursues
the same undeviating course, the ex¬
treme rays which enter parallel with it emerge from the
compound prism, spreading out on both sides.
The capital point being completely ascertained, Dol¬
land next tried so to adapt the opposite refractions as to
destroy all extraneous colour. This effect he found to
take place when the angle of the wedge had been further
increased, till the refracting power of the water was to
that of the glass in the ratio of five to four. His conclu¬
sive experiments were made in 1757, and he lost no time
in applying their results to the improvement of the object-
glasses of telescopes. Following the proportion just as¬
certained, he conjoined a very deep convex lens of water
with a concave one of glass. In this way he succeeded in
removing the colours occasioned by the unequal refraction
of light; but the images formed in the foci of the tele¬
scopes so constructed, still wanted the distinctness which
might have been expected. The defect now proceeded,
it was evident, merely from spherical aberration; for the
excess of refraction in the compound lens being very small,
the surfaces were necessarily formed to a deep curvature.
But this partial success only stimulated the ingenious
artist to make further trials. Having proved that the sepa¬
ration of the extreme rays, or what has been since termed
the dispersive power, is not proportioned to the mean re¬
fraction in the case of glass and water, he might fairly
presume that like discrepancies must exist among other
diaphanous substances, and even among the different
kinds of glass itself. The charm of uniformity being
once dispelled, he was encouraged to proceed, with the
confident hope of ultimately achieving his purpose. His
new researches, however, were postponed for some time
by the pressure of business. But on resuming the inqui¬
ry, he found the English crown-glass and the foreign yel¬
low or straw-coloured, commonly called the Venice glass,
to disperse the extreme rays almost alike, while the crys¬
tal, or white flint-glass, gave a much greater measure of
dispersion. On this quarter, therefore, he centred his
attention. A wedge of crown and another of flint-glass
were ground till they refracted equally, which took
place when their angles were respectively 29 and 25 de¬
grees, or the indices of refraction were nearly as 22 to
19; but on being joined in an inverted position, they pro¬
duced, without changing the general direction of the
pencil, a very different divergence of the compound rays
of light. He now reversed the experiment, and formed
wedges of crown and flint-glass to such angles as might Achroma,
destroy all irregularity of colour
by their opposite dispersions.
When this condition was ob¬
tained, the refractive powers of
those wedges of crown and
flint-glass were nearly in the-
ratio of three to two, and con--
sequently the sines of half their
angles, or the angles themselves,
if small, were as 33 to 19, or nearly as 7 to 4. The rays
which enter parallel now escape likewise parallel, but all
of them deflected equally from their course.
The appearance was rendered still more con¬
spicuous by repeating the combination of the
glass wedges, as in the figure here adjoined. It
will be perceived that the pencils of rays which
enter at equal distances on both sides of the
common junction, must nearly meet in the same
point of the axis ; for in small arcs the chords
are almost proportional to the arcs themselves.
This arrangement, indeed, with the projecting*
wedge of crown-glass in front, represents ac¬
tually the composition of an object-glass formed
of two distinct and opposing lenses, which would
produce a similar effect. It was only required
to apply a semi-convex lens of crown-glass be¬
fore a semi-concave one of flint-glass, such that
the curvature of the former be to that of the lat¬
ter nearly as 7 to 4; but with some modifications
in this ratio, according to the peculiar qualities of the
glass. [The figure annexed represents this A
combination.] But the depth of the lenses
might be diminished, by giving them curvature
both sides. Thus, if a double convex of
on uotn sides, inus, it a aouDte convex
crown-glass were substituted, of the same power,
and consequently with only half the curva¬
ture on each side; the lens of flint-glass adapt¬
ed to it having, therefore, their common surface
of an equal concavity, would need, in order to
produce the former quantity of refraction, and
consequently to maintain the balance of oppo¬
site dispersions, a concavity eight times less than before
on the other surface. Or if a double concave ,
of flint-glass with half its first depth were  
used, the front convexity of the lens of crown-
glass would be five-sevenths of the former cur- lj||ljf
vature, as here represented. The surface
where the two lenses are united may hence
have its curvature changed at pleasure; but
every alteration of this must occasion corre¬
sponding changes in the exterior surfaces.
In all these cases, the refraction of the con¬
vex pieces being reduced to one-third by the
contrary refraction of the concave piece, the focal distance
of the compound glass must be triple of that which it would
have had singly. But a most important advantage results
from the facility of varying the adaptation of the lenses; for,
by rightly proportioning the conspiring and counteracting
curvatures, it was possible to remove almost entirely the
errors arising from spherical aberration. This delicate pro¬
blem Mr Dolland was the better prepared to encounter, as
he had already, in 1753, improved the telescope materially,
by introducing no fewer than six eye-glasses, disposed at
proper distances, to divide the refraction. The research it¬
self, and the execution of the compound lens, presented pe¬
culiar difficulties; but the ingenuity and toilsome exertions
of the artist were at length, in 1758, rewarded with com¬
plete success. “ Notwithstanding,” says he, in concluding
92
ACHROMATIC GLASSES.
land.
Achroma- his paper, “ so many difficulties as I have enumerated, I
tie have, after numerous trials, and a resolute perseverance,
Glasses. ^brought the matter at last to such an issue, that I can
construct refracting telescopes, with such apertures and
magnifying powers, under limited lengths, as, in the opin¬
ion of the best and undeniable judges, who have experi¬
enced them, far exceed any thing that has been produced,
as representing objects with great distinctness, and in
their true colours.”
The Royal Society voted to Mr Dolland, for his valu¬
able discovery, the honour of the Copley medal. To this
new construction of the telescope Dr Bevis gave the
name of Achromatic (from a privative, and ^<w,aa, colour),
which was soon universally adopted, and is still retained.
The inventor took out a patent, but did not live to reap
the fruits of his ingenious labours. He died in the year
1761, leaving the prosecution of the business to his son
Peter Dol- and associate Peter Dolland, who realized a very large
fortune by the exclusive manufacture, for many years,
of achromatic glasses, less secured to him by the invi¬
dious and disputed provisions of legal monopoly, than by
superior skill, experience, and sedulous attention. In
1765, the younger Dolland made another and final im¬
provement, to which his father had before ad- —.
vanced some steps. To correct more effectually |r-l
the spherical aberration, he formed the object- gjjgl
glass of three instead of two lenses, by dividing ggjg
the convex piece; or he inclosed a concave lens gelg
of flint-glass between two convex lenses of Mim
crown-glass, as exactly represented in the figure lit M
here annexed. He showed a telescope of this BUS
improved construction, having a focal length of
three feet and a half, with an aperture of three
inches and three quarters, to the celebrated Mr
Short, who tried it with a magnifying power of
one hundred and fifty times, and who, superior
to the jealousy of rivalship, and disposed to pa¬
tronise rising merit, most warmly recommended it, and
declared that he found “ the image distinct, bright, and
free from colours.”
What were the curvatures of those distinct component
lenses, Dolland has not mentioned, and perhaps he rather
wished to conceal them. The Duke de Chaulnes was
enabled, however, by means of a sort of micrometer, to
ascertain the radii of the several surfaces, in the case of
one object-glass of the best composition. He found these
radii, beginning with the front lens, to be respectively
3111, 392; 214, 294; 294 and 3221, Jn French lines,
which corresponded, in English inches, to 32’4, 40*8;
22*2, 30*6; 30*6 and 33-5. If these measures were cor¬
rect, however, it would follow, that the middle lens of
flint-glass was not perfectly adapted to the curvature of
the lens of crown-glass placed immediate¬
ly before it. Similar admeasurements have
been repeated by others, but the results
differ considerably, and no general conclu¬
sion can be safely drawn. There is no
doubt that the artist varied his practice,
according to the nature of the glass which
he was obliged to use. The more ordinary
proportions for the curvatures of the com¬
ponent lenses would be represented by a
truncated prism, formed with a double
cluster of wedges, the outer ones having
angles of 25° 53', and 14° 27', and consist¬
ing of crown-glass, and the inner one
made of flint-glass, with an inverted angle
of 27° 3'. These two wedges of crown-glass would pro¬
duce the same refraction, it might be shown, as a single
one having an angle of 40° 54'; wherefore this refraction Achroma-
will be diminished, by the opposite influence of the wedge *1C
of flint glass, in the ratio of 49 to 16, or reduced to nearly
one-third.
Thus was achieved, and fully carried into practical ope¬
ration, the finest and most important detection made in
optics since the great discovery of the unequal refraction
of the several rays of light. It was drawn forth by a long
series of trials, directed with judgment and ingenuity, but
certainly very little aided by the powers of calculation.
Such a slow tentative procedure was perhaps the best
suited, however, to the habits of an artist, and it had at
least the advantage of leaving no doubt or hesitation be¬
hind it. On this occasion, we cannot help being struck
with a remark, that most of those who have ever distin¬
guished themselves in the philosophical arts by their ori¬
ginal improvements, were seldom regularly bred to the
profession. Both the Dollands, we have seen, began life
with plying at the loom; Short had a liberal education,
being designed for the Scotish church, but, indulging a
taste for practical optics, he afterwards followed it as a
trade, in which he rose to pre-eminence ; Ramsden, whose
ingenuity and exquisite skill were quite unrivalled, was
bred a clothier in Yorkshire; Tassie, who revived or cre¬
ated among us the nice art of casting gems, was originally
a stone-mason at Glasgow; and Watt, who, by his very
happy applications of mechanics, and his vast improve¬
ments on the steam-engine, has, more than any other in¬
dividual perhaps, contributed to the great national ad¬
vancement, was early an ivory-turner in that same city,
and still found pleasure, in his declining years, with the
amusement of the lathe. We might easily enlarge this
catalogue; but enough has been said to prove the justness
of the observation, and it suggests reflections which are
not favourable to fixed and systematic plans of education.
The theory of achromatic telescopes, embraced in all Subse-
its extent, opened a field of abstruse and difficult investi- quent
gation. But the English mathematicians at that period,
though they might appear to be especially invited to the
discussion, very generally neglected so fine an opportunity
for the exercise of their genius. They coldly suffered
the artists to grope their devious way, without offering to
guide their efforts by the lights of science. On the Con¬
tinent the geometers of the first order were all eager to
attempt the solution of problems at once so curious and
important. For several years subsequent to 1758, the
Transactions of the foreign academies were filled with
memoirs on the combination of achromatic lenses, dis¬
playing the resources and refinements of the modern ana¬
lysis, by Euler, Clairaut, and D’Alembert,—by Boscovich,
Klingenstierna, Kaestner, and Hennert. On this, as on
other occasions, however, we have to regret the want of
close union between artists and men of science. Those
profound investigations are generally too speculative for
any real use; they often involve imperfect or inaccurate
data; and the results appear wrapped in such comprehen¬
sive and intricate formulae, as to deter the artist from en¬
deavouring to reduce them into practice. We should have
thought it preferable, on the whole, not to load the solu¬
tion of the main problem with minute conditions, but to
aim at a few general rules, which could afterwards be
modified in their application according to circumstances.
All this might have been accomplished, without scarcely
travelling beyond the limits of elementary geometry.
Euler and his adherents at Berlin were still not dis- Euler-
posed to abandon his favourite optical hypothesis. It was
even pretended that Dolland must have owed his success
to a nice correction of spherical aberration, and not to
any really superior dispersive power belonging to the
ACHROMATIC GLASSES. 93
Achroma- flint-glass. But that candid philosopher afterwards yield-
tic ed to the force of reason and testimony; and, collecting
Glasses, ^jg various optical papers, he published, in the successive
years 1769, 1770, and 1771, a complete treatise on Diop¬
trics, occupying three quarto volumes, which contain a
store of ingenious and elegant disquisitions.
Clairaut. The last memoir which Clairaut ever wrote related to
D’Alem- achromatic glasses. D’Alembert prosecuted the subject
bert. with diligence and ardour; and the volumes of his Ma¬
thematical Opuscules, published between the years 1761
and 1767, contain some elaborate dioptrical investigations.
Among other conclusions which he deduced from his mul¬
tiplied researches, he proposed a new composition for the
object-glass of a telescope, to consist of three lenses, the
outmost one being a meniscus of crown-glass, or having a
convex and a concave surface, then a meniscus of flint-
glass in the middle, and adapted to this, on the. inside, a
double convex of crown-glass. Of all the continental
works, however, which treat of achromatic combinations,
Boscuvich. the tracts of Boscovich, who possessed a very fine taste
for geometry, may be held as the simplest and clearest.
We cannot help noticing, by the way, a curious theorem
of his concerning the form and arrangement of eye-glasses,
which would be free from irregular colours. It is, that
the correction will be produced by means of two lenses
of the same kind of glass, if separated from each other by
an interval equal to half the sum of their focal distances.
This principle furnishes a very simple construction for the
common astronomical telescope, through which the objects
are seen inverted. In the annexed figure, the object-
glass, as usual, is achromatic, being composed of two con¬
vex lenses of crown-glass, with a concave one of flint-
glass fitted between them; but the eye-glass consists of
two distinct lenses of crown-glass, both of them convex,
and exactly similar, the first having every dimension triple
that of the other, and their mutual distance double the
focal length of the smaller.
Supposing, however, that the errors occasioned by sphe¬
rical aberration were completely removed, the principle
of achromatic combination is yet far from being so perfect
as it has often been represented. Although the opposite
dispersions of the flint and of the crown-glass should
bring together the extreme rays, we are not, from this
coincidence, warranted to infer that the several interme¬
diate rays would likewise be accurately blended. In fact,
a wedge of flint-glass not only separates all the rays much
more than a similar one of crown-glass, but divides the
coloured spaces after different proportions. While the
combined lenses formed of those two kinds of glass give
an image entirely free from the red and violet borders,
they may still introduce secondary shades of green or
yellow, sufficient to cause a certain degree of indistinct¬
ness. The mode of correcting this defect would be, to
produce a counterbalance of colours, by conjoining seve¬
ral media endued with different refractive and dispersive
powers. In these qualities, crown-glass itself admits of
some variation, owing to the measure of saline ingredient;
but flint-glass differs widely with regard to its optical pro¬
perties, owing chiefly to the diversified proportion of mi¬
nium or oxyde of lead which enters into its composition,
and partly to the variable admixture of manganese em¬
ployed to discharge the yellow tint occasioned by the
lead. Manifest advantages, therefore, would result from
a choice combination of three or more varieties of glass, Achroma.
since both the primary and the secondary deviations of tic
colour would be corrected. Without pretending to any t,lasses-
theoretical perfection, every thing really wanted in prac¬
tice would be thus attained. A series of nice experiments
on the optical relations of glass could not fail, by their
results, to reward the assiduity of the ingenious artist.
He would trace and determine the separate influence
exerted on the refractive and dispersive powers by soda
in the crown-glass, and by minium and manganese in
the flint-glass. It is highly probable, that with perseve¬
rance he might discover a vitreous composition better
adapted than any yet known for achromatic purposes. It
is very generally believed, that the achromatic telescopes
now manufactured in London are not of the same excel¬
lence with those first made by Peter Dolland. This de¬
clension of such a beautiful art has frequently been im¬
puted to the baneful operation of a severe and oppressive
system of excise. Whether the new mode of charging
the duty on glass at the annealing arch has produced any
beneficial effects, we are still to learn.
An extensive and ingenious set of experiments on the Dr Blair
dispersive powers of different liquids, was undertaken,
about the year 1787, and successfully prosecuted for some
time afterwards, by Dr Robert Blair, for whom there had
been recently created, under royal patronage, the chair of
practical astronomy in the University of Edinburgh; one
of the very few professorships in that distinguished se¬
minary which have been suffered to remain inefficient and
merely nominal. Of these experiments, a judicious ac¬
count was, in 1790, communicated by their author to the
Royal Society of Edinburgh, in a paper drawn up with
evident ability, but rather too diffuse, and unnecessarily
digressive. Dr Blair had a very small brass prism per¬
forated with a hole, which he filled with a few drops of
the liquid to be examined, and confined each end by a
plate of glass with parallel surfaces. He then applied, in¬
verted to the prism in succession, a number of glass
wedges which he had provided of different angles, and
observed, when the bars of the window, seen through this
compound prism, appeared colourless, the angle of the
wedge now expressed the relative dispersive power of the
liquid. This way of experimenting was sufficiently sim¬
ple, but a more accurate and expeditious method might
have easily been devised. For instance, if the prism, fur¬
nished with a graduated arch, had remained fixed, and a
single glass wedge made to turn upon it, and present suc¬
cessive inclinations to the observer, the refracting angle
at which the irregular colours were united could be de¬
duced by an easy calculation. Dr Blair found, by his
trials, that muriatic acid, in all its combinations, but par¬
ticularly with antimony and mercury, shows a very great
dispersive power. The essential oils stood the next with
regard to that property, though differing considerably
among themselves. In Dr Blair’s first attempts to im¬
prove the achromatic telescope, he conjoined two com¬
pound lenses; the one formed with a double concave of
crown-glass and a semi-convex of essential oil, and the
other composed of a double convex filled with essential
oil, of great dispersive power, and of a semi-concave, like¬
wise containing essential oil, but less apt for dispersion.
This very complex arrangement seemed, however, to pro¬
duce the desired effect, not only discharging from the
image the extreme fringes of red and violet, but ex¬
cluding also the intermediate shades of green or yellow.
A simpler combination was afterwards used, requiring
merely one liquid, composed of muriatic acid joined
with antimony, or the triple salt of that acid united in
certain proportions to ammonia and mercury. This liquid,
94
A C 1
Achtel being accurately prepared, was inclosed between two
II thin glass shells, to form a double convex lens:
Acidoton. on the front was applied a semi-convex ofcrown-
glass, and a meniscus of the same material be¬
hind, the whole being secured by a glass ring.
An object-glass so constructed seemed to per¬
form its office with great perfection, effectually
correcting both the primary and the secondary
admixture of colours. This kind of eye-glass
Dr Blair proposed to denominate aplanatic (from
a privative, and n:\avau, to err or wander), and he
obtained a patent for his invention. The late
George Adams, optician in Fleet Street, was
intrusted with the fabrication and sale of the telescopes
thus constructed. Some of them were said to answer ex¬
tremely well; but, whether from want of activity on the
part of the tradesman, or from defect of temper in the paten¬
tee, these instruments never acquired much circulation.
It was alleged that the liquid by degrees lost its transpa¬
rency. Indeed we suspect that there is no combination in
which liquids are concerned, which can be judged suffi-
A C I
ciently permanent for optical purposes. It seems hardly Acids
possible to preclude absolutely the impression of the ex- II
ternal air; the liquid must, therefore, have a tendencyv^naces-
both to evaporate and to crystallize; and, in the course
of time, it will probably, by its activity, corrode the sur¬
faces of the glass.
The manufacture of achromatic telescopes in England
furnished, for a long period, a very profitable article of
exportation. Even after the introduction of those instru¬
ments was prohibited by several foreign governments, the
object-glasses themselves, in a more compendious form,
were smuggled abroad to a large amount. In fact, no
flint-glass of a good quality was then made on the Con¬
tinent. A very material alteration, however, in that re- French
spect, has taken place, at least in France, where the sti- achroma-
mulus impressed by the revolution has worked so many tic tele¬
changes, and where ingenuity and science, in most of the scoPes-
mechanical arts, have so visibly supplied the scantiness
of capital. The French now construct achromatic tele¬
scopes, equal, if not superior, to any that are made in
England. (j. L.)
ACHTEL (literally an eighth part), a measure of capa¬
city, used in Germany. Eight Achtels make an Eimer,
but the scale varies in different parts of the country.
ACHTYRKA, a city of Russia, the capital of the circle
of the same name. It contains eight churches, one of which,
with an image of the Virgin, attracts many pilgrims: 1338
houses; and 16,205 inhabitants, who are employed in making
woollen cloth, and some other articles. It is situate in
Long. 34. 50. E. Lat. 50. 23. N.
ACHYR, a strong town and castleof the Ukraine, subject
to the Russians since 1667. It stands on the river Uorsklo,
near the frontiers of Russia, 127 miles west of Kiow. Long.
36. 0. E. Lat. 49. 32. N.
ACICANTHERA, in Botany, the trivial name of a
species of Rhexia.
ACICULiE, the small spikes or prickles of the hedgehog,
echinus marinus, &c.
ACID ALIUS, Valens, would, in all probability, have
been one of the greatest critics of modern times, had he
lived longer to perfect those talents which nature had given
him. He was born at Witstock, in Brandenburg; and hav¬
ing visited several academies in Germany, Italy, and other
countries, where he was greatly esteemed, he afterwards
took up his residence at Breslaw, the metropolis of Silesia.
Thuanus tells us, that his excessive application to study was
the occasion of his untimely death. He died on the 25th
of May 1595, having just completed his 28th year. Fie
wrote a Commentary on Quintus Curtius; also, Notes on
Tacitus, on the twelve Panegyrics, besides speeches, let¬
ters, and poems. His poetical pieces are inserted in the
Delicice of the German poets, and consist of epic verses,
odes, and epigrams. M. Baillet has given him a place
among his Enfans Celebres ; and says, that he wrote a com¬
ment upon Plautus when he was but 17 or 18 years old,
and composed several Latin poems at the same age.
Acidalius, a fountain near Orchomenus, a city of
Bceotia, in which the Graces, who are sacred to Venus,
bathed. Hence the epithet Acidalia, given to Venus.
ACIDITY, that quality which renders bodies acid.
ACIDOTON, in Botany, the trivial name of a species
of A DELIA.
ACIDS, in Chemistry, a class of substances which arc
distinguished by the following properties:—
1. When applied to the tongue, they excite that sensa¬
tion which is called sour or acid.
2. They change the blue colours of vegetables to a red.
The vegetable blues employed for this purpose are gene¬
rally tincture of litmus, and syrup of violets or of radishes,
which have obtained the name of re-agents or tests. If
these colours have been previously converted to a green by
alkalies, the acids restore them.
3. They unite with water in almost any proportion.
4. They combine with all the alkalies, and most of the
metallic oxides and earths, and form with them those com¬
pounds which are called salts.
It must be remarked, however, that every acid does not
possess all these properties ; but all of them possess a suffi¬
cient number of them to distinguish them from other sub¬
stances. And this is the only purpose which artificial defi¬
nition is meant to answer. See Chemistry.
ACIDUL/E. Mineral waters that are brisk and spark¬
ling, without the action of heat, are thus named; but if
they are hot also, they are called Thervle.
ACIDULATED, a name given to medicines that have
an acid in their composition.
ACIDULOUS denotes a thing that is slightly acid: it
is synonymous with the word sub-acid.
ACILIUS GLABRIO, Marcus, consul in the year of
Rome 562, and 191 years before the Christian era, distin¬
guished himself by his bravery and conduct in gaining a
complete victory over Antiochus the Great, king of Syria,
at the Straits of Thermopylae in Thessaly, and on several
other occasions. His son built the temple of Piety at
Rome, in consequence of a vow the father made before this
battle. He is mentioned by Pliny, Valerius Maximus, and
others.
ACINACES, an ancient Persian sword, short and
straight, and worn, contrary to the Roman fashion, on the
right side, or sometimes in front of the body, as shewn in
the bas-reliefs found at Persepolis. Among the Persian
nobility they were frequently made of gold, being worn as
a badge of distinction. The acinaces was an object of re-
A C K
Acinoden- ligious worship with the Scythians and others.—Herod.
drum iv> 62.
Acknow- ACINODENDRUM, in Botany, the trivial name of a
ledgment. species of Melastoma.
ACINOS, in Botany, the trivial name of a species of
Thymus.
ACINUS, or Acini, the small protuberances of mul¬
berries, strawberries, &c., and by some applied to grapes.
Generally it is used for those small grains growing in
bunches, after the manner of grapes, as ligustrum, See.
ACIPENSER, Sturgeon. For the living species, see
Ichthyology ; for the fossil species, see the Ganoid fishes
of Agassiz.
ACI RE ALE, a city on the coast of Catania, at the base
of iEtna. It is well built, clean, and healthy, with a deli¬
cious climate. Pop. about 15,000: they are industrious, and
carry on a considerable trade in the wines of the adjacent
fertile territory, fruit, cotton, flax, linen, silk, cutlery, and
jewellery. Several small contiguous towns also bear the name
of Aci; as Aci Gastello, Aci Terra, Aci Santa Lucia, &c.
ACIS, in Mythology, the son of Faunus and the nymph
Symaethis, was a beautiful shepherd of Sicily, who being
beloved by Galatea, Polyphemus the giant was so enraged,
that he crushed his rival with a rock; and his blood, gush¬
ing forth from under the rock, was metamorphosed into the
river bearing his name. Ovid. Met. xiii. 750., Sil. Ital. xiv.
221. This river, now Fiume di Jaci, or Acque Grandi,
rises under a bed of lava, on the eastern base of iEtna, and
passing Aci Reale, after a rapid course of one mile, falls into
the sea. The waters of the stream, once celebrated for
their purity, are now sulphureous.—Cluverii Sicil.; Bry-
done's Sicily ; Smyth’s Sicily.
ACKERMANN, John Christian Gottlieb, a very
learned physician and professor of medicine, was born at
Zeulenrode in Upper Saxony, in the year 1756. Having
acquired the rudiments of his medical education under the
tuition of his father, who was also a physician, he proceeded
to Jena and to Gottingen, and studied under Baldinger and
Heyne. On quitting the latter university, he established
himself in practice at Stendal, the numerous manufactories
of which place enabled him to contribute many important
observations to the translation of Rammazzini’s Treatise of
the Diseases of Artificers, which he published in 1780-83.
After practising here several years, he was appointed public
professor in ordinary of medicine in the university of Altorf
in Franconia, which office he continued to fill with great
repute to the time of his death, which took place in 1801.
All Dr Ackermann’s works display great erudition. To
the history of medicine he contributed many valuable arti¬
cles ; the disquisitions, in particular, on the lives and writ¬
ings of Hippocrates, Galen, Theophrastus, Dioscorides,
Aretaeus, and Rufus Ephesius, which he furnished to
Harles’s edition of Fabricius’s Bibliotheca Grceca, are justly
esteemed as masterpieces of critical research. Asa prac¬
titioner he appears to have possessed no mean talents for
observation ; though he has been accused, and, it must be
acknowledged, not without reason, of betraying occasionally
a predilection for antiquated hypotheses. Besides various
translations of English, French, and Italian medical authors,
which were published, for the most part, previously to his
removal to Altorf, he is the author of 13 different original
works on different branches of medicine, between the years
1775 and 1800.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT, in a general sense, is a
person’s owning or confessing a thing; but more particu¬
larly, is the expression of gratitude for a favour.
Ackno wledgmf.nt-Money, a certain sum paid by ten¬
ants in several parts of England, on the death of their land¬
lords, as an acknowledgment of their new lords.
AGO 95
ACLIDES, in Roman Antiquity, a kind of missile weapon Aclides
with a thong affixed to it, by which it was drawn back. Most 11
authors describe it as a sort of dart or javelin ; but Scaliger Acolythia-
makes it roundish or globular, and full of spikes, with a
slender wooden stem to poise it by. Each warrior was fur¬
nished with two.
A CLOW A, in Botany, a barbarous name of a species of
Colutea. It is used by the natives of Guinea to cure the
itch: they rub it on the body as we do unguents.
ACME, the top or height of any thing. It is usually ap¬
plied to the maturity of an animal just before it begins to
decline; and physicians have used it to express the utmost
violence or crisis of a disease.
ACMELIA, in Botany, the trivial name of a species of
Spilanthus.
ACNIDA, Virginian Hemp.
ACNUA, va. Roman Antiquity, signified a certain mea¬
sure of land, about an English rood and a quarter.
ACOEMETiE, or Acoemeti, from ’uKoip^ros, sleepless;
a set of monks wffio chanted the divine service night and day
in their places of worship. They divided themselves into
three bodies, who alternately succeeded one another, so that
the service in their churches was never interrupted. This
practice they founded upon the precept, Pray without ceas¬
ing. They flourished in the East about the middle of the
fifth century. There are a kind of acoemeti still subsisting
in the Romish church, viz., the religious of the holy sacra¬
ment, who keep up a perpetual adoration, some one or other
of them praying before the holy sacrament day and night.
ACGiTES, the son of a poor fisherman of Maeonia, who
followed the occupation of a pilot. Being once on a voyage
to Delos, the ship touched at Naxos (frequently called Dia),
where the sailors carried on board with them a beautiful
boy, whom they had found on shore overcome with sleep
and wine. Accetes recognising the youth to be more than
mortal, endeavoured to dissuade them from their purpose, but
without effect. On awaking, the boy, who was no other than
the god Bacchus, desired to be carried back to Naxos. The
crew agreed to do so, but kept the ship’s head in the opposite
direction, in spite of the entreaties of the god and the re¬
monstrances of Accetes. Suddenly the offended deity put
forth his power, and the ship stood motionless in the water.
The crew in vain plied the oar: vine-wreaths twined around
them, and shot in tangles through the rigging. Tigers,
lynxes, and panthers, bestrode the deck, and Bacchus him¬
self appeared in his true form, armed with his terrible thyr¬
sus. The sailors incited to madness, leaped into the sea,
and were immediately changed into fishes. Acoetes alone
was saved, and became a priest of Bacchus at Naxos.— Ovid.
Met. iii. 582.
ACOLUTHI, or Acoluthists ((IkoXovOol, from a, copu¬
lative, and KehevOos, a way), in Antiquity, was an appella¬
tion given to those persons who were steady and immovable
in their resolutions; and hence the Stoics, because they
would not forsake their principles nor alter their resolutions,
acquired the title of acoluthi.
Acoluthi, Acolytes, among the ancient Christians, were
a peculiar order of the inferior clergy in the Latin church,
for they were unknown to the Greeks for above 400 years.
They were next to the subdeacon; and we learn from the
fourth council of Carthage, that the archdeacon, at their ordi¬
nation, put into their hands a candlestick with a taper, giving
them thereby to understand that they were appointed to
light the candles of the church; as also an empty pitcher,
to imply that they were to furnish wine for the eucharist.
The name and office still exist in the Romish church.
ACOLYTHIA, in the Greek church, denotes the office
or order of divine service; or the prayers, ceremonies, hymns,
See., whereof the Greek service is composed.
AGO
ACOMINATUS, Nicetas, was secretary to Alexius
Comnenus and to Isaacus Angelus successively. He wrote
a history from the death of Alexius Comnenus in 1118, where
Zonaras ended his, to the year 1206, which has gone through
many editions, and has been much applauded by the best
critics.
ACONCROBA, in Botany, the indigenous name of a
plant which grows wild in Guinea, and is in great esteem among
the natives for its virtues in the small-pox. They give an
infusion of it in wine. The leaves of this plant are opaque,
and as stiff as those of the phillyrea; they grow in pairs, and
stand on short foot-stalks; they are small at each end, and
broad in the middle ; and the largest of them are about three
inches in length, and an inch and a quarter in breadth in the
middle. Like those of our bay, they are of a dusky colour
on the upper side, and of a pale green underneath.
ACONITI, in Antiquity, an appellation given to some of
the Athletse, but differently interpreted. Kkovltl, adv. sig¬
nifies literally without dust (a, priv. and kovis); and probacy
was used of a victory obtained without difficulty, or when none
dared to oppose an athlete on account of his strength and
skill. Paus. vi. 7, § 2 ; Hor. Epist. i. 1. 51.
ACONITUM, Aconite, Wolfsbane, or Monks-hood.
It yields the alkaloid aconitine, which is a deadly poison;
but has been used in medicine as an external anodyne
remedy in acute pains, and also in minute doses internally.
ACONTIAS, in Zoology, an obsolete name of the anguis
jaculus, or dart-snake, belonging to the order of Ophidians;
and Cuvier employs it to designate a sub-genus of anguis.
ACONTIUM, axovTcov, in Grecian antiquity, a kind of
dart or javelin, resembling the Roman spiculum.
ACONTIUS, a young man of the island Cea, who hav¬
ing gone to Delos to see the sacred rites which were per¬
formed there by a crowd of virgins in the temple of Diana,
fell violently in love with Cydippe, the daughter of a noble
Athenian; but not daring to ask her in marriage, on account
of the superiority of her rank, he insidiously threw down at
her feet an apple, on which were inscribed these words,
Me tibi nupturam (felix eat nomen) Aconti,
Juro, quam colimus, numina magna deae.
Or, according to others,
Juro tibi sanctae per mystica saera Dianas,
Me tibi venturam comitem, sponsamque futuram.
The virgin having taken up the apple, inadvertently read the
words, and thus apparently bound herself by a promise ; for
by law, everything uttered in that temple was held to be
ratified. When her father, a little after, ignorant of what
had happened, betrothed her to another man, she was sud¬
denly seized with a fever; whereupon Acontius sent her a
letter (expressed by Ovid, Heroid. 20.) to persuade her that
her fever was caused by Diana for not having fulfilled the
promise which she had made to him in the temple of that
goddess. Cydippe therefore resolved to comply with the
wishes of Acontius, even against the inclination of her father.
Her answer is the subject of Ovid’s 21st Epist. Heroid.
(Adam’s Clas. Biog.)
Acontius, properly Aconcio, James, a philosopher, civil¬
ian, and divine, born at Trent in the sixteenth century. He
embraced the reformed religion; and coming into England
in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, he was favourably received
and much honoured by that princess, which he acknowledges
in a book dedicated to her. This work is his celebrated Col¬
lection of the Stratagems of Satan, which has been often
translated, and passed through many editions.
ACORIS, a king of Egypt, who flourished about B.c. 385.
ACORN, the fruit of the oak-tree.
AGO
Acorn, in sea language, a little ornamental piece of wood, Acora
fashioned like a cone, and fixed on the uppermost point of II
the spindle, above the vane, on the mast-head. It is used v cos a'
to keep the vane from being blown off from the spindle in
a whirlwind, or when the ship leans much to one side under
sail.
ACORUS, Calamus, Aromaticus, Sweet Flag, or
Sweet Rush. It belongs to the natural order of Aroides.
Acorus, in the Materia Medica, a name sometimes given
to the great galangal.
Acorus, in Natural History, blue coral. The true sort
is very scarce; some, however, is fished on the coasts of
Africa, particularly from Rio del Rey to the river of the Ca-
marones. This coral is part of the merchandise which the
Dutch trade for with the Camarones: that of the kingdom
of Benin is also very much esteemed. It grows in form of
a tree on a rocky bottom.
ACOSTA, Joseph d’, a celebrated Spanish author, was
born at Medina del Campo about the year 1539. In 1571,
he went to Peru as a Provincial of the Jesuits, having entered
into that society in his fourteenth year. After a residence
in America of seventeen years, he returned to his native
country, and became in succession visitor for his order of
Aragon and Andalusia, superior of Valladolid, and rector of
Salamanca; in which city he died in February 1600.
About ten years before his death, he published at Seville,
in one volume quarto, his valuable work entitled Historia
Natural y Moral de las Indias. The first two books of this
history were written during his residence in Peru, and
were published separately after his return to Spain, in the
Latin language, with this title: De Natura Novi Orhis,
libri duo. He afterwards translated them into Spanish,
and added to them other five books, the whole composing a
connected work, under the first-mentioned title. This work,
which has been translated into all the principal languages
of Europe, is written on a regular and comprehensive plan.
Dr Robertson pronounces Acosta “an accurate and well-
informed writer.” Among other things, he treats the sub¬
ject of climate in a more philosophical manner than could
have been expected in a writer of that age, and of his order.
“ He was the first philosopher,” says the eminent author just
quoted, “ who endeavoured to account for the different de¬
grees of heat in the old and new continents, by the agency
of the winds which blow in each ;”—a theory which was af¬
terwards adopted by Buffon, and supported with his usual
powers of copious and eloquent illustration. In the course
of these discussions, Acosta frequently comments upon the
opinion of Aristotle and other ancient philosophers, that the
middle zone of the earth was so much scorched by the rays of
the sun as to be destitute of moisture and verdure, and totally
uninhabitable. This notion seems to have held its ground
in the Schools, even after the discovery of South America
had disclosed the magnificent scenery and stupendous rivers
of the tropical regions. It appears to have been thought a
sort of impiety to question a dogma of such ancient date,
and sanctioned by the assent of all the school divines. We
learn, from a curious passage in Osborne’s Miscellany of Es¬
says, Paradoxes, and Letters, that the exposing of this an¬
cient error in geography was one of the circumstances which
brought upon the famous Sir Walter Raleigh the charge of
general scepticism and atheism. Acosta mentions, that,
when he went to America, his mind was deeply imbued with
frightful notions of this supposed burning zone, and that his
surprise was great when he beheld it so different from what
it had been represented in the “ancient and received philo-
sophy.” “ What could I do then,” says he, “ but laugh at
Aristotle’s meteors and his philosophy?”
Having said thus much in regard to one of the most curi¬
ous and valuable of the earlier accounts of the new world, it
AGO
AGO
Acosta may be proper to add, that, in speaking of the conduct of
Acoustics — countryrnen, and the propagation of their faith, Acosta
, coasts. jn nQ reSpect SUperior 0t}ier prejudiced and fanati¬
cal writers of his country and age. Though he acknow¬
ledges that the career of Spanish conquest was marked by
the most savage cruelty and oppression, he yet represents this
people as the chosen instruments of the Deity for spreading
the truths of the gospel among the nations of America, and
recounts a variety of miracles, as a proof of the constant in¬
terposition of Heaven, in favour of these merciless and ra¬
pacious invaders.
Besides his History, Acosta wrote the following works:
1. De Promulgatione Evangelii apud Barbaros, 2. De Christo
Revelato. 3. De Temporibus Novissimis, libri vi. 4. Con-
cionum, tomi iii.
Acosta, Uriel <f, a Portuguese of noble family, a Jew
by descent, was born at Oporto towards the close of the six¬
teenth century. Brought up in the Roman Catholic faith,
and naturally of a religious disposition, he was a strict ob¬
server of the rites of the church till the course of his in¬
quiries led him, after much painful doubt, to abandon the
religion of his youth. Apparently ignorant of any other form
of Christianity, he sought refuge in Judaism, and passing
over to Amsterdam, was received into the synagogue, after
undergoing the rite of circumcision, and having his name
changed from Gabriel to Uriel. He soon discovered, how¬
ever, that those who sat in Moses’ seat were shameful per-
verters of his law; and his bold protests served only to ex¬
asperate the rabbis, who finally punished his contumacy
with the greater excommunication. Persecution seemed
only to stimulate his temerity, and he soon after published a
defence, in which he not merely exposed the departures of
the Jewish teachers from the law, but combated the doc¬
trine of a future life, in which he held himself supported by
the silence of the Mosaic Books. For this he was impri¬
soned and fined, besides incurring public odium as a blas¬
phemer and atheist. Nothing deterred, he pursued his spe¬
culations, which ended in his repudiating the divine autho¬
rity of the law of Moses. Wearied, however, by his me¬
lancholy isolation, and longing for the benefits of society, he
was driven, in the inconsistency of despairing scepticism, to
seek a return to the Jewish communion. Having recanted
his heresies, he was re-admitted after an excommunication of
15 years. He soon made himself again obnoxious to disci¬
pline, and was excommunicated a second time. After seven
years of miserable exclusion, he once more sought admis¬
sion, and after passing through a humiliating penance was
again received. These notices of his singular and unhappy
life are taken from his Exemplar Humana Vita, published
and refuted by Limborch. He died by his own hand, after an
ineffectual attempt on the life of his most bitter persecutor.
ACOSTAN, a mountainous island in the north seas,
between Asia and America, observed by Captain Cook.
ACOUSMATICI, sometimes also called Acoustici, in
Grecian antiquity, such of the disciples of Pythagoras as had
not completed their five years’ probation.
ACOUSTIC, in general, denotes any thing that relates
to the ear, the sense of hearing, or the doctrine of sounds.
Acoustic Disciples, among the ancient Pythagoreans,
those more commonly called Acousmatici.
Acoustic Ducts, in Anatomy, the same with meatus audi-
torius, or the external passage of the ear.
Acoustic Vessels, in the ancient theatres, were a kind of
vessels made of brass, shaped in the bell fashion, which being
of all tones within the pitch of the voice, or even of instru¬
ments, rendered the sound more audible, so that the actors
could be heard through all parts of theatres which were even
400 feet in diameter.
ACOUSTICS.
A COUSTICS, that branch of Natural Philosophy which
treats of the nature of Sound, and the laws of its pro¬
duction and propagation. It is a subject extremely curious
and interesting, and has at all times excited much atten¬
tion among philosophers. In treating it here, it was at
first our intention to embody the original article in this
Encyclopedia with that which was contributed for the last
Supplement by Professor Leslie. On considering, how¬
ever, that the latter embraces in itself a general outline
of the whole science;—that it is distinguished, like all
the other productions of that philosopher, by soundness,
depth, and striking originality ; and that any changes even
in the arrangement might destroy its peculiar character;—
we have thought it best to preserve this valuable essay
entire. It accordingly forms the Second Part of this
Treatise ; the First being devoted to the explanation of
the more elementary principles; and the Third to some
details supplemental to those contained in the Second.
Part I.
Nature of In regard to the nature of sound, the slightest atten-
sound. tion is sufficient to convince us, that this sensation is not
owing to the action of any peculiar substance or power,
like Heat, Light, or Electricity, but arises merely from a
certain mechanical action; a sort of concussion or agita¬
tion which takes place among the bodies from which the
sound is emitted. Every noise or sound with which we
are acquainted is accompanied with some action of this
kind. The report of a cannon, for example, produces a
concussion which shakes the ground under and to a great
VOL. II.
distance around it. In the same manner the rushing of
waters, the roar of the sea, the whistling of the wind as
it breaks on the trees or other obstacles which oppose it;
the rattling of carriages, and that infinite diversity of
sounds which arises in general from the percussion of one
object against another: in all these cases there is a sen¬
sible and indeed violent agitation among the bodies from
which the sound proceeds. In musical sounds, which are
of a softer nature, we still also observe an agitation, which
is often felt communicating itself to the surrounding
bodies. If, for example, we stand under or near a piano¬
forte when it is sounding, we feel a sensible tremor in the
floor of the apartment. If we lay the finger or hand
on the instrument, or touch any other, such as a violin,
when it is sounding, or a bell, we feel the same sort of
tremor in every part of them; and this is well observed
in the case of any glass vessel, such as a tumbler or
large cup. If we strike it so as to make it sound, and
then touch the mouth of it with the finger, we feel a
sensible tremor in the glass; and when this internal agi¬
tation is stopped, as it generally is by the contact with
the finger, then the sound ceases along with it. If there
be any water in the glass, the tremor is observed com¬
municating itself to the water, and putting the whole
mass in motion. This is particularly well observed when
we make the glass sound by rubbing the edge of it with
the finger, as is done in the musical glasses. When the
sound is brought fully out, the water is violently agitated;
and as the sound declines, the agitation declines along
with it. Such agitation then, in the sounding body, being
97
Acostan
II
Acoustics.
9S A C O U
Acoustics, the constant accompaniment of sound, ceasing when it
ceases, and again beginning when the sound recommences ;
and there being no other circumstance •which can be dis¬
covered accompanying the sound in this manner; there
can be no doubt that this is in some way or other the
cause of the sensation. _ .
Trans- But how can any mere agitation or imperceptible
mitted tremor among bodies, and these at a distance, aftect the
through or„an 0f hearing? It is through the medium of the sur-
lre me; rounding air. We have seen how the tremor of the piano-
forte is communicated to the floor of the apartment, and
is there felt under our feet. This communication can
only take place through the legs of the instrument, which
form the only connection between it and the floor.
Through these, therefore, it is somehow conveyed; and
in the same manner every tremor of this kind creates an
agitation in the surrounding air,_ through which h is con-
veyed from the centre of agitation in all directions until
it reaches the ear, and there striking or agitating the or-
o-an, produces the sensation of sound. That such agita¬
tion does take place in the air, we have a striking proof in
the discharge of artillery, which often produces such an
agitation as to shatter the glass in the windows of ad¬
joining houses. The ear then forms merely a sort of
organ of touch, but of such exquisite sensibility that it
becomes affected by the slightest agitation in the fluid
atmosphere by which it is surrounded. But this fluid is
continually agitated, and in a thousand different ways,
by the various motions and actions which are continually
going on among the bodies on the surface of the earth.
Every agitation of this kind communicates itself to the
surrounding atmosphere; it is by it conveyed and propa¬
gated in all directions from the centre of agitation, some¬
what like what we observe in a smooth surface of water
when a stone is thrown into the middle of it;—a series of
little waves are observed arising and propagating them¬
selves in concentric circles from the centre of agitation
on all sides. In a similar manner every agitation in the
aerial medium propagates its influence in all directions,
and from these varied impressions arise all those diver¬
sities of sound which affect the ear.
This idea of the process of hearing and of the cause
of sound is certainly very remarkable, and well calcu¬
lated to excite our surprise and curiosity, when we think
of that infinite variety which we observe; single sounds,
varying in intensity from the gentlest tap to the noise and
violence of an explosion; continued sounds, from the
ripple of waters to the roar of the cataract; strains of
melody which enchant the ear, rising from grave to acute,
and falling again to the lowest in the compass ; or those
harsher notes which only grate by their discord. Can it
be possible that all these diversities arise from agitations
in the air, differing only in the manner in which they
strike the ear, in the force and quickness of their action,
or in the regularity of their succession ? What incredible
sensibility in this organ, to perceive and be moved by such
imperceptible shades of gradation, and to recognise such
infinite diversities in kind! The powers of the eye in dis¬
criminating the minutest shades of colour justly excite our
astonishment; but each colour presents a peculiar modifi¬
cation of light. The powers of the ear must appear still
more extraordinary, if every sensation in it arises merely
from a mechanical agitation of the same nature in every
case, but only differing in the force of the impulse. Yet
this is really the case ; and the more we examine into the
subject, the more clearly does it appear demonstrable by
the laws of geometry and mechanics.
That the air is necessary for the production of sound,
is clearly proved by the beautiful experiment of inclosing
STIC S.
a bell within the receiver of an air-pump, and then ex- Acoustics,
hausting the air. As the process of exhaustion proceeds,
the sound is observed to become continually fainter and
fainter, until at last it nearly dies away altogether. The
bell, howeVer, continues to ring, at least the hammer
continues to strike, and thereby to agitate the bell as
before; and yet no sound is emitted, plainly because
there is no medium to convey the agitation to the ear.
If the sound in this experiment cannot be altogether ex¬
tinguished, this will be found to arise from the imprac¬
ticability of exhausting the air altogether out of the re¬
ceiver, and also of insulating completely the bell from
the plate of the air-pump on which it stands, the support
serving to convey the sound even after the air is ex¬
hausted. A very good mode of performing this experi¬
ment is, to have a bell with a small piece of clock-work
attached to it, which strikes at regular intervals, and
with a tone of uniform intensity.
In order to conceive the mode in which sound is pro-Mode m
pagated through the air, let us consider what takes place which
when we move a series of balls ranged in a line on a sound ^
table, or suspended by threads. If we strike the oneP™Pa“a‘
end of the line by impelling a ball against it, it is only
the ball at the other end which appears to be affected.
This flies off from the rest, and leaves them almost sta¬
tionary. The intermediate balls, therefore, serve mere¬
ly to transmit the impulse from the one end to the other
of the series. In the same manner it is that the agita¬
tion or impulse from which sound arises is transmitted
through the air. This fluid, like every other body, consists
of an infinite number of little particles; a single series of
which may be represented to us by the balls in the above
example. These particles are not even in contact with
each other; they are separated by minute intervals, but
are yet connected together by attractive and repulsive
forces, which tend to retain them perpetually in equili-
brio. In every case, therefore, there is in reality a chain
of such particles reaching from the sounding body to the
ear. The former by its agitation strikes that particle
which is next it, the intermediate ones serve to convey
the impression, and the last one, flying off, strikes the sen¬
tient organ of hearing. The process is exactly similar to
that of impulse along a series of balls, only that in the case
of the air, the intermediate particles, instead of remaining
at rest, move each of them backwards and forwards by a
very minute interval; the first communicating its motion to
the second, the second to the third, and so on to the last;
each performing a slight oscillatory movement, which ad¬
vances from the beginning to the end of the series.
We now see at once the cause of a remarkable and
well-known fact, that the propagation of sound is not in¬
stantaneous ; it requires time to advance from the sound¬
ing body to the ear, as is daily observed and illustrated
in the discharge of fire-arms. If the distance be at all
considerable, a sensible interval is always^ observed to
elapse between the flash and the report. The light flies
almost instantaneously, but the report is retarded accord¬
ing to the distance; as is also seen in many other cases:
when we observe the workmen, for example, cutting up
large stones in any quarry; if we stand at a little distance,
we see invariably and distinctly the blow of the hammer
on the stone before the sound reaches the ear. These
and other similar facts leave no doubt that sound advan¬
ces only at a certain rate, and invariably requires time for
its propagation; and the reason is, that each aerial par¬
ticle in the chain of communication must have a certain
time, minute no doubt, but still definite, to perform its
oscillation, and communicate its motion to the rest; and
thus the advance of the agitation and of the sound is
ACOUSTICS.
Acoustics, retarded, and only sweeps with a regulated progression
along the line.
Sound pro- It is not through one series of particles merely that the
pagated on oscillatory motion is communicated. The sounding body
a elc es‘ having every part of it in a state of agitation, generally acts
all round ; but even though it were only to act in one direc¬
tion, the impulse, once begun at the centre, is propagated
in all directions; for though only one particle were ori¬
ginally affected, so intimately are they all connected to¬
gether and united into a system by their mutual attrac¬
tions and repulsions, that this cannot advance in any de¬
gree forwards without affecting the particles on each side :
these affect what are before and around them; and thus
the impulse is communicated, and diffuses itself on all
sides. These lateral impressions would appear to be ne¬
cessarily somewhat enfeebled, yet it is one remarkable
characteristic of such oscillatory movements, that, like
the vibrations of a distended cord, or the oscillations of a
pendulum in a cycloid, they are all performed in the
same time, however minute or however extended. The
lateral impressions, therefore, though ever so feeble, are
yet transmitted with the same rapidity as the direct; the
sound may be weakened, and we often observe it so;—a
speaker, for example, is always best heard in front; the
report of a cannon is also loudest in that direction, but
still the sound is heard at the very same instant all round.
It is owing to this diffusion of the agitation in all direc¬
tions, the original impression being spread out, not mere¬
ly in concentric circles like the little waves in a pool,
but expanding continually, if we can conceive it, into a
wider and wider concentric sphere,—it is owing to this
that every sound decreases so rapidly as we recede from
it, and at last dies away altogether in the distance. It
requires a very loud sound to be heard at the distance of
a mile, yet we have heard the guns of Edinburgh Castle
at the distance of 20 miles ; and the noise occasioned by
the falls of Niagara is said to be often heard at 60 miles.
That this diffusion of the agitating impression is the true
cause of the diminution of the sound, is proved in a re¬
markable manner by confining the air on all sides, as in a
tube. M. Biot, in his Traite de Physique, gives an account
of some very interesting experiments made by himself
in the ftrain of cast-iron pipes used for the conducting
of water into Paris, and which extended about 2860 feet,
thus including in their interior a cylindrical column of
air upwards of half a mile in length; at which distance a
person standing at one end of the pipes, and speaking
within, could be easily heard at the other. “ The low¬
est voice,” says he, “ was heard at this distance so as
to distinguish completely the words, and to establish a
continued conversation. I wished to ascertain at how
low a tone the voice ceased to become audible, and I
could not reach it. Words spoken as low as when one
whispers in the ear of another were heard and appre¬
ciated ; so that if we wished to speak so as not to be
understood, there was only one way of doing it, and that
was not to speak at all.” It is on this principle that de¬
pends the effect of those tubes which are now in such
general use, as modes of communication between distant
apartments, in houses and public offices. Hence, also,
are performed many amusing tricks with statues or busts,
situated in different parts of a room, answering questions,
and speaking to one another; the figures being con¬
nected by tubes concealed under the walls or floor, or
communicating with an apartment below, in which a speak¬
er is stationed.
Velocity of In regard to the actual velocity with which the impulse
sound. of sound advances, it appears, from the most accurate ex¬
periments on the discharge of pieces of ordnance, and
99
marking the interval between the flash and the report, at Acoustics,
a distance carefully measured, that in ordinary circum-
stances this amounts to no less than 1130 feet each second,
which is nearly equal to the velocity of a cannon ball ( he
moment it issues from the piece. This last is very speedily
retarded by the resistance of the air; but sound advances
with undiminished velocity. Hence it will travel a mile
in a little more than four seconds and a half, or 12| miles
per minute. On this depends an easy method of deter¬
mining in many cases our distance from objects, and which
may often prove useful, particularly in military operations.
We have only to observe, in seconds, the interval between
the flash and report of the cannon or musket, and allow
seconds to every mile, or 1130 feet to every second.
Thus, in a house in Lothian Street, directly opposite to the
castle of Edinburgh, we have frequently observed a sen¬
sible interval elapse, as the sound of the guns travelled
across the intermediate valley, we think about 2" or more ;
and the distance in a straight line is about 760 yards, or
a little less than half a mile. In the same manner, by ob¬
serving the interval between the flash of lightning and the
thunder, we can tell the distance of the point where the
electric discharge takes place.
It is remarkable also, that all kinds of sound, strong or
weak, acute or grave, advance with the same velocity;
and this arises from the circumstance already noticed,
that all the oscillatory movements in the air, however mi¬
nute or however extended, are performed each in the
very same interval of time. This effect was distinctly
proved in the experiments made by Biot in the cast-iron
pipes already noticed, by playing different airs on the
flute at one of the extremities of the tube. Now, it is
well known that a musical air is adapted to a certain
measure or time, which regulates very nicely the inter¬
vals between the successive notes ; consequently, if any
of these were propagated more rapidly or more slowly
than others, by the time they reached the ear these
would have been confounded with what preceded or fol¬
lowed them; and the air would have appeared quite
altered, in place of which it was uniformly regular, and in
its natural time ; whence it clearly followed, that all sounds
are propagated with equal velocity.
The above view of the propagation of sound explains Cause of
at once the remarkable phenomenon of the echo, which echoes,
arises in every case from obstacles opposing the progress
of sound. The agitation in the air, however, though in¬
terrupted by such obstacles, is not destroyed: each aerial
particle which strikes against the opposing surface is re¬
flected from it like an elastic ball which strikes against
any wall or table. The sound is thus reflected at an an¬
gle equal to the angle of incidence; and it is when a
number of these reflected impressions are thrown back to
the point whence the original sound issues, by the confi¬
guration of the opposing obstacles, as so frequently hap¬
pens among rocks, walls, &c. that an echo is produced.
Hitherto we have considered the air only as the vehicle-Aw not the
of sound, and, without doubt, it is the grand medium ofon1^ velh-
its transmission. Other bodies, however, convey it in a soun,]
similar manner, and some of them even with much greater
rapidity and force. In the liquid element this is proved
by the acuteness which fishes display to sounds made in
the air, and by many experiments. Professor Robison re¬
lated, that with his head plunged under water, he could
hear the sound of a bell, rung also in the water, at the
distance of 1200 feet. We have already seen how the tre¬
mor of the piano-forte is communicated to the floor of the
apartment; and many other familiar facts show clearly
that sound is transmitted through the most solid bo¬
dies. How readily do we hear from one apartment of a
100 A C O U J
Acoustics, house, or from one floor to another. The scratch of a
pin is easily heard from one end of a log to another. A
well-known but striking experiment in illustration of the
transmission of sound is, to suspend any sonorous body,
as a bell, a glass, a silver spoon, or a tuning fork, from a
thread, and putting with the finger the extremities of
the thread one in each ear;—if the body be then struck
against any obstacle, the apparent loudness and depth of
the sound are quite surprising. Again, if we shut the ears
altogether, we yet feel very sensibly the impression of any
sound conveyed through the mouth, the teeth, or the
head : if we put a small stick or rod in the mouth, and
touch with the other extremity a watch lying on the table,
the beats will become quite audible, though the ears be
actually shut. Every noise in the mouth or among the
teeth is conveyed internally to the ear in the same man¬
ner. Sound, therefore, is transmitted through liquids and
solids, as well as through the air; and indeed, when we
consider that the former are quite similarly constituted
with the air, being composed of an infinite number of
little particles, combined into a system by the same spe¬
cies of attractive and repulsive forces, it is noway sur¬
prising that an impulse communicated to any of these
bodies should in like manner be diffused throughout the
mass; and this must be by the same species of internal
oscillations among the particles.
Such being the nature and propagation of sound, and
its actual velocity as determined by experiment, it has
lono- been the study of philosophers to reconcile these ef¬
fects with those physical properties of the air and of liquid
bodies, which are known from other circumstances, and
can be calculated by the laws of mechanics, aided by the
powers of mathematical analysis. This subject is inves¬
tigated in the following Part; written, as already men¬
tioned, by Professor Leslie. (a b.)
Part II.
The doctrine of sound is unquestionably the most sub¬
tile and abstruse in the whole range of physical science.
It has given occasion, in recent times, to much contro¬
versy and discussion, and has eventually called forth all
the mighty resources of a refined and elaborate calculus.
Yet an evident obscurity still remains to overcloud the
subject. The discrepancies between theory and observa¬
tion have been made entirely to disappear from astronomy,
which has at last attained a degree of perfection befitting
the sublimity of the science. But some latent suspicions
pervade the structure of acoustics, sufficient to disturb
that feeling of confidence which is calculated to invigorate
our pursuits.
Sound con- The impression of sound is conveyed by means of a
veyed by a certain tremor or internal agitation, which shoots, with
certain tre-more or less celerity and force, through any substance,
mor' whether solid or fluid. Nor is it requisite that the con¬
ducting medium should belong to the class of bodies
which are commonly denominated elastic. In fact, all
bodies whatever, in the minute and sudden alterations of
their form, exert a perfect elasticity, and only seem to
want this energy when they undergo such great changes
that their component particles take a new set or arrange¬
ment, which prevents the full effect of re-action.
It is not every kind of tremulous motion, however, that
will excite the sensation of sound. A certain degree of
force and frequency in the pulsations appears always ne¬
cessary to affect our sense of hearing. Yet the impression
of sound is not confined to the mere external organ: the
auditory nerves have a considerable expansion, and sym¬
pathize with those of taste and of smell. The only inlet of
vision is by that very narrow aperture, the pupil of the
5 T I C S.
eye; but the reception of sound partakes more of the Acoustics,
character of the general sense of feeling, which, though ^
most vivid at the extremities of the fingers,^ is likewise
diffused over the whole surface of the body. The intima¬
tion of the ear is accordingly assisted by the consent
of the palate, the teeth, and the nostrils. Fishes hear
very acutely under water, though the organ itself lies
so concealed in the head as to have long escaped the di¬
ligence of anatomists.
It was formerly supposed, that the transmission of im¬
pulse through a solid body is perfectly instantaneous.
This formed, indeed, one of the Cartesian tenets, which
Newton himself has tacitly admitted. But accurate ob¬
servations have since proved, that motion is always really
progressive, and propagated in succession. Professor
Leslie has shown that the darting of impact through any
substance, whether hard or soft, is accomplished by the
agency of the same interior mechanism as that of soumP
and has furnished the method of calculating, in some of
the more difficult cases, the celerity of transmission.
All bodies may be considered as composed of physical All boffie
points, without any sensible magnitude, but connected to-gentian
gether by a system of mutual attraction and repulsion.
When those integrant particles are compressed by exter¬
nal violence, a repulsive force is exerted to regain their
first position ; or if they be dilated, a corresponding at¬
traction now draws them back to their neutral site of
equilibrium. We may further presume, that in solids
these constituent forces are confined to the proximate
particles only, but that in the case of liquids or other
fluids they embrace the particles in their near vicinity,
and include a sphere of action varying in its extent.
Hence, the former suffer disruption, without bending or
giving way to powerful pressure ; while the latter, acting
by a sympathetic union, gently recede and take a new
arrangement. In fact, the attribute of hardness applied to
body is only a relative, and not an absolute quality; in the
inferior degrees it relapses into softness, and softness again
passes through interminable shades to the most yielding
fluidity. The application of heat, by enlarging the sys¬
tem of internal connection, generally promotes softness,
and heightens the degree of fluidity itself. The effect
is conspicuous in the increased flow from a capillary sy¬
phon, when kept warm. But evenliquids,when struck with
a blow so rapid and sudden as to preclude the sympathy
of their adjacent molecules, will assume all the character
of the hardest substances. This fact has a familiar illus¬
tration in the play of duck and drake; but it is beauti¬
fully exemplified in the successive rebounds made by can¬
non-shot, from the surface of the sea.
In confirmation of the remark, we may quote a very
singular and curious circumstance, mentioned by travel¬
lers, relative to the method of catching fish, which is suc¬
cessfully practised in some of the more northern coun¬
tries. The hardy peasant, when the smaller lakes and
rivers of Lapland or Siberia are completely frozen over,
as soon as he observes, through the clear ice, a fish, per¬
haps at a considerable depth, but lying close to the bot¬
tom, strikes a smart blow against the firm surface, and the
impulse sent through the vertical column of water instant¬
ly stuns or kills his prey, which he draws up by a large
hook let down through the hole just made in the ice.
If we conceive a conducting substance to be struck at
one extremity, the proximate particles, yielding at first
to the impulsion, will again expand themselves, like the
recoil of a spring, and press against the next particles in
the chain. The vibratory commotion will thus be con¬
veyed, by a successive transfer of impressions, along the
whole series of physical points. Analogous also to the
ACOUSTICS.
Modulus
of elasti¬
city.
Acoustics.^ oscillations of a spring or a pendulum, this multitude of
y concatenated internal pulses, whatever be the force or ex¬
tent of agitation, will constantly be performed in the same
instants of time. The celerity of transmission must de¬
pend on the elasticity of the medium compared with its
gravity. This estimate is most readily obtained by de¬
termining what may be called the modulus of elasticity,
or the height of a column of the same density as the con¬
ducting substance, whose weight would measure that
elasticity; or, to speak more precisely, that the thousandth
part of such a column, for instance, should be equivalent
to the repulsive force corresponding to a condensation of
one thousandth part in the vibrating body. It may be
demonstrated from the principles of dynamics, that the
celerity of the transmission of impulse or sound through
any medium is equal to what a falling body would ac¬
quire in falling through half the height of the modulus of
elasticity. . Hence this celerity for each second will be
expressed in English feet by multiplying the square root
of half the modulus by 8, or by extracting the square root
of the modulus multiplied by 32.
Mr Leslie has pointed out a very simple method for as-
101
Celerity of
sound
through
different
solid
bodies.
certaining the modulus of elasticity in the case of solid
rods or planks, by observing, when they are laid in a
horizontal position, with their ends resting against two
props, the swag or curvature which they take. By an ex¬
periment of this kind, he found that Memel fir had a mo¬
dulus equal to 671,625 feet. Wherefore, an impulse
would shoot through the substance of a deal-board with
the velocity of 4,636 feet each second, or about four times
the rapidity of sound. Professor Chladni, who has thrown
so much curious light on the convoluted curves formed
by vibrations spreading along the surface of solid bodies,
inferred, from a very different procedure,—from the musi¬
cal note which a bar of the substance emits when struck,
—the celerity of the transmission of sound through iron
and glass, which he reckoned for both at 17,500 feet, or
above three miles each second, being more than fifteen
times swifter than the ordinary communication through
the atmosphere.
The rate with which the tremor of sound is transmitted
through cast-iron, was very lately ascertained, from actual
experiment, by the ingenious M. Biot. This philosopher
availed himself of the opportunity of the laying of a sys¬
tem of iron pipes, to convey water to Paris. These pipes
were about eight feet each in length, connected together
by narrow leaden rings. A bell being suspended with¬
in the cavity, at one end of the train of pipes, on striking
the clapper at the same instant against the side of the
bell and against the internal surface of the pipe, two dis¬
tinct sounds were successively heard by an observer sta¬
tioned at the other extremity. In these observations
M. Biot was often assisted by the late M. Malus, who has,
too soon for the progress of science, been hurried away by
death, after having opened the delicate discovery of the
polarization of light. With a train of iron pipes of 2550
feet, or nearly half a mile in length, the interval between
the two sounds was found, from a mean of two hundred
trials, to be 2-79 seconds. But the transmission of sound
through the internal column of air would have taken 2*5
seconds ; which leaves for the rapidity of the tremor
conducted through the cast-iron. From other more direct
trials, it was concluded that the exact interval of time
during which the sound performed its passage through
the substance of the train of pipes, amounted only to
26-100th parts of a second; being ten to twelve times
less than the ordinary transmission through the atmo¬
sphere.
Except the observations of M. Hassenfratz, in the fa¬
mous subterranean quarries which extend under almost the Acoustics,
whole of Paris, we are not acquainted with any attempts
that have been made to measure the elasticity of stone or
brick. Yet sound is conveyed through these materials
with great effect. The rattling of a carriage on the
street spreads a very sensible tremor along the most so¬
lid buildings and the stateliest edifices. If a large stone
be rubbed against the outside of the wall of a house, it
will occasion within doors a strange rumbling noise. A
miner will strike his pick against the side of a long gal¬
lery, when he wishes to give intimation to his companion,
who listens at the other extremity. But stones or bricks,
without being directly excited, may yet form a part of
the chain which transmits sound, by receiving the tre¬
mulous impressions from the air on the one side, and de¬
livering them again to that fluid on the other. We all
know how easily the voice is heard through a thin parti¬
tion. The mode of obstructing the passage of sound is,
either to employ very thick masonry, or to interrupt the
facility of communication and transfer, by means of sub¬
divisions opposed. Hence another distinct use of lath
and plaster. Experiments on the elasticity of stones and
other articles of building are not only curious, but of
real importance ; for, in many cases, their efficient strength
must depend on their fitness to resist incidental impres¬
sions. This consideration is peculiarly necessary in se¬
lecting and combining the materials employed in the con¬
struction of bridges.
Respecting the elasticity of water and other liquids, Supposed
our information is more satisfactory and complete. Itincompres
was long held as an axiom, that the substance of water issibility °f
absolutely incompressible. Yet the experiments on which waten
this belief was grounded would, if weighed attentively,
point to an opposite inference. On such a subject it
were idle to cite Lord Bacon, whose credulity and igno¬
rance of mathematical science betrayed him so often into
false or shallow conclusions. The philosophers of the
Florentine academy del Cimento tried the compression of
water in three different ways, which are described in the
account of their experiments printed in 1661. 1. Hav¬
ing provided two glass tubes terminated by hollow balls,
they filled the one partly and the other to excess with
pure water, and joined the tubes hermetically, so as to
form one piece. Then applying heat to the first ball till
the water boiled, they forced its vapour to press against
the column in the other stem. But no contraction of the
fluid took place, though a copper ball was afterwards
substituted; and when the action of the heat was still far¬
ther urged, the tube at last burst with violence. 2. Into
a glass tube, immediately above six pounds of water,
they introduced eighty pounds of quicksilver, without
causing any diminution of volume. 3. Their most noted
experiment was, having filled a hollow silver ball with
water by a small hole, afterwards soldered accurately, to
give it a few smart blows with a hammer ; when, far from
suffering compression, the water was seen to ooze or spirt
from the pores, as they imagined, of the silver.
Mr Boyle, whose practice it was generally to repeat
the more striking experiments made on the Continent,
had a round tin or pewter vessel filled carefully with
water, and tightly plugged : the blow of a wooden mallet
beat it flat, but on piercing the tin with the point of a
small nail, the confined water instantly sprung to the
height of two or three feet. About the year 1752, Dr
Peter Shaw, who read public lectures in London, exhibit¬
ed a stout copper ball of four inches in diameter, and fill¬
ed with water by a small orifice, into which a screw
was fitted, and forced to enter by turning an iron arm
or lever: the globe was partly opened by this enormous
102
Acoustics.
ACOUSTICS.
Compres¬
sibility of
water de¬
monstrat¬
ed by Mr
Canton.
Compress!
bility of
other
fluids.
squeeze, and the water spouted from the crevice as from
a fountain.
These experiments all concur to show that water is
capable of sustaining an immense pressure without under¬
going any very sensible contraction; but they prove, at t te
same time, the actual existence of such a contraction,
since the projecting of the water, after a crack has once
begun in the vessel that confines it, could only proceed
from the evolution of an internal repulsive force. Divers,
accordingly, at considerable depths under water, hear dis¬
tinctly the collision of two stones, or the remote ringing
of a bell. Authentic instances are mentioned of sounds
being transmitted audibly more than two miles through
that fluid. „ 1 .
The compressibility of water was first demonstrated by
the ingenious Mr Canton in 1762, by a very simple and
conclusive experiment. To a glass ball of lather more
than an inch and half in diameter, he joined hermetically
a tube about four inches long, and having a bore equal to
the hundredth part of an inch. The relative capacity of
this ball and of the stem he ascertained by introducing
mercury, and weighing nicely its separate portions. The
stem was then marked by the edge of a file into divisions,
corresponding each to the hundred thousandth part of the
whole capacity of the ball. This instrument was now
filled with distilled water, carefully purged of its adher¬
ing air, and placed under the receiver of a pneumatic
machine : on producing an exhaustion, the water appeared
constantly to swell, rising four divisions and three-fifths
in the stem, or a space nearly equal to the mercurial ex¬
pansion corresponding to half a degree of heat on Tahren-
heit’s scale. In a condensing engine, the water sunk just
as much, for each additional pressure of an atmosphere,—
the bulb remaining always at the same temperature, or at
the fiftieth degree of Fahrenheit. Since the stem was
left open, the pressure exerted by the air, both on the
inside and the outside of the instrument, must in all cases
have been precisely the same ; and consequently, the
glass had no disposition to alter its figure, and modify the
results. The contraction or expansion produced was,
therefore, confined wholly to the body of water and to the
thin shell of glass, of which indeed the influence might be
rejected as insignificant. It was hence decided that the
purest water suffers a visible concentration, or a diminu¬
tion of its volume, under a powerful compression. But,
in the course of his experiments, Mr Canton observed a
curious circumstance, that water is more compressible in
cold than in warm weather. Thus, the contraction, under
a single incumbent atmosphere, amounted to 4’9 divisions
when the thermometer stood at 34)°, but was only 4*4
divisions when the heat rose to 64°. This singular fact
might afford room for speculation ; but it were better, in
the mean while, to repeat the experiment again with more
delicacy, and on a greater scale.
The compression of some other fluids was likewise
measured in the same way. The contraction, under the
weight of an atmosphere, and at the ordinary temperature,
amounted, in millionth parts of the entire capacity of the
ball, to sixty-six with alcohol, to forty-eight with olive oil,
to forty with sea-water, and only to three when mercury
was opposed. We may therefore estimate, in round num¬
bers, the modulus of elasticity belonging to those different
substances as under:
Alcohol 580,000 English feet.
Distilled water 700,000
Olive oil 730,000
Sea-water 780,000
Mercury 800,000
In liquids of so distinct a nature, we should have expected
a greater diversity in their elastic power ; nor is it easy to Acmistics.
conceive on what conditions or habitudes that quality
actually depends. The elasticity of a body, like its other
constitutional properties, may result from the peculiar in¬
ternal structure, or the arrangement of the integral mo e-
CUSome experiments on the compressibility of water have
been since performed with more striking effect, but not
equally exempt from all objections. In 1779, Professor
Zimmerman of Brunswick printed a short account of someZimraer-
trials made by him and Abich, director of the salt-mines, man.
with a press of a particular construction, consisting of a
tight cylinder of very thick brass, with a piston nicely
fitted, to be pushed down by means of a long lever, at
whose extremity different weights were appended. Rain¬
water being introduced into the cavity, was subjected to
an enormous pressure, equivalent to that of 313 atmo¬
spheres, and had its volume then diminished between one
thirty-fifth and one thirty-sixth part. This quantity gives,
for the effect of a single incumbent atmosphere, a conden¬
sation amounting to seventy-five millionth parts, instead of
forty-six, as found by Mr Canton. The excess was no
doubt owing to the distention of the brass cylinder, which,
with all its strength and solidity, would yet partially yield
to the action of such prodigious force. This circumstance
renders the experiment somewhat unsatisfactory, and the
influence of friction must likewise affect the accuracy of
the calculation.
The effect of such distention is easily witnessed m the
case of glass. If a large bulb of a thermometer be sud¬
denly squeezed between the finger and the thumb, the
mercury will start up in the stem perhaps several degrees,
and will again sink as quickly after the pressure is remov¬
ed. To prevent any derangement from communication of
heat, the hand may be covered with a thick glove. But
the fact can be shown in a less exceptionable way: Let a
mercurial thermometer, with a large bulb and a long stem,
be first held upright, and then immediately inverted; be¬
tween these two positions the column of mercury will de¬
scend through a visible space. This apparent change of
volume has been hastily supposed by some experimentei s
to mark the compressibility of mercury, which could not
be sensible but under the action of a column of incompar¬
ably greater height.
It would be most desirable to institute a new set of ob¬
servations on the condensation of different substances, by
means of Bramah’s hydraulic press, which is a far more Bramah s
perfect machine, and scarcely subject at all to the dis- hydiauhc
turbance of friction. Having once ascertained the dis- P1-655,
tention of the metallic cavity from pressure, it would be
hence easy to correct all the other results. This mode of
experimenting promises also the important advantage of
enabling us to determine, with ease, the compressibility
of solids themselves. It would only be required to give
those bodies a cylindrical form nearly adapted to the
cavity, and to fill up the interstice with water, or rather
with mercury. The contraction which the thin sheet of
fluid would undergo, being deducted from the whole con¬
traction, would exhibit the contraction suffered by the
solid nucleus.
From all these investigations we may gather, that an Celerity oi
impulse, or a .sonorous tremor, would shoot through a body sound
of fresh water with the velocity of about 4,475 feet each t iroug i
second, being four times swifter than the ordinary flight 'u ei>
of sound in the atmosphere. Through the waters of the
ocean, the transmission of sound would be still more rapid,
by a seventeenth part. It hence follows, that a violent
commotion, excited under that vast mass, might reach from
pole to pole in the space of three hours and twenty minutes.
ACOUSTICS.
and
through
Propaga¬
tion of
sound
through
the atmo
sphere.
Acoustics. The swell of the sea is accordingly always observed to
precede the coming storm. The shocks of the famous
earthquake at Lisbon, in 1755, were partially felt at very
distant points of the ocean, as far even as the West Indies,
but after a considerable interval of time.
Respecting the power of ice to conduct sound, we pos¬
sess not sufficient data for the solution of the problem.
The Danish philosophers are indeed said to have lately
performed experiments of this kind on a very extensive
scale, along the frozen surface of the Baltic. We are not
acquainted with the precise results ; but it seems probable,
from various analogies, that ice has nearly the same faculty
of transmission as water itself. If a heavy blow be struck
against any part of the frozen surface of a large pool or
lake, a person standing at a wide distance from the spot
will feel, under foot, a very sensible tremor, some con¬
siderable time before the noise conveyed through the at¬
mosphere has reached his ear. It is asserted, that the
savage tribes who rove on the icy steppes of Tartary can
readily distinguish, from afar, the approach of cavalry, by
aPPtyin& their head close to the frozen surface of the
ground.
But the proper and ordinary vehicle of sound is our
atmosphere. Aristotle, deriving his information probably
from the tenets of the Pythagorean school, seems to have
acquired tolerably just notions of the nature of sound and
of the theory of harmonics. The language of that philo¬
sopher was so much corrupted, however, and disguised by
ignorant transcribers, that Galileo, who not only studied
music as a science, but practised it as a delightful art,
may be fairly allowed to have rediscovered those general
doctrines. Mersenne and Kircher afterwards made a
variety of most ingenious experiments, which, though
rather overlooked at the time, tended greatly to extend
the science of harmony. But it was reserved for the ge¬
nius of Newton to sketch out the true theory of sound.
In his Principia he explained the origin of aerial pulses,
the°rf °f ant*’ a ^ne aPP^cati°n °f dynamics, conducted with his
gationTf" usual sagacity* he succeeded in calculating their celerity
sound. transmission. The solution which he has given of this
intricate problem is far, however, from being unexception¬
able in the form and mode of reasoning. Instead of at¬
tempting to embrace all the conditions affecting the pro¬
blem, in a differential equation, for which, indeed, his
fluxionary calculus was not yet far enough advanced, he pro¬
ceeds less boldly, and only arrives at the conclusion by an
indirect process and a sort of compensation of errors. His
investigation of the progress of sound through the air is
chiefly drawn from the analogy of the motion of waves
along the surface of water. This comparison greatly
assists our conceptions, but it fails in a variety of essential
points. Newton further assumed the rising and subsiding
of waves to be a reciprocating motion, similar to that of
the oscillations of a fluid contained in a wide and long
tube, with its ends turned upwards. On this supposition,
it was not difficult to prove, that those alternating move¬
ments would correspond to the vibrations of a pendulum
of half the length of the tube. Transferring the inference,
therefore, to the undulations of a fluid, it followed, that
the space between two consecutive waves would be de¬
scribed during the sweep of a pendulum having a length
equal to this interval. But the conclusion does not very
well accord with the phenomena. That a wave travels
with a velocity as the square root of its breadth, may be
nearly true ; and that its reciprocating motions, whatever
be the height, are all performed in the same time, is a ne¬
cessary consequence of the great principle in dynamics
first pointed out by Huygens and Hooke,—that when the
effort to restore equilibrium is proportioned to the quan-
103
Newton’s
tity of displacement, the alternations of figure are con-Acoustics,
stantly isochronous. But the velocity of the undulatingN-^v^^1
progression, as calculated from those principles, will not
be found to correspond with actual observation. Newton
was apparently sensible of this disagreement, and would
consider his proposition as only an approximation to the
truth; assigning as the cause of discrepancy, that the
particles of water do not rise and fall perpendicularly, hut
rather describe arcs of a circle. The great defect of the hy¬
pothesis, however, consisted in supposing all the parts of
a wave to rise up and sink together in the same spot. The
fact is, that the fore part of a wave is always in the act of
ascending, while the hinder part of it is as constantly sub¬
siding ; which combined but contrary movements, with¬
out actually transferring any portion of the water, give an
appearance of progressive advance to the swell.
In extending this theory to the propagation of sound,
Newton was, on the whole, more successful. It resulted
from his investigation, that the aerial pulses fly uniformly,
spreading themselves equally on every side, and with
a celerity equal to what would be acquired by a body
in falling through half the height of the modulus of the
air’s elasticity. This modulus, or the altitude of a column His correc-
of air, of uniform density, and whose pressure would be tion °f the
equivalent to the ordinary elasticity of that fluid, was com-theoiT-
puted in the first edition of the Principia, which came out
in 1687, on the supposition that water is 850 times denser
than air, mercury 13i times denser than water, and that
the mean height of the barometer is thirty English inches.
The modulus of elasticity, or the height of an equiponde¬
rant column of air, was therefore estimated at 29,042 feet,
which gave 968 feet each second for the celerity of the
transmission of sound through the atmosphere. In the
next edition, which did not appear till twenty-six years
thereafter, the computation of the modulus was somewhat
altered, but certainly not rendered more correct. Assum¬
ing the same standard of barometric height as before, and
supposing mercury to be 13§ times heavier than water, and
water 870 times heavier than air, the modulus would be
29,725 feet, to which the corresponding velocity of sound
is 979 feet in the second.
In these successive estimates, there is perhaps betrayed
some desire to magnify the result, j^et without nearly ap¬
proaching to the amount of actual observation. Dr Der-
ham had recently determined, from repeated trials made
with care, that the ordinary flight of sound is at the rate
of 1142 feet each second; and Newton endeavoured, by
some very strained hypotheses, to accommodate his calcu¬
lation to this correct measure. 1. He supposes the particles
of air to be perfectly solid spherules, whose diameter is
the ninth part of their mutual distance. Sound, being in¬
stantaneously communicated through these, would thus
have its velocity increased by one-ninth, or 109 feet, or
brought up to 1088 feet in the second. 2. He next
assumes, that the particles of vapour concealed in the air,
and augmenting the common elasticity without partaking
of the impression of sound, amount to a tenth part of the
whole. This would increase the celerity of the sonorous
pulse in the subduplicate ratio of 10 to 11, or as 20 to 21
nearly, and consequently advance the last measure from
1088 to 1142 feet.
But these random and fanciful conjectures hardly require Remarks
any serious consideration. What may be the size of the on these
ultimate particles of air, or whether they have any sensiblec.orrec*
magnitude at all, we are utterly without the means of de-tlon3*
termining. There appears no limit, indeed, to the degree
of condensation of which the air is capable, but what pro¬
ceeds from the imperfection of the engines employed for
that purpose. Nay, supposing so large a proportion of ab-
104
ACOUSTICS.
Acoustics.
Rectified
calculation
of the velo¬
city of
sound.
Rate of
transmis¬
sion
through
different
gases.
Experi¬
ment in
France,
and in
A merica.
solute matter to exist in the composition of our atmosphere,
it really would not affect the result, since the transit of
sound, as we have shown, is necessarily progressive, even
through the most solid substance, lo this principle theie
could be no exception, unless the particles of air were held
to be mere atoms, incapable of further subdivision, in
short, without actual magnitude, and therefore bearing no
relation whatever to the space in which they float. 1 he
second hypothesis advanced is still more insufficient to
rectify the general conclusion. That moisture, in its latent
or gaseous form, is united with the air, will be granted;
but it by no means constitutes so notable a share of the
fluid as Newton has assumed, scarcely exceeding, at the
ordinary temperature, perhaps the five-hundredth pait of
the whole weight. But this diffuse vapour could not in
the least derange the original calculation; for, being always
combined with the air, the measure of elasticity assigned
by experiment was really that of the compound fluid which
forms our atmosphere.
We are now enabled, by the help of more perfect data,
to rectify the modulus of atmospheric elasticity, or the
height of a homogeneous and equiponderant column of the
fluid. From the observations made with barometrical
measurements, it appears that such a column, exerting a
pressure equivalent to the elasticity of the air, has, at the
limit of freezing water, an altitude of 26,060 feet, and con¬
sequently, that the modulus would, at an ordinary tempera¬
ture of 62° by Fahrenheit, amount to 27,800 feet. This
corrected estimate gives only 943 feet each second for the
celerity of sound. And since the elasticity of the medium
is exactly proportioned to its density, the result is the
same, whatever be the rarefaction or condensation of the
air, so long as its temperature continues unaltered. The
flight of sound is hence as rapid near the surface as in the
higher regions of the atmosphere. It is the conjunction
of heat alone that will increase the celerity of transmission,
by augmenting the elasticity of the medium without add¬
ing to its weight. The acceleration thus produced must
amount to rather more than one foot in the second for
each degree by Fahrenheit’s scale. Such a difference
ought to be perceptible under the torrid zone.
But the rate of the transmission of sound must vary in
different gases, after the inverse subduplicate ratio of their
densities. Thus, through carbonic gas, the communica¬
tion of the tremor would be about one-third slower than
ordinary; but through hydrogen gas, which is twelve
times more elastic than common air, the flight would very
nearly exceed three and a half times the usual rapidity.
An admixture of this gas with the atmosphere would,
therefore, greatly accelerate the transmission of sound.
The joint combination of heat and moisture, by heighten¬
ing the elasticity of the air, must likewise produce a simi¬
lar effect.
These inferences are confirmed by observation, as far
as it extends. The velocity of sound was determined with
considerable accuracy, and on a great scale, by Cassini
and Maraldi, while employed in conducting the trigono¬
metrical survey of France. During the winter of the
years 1738 and 1739, these astronomers repeatedly dis¬
charged, at night, when the air was calm and the tempera¬
ture uniform, a small piece of ordnance, from their station
on Mont Martre, above Paris, and measured the time that
elapsed between the flash and the report, as observed from
their signal tower at Montlehery, at the distance of about
eighteen miles. The mean of numerous trials gave 1130
feet for the velocity of the transmission of sound.
About the same time, Condamine, who was sent with
the other academicians to ascertain the length of a degree
in Peru, took an opportunity of likewise measuring the
celerity of sound, at two very different points. He found Acoustics,
this was 1175 feet on the sultry plain of Cayenne, and only
1120 feet on the frozen heights of Quito. It was obvious,
therefore, that the rarefaction of the air in those lofty
regions had in no degree affected the result. Compared^
with what had been observed in France, the velocity of
the aerial pulses was somewhat diminished at Quito by
the prevailing cold, but was, on the other hand, consider¬
ably augmented by the excessive heat and moisture which
oppress Cayenne.
But the difference, amounting indeed to one-fifth of the
whole, between the velocity of sound as deduced from
theory, and as determined by actual experiment, still ap¬
peared very perplexing. This want of congruity was the
more felt, since the Newtonian system of gravitation,
after maintaining a long struggle with the adherents of the
Cartesian philosophy, had at last obtained the undisput¬
ed possession of the Continent. Its triumph was insured
by the admirable dissertations on the subject of tides,
transmitted to the Academy of Sciences at Paris in the
year 1740, when our celebrated countryman Maclaurin
had the honour of sharing the prize with Euler and
Daniel Bernoulli. The law of attraction received, indeed,
a temporary shock a few years afterwards, from the re¬
sult of the investigation which Clairaut first gave of the
lunar inequalities; but, on resuming his analysis of the
problem, and computing the values of the smaller terms
of the formula, that great geometer obtained, in 1752, a
final product, exactly conformable to the best astronomi¬
cal observations; and the solidity of the Newtonian sys¬
tem was henceforth placed on the firmest foundation.
It was therefore peculiarly desirable to examine like¬
wise the justness of the hydrodynamical conclusions of
Newton. The propositions concerning the propagation
of sound were perhaps justly considered as the most ob¬
scure part of the whole Principia. Some of the first-rate
mathematicians abroad, particularly D Alembert and John
Bernoulli, declared their utter inability to comprehend
such intricate and disjointed demonstrations. At last
the problem of sonorous pulses was attacked directly and
in its full extent, by the late Count Lagrange, whose Wstica-
death, although at a ripe age, will be lamented as a most ^10n La-
severe loss to mathematical science. That illustrious ia‘ Se-
geometer shone forth at once like a meteor, and before he
had completed his twenty-third year he gave a rigorous
and profound analysis of the propagation of sound through
the atmosphere, in the first volume of the lurin Memoirs,
which appeared in 1759. “ He pointed out some mistakes
that even Newton had committed in the reasoning; but
mistakes which, by a happy compensation of errors, did
not affect essentially the results. Advancing from these
discussions, he assigned the dynamical conditions of un¬
dulation, which, after the proper limitations, were reduced
to an equation involving partial differences of the second
order. But this refined branch of analysis, invented by
D’Alembert and Euler, is still so imperfect, that, in order
to integrate the final expression, it had become requisite
to omit the higher powers of the differentials. Y et after
all this display of accurate research and skilful adaptation
of symbols, followed by a lax and incomplete calculus, the
same conclusion was obtained as that which Newton had
derived chiefly from the force of analogy and sagacity of
observation; and philosophers were thus obliged to sub¬
mit, and to content themselves with recording the va¬
riance between theory and experiment in regard to the
celerity of sound, or with referring that discrepancy to
some extraneous influence.” (Edinb. Review, vol. xv.
p. 431.)
M. Poisson, one of those interesting men whose native
ACOUSTICS.
105
Acoustics, genius has surmounted all the obstacles of fortune, very
lately attempted a more complete analysis of the propa¬
gation of sound, in the Papers of the Polytechnic School.
The final equation is more fully expressed, and its integra¬
tion is pushed some few steps farther; but still the result
is precisely the same as before. The skill and precaution
displayed in framing the conditions of the problem are
afterwards mostly abandoned in the various simplifications
adopted to arrive at the conclusion.
Itectifica- A very ingenious and apparently satisfactory method
tion of the of reconciling theory with observation, in the estimate of
Ladace’ ^ie transmissi°n °f sound, was not long since suggested
«»p act. py tjie celebrated Count Laplace. If the heat contained
in air had, at every state of the density, been united con¬
stantly after the same proportion, the elasticity resulting
from the infusion of this subtile and highly distensible
element would invariably accord with what observation
assigns to the compound aerial fluid. But the capacity of
air, or its aptitude to retain heat, varies with its internal
condition; being increased by rarefaction, and propor¬
tionally diminished by condensation. When air is com¬
pressed, therefore, it liberates a portion of its heat; and
when it undergoes dilatation, it becomes disposed to
abstract more heat from the adjoining bodies. Till
the equilibrium of heat is restored, the air will be sen¬
sibly warmer after each act of compression, and colder
when suffered to dilate. If the shock given to a portion
of air be very sudden and violent, the quantity of heat
evolved from it is profuse and powerful. On this princi¬
ple, M. Mollet, member of the academy of Lyons, led by
some facts noticed by artists who manufactured wind-
guns, first constructed, in 1804, the curious instrument for
producing fire by the rapid condensation of air confined
in a tube. But such evolution of heat must besides
augment the elasticity of the air, as the contrary abstrac¬
tion of it will, in a like degree, diminish that force. At
every sudden alteration of density, therefore, a new
power is infused, which had not entered into the ordinary
and undisturbed estimate of the air’s elasticity. Conse¬
quently, from this consideration alone, the aerial pulses
must shoot with some greater celerity than calculation as¬
signs, because the particles of air, which are suddenly
condensed, have their elasticity further augmented by the
portion of heat evolved, while the corresponding particles,
which are simultaneously dilated, have their disposition
to contract likewise increased, by the momentary preva¬
lence of cold.
Kxamina- The principle advanced by Laplace must therefore
tion of this have a real operation, tending to reconcile the calculated
correction, velocity of sound with that which is deduced from expe¬
riment. The only question is, how far its influence could
actually extend. But, according to the formula given in
Leslie’s Elements of Geometry, p. 495, a condensation
equal to the 90th part of the volume of air would occasion
the extrication of one degree of heat by Fahrenheit’s scale.
Now, since each degree of heat enlarges the bulk or
augments the elasticity of the air by the 450th part, it
follows, that the heat, extricated by sudden impulse, will
communicate to the air a momentary additional spring,
amounting to one-fifth of the whole elastic force. Where¬
fore the celerity of sound would, by that influence, be in¬
creased in the subduplicate ratio of five to six, or nearly
as 21 to 23 ; which gives an addition of only 90 feet each
second to the whole quantity, bringing it up to 1033 feet.
The correction is thus insufficient, not amounting to half
of the discrepancy which it was its object to reconcile.
It may be suspected, therefore, that some inaccuracy
or omission infects the investigation itself. Till the inte¬
gral calculus has arrived at much greater perfection, it
YOL. II.
will often be requisite for the analyst, in the solution of Acoustics,
dynamical problems, to descend from his elevation, and'^^v^'^y
seek to simplify the differential expressions by a sober
and judicious application of the principles of physics.
Imagine a string of particles, or physical points, A, B,
C, D, E, F, &c. in a state of rest, or mutual balance. If
A were pushed nearer to B, and then suddenly abandon¬
ed, it would recoil with a motion exactly similar to the
oscillation of a pendulum. The time of this relapse might
easily be determined, from a comparison of the force of
gravity with that of elasticity, or from the number of par¬
ticles contained in a column of equipoise. The minute
interval between the adjacent particles, being now divided
by the duration of each fit of contraction, will give the
velocity with which the vibratory influence shoots along
the chain of communication. This simple investigation
leads still to the same result as before. But it proceeds
on assumptions which are evidently incorrect; for it sup¬
poses the pulses to follow each other in accurate succession,
every contraction terminating as the next begins. Since
the particles, however, do not exist in a state of insulation,
while B repels A, it must likewise press against C ; and C,
in its turn, must gradually affect D. Before the contrac¬
tion of A and B is completed, that of B and C is therefore
partially performed; and this anticipated influence may
even extend to the remoter particles. Nor is the system
of mutual action at all materially disturbed by such anti¬
cipations. Each pulsation is performed in the same way
as if it were quite detached; only the succeeding one is
partly accomplished before the regular period of its com¬
mencement. The velocity of aerial undulation is in this
way much accelerated.” {Edinb. Rev. vol. xv. p. 433.)
Each successive movement among the particles may be
viewed as produced by a force not regularly decreasing,
but partaking of the uniformity which obtains in projec¬
tion. Hence the velocity of sound is intermediate be¬
tween that derived from theory and that with which air
would rush into a vacuum. But the arithmetical mean
between 943 and 1334 feet is 11381, and the geometrical
is 1121! feet; neither of which differs much from 1130
feet, the quantity determined by actual experiment.
After the last correction, however, proposed by M. Modifica-
Laplace, for adjusting theory with observation relative to tions re-
the celerity of the transmission of sound, the difference quired m
will not perhaps be regarded such as longer to present any t^e the^iy
serious obstacle ; especially when the coincidence appears ot soun '
closer than what generally attends the theoretical deduc¬
tions concerning the motions of fluids. The remaining
difficulties affecting the subject refer chiefly to the way
in which the aerial pulses are propagated, and the modi¬
fications which they are afterwards capable of receiving.
1. No sensation is ever excited, unless the impression Duratjon
made upon our organs be repeated or continued during a and
certain short space of time. On this principle depends strength of
the whole success of the juggler, who contrives to change pulsation,
the situation of the various objects before us with a ra¬
pidity exceeding the ordinary exercise of sight or touch.
A brand whirled swiftly round the head gives all the ap¬
pearance of a circle of fire ; and if one presses very hard
an ivory ball between his fingers, he will seem still to feel
it for several instants after it has been withdrawn. To
excite the sensation of sound, it is requisite that the aerial
pulses should have a certain force and duration. Accord¬
ing to some observations, the ear is not affected at all,
unless the tremulous impulse communicated to the tym¬
panum lasts during the tenth part of a second. Every
pulsation of a more transient kind is lost absolutely and
completely to our organ of hearing.
On the other hand, the impression of sound is not pro-
O
106 ACOUSTICS.
Acoustics, longed beyond the time of its actual production. If it
were otherwise, indeed, all sounds would degenerate into
indistinct noises; and articulate discourse, which distin¬
guishes man from the lower animals, and constitutes the
charm of social life, would have been utterly impossible.
This fact, so obvious, and yet so important, shows indis¬
putably that the propagation of sonorous pulses through
the atmosphere is not, in all its circumstances, analogous
to the succession of waves on the surface of water. These
undulations continue long afterwards to rise and spread
from the centre of their production. The pulsations of
the air, no doubt, likewise survive their excitement; but
such of them as succeed the first impulsion must not
have the force and character of those which are directly
shot through the fluid. What is the precise discrimina¬
tion between these different pulses, we are not enabled
from mere theory to determine. But such a distinction
must undoubtedly exist, otherwise indeed all discourse
would continue to fill the ear with a monotonous hum, or
an indistinct muttering. It would be difficult to institute
conclusive experiments on this subject, yet collateral re¬
searches might be devised which could not fail to guide
our inquiry.
Concentra- 2. But another defect in the analogy between waves
tion in a and sonorous pulses is, that the latter, without affecting
particular to Spreaa equally, are capable of acquiring a superior force
direction. or ^en(jenCy }n gome given direction. Certain unconfined
sounds, indeed, are diffused uniformly on every side.
Thus, the noise of the explosion of a powder-mill is heard,
and often dreadfully felt, at a great distance all round
the scene of disaster. But the report of a cannon, though
audible in every direction, appears invariably loudest in
the quarter to which the engine is pointed. On this
principle, a seaman, when he seeks to be heard more
audibly, or at a greater distance, is accustomed, if no
other help occurs, to apply his spread hands on each side
of his mouth, and thus check or diminish the waste of
sound by its lateral dispersion. For the same reason, the
bent and projecting circular piece annexed to the farther
end of a speaking-trumpet is of most decided use, in as¬
sisting to give direction to the flight of the aerial pulses.
Accumula- 3. The theory of undulatory movements furnishes some
tion along elucidation, but no adequate explication, of the augment-
barriers. e(j effect 0f sound in the direction of a lateral barrier.
The extension of such an obstacle might appear to check
merely the spread and consequent attenuation of the so¬
norous pulses; but the great accumulation of impulse
always occurs, on either side, at the extremity of the ad¬
vancing wave. By what system of interior forces this ef¬
fect is produced, it would be difficult satisfactorily to ex¬
plain. Yet we perceive something analogous in the swell
which runs along the margin of a pool, and in the billow
which, flowing from the open sea, heaves against the sides
of a projecting mole.
It is hence that sound is made to sweep with such in¬
tensity over the smooth surface of a long wall or of an ex¬
tended gallery. An elliptical figure, though of manifest
advantage, is not really essential to a whispering gallery;
for the point of sonorous concentration is found beyond
the true catoptrical focus, and much nearer to the wall. A
fact of the same kind is well ascertained—that sounds are
always heard the most audibly, and at the greatest dis¬
tance, in a level open country, or still better on the
smooth surface of a vast lake, or of the ocean itself. The
roaring of the cannon in certain naval engagements has
been noticed at points so very remote from the scene of
action, as might seem, if not perfectly authenticated, to
be altogether incredible. On the other hand, again, sound
is enfeebled and dissipated sooner in alpine regions. Thus,
the traveller, roving at some height above a valley, des- Acoustics,
cries, with uncommon clearness, perhaps a huntsman on
the brow of the opposite mountain, and while he watches
every flash, yet can he scarcely hear the report of the
fowling-piece.
On a similar principle, we would explain the operation
of the ear-trumpet, which affords such relief to one of the
most cheerless maladies that can afflict humanity. The
wide mouth of that instrument, it is well known, is turn¬
ed to catch the stream of sound ; the extent of pulsation
is gradually contracted as the tide advances; and the
same quantity of impulse being probably maintained, the
vibratory energy is intensely accumulated at the narrow
extremity, where it strikes the cavity of the ear. A trum¬
pet of this form might, in many cases, be found very ad¬
vantageous, not only for remedying the defects of the or¬
gan of hearing, but for assisting the observer to collect
feeble and distant sounds. Even an umbrella held close
behind the head, with its concavity fronting the sonorous
pulses, will, it has been alleged, sensibly heighten their
impression.
4*. To explain legitimately the reflection of sound, would Reflection
require some modifications in the theory of atmospheric modified,
undulation. Each obstructing point is certainly not the
centre of a new system of pulses ; for, in many cases, this
would occasion unutterable confusion. Nor can the ex¬
citement of sound be supposed to dart in straight lines, or
to perform the same accurate reflection as the rays of
light. In fact, neither smoothness nor exact regularity
of surface is required for the production of an echo. A
range of buildings, a row of tall trees, a ridge of rocks, pr
a chain of heights, will, in certain positions, reflect sound
with clear and audible effect. It follows, therefore, that
the reflection must be formed, not at the immediate sur¬
face of those obstacles, which could occasion only an ir¬
regular dispersion, but at some boundary at a small dis¬
tance, and running parallel to the mean direction of the
whole barrier. We may conceive the tide of sound accu¬
mulating where it stops, and investing the opposite sur¬
face like an atmosphere, till a repulsion is exerted, which
again rolls it back. Wbat seems to constitute the per¬
fection of an echo is, that the sum of the distances of
every point of the reflecting surface from the person who
speaks, and from him who listens, should be the same.
When this disposition obtains, all the reflected sounds
must reach the ear in due succession, without being in¬
termingled or confused.
We may observe, that echoes are often confounded
with the mere resonance occasioned by vibrations excited
among the obstacles themselves. In a large empty room,
with its naked floor, and walls, and benches, the voice
quickly throws the whole into a tremulous commotion,
and seems drowned in the ringing prolonged sound which
is produced; nor does this unpleasant effect cease, until
the spectators have occupied the benches, filled the hall,
and obstructed by their weight the vibration of the floor.
What is called the deadening of sound, consists in merely
checking or preventing the disturbance of extraneous tre¬
mor. For this purpose, the floor is covered with carpets,
and the walls lined with wainscot or hangings. Such bar¬
riers, we have seen, would not, by their yielding quality,
blunt or obstruct the formation of echoes. Their only
effect is, to muffle the elastic surfaces which they cover.
The performance of the speaking-trumpet has generally Speakinsr
been referred to the concentrated reflection of sound, trumpet-
Some authors have carried the hypothesis even so far
as to investigate, from mathematical principles, the best
figure of that instrument. Much labour and great inge¬
nuity have been utterly wasted in this fruitless attempt.
ACOUSTICS.
107
Acoustics. Kircher proposed the tube to be shaped like a truncated
parabolic conoid, the mouth-piece occupying the focus;
and he concludes that all the rays of sound would, by re¬
flection from such a surface, be sent forward exactly in pa¬
rallel lines. Other philosophers have imagined, from a
fanciful analogy to the property of ivory balls, that the
figure described by the revolution of the logarithmic curve
about its absciss would be the most proper for the speak¬
ing-trumpet. M. Lambert, of the Berlin academy, whose
genius and originality were both of the first order, has
given a solution still different. But it would be idle to
recite the various attempts which have ended in no prac¬
tical result.
The true physical explication of the speaking-trumpet
was first given, as far as we know, in the course of an in¬
cidental remark by Professor Leslie, in his Experimental
Inquiry into the Nature and Propagation of Heat. “ In
the case of articulate sounds,” says he, “ the confining of
the air does not affect the pitch of voice, but it augments
the degree of intonation. The lateral flow being checked,
that fugacious medium receives a more condensed and
vigorous impulsion. As the breath then escapes more
slowly from the mouth, it waits and bears a fuller stroke
from the organs of speech. But the speaking-trumpet is
only an extension of the same principle. Its performance
does certainly not depend upon any supposed repercussion
of sound; repeated echoes might divide, but could not
augment the quantity of impulse. In reality, however,
neither the shape of the instrument, nor the kind of ma¬
terial of which it is made, seems to be of much conse¬
quence. Nor can we admit that the speaking-trumpet
possesses any peculiar power of collecting sound in one
direction; for it is distinctly audible on all sides, and is
perhaps not much louder in front, comparatively, than the
simple unassisted voice. The tube, by its length and
narrowness, detains the efflux of air, and has the same
effect as if it diminished the volubility of that fluid, or in¬
creased its density. The organs of articulation strike
with concentrated force; and the pulses, so vigorously
thus excited, are, from the reflected form of the aperture,
finally enabled to escape, and to spread themselves along
the atmosphere. To speak through a trumpet costs a
very sensible effort, and soon fatigues and exhausts a per¬
son. This observation singularly confirms the justness of
the theory which I have now brought forward.”
Nearly about the same time, this theory was confirmed
Ilassen- by some ingenious experiments made by M. Hassenfratz,
ti-au. at Paris. His method of estimating the power of a
speaking-trumpet consisted in fixing a small watch in the
mouth-piece, and observing at what distance the beats
ceased to be distinctly audible. He found that the effects
were precisely the same with a trumpet of tinned iron,
whether used in its naked form, or after it was tightly
bound with linen to prevent any vibration of the metal.
Nor could there be the smallest reflection of sound from
the internal surface of the tube, for the beating of the
watch was heard exactly at the same distance after the
whole of the inside had been lined with woollen cloth.
These simple experiments prove decisively that the per¬
formance of the speaking-trumpet depends principally on
the intenser pulsation which is excited in the column of
confined air. In the same way, sound is prodigiously aug¬
mented in a long narrow passage. If a musket be fired
within the gallery of a mine, the explosion heard in a
remote corner will have the loudness and character of
thunder.
Sound of The progressive motion of sound furnishes the explica-
nmsketry. tion of various remarkable facts and striking phenomena.
Thus, to a person standing at some distance, and directly Acoustics,
in front of a long file of musketry, the general discharge
will appear as a single collected sound, the numerous re¬
ports all reaching his ear nearly at the same instant. But
one stationed at the end of the line will hear only a pro¬
longed rolling noise, not unlike a running fire; because
the distinct sounds, from the different distances which
they have to travel, will arrive in a continued succession.
Hence, likewise, the tremendous rumbling noise of dis- Noise of
tant thunder, which is not produced, as many have sup- thunder,
posed, by the repetition of echoes. In certain situations,
indeed, and particularly in hilly tracts, echoes may no
doubt contribute to augment the general effect; but
their ordinary influence seems to be really insignificant,
since it should cause the same modification of sound in
the explosion of a cannon, which is essentially different,
however, from the muttering and crash of thunder. This
lengthened and varied noise must yet be the production
of a moment. The rapidity of lightning surpasses concep¬
tion, and the prolongation of the sound which follows it
is owing to-the various distances of the chain of points
which emit the sonorous impressions. The electrical in¬
fluence darts with immeasurable swiftness from cloud to
cloud, till perhaps it strikes at last into the ground. But
from every point of this tortuous path distinct pulses of
sound are transmitted, which consequently reach the ear
at very different intervals. Sometimes they arrive inter¬
mingled, and give the sensation of a violent crash ; at
other times they seem suspended, and form a sort of
pause. It would not be very difficult in any case to imagine
the zig-zag track which the lightning must pursue in or¬
der to produce a given protracted rumbling noise. The
duration of each peal of thunder will evidently be short¬
ened if it chance to shoot athwart, but must continue
the longest when it runs in the line of the spectator. As
the distance of thunder is estimated by allowing some¬
what more than a mile for every five seconds that elapse
between the flash and the beginning of the report, so the
space traversed by the lightning, if its general direction
were known, might be computed by the same rule, from
the endurance of the sound.
We will not enter at present on that branch of acoustics Musical
which treats of the doctrine of harmony ; but a few scat-note-
tered remarks may trace the general outline of the sub¬
ject. A musical note, far from being only a repetition of
the same simple sound, should be considered as the con¬
junction of subordinate sounds reiterated at proportional
intervals. The sweetness of this compound effect or tone
appears to depend on the frequent recurrence of interior
unison. The secondary sounds which naturally and in¬
variably accompany the fundamental note are repeated
only two, three, or four times faster; nor does the
science of music admit of any proportions but what arise
from the limited combinations of those very simple num¬
bers. Harmony, again, is created by an artificial union
of different notes, analogous to the natural composition of
tone.
All tones are produced by the regular vibrations either Vibrating
of solid substances or of confined air itself. Strings instru-
of gut or of metal are most generally used; but smallments-
plates or pillars of wood, of glass, or even of stone, will
answer the same purpose, forming the singular instru¬
ment called staccata or harmonica. In these cases, the
quality of the vibrations depends on the joint influence of
a variety of circumstances; not only on the length of
the fibres, but on their thickness, their elasticity, their
density, and the degree of tension to which they are sub¬
jected. The motion of a musical stretched chord was
first investigated by the very ingenious Dr Brook Taylor,
108 ACOUSTICS.
Acoustics, though his solution has been since proved to be incom-
plete. At the same time, in fact, that the whole chord
oscillates, its simpler portions, the half, the third, and the
fourth of its length, actually perform a set of intermediate
vibrations.
Wind-in- Wind-instruments produce their effect by the vibra-
struments. tions of a column of air confined at one end, and either
open or shut at the other. These vibrations are deter¬
mined merely by the length of the sounding column. Yet
interior and subordinate vibrations are found to co-exist
with the fundamental one. The whole column sponta¬
neously divides itself into portions equal to the half, the
third, or the fourth of its longitudinal extent. We shall
more easily conceive these longitudinal vibrations, by ob¬
serving the contractions and expansions of a long and
very elastic string, to the end of which a ball is attached.
A spiral spring shows still better the repeated stretching
and recoil. If struck suddenly at the one end, it will ex¬
hibit not only a total vibration, but likewise partial ones,
winding vernacularly along the chain of elastic rings.
But when the air is struck with uncommon force, the
subordinate vibrations become predominant, and yield the
clearest and loudest tones. This we perceive in the dy¬
ing sounds of a bell, which rise by one or two octaves, and
expire in the shrillest note. On such a very narrow foun¬
dation—on the variable force with which it is blown—
rests the whole performance of the bugle-horn, whose
compass is extremely small, consisting only of the simplest
notes. In other wind-instruments, the several notes are
caused by the different lengths of the tube, or by the va¬
rious positions of the holes made in its side.
Tones pro- The longitudinal vibrations of a column of air, contain-
duced by ed within a tube open at both ends, are powerfully excit-
the burn- e(j, and very loud and clear tones produced, by the inflam¬
ing of by- mation of a streamlet of hydrogen gas. This curious ex-
1 roSenSas‘periment was made first in Germany, and appears indeed
to have been scarcely known, or at least noticed in other
countries. Yet it is most easily performed, and will be
considered as amusing, if not instructive. A phial, having
a long narrow glass pipe fitted to its neck, being partly
filled with dilute sulphuric acid, a few bits of zinc are
dropt into the liquid. As the decomposition of the water
embodied with the acid now proceeds, the hydrogen gas
thus generated flows regularly from the aperture, and is
capable of catching fire, and of burning for some consid¬
erable time, with a small yet steady round flame. This
very simple arrangement, frequently styled the philosophic
lamp, is in reality of the same nature with the combina¬
tion, on a large scale, of the gas lights. A glass tube be¬
ing passed over the exit-pipe, the burning speck at its point
instantly shoots into an elongated flame, and creates a
continued sharp and brilliant musical sound. This effect
is not owing to any vibrations of the tube itself, for it is
nowise altered by tying a handkerchief tightly about the
glass, or even by substituting a cylinder of paper. The
tremor excited in the column of air is therefore the sole
cause of the incessant tone, which only varies by a change
in the place of the flame, or a partial obstruction applied
at the end of the tube. But still it is not easy to con¬
ceive how the mere burning of a jet of hydrogen gas
within the cavity should produce such powerful vibra¬
tions. The exciting force must necessarily act by starts,
and not uniformly. The length of the flame might seem
to prove, that the hydrogen gas is not consumed or con¬
verted into aqueous vapour as fast as it issues from the
aperture. A jet of it catches instantaneous fire, but is
immediately followed by another, the succession of in¬
flamed portions being so rapid as entirely to escape the
keenness of sight. The column of air contained within
the tube would thus be agitated by a series of incessant Acoustics,
strokes or sudden expansions.
The singular fact now described had occurred inciden¬
tally to the writer of this article in the course of his ear¬
liest experiments; and he has often thought since, that,
on the same principle, an organ might be constructed,
which would have a very curious and pleasing effect. A
vertical motion of the glass tubes, and the partial shutting
or opening of their upper ends, would occasion a consider¬
able variety of notes. By passing the hydrogen gas over
different metals, the flame would be made to assume va¬
rious colours. The apparatus might work by a spontane¬
ous mechanism; and while the eye was gratified by the
display of rich and vivid tints, the ear would be charmed
with strains of new and melodious symphony. (j. l.)
Part III.
We shall here add some further explanations in regard Distinc-
to the nature of different sounds, and particularly of tion be-
musical sounds. tween nm-
Nothing appears more surprising than that variety of sicaf an(i
sounds which different bodies emit when excited either
by percussion or by any other method. If we strike,5,011111 s‘
for example, upon a log of wood, or a table, or a book,
we obtain nothing but a harsh sort of noise, which
ceases almost the moment it is emitted. Whatever
shape we form the wood into, it makes hardly any dif¬
ference. The same thing takes place with other bodies,
such as metal, or glass, or earthen ware, &c. when these
are in large masses; but how different is the case if we
form them into rods or slips, into thin plates, or, still
better, into cylindrical or hemispherical vessels, as cups,
tumblers, bells, cymbals, &c. These, when struck, inva¬
riably emit a sound much more prolonged, and in general
highly musical or grateful to the ear. What, then, is the
cause of this remarkable distinction ? All that we can
observe generally in regard to these sonorous bodies when
sounding is, that the whole body is agitated by an inter¬
nal tremor, which continues so long as the sound can be
heard. But if we examine them in their simplest forms,
some very remarkable circumstances are brought to light.
Take, for example, a slip of metal or glass, fix it firmly
at one extremity, and then strike the other; the body,
as in other cases, emits a prolonged and musical note,
and becomes agitated with the usual sonorous tremor.
This is particularly well observed in a common tuning
fork. But the nature of this agitation is of a very simple
kind. The slip merely oscillates backwards and forwards
with great rapidity on the extremity by which it is fixed.
Each of these oscillations, as the slip strikes the surrounding
air, must produce a distinct sound; but these impressions
following each other in very rapid succession, the ear can
distinguish nothing but a single continued and prolonged
note. The same thing takes place if we fix the slip at both
ends, provided it be long enough and thin enough to oscil¬
late in the middle; and this is the case with all kinds of
distended wires or strings. These are fixed at the two
ends, and when they are struck, as with the hammer of the
key of the piano-forte, or drawn aside by the hand and
then abandoned, they continue to vibrate for a long time,
and to emit tones varying in gravity or acuteness, but all
highly musical. One remarkable circumstance regarding
the vibrations of these slips or chords is, that they are all
performed in the very same time, however minute or how¬
ever extended. They vary in different slips or chords, ac¬
cording to their length, tension, and other circumstances ;
but in the same slip or chord they are all alike. When
any chord or slip is drawn out of the straight line and
then abandoned, the oscillations are wide at first, but
ACOUSTICS. 109
Acoustics, continually diminish in extent till they cease altogether,
as at Plate I. Fig. 1. Now the smallest of these vibra¬
tions takes just as long time in its performance as the
largest; and the latter, again, however wide, is performed
just as quickly as the former. The reason is, that the
force of elasticity, which produces the vibrations, increases
as the chord is drawn farther from the straight line, and
thus accelerates the wide vibrations in proportion to their
extent, as can easily be demonstrated. The consequence
is, that the successive impressions of sound which consti¬
tute the continued and prolonged note, all follow each
other at the same interval; and the regularity with which
these impressions successively fall on the ear appears to
be one essential ingredient in that melody or agreeable
elfect which the sound produces. This is proved by a
very simple experiment. If we sound one of the strings
of a violin or violoncello, it emits for a long time the mu¬
sical note which belongs to it; but if, while it is sounding,
we move the finger quickly along it from the bottom
upwards, so as to shorten continually the length of the
string, to accelerate thereby the vibrations, and thus alter
the regularity of their succession, the sound continues,
but all sort of melody is gone. Some philosophers, and
in particular Dr Robison, have thought that this regular
succession of sonorous impressions is the only source of
melody; but this is far from being the case, else how
could we account for those diversities in the sweetness of
different tones, produced by different instruments or from
different sources? What can be more regular in succession
than the impressions of sound from a distant water-fall ?
And accordingly the effect is soft and agreeable in a high
degree, yet how inferior in melody to the tone of a fine
bell, or of an organ, or the notes of a distant bugle. Another
remarkable circumstance regarding the vibrations of these
slips or chords is, that the sound is not emitted from the
string itself so much as from the mass with which it com¬
municates. If, for example, we strike a tuning fork gently,
so as to make it vibrate, it emits a sound so feeble that it
cannot be heard until we bring it close up to the ear; but
if, when it is vibrating, we press the extremity on a table,
or a book, or any similar substance, the sound becomes
perfectly audible. In the same manner a distended wire,
if quite insulated, hardly emits an audible tone; but set it
on a board, or, which is still better, on a hollow box, and
then the tones are loud, deep, and highly musical. Many
authors who have treated this subject ascribe the sound to
the wire or chord striking the air at every vibration. This,
however, is but an imperfect view of what really takes
place. The tones arising from this source are in general
perfectly inaudible, and the use of the wire is rather to
excite the vibrations in the mass with which it is con¬
nected. This is the true sonorous body; and in this man¬
ner even wood, which appears when struck the most tune¬
less of all substances, is yet made to emit tones of the
most exquisite sweetness; as appears in the violin and
violoncello, harp, and indeed in all stringed instruments.
The wood appears incapable of having a continued series
of vibrations excited in it by percussion; but the strings
produce this effect in a very remarkable manner, and which
has hardly received that attention from writers on Acoustics
which it deserves. They put the whole mass of the wood
into a tremor, they excite its vibrations, and they deter¬
mine and govern their frequency and the regularity of
their succession. These vibrations over the whole surface
of the wood communicate an infinite multitude of similar
vibrations in the air, all which reaching the ear at the
same instant, produce those powerful and audible tones
which we observe.
Let us now consider the nature of those remarkable
distinctions of musical sounds into grave and acute, on Acoustics,
the combination of which depends the whole charm ofv-^v^*^
music. Every one knows, that in stringed instruments Grave and
this depends entirely on the length and tension of theacute
string, as is well observed in the violin. By shorteningsounils'
the strings with the fingers, we obtain notes always more
and more acute ; and by tightening the strings with the
pins at their extremities, we produce the same effect. In
different strings, also, another circumstance has a sensible
effect, namely, the thickness or mass of the string: the
greater this is, the sound is the more grave, and the less
the more acute. All these effects are very clearly ob¬
served, and proved with mathematical accuracy, by means
of an instrument termed the monochord or sonometer;
which is an apparatus contrived for stretching different
strings and causing them to sound by vibration, with
props or bridges to vary their lengths, and weights sus¬
pended to vary and measure the different tensions, the vi¬
brations of the strings being communicated to a hollow
box of thin elastic wood, to augment the sound. Fig. 2.
represents the instrument in an upright form, which is best
adapted for experiment with tension, because the weight
can be applied directly under the string without friction.
Fig. 3. is a horizontal form: the weight here is applied over
a pulley, and therefore the tension cannot be so very ac¬
curately measured. It answers, however, better for some
other kinds of experiments, in regard to the length of the
strings and the subordinate vibrations. Whichever of
these forms of the instrument be used, we obtain invari¬
ably the same results. The more weight we apply to
stretch any of the chords, the more acute does the sound
become. If we lengthen the strings again in any degree,
the more grave does the sound become; and the same
takes place if we substitute a heavy for a light string. It is
very remarkable, however, that if we examine these effects
carefully, and apply the aid of mathematical investigation,
they all resolve into one general law. Adding to the
weight and tension on the strings, shortening their length
and diminishing their weight, have all the same common
effect; namely, to quicken their vibrations. It is on the
single circumstance, therefore, of the quickness or slow¬
ness of the vibrations of the strings, in whatever way it is
produced, that the acuteness or gravity of the tones de¬
pends. This, then, is the great law on which all the
gradations of musical notes depend: quicken the vibra¬
tions of the chord by any means, and we are sure to sharpen
the tone in the very same proportion: make the vibrations
slower in any way, and in the same proportion does the
tone become more grave. The above circumstances, how¬
ever, do not all alter the rate of vibration in the same de¬
gree. If we shorten or lengthen the string, the vibrations
are quickened or slackened, and consequently the tones
made more acute or grave in the very same proportion;
that is, a string half the length of another just makes
double the number of vibrations in the same time, and one
one-third of the length three times ; one double the length,
again, makes half the number of vibrations, and one triple
the length one-third of the number. The effect of the
tension, again, and the weight of the strings, follows a
different law. If we load one string with double the
weight of another, it does not double the number of vibra¬
tions : it requires four times the weight to do this, and
nine times the weight to triple the number; the quickness
being in all cases in proportion to the square root of the
weight. The effect of the weight of the string follows
a similar law; one string requiring four times the mass
of another to make its vibrations in half the time, and nine
times this to make them in one-third of the time. So
that if we denote the length of the string by L, the weight
110
ACOUSTICS.
Acoustics, of a lineal inch by W, and the weight or force of tension by
T, then the number of vibrations, N, in a given time will be
in proportion to
On this law depends the construction of all kinds of
stringed instruments, and the adjustment of the length,
magnitude, and tension of the strings, to produce the
tones that we wish in the instrument, without over¬
straining the materials, or making them any way liable to
go out of tune. Accurate experiments, however, are want-
in«- to apply with success the above formula to actual
practice. On the above principle, also, of the velocity of
the vibrations regulating the tone of every sound, de¬
pends entirely the system of our musical scale, as well
as all those combinations of sound which constitute
concord or harmony in music. Eveiy one knows, that
if with any sound we strike its octave at the same time,
the two coalesce so completely together as to form al¬
most a single continued note, which in music forms the
most perfect concord. Now the octave above is emitted
from that string whose vibrations are exactly double in
number to the original note. The vibrations of the latter,
therefore, must coincide completely with the former at
every other vibration. The impression of both thesereaches
the ear at the very same instant, and thus the two sounds
are blended into one. The intermediate sound of the
octave which intervenes between these is hardly perceiv¬
ed, owing to the rapidity of their succession; and as it
also recurs at regular intervals, it does not interrupt the
harmony, but rather contributes to give fulness and rich¬
ness to the combined tone. The same thing takes place,
though in a less degree, with the double, the triple, and
other octaves, and with all the different sounds which
form concords together; and the more frequently the two
sounds unite, the more perfect in every case is the con¬
cord. When they do not unite but at sensible intervals,
there is then produced at each of these a distinct rise in
the sound, which becomes suddenly louder from the union
of the two, and then diminishes as they begin to separate,
producing a succession of swells, or beats, as they are
termed in music. The intervals between these beats are
filled up by the vibrations of the two sounds occurring,
first one and then the other; and as they form on the
whole a very irregular succession of impressions, they pro¬
duce a jarring effect, which grates on the ear. These
combined sounds are hence termed discords. All this
will be readily understood by an example or two, and a
figure. Take first the fundamental tone and its octave;
let the vibrations of each which produce the continued
sound be represented by dots, as at Fig. 4 ; and when the
two sounds concur, let this be denoted by dots larger in
size: then the succession of impressions will be as at
Fig. 5, where we have a regular succession of beats, re¬
curring in such rapid succession that the ear can only
distinguish a single sound. The octave also intervenes,
but quite regularly, and also in such rapid succession,
that it seems rather to heighten than to mar the general
harmony. In the same manner, Fig. 6. represents the
union of the fundamental sound and its double octave;
which is the same system, only the beats are at wider in¬
tervals, and the intermediate octaves double in number.
Take now two sounds, the number of whose vibrations
are to each other as 2 to 3; that is, suppose one of them
performs its vibrations in two very small parts of a
second, and the other in three. If we take the annexed
scale to represent the parts of a second, we easily form
the series of sounds and of beats at Fig. 7. We have still,
it will be seen, a regular succession of beats, but the in¬
termediate single sounds do not recur at regular intervals.
TVe have first an interval of two parts of a second; then we Acoustics,
have three sounds succeeding each other during the other
three parts; and then an interval of two parts between that
and the beat. There is obviously, therefore, a tendency
to discord; but the whole series occurs in such rapid suc¬
cession that the effect on the ear is quite harmonious.
Take now the proportion of 5 to 7. Here, as at Fig. 8,
we have a regular succession of beats, but we have no
fewer than ten intermediate single sounds, and these suc¬
ceeding each other in a very irregular manner. We have
all the elementsof discord, therefore; and accordingly the
union of these two sounds would be sure to grate on the
ear, unless they were of so high a pitch that the beats
should become inaudible. These would then produce, as
before, a continued sound; and the effect of the interme¬
diate ones would be in some degree, but not altogether,
lost: we might have a concord, but not a very perfect
one. It hence appears obvious why the union of some
notes, which on a grave key are discordant, become har¬
monious by raising sufficiently the pitch. In the same
manner, in every other case the greater the intervals be¬
tween the successive conjunctions of the sounds, and the
more irregular the succession of the intermediate impres¬
sion, the greater will be the discord.
Such are the effects of combined sounds; but it is ex¬
tremely remarkable that every single sound, besides its
fundamental note, yields also spontaneously various others
of the most perfect concord with it, but all higher, and
each rising successively in pitch, so that they have hence
received the name of Acute Harmonics. This curious
and important fact, first noticed by Galileo, to whom also
we are indebted for the theory of musical strings, has
since excited much attention among succeeding philoso¬
phers, as well as among those skilled in the practice of
music. In stringed instruments, it is best observed in
the low notes of the piano-forte or violoncello. These
were formerly thought to emit one simple uniform tone.
An attentive ear, however, as is now universally allowed
by musicians, can actually discover three others besides
the original, viz. the octave above, the twelfth, and the
double octave. This was first distinctly proved by Ra¬
meau ; and the experiment is easily tried by striking one
of the low keys, and withdrawing the finger briskly;
then, after the fundamental note has ceased, the three
shriller ones will be heard. The octave being in some
measure blended with the original note, is not so. easily
perceived, except by an ear habituated to the minutest
discrimination of sound. But with ordinary attention the
twelfth and the double octave are heard distinctly.
Nothing in the whole science of Acoustics has given rise
to so much speculation and varied discussion as this singu¬
lar property of musical strings. It would appear at first
sight to overturn the whole doctrine we have been laying
down regarding the effect of the rapidity of the vibrations
in regulating the tone ; for here we have the same string
yielding at once a diversity of notes, varying in a wide
gradation from grave to acute. Can it be possible
that the string, besides one principal series of vibrations
from end to end, may at the same time execute vibrations
among its parts, throwing itself, as in Fig.Q, into two, three,
or four subdivisions; and the whole string, as it oscillates
between its extremities, serving as a movable axis on
which such partial vibrations may be at the same time
performed ? This appeared at first so extraordinary and
wild a conjecture, that it was long ere it could meet with
any serious attention among philosophers, far less be ad¬
mitted as an accurate view of what really takes place. It
was rather ascribed to something unconnected with the
string; some referring the production of these harmonic
A C O U
Acoustics, notes to the structure of the ear, and the mode in which
it receives the impression of the fundamental note;
others, as the celebrated Lagrange, (to whom, along
with our countryman Taylor, and Bernoulli, Euler, and
D’Alembert, we owe the whole theory of the curves assum¬
ed by the vibration of musical strings,) supposed that
they arose from sympathetic vibrations excited in the dif¬
ferent bodies adjacent to the string, but without attempt¬
ing to give any reason why these affections should always
excite notes more acute than the fundamental. The pos¬
sibility of these partial vibrations, however, was clearly
proved by Daniel Bernoulli; and, however curious it may
seem, the fact has now been established by many conclu¬
sive experiments and observations. That strings are cap¬
able of vibrating in this way, we may be convinced, from
the following considerations. If we take any string, and
withdraw it from the straight line by applying the finger,
not to the centre, but nearer to one of the ends, so as to
bring it into the position ABC, Fig. 10, then it will on
the other side assume the position ADC, in every way
the reverse of the first, as is easily proved by experiment.
In general, the vibrations are so quick that they cannot
be perceived by the eye ; but if the finger be held op¬
posite to B, or in any other part between A and C, it will
be found that the vibration is nowhere so great as at D.
In the same manner, if we apply both fingers in opposite
directions, and at equal distances from the extremities, so
as to draw the string into the position A B D C, the cen¬
tre E remaining unchanged, then, on the other side, it
will assume the position A 6 E C; and as the central
point E continues all the time immovable, it is evident
that the whole string will continue vibrating partially, in
the very same manner as if it had been composed of two
strings, each half the length, and fixed at E. This point E is
hence generally termed a node, or nodal point. In the same
way, by applying the moving forces at other different
points, the string may be made to perform three, four, or
any greater number of partial vibrations, in relation to so
many intermediate nodal points, Fig. 12; and it is not
difficult to conceive, therefore, how, by the application of
certain forces, the whole string may be performing its
oscillations from end to end, while at the same time it
may be agitated internally by two, three, or more partial
vibrations ; and this is proved by actual experiment. If we
take a piece of common twine about fifteen or twenty feet
long, and stretch it between two fixed points rather loose¬
ly ;—if we then cause it to vibrate by the middle, it merely
makes the ordinary vibrations ; but if we apply our force
to withdraw it from the straight line near one of the ex¬
tremities, we can then see distinctly, besides its principal
vibrations, a series of subordinate ones going on throughout
its whole length. It is remarkable also that strings of this
kind are extremely susceptible of these subordinate vibra¬
tions. When the string is vibrating regularly between
its extremities, the slightest deranging circumstance is
sufficient to excite and to superinduce the partial actions;
as appears very distinctly in an experiment contrived by
Mr Hawkins of London, by stretching between two bridges
a long and spirally coiled brass wire, the spirals being
about the diameter of a quill, and extended considerably
more than those of a cork-screw. The tension was such as
hardly to emit any sound, but to leave the vibrations when
touched quite visible to the eye. If, when the whole string
is vibrating, we oppose a slight obstacle, say at the middle,
the string then instantly divides itself into two, and along
with its principal vibration performs two others between
the centre and each extremity. If the obstacle—and even
a puff of wind from the mouth is sufficient—be placed at
the distance of one-fourth the length of the string from
STICS. in
either extremity, then it divides itself into four, and along Acoustics,
with its principal vibration performs four others ; and so^-^v^^-
on, according to whatever aliquot part of the string the
obstacle be presented ; the latter always subdividing itself
into the same number of parts, and performing a series of
subordinate vibrations between each, which can often be
observed and heard for several minutes accompanying
the principal one. The same effects are beautifully ob¬
served, as was first shown by Professor Robison, by means
of a monochord sounded by an ivory wheel. When the
string was vibrating simply, if its middle point was then
touched slightly with a quill, this point instantly stopped,
but the string continued to vibrate in two parts, sounding
the octave; and the same thing happened if it was
touched at one-third,—it then divided itself into three
parts, with two nodal points, and sounded the twelfth;
and any thing soft, such as a lock of cotton, put in the
way of the wide vibrations of the string, was sufficient to
produce the effect.
From these facts and observations, therefore, no doubt
can remain that the acute harmonics accompanying the
fundamental note arise entirely from these partial vibra¬
tions, of which every string appears to be so suscep¬
tible. But one important question still remains, and has
never yet received any satisfactory solution; namely,
what are the circumstances which determine these par¬
tial vibrations so generally in every string ? Very slight ob¬
stacles are no doubt sufficient, but still there must be some
particular causes to determine every string to divide itself
so regularly into two, three, four, or more parts; exe¬
cuting in such regular succession the vibration peculiar to
each. Inequalities in the densities or thicknesses of the
different parts of the strings have been suggested as a
probable reason; but this appears quite inadequate to pro¬
duce effects so very constant in their operation, and which
besides occur, let the string or wire be ever so uniform
in its texture. This subject requires further examination,
and the trial of several experiments. The only probable
circumstance to which we can ascribe these effects consists
in the re-action of the supports to which the extremities of
the strings are attached. It is well known, that when two
strings in the same instrument are tuned to the same
note, if one of them be struck, the other begins to vibrate,
and to sound at the same time. Strings differing by an
octave have the same effect; and even those differing more
in tone, yet appear to act and to re-act on each other.
These effects have usually been ascribed to the action of the
air, communicating the vibrations from one string to another.
This, however, is not the case, as is proved by a simple
experiment. If we stretch two similar strings on two
different boards, and tune them to the same note; then if
we detach the one wholly from the other, the vibrations of
the one do not in the least affect those of the other, let
them be even brought quite close together. But the
moment we place the boards in contact with each other,
though the strings themselves be thereby farther separated
than before, yet the one vibrates uniformly in sympathy
with the other ; and the moment the boards are again de¬
tached, the eftect ceases. It is clear, therefore, that the
vibrations of the one string are communicated to those of
the other, not through the medium of the air, but through
that of the wood ; and this can only take place by means
of the vibrations of the one string communicating through
the supports to the wood. This agitates the supports of
the other string, and these giving at first a very slight
vibrating motion to the extremities, this gradually increases
as it is continued, until the whole string is made to vibrate
with the other. Instead of the effect, therefore, proceed¬
ing from the middle of the string to either extremity, as
112 A C Q
Acoustics would be the case with aerial pulses, it is just the reverse.
II When once the motion is begun, the aerial undulations
Acqs. may certainly aid and augment the effect; but this, with-
v out doubt, originates at the extremities of the strings, and
from these is communicated to the centre. That strings
in unison with each other should vibrate in this manner
more readily than any other, is quite easily accounted for;
because in that case the vibrations of the one, however
they may be produced, are quite isochronous with those of
the other: they are more readily excited, therefore, because
when they are once begun, however minute they may be at
first, they yet harmonize exactly with the other, and every
succeeding impulse from it justarrives in the proper time to
augment the effect of the preceding, until the two motions
become exactly alike. Were the string not isochronous,
the succeeding impulses might tend sometimes to augment
and sometimes to diminish the effect of the preceding ones;
so that no sensible vibration would take place, as really hap¬
pens with all discordant strings. With octaves, however, and
other concords, the vibrations are still produced, because
the vibrations of the fundamental note always concur
with those at certain intervals, and at others do not oppose
them. All these effects are very similar to what occurs
in the motion of pendulums ; a very slight impulse is suffi¬
cient to put a large pendulum into very wide vibrations,
if it be often repeated, and always at the proper time to aug¬
ment and not oppose the motion already communicated.
Here it is that pendulums swinging in the same frame
affect wonderfully the vibrations of each other, exactly
like musical strings in the same instrument. If when two
isochronous pendulums are at rest one of them be set in
motion, in a short time the other commences to vibrate, in
a very slight degree at first, but always increasing and in¬
creasing, until at last its oscillations become quite as wide
as the other. This effect arises entirely from the vibrations
of the one pendulum communicating through the wood
very slight impulses to the axis or centre on which the
other moves. This sets it in motion, and the impulses
being constantly repeated and properly timed, excite at
last vibrations as wide as the original. In a similar man¬
ner it is that one string causes another in the same instru¬
ment to vibrate, by means of the supports on which it is
stretched; and if this be the case so remarkably in dif¬
ferent strings, may not the vibrations of any single string
re-act on itself through its own supports, and thus excite
all those secondary vibrations which produce the acute har¬
monics ? The string being first struck in the centre, the
fundamental note must first of all be emitted. But the
vibration of this agitating the supports at each extre¬
mity, these must necessarily re-act upon the string it¬
self, must modify the original central impulse, and ex¬
cite all those subordinate vibrations which are observed.
„ That this is the true cause of these partial actions, and con¬
sequently of all those varied tones which they excite, appears
extremely probable. But experiments, as we observed,
are wanting to demonstrate these effects satisfactorily.
Such, then, are the singular phenomena of the acute
harmonics, and of the subordinate vibrations of strings
from whence they arise. Whatever be the cause of these,
no doubt whatever can remain of the fact itself; and it is
to this circumstance that we must perhaps ascribe much
of that agreeable effect, so pleasing to the ear, which
A c Q
we experience in the tones of our musical instruments. Acoustics
Regularity of succession may determine a certain pitch II
in the sound; but it is from the harmonic tones ming- ctlqe^en'
ling together, and blending with the gravity of the ori-
ginal note, that appears to arise all that sweetness and
rich melody which so peculiarly belongs to them. Hence
also we can now understand the reason of the musical ef¬
fect arising from the sound of thin plates, cups, or bells:
in all these, when they are examined minutely, we observe
numerous vibrations among the parts; the substance of the
plate dividing itself into various subdivisions, separated
by nodal lines, between which all the parts are thrown into
vibration. Hence arise a variety of harmonious notes; and
these mingling together, produce that highly musical ef¬
fect which we observe. It is to Professor Chladni that
we owe a variety of curious facts regarding these vibra¬
tions of plates; which he observed by strewing them with
fine sand: the nodal points and lines were then shown
by the sand throwing itself from all the vibrating parts,
and accumulating in little heaps along the lines which
divide the vibrating surface, and where, therefore, there
was no agitation at all. Squares of plate glass are well
adapted for showing these effects. If we hold these by
the centre in a sort of small wooden vice, as at Fig. 13,
and then cause them to sound by drawing a bow along
any of the edges, which are smoothed for the purpose
with emery, the gravest tone is produced by applying
the bow to one of the angles; and then the sand assumes
the figure represented in Fig. 14. The tone next to this
in graveness is produced by applying the bow to the mid¬
dle of one of the sides; and then the sand assumes the
figure represented in Fig. 15. By varying the points of ap¬
plication in this manner, and the figure of the plates, we
obtain many other figures and curves for the nodal lines ;
such as Fig. 16, 17, 18, 19, &c. These effects are ex¬
tremely curious and interesting: they are also very beau¬
tifully exhibited by plates of paper or other flexible mem¬
branes, stretched on frames like those of a drum or tam¬
bourine. But we must refer for further details on this
subject to the Traite d'Acomtique of Chladni.
Besides the lateral vibrations above described, of
strings, membranes, and plates, all these bodies are cap¬
able of vibrating longitudinally, and of emitting sounds
which are in general much more acute than the others,
and are regulated in their pitch by the length of the rods
or strings. In this manner even the air itself, confined in
a tube or pipe, is made to vibrate regularly, and to emit mu¬
sical tones ; and from this source arises another extensive
and very important class of sounds, namely, those which
are produced by the various kinds of wind-instruments,
and of which also the tones of the human voice and of
that of different animals present interesting examples.
One is apt to imagine that the sound of a pipe or flute is
emitted from the wood or other material of which it is
composed ; it really, however, arises from the cylinder of
inclosed air, which is thrown into vibration by the current
of air striking against the reed of the pipe, or against the
sides of the hole in the plate. For a particular account
of this class of sounds, see Organ, Trumpet, &c. ; and for
a more particular account of the scale, and of musical har¬
mony, see Harmonics, Music, Temperament.
(g. b.)
ACQS, or AX, a town at the foot of the Pyrenean moun¬
tains, in the department of Ariege, and 20 miles south-east
of Foix, in France. It takes its name from the hot waters
in these parts. Pop. 1991.
ACQUAPENDENTE, a pretty large town of Italy, in
the territory of the Church and patrimony of St Peter,
with a bishop’s see. It is seated on a mountain near the
river Paglia, 10 miles west of Orvieto, and 57 north by
A C R A C R 113
Acquara west of Rome. It takes its name from a fall of water near
ll it, and is now almost desolate. Lat. 42. 46. N. Long.
Acre- .11.52. E.
ACQUARA, a Neapolitan town, in the province of Ca¬
labria Citra. Pop. 2263.
ACQUARIA, a small town of Italy, in Frigana, a dis¬
trict of Modena, which is remarkable for its medicinal waters.
It is 18 miles south-west of the city of Modena.
ACQU AY IV A, a walled Neapolitan town, in the province
of Terra di Bari, about 18 miles S.S.W. from Bari. Pop.
5400; has two hospitals, and a Monte di Pietd.
ACQUI, one of the provinces into which the continental
dominions of the king of Sardinia are divided. It is bounded
on the north-east by Alessandria, on the south-east and
south by Genoa, on the south-west by Mondovi, on the west
by Alba, and on the north-west by Asti. The extent is 444
square miles, or 284,160 acres. In the north the mountains
decline to a fine undulating plain, watered by the rivers
Bormida, Orba, Erro, and Belba, which in the adjoining pro¬
vince fall into the Tanaro, and then join the Po. The land
is productive, and yields wheat, garden vegetables, wine,
fruit, chestnuts, and much silk. Some cattle are bred and
fattened; but the chief call for labour is in winding and
throwing the silk. There are a few mines of iron and of
some other minerals, but all inconsiderable. This province,
which formerly was Upper Montferrat, contains two cities,
81 towns and villages, and nine hamlets, with a population
amounting, in 1848, to 101,202 persons.
Acqui, a town of Italy, in the province of that name, with
a bishop’s see and commodious baths. It was taken by the
Spaniards in 1745, and retaken by the Piedmontese in 1746;
but after this it was taken again and dismantled by the
French, who afterwards forsook it. It is seated on the river
Bormida, 25 miles north-west of Genoa, and 30 south of
Casal. Long. 8. 32. E. Lat. 44. 41. N.
ACRA, a considerable country near the eastern extre¬
mity of the Gold Coast of Africa. It is fertile and healthy,
and the inhabitants are of a more polished and civilized charac¬
ter than the majority of those found upon that coast. While
the slave-trade was carried on with activity, there was a great
resort of the European nations to Acra, and the factories
established by them, Fort James by the English, Crevecceur
by the Dutch, and Christiansborg by the Danes, were the
centre of an extensive trade. Acra has now greatly de¬
clined ; and it may be considered, along with the rest of the
coast, as dependent upon Dahomey. Adams considers this
country as the boundary of the gold trade on the one side,
and the ivory trade on the other; and sharing to a certain
degree in both, though not to the same extent with some
other districts.
Acra, in Ancient Geography, one of the hills of Jeru¬
salem, on which stood the lower town, which was the old
Jerusalem ; to which was afterwards added Zion, or the City
of David. It was probably called Acra, from the fortress
which Antiochus built there in order to annoy the temple,
and which Simon Maccabeus took and razed to the ground.
Acra Japygia, in Ancient Geography, called Scdentia by
Ptolemy ; now Capo di Leuca : a promontory in the king¬
dom of Naples, the southernmost point of Otranto.
ACRAGAS, or Agragas, in Ancient Geography, so
called by the Greeks, and sometimes by the Romans, but
more generally Agrigentum by the latter; a town on the
south coast of Sicily. See Agrigentum.
ACRASI A, among Physicians, implies the predominancy
of one quality above another, either with regard to artificial
mixtures, or the humours of the human body. The. word
is Greek, and compounded of a, privative, and Kepavwfu, to
mix ; q. d. not mixed in a just proportion.
ACRE, or Akka, or Accho, a town and seaport of Pales-
VOL. II.
tine, in the pachalic of Acre, and in ancient times a cele- Acre-
brated city, called Ptolemais, from Ptolemy, king of Egypt.
It was named Acra from its fortifications; and by the
knights of St John of Jerusalem it was called St John
d’Acre. No town has experienced greater changes from
political revolutions and the calamities of war. It has been
successively possessed by Alexander s successors, who ruled
in Egypt, by the Romans, the Saracens, the Christian cru¬
saders, and finally by the Turks. According to some tra¬
vellers, this city was the Accho of the Scriptures, one of the
strongholds of which the Israelites could not dispossess the
Canaanites; and in confirmation of this supposition, Mr
Buckingham, who visited Acre in 1816, found in the ditches
which they were then digging around the wall, fragments
of houses which bore marks of the highest antiquity; con¬
sisting of that highly sun-burnt brick, with a mixture ot
cement and sand, which was only used in buildings con¬
structed in the remotest ages. It is only, however, during
its possession by Ptolemy, and when it was called Ptolemais,
that history gives any certain account of it. It was known
during those ancient times to be a great city ; and although
no perfect monument of its grandeur now remains, yet
throughout the modern town are seen fine marble and gra¬
nite pillars, used at the thresholds of door-ways, or in other
parts of ordinary buildings, or lying neglected on the ground.
When the empire of the Romans began to extend over Asia,
Ptolemais came into their possession ; and it yielded in like
manner to the growing power of the Saracens. T hey were
expelled from it in 1110 by the crusaders, who retained it
until 1187, when it was recovered by Saladin, sultan of
Egypt. In 1191 it was retaken by Richard I. of England and
Philip of France, who purchased this conquest by the sacri¬
fice of 100,000 troops. They gave the town to the knights of
St John of Jerusalem, and it afterwards became the princi¬
pal scene of contest between the crusaders and the Sara¬
cens. It was at this time a large and extensive city, on the
direct route to Jerusalem, and a place of great resort. It
was accordingly populous and wealthy, and contained nu¬
merous churches, convents, and hospitals, of which no traces
now remain. The city was under a peculiar system of go¬
vernment, being ruled by all the Christian powers both of
Europe and Asia, 19 of whom exercised independent autho¬
rity within its bounds. It was taken by the Saracens after
a bloody siege in 1291, during which it suffered severely,
and afterwards fell into decay. Under their dominion it re¬
mained till 1517, when it fell into the hands of the Turkish
sultan, Selim I. So late as the year 1696, Maundrell, who
visited it, states that it had never recovered from its last
overthrow; and that, with the exception of the residences
of the French factors, a mosque, and a few poor cottages, it
presented a vast and spacious scene of ruin. After this
period Acre again became a considerable city, and was
much strengthened and improved. It is memorable in mo¬
dern history for the gallantry with which it was defended in
1799 by the Turks, animated by the example and advice of
Sir Sydney Smith, against Bonaparte, who, after spending
sixty-one days before it, was obliged to retreat. It was
afterwards strongly fortified by Jezzar Pacha, and continued
to enjoy an increasing degree of prosperity till 1832. Though
fettered by imposts and monopolies, it carried on a con¬
siderable foreign trade, and had resident consuls from most
of the great states of Europe. During its siege by Ibrahim
Pacha in the winter of 1831—32, which lasted five months
and twenty-one days, its public and private buildings were
mostly destroyed. The only one that escaped uninjured was
the fountain of Djezzar. Its fortifications were subsequently
repaired and improved; but on the 3d November 1840,
the town was reduced to ruins by a three hours’ bombard¬
ment from the British fleet, acting as the allies of the sultan.
(
114
Acre.
ACRE.
The town is situate at the extremity of a plain on the
1 edge of the sea-shore, and at the point of a bay formed by
the promontory of Mount Carmel on the south-west, and
the termination of the plain itself on the north-east. This
bay faces the north-west, and from Cape Carmel to the city
it may be about ten miles across. The bay affords no shel¬
ter in bad weather, being open to the north-west winds,
which blow violently on the coast; and the port of Acre is
a small hollow basin behind a ruined mole, scarcely capable
of containing a dozen boats. Vessels coming to this coast,
therefore, either to load or discharge their cargoes, generally
frequent the road of Caipha, a place of anchorage on the
south side of the bay, near which the river Kishon flows into
the sea. Acre is now the chief mart for the cotton of Syria,
and the principal commercial nations of Europe have con¬
suls here. It is 80 miles N.N.W. of Jerusalem, and 27 S.
of Tyre. Long. 36. 6. E. Eat. 32. 56. N.
Acre, a measure of superficies, and the principal deno¬
mination of land-measure in use throughout the whole of
Great Britain. The word (formed from the Saxon acher,
or the German after, a field) did not originally signify a de¬
terminate quantity of land, but any open ground, especially a
wide campaign ; and in this antique sense it seems to be pre¬
served in the names of places, as Castle-acre, West-acre, &c.
The English standard acre, now the imperial acre of Britain,
is formed by raising a square of which the basis is the chain of
66 feet, or 22 yards, or l-80th of a mile ; and ten of these
squares form the acre, which thus contains 4840 square yards.
This is divided into roods, of which there are four in the
acre; and into poles or perches, of which there are 40 in
each rood, or 160 in the acre. The rood will thus measure
1210 square yards, and the pole 30|- square yards, according
to the following table, which contains also other denomina¬
tions useful to be compared with the acre.
Inches.
62726
144
1296
39204
627264
1568160
6272640
Links.
2-295
20-661
625
10000
25000
100000
Feet.
272J
4356
10890
43560
Yards.
301;
484
1210 40
Poles
or
Perch.
1
16
Chains
4840 ! 160
10
Roods,
1
The above is the standard acre of England; but various
customary acres are in use throughout the different counties,
deviating considerably from this standard both in excess and
defect, though all of them are now illegal since the act 5
George IV., which establishes the same standard throughout
the whole kingdom. In Bedfordshire, it is sometimes only
two roods; Cheshire, formerly, and still in some places,
10,240 square yards; Cornwall, sometimes 5760 yards;
Dorsetshire, generally 134 perches; Hampshire, from 107
to 120 perches, but sometimes 180; Herefordshire, two-
thirds of a statute acre. The acre for hops contains 1000
plants, and is only equal to half a statute acre; for wood,
again, it is 256 perches. Leicestershire, 2308| square yards;
Lincolnshire, five roods, particularly for copyhold land; Staf¬
fordshire, nearly 2]- acres; Sussex, 107, 110, 120, 130, or
212 perches; the short acre 100 or 120 perches, the forest
acre 180 perches. Westmoreland, 6760 square yards, or
160 perches of 6| yards square ; in some parts the Irish acre
is used: Worcester, the hop acre, of 1000 stocks, 90 perches,
sometimes 132 or 141 perches.
In North Wales, the Erw or true acre is 4320 square
yards, the Stang or customary acre 3240 square yards, as in
Anglesea and Caernarvonshire, making 5ij Llathen, — 160
perches of 4J yards square, called paladr: 8 acres make an
ox-land, and 8 of these a plough-land, in Pembrokeshire.
In South Wales the Erw varies greatly with the perch;
sometimes this is nine feet square, 160 perches making one
stangell, and four stangells one erw of 5760 yards ; some¬
times 10^ feet square, making a quart or quarter of a Hath,
40 of which make a stangell, and four stangells an erw, which
is thus 7840 yards, equal to the Irish acre; sometimes 11
feet, called bat or eglwys haw, making the erw 9384 yards,
as in Glamorganshire, one-fifth more = 11,261 yards;
sometimes lU feet, called a Hath, 48 making a quarter cy-
var, and four cyvars an erw of 11, < 76 yards ; lastly, 12 feet,
giving an erw of 10,240 yards, equal to the Staffordshire
acre.
Nothing can show more clearly than the existence of such
numerous and useless diversities, the necessity of the late
act for establishing a uniform standard throughout Great
Britain, and which only requires to be enforced with strict¬
ness to abolish for ever every other measure. In Scotland
the acre is much more uniform, scarcely deviating in any
part more than one per cent, from the standard. It is raised
from the chain of 24 ells; and by the verdict of the jury as¬
sembled at Edinburgh on the 4th February 1826, to deter¬
mine the proportion between the existing measures and the
imperial, the ell was found, according to an accurate measure¬
ment made by Mr Jardine, civil engineer, 37-0598 inches,
making the chain 74-1196 feet, and the acre 6104 square
yards and -12789, &c. decimals of a yard. It is considerably^
larger, therefore, than the imperial acre; and as the act of
uniformity establishes this latter in its stead, it makes an im¬
portant change throughout Scotland, and it becomes neces¬
sary to know exactly the proportions between them. The
imperial, we have seen, contains 4840 square yards, while
the Scottish contains 6104-12789, &c. They are to each
other, therefore, as 1 is to 1-26118345; so that 1000 acres
Scottish are equal to 1261-18345 imperial; and in every
case, to convert Scottish into imperial, multiply by the frac¬
tion 1-26118345: such minuteness, however, is seldom re¬
quired in practice. A ready and very accurate approximation
will be obtained by reckoning one acre Scottish equal to five
quarters imperial, and -g^th part more, This will give the
value of the acre almost to one-fourth of a square yard in
defect. Hence we have this general rule: To convert Scot¬
tish acres into imperial, add one-fourth ; and if that is not
sufficiently minute, add f^th more. Take, for example,
1000 acres, add one-fourth or 250, and we have 1250;
add still -g^th, or 11, and we have 1261. This rule is ob¬
tained by expressing the above fraction in a series of which
we take only the first three terms. It is one acre Scottish
= 1 + i + +T4^oo, &c. acres imperial. By a simi¬
lar rule, it is easy to convert the Scottish money rates or
prices of land into imperial: we have only to multiply the
Scottish prices by the fraction 0*792906, the reciprocal of
the other ; or deduct one-fifth from the price, and for greater
accuracy -xkfh more ; or what is still simpler, deduct 20^
per cent, or 4s. \^d. in the pound from the Scottish prices.
An estate of 1000 acres, for example, is to be let at 30s.
per acre: What is the rent per imperial acre ? Deduct
4s. 1-|<1. and the half of it for the additional 10s., and we
have 6s. 2|d. less, or on the whole 23s. 9|d. These rules
will apply in every practical case; and for very particular
and extremely accurate purposes, recourse must be had to
the original fraction 0"792906 and 1-26118345.
Such are the relations of the Scottish standard acre to the
imperial; but until of late years, it was the practice of land-
surveyors to measure with a chain of 74 feet and 4-10ths o!
Acre.
A C R
Acre
Acrido-
piiagi.
a foot in length, the length of the ell having been erroneously
estimated at 37 inches and 2-10ths of an inch. This prac¬
tice increased the acre from 6104-13448 to 6150*4 square
f yards; it made the ratio of this acre to the imperial as 1 to
1-27074, &c. ; or we may reckon one acre equal to five
quarters imperial, and ^th more.
When this error in the length of the chain came to be
discovered, surveyors took to the chain of exactly 74 feet;
this length being recommended by the round number, and
the nearer approach to the standard. By it the acre con¬
tains only 6084-4444, &c. yards; it is to the imperial acre
as 1 to 1-25711662, &c. or we make one of these acres equal
to five quarters imperial, and T^th more.
In Ireland the perch, of which the acre contains as usual
160, is a square of seven yards. The acre, therefore, con¬
tains 7840 square yards. See Weights and Measures ;
Parliamentary Reports of the Commissioners of Weights
and Measures; Act 5 Geo. IV.; and Buchanan’s Tables
of Weights and Measures, where the conversions are all given
by inspection. (G. b.)
The following table contains the principal foreign land mea¬
sures, with their equivalents in Imperial measurement.
France,
Amsterdam,
Berlin,
Dantzic,
Hamburg,
Nuremberg,
Hanover,
Prussia,
Rhineland,
Zurich,.
Saxony,
Spain,
Russia,
Sweden,
Switzerland,
Tuscany,
Vienna,
Naples,
Rome,
Portugal,
Are
Hectare,
Arpent, great,
Arpent, small,
Morgen,
Morgen, large,
Morgen, small,
Morgen,
Morgen,
Scheffel of corn lan
Morgen, corn land,
Morgen, meadow,
Morgen,
Morgen,
Morgen,
Acre, common,
Acre, wood,
Acre, meadow,
Acre,
Fanegada, for corn land,
Arranzada, for vineyards
Dessetina,
Tuneland,
Faux,
Quadrate,
Joch,
Moggia, .
Pezza,
Geira,
Acres.
0
Roods.
0
1
1
3
0
1
Perches.
3-9538
35-38
1-92
15- 18
1-38
24-32
20- 95
19- 99
21- 64
6-
26- 90
4-09
22- 47
20- 92
16- 69
811
22-35
33-88
17- 85
21- 81
32-82
31-95
35-04
19-66
14-67
27- 73
1216
24-40
1 Voyage to
the Cape,
30-41
Tn the United States of America the imperial acre is used. The
Roman jugerum was somewhat larger than half an imperial acre,
containing 2 roods, 19 perches, 189 square feet. Two jugera
formed a heredium, so called from its being the quantity of land
originally assigned to each Roman citizen; a hundred heredia
formed a centuria, and four centuriae a saltus. The Greek plethron
consisted of 4 arurae, and was equal to 37 perches, 153 square feet.
AcRE-Fight, an old sort of duel fought by English and
Scottish combatants, between the frontiers of their kingdoms,
with sword and lance : it was also called camp-fight, and the
combatants champions, from the open field being the stage
of trial.
ACRIBEIA, a term purely Greek, literally denoting
an exquisite or delicate accuracy; sometimes used in our
language, for want of a word of equal signification.
ACRIDOPHAGI, in Ancient Geography, an Ethiopian
people, represented as inhabiting near the deserts, and to
have fed on locusts. This latter circumstance their name
imports, the word being compounded of the Greek axpis,
locust, and <£cmo, to eat. Dr Sparrman informs us,1 that
“ Locusts sometimes afford a high treat to the more un-
A c R
115
1 . (ynn       —  O I *1 K.ILX-
0 .i.p,'3bfa-polished and remote hordes of the Hottentots; when, as
sometimes happens, after an interval of 8, 10, 15, or 20 Aci-isius
years, they make their appearance in incredible numbers.” II
The Abbe Poiret, also, in his Memoir on the Insects ^Acrobatica
Barbary and Numidia, informs us that the Moors make  '
locusts a part of their food, that they go to hunt them, fry
them in oil and butter, and sell them publicly at Tunis, at
Bonne, &c. From these accounts, we may see the folly of
that dispute among the divines about the nature of St John’s
food in the wilderness ; some maintaining the original word
to signify the fruit of the carobe tree ; others, a kind of birds,
&c.: but those who adhered to the literal meaning of the text
were at least the most orthodox, although their arguments
were perhaps not so strong as they might have been had they
had an opportunity of quoting such authors as the above.
ACRISIUS, in Fabulous History, king of Argos, being-
told by the oracle that he should be killed by his grandchild,
shut up his only daughter Danae in a brazen tower; but
Jupiter coming down in a golden shower, begot Perseus by
her. Acrisius was accidentally killed by the quoit of Per¬
seus in the games at Larissa, whither he had gone to avoid
the consummation of the prophecy.
ACRITAS, in Ancient Geography, a promontory of
Messenia, running into the sea, and forming the beginning
of the bay of Messene ; now Capo de Gallo.
A C R O AM A, in Antiquity, signified any thing heard, espe¬
cially if it gave pleasure, such as music, plays, or reading, for
the entertainment of guests. The term was also applied to
the performers, and to interludes at the public games.
ACROAMATIC, or Acroatic, in general denotes a
thing sublime, profound, or abstruse.
ACROAMATICI, a denomination given to the disciples
or followers of Aristotle, &c. who were admitted into the
secrets of the inner or acroamatic philosophy.
ACROATIC is a name given to Aristotle’s lectures to his
disciples, which were of two kinds, exoteric and acroatic.
The acroatic were those to which only his own disciples and
intimate friends were admitted; whereas the exoteric were
public and open to all. But there are other differences.
The acroatic were set apart for the higher and more abstruse
subjects; the exoteric were employed in rhetorical and
civil speculations. Again, the acroatics were more subtile
and exact, evidence and demonstration being here aimed at;
the exoterics chiefly aimed at the probable and plausible.
The former were the subject of the morning exercises in the
Lyceum, the latter of the evening. Besides, the exoterics
were published, whereas the acroatics were kept secret, being
either entirely concealed, or, if they were published, it was
in such obscure terms that few but his own disciples could
be the wiser for them. Hence, when Alexander complained
of his preceptor for publishing his acroatics, and thus reveal¬
ing what should have been reserved to his disciples, Aristotle
answered, that they were made public and not public ; for
that none who had not heard them explained by the author
viva voce could understand them.
ACROBATES, \n Antiquity, were rope-dancers, who per¬
formed various feats by vaulting or tumbling on a rope;
sliding down on a rope from a lofty station with arms and
legs extended, in imitation of flying ; and running, dancing,
and leaping, on a rope stretched horizontally.
ACROBA PICA, or Acrobaticum, from axpos, high, and
(Sarew or ftcuvui, I go ; an ancient engine whereby people
were raised aloft, that they might see more conveniently
about them. The acrobatica among the Greeks amounted
to the same with what they call scansorium among the Latins.
Authors are divided as to the use of this engine. Turnebus
and Barbarus take it to have been of the military kind, raised
by besiegers, high enough to overlook the walls and discover
the state of things on the other side. Baldus rather sup¬
poses it a kind of moveable scaffold, or cradle, contrived for
116
A C R
ACT
Acrocer-
aunia
Acropolita.
raising painters, plasterers, and other workmen, to the tops
of houses, trees, &c. Some suspect that it might have been
used for both purposes; which is the opinion of Vitruvius
and Aquinas.
ACROCERAUNIA, or Montes Ceraunii, in Ancient
Geography, mountains so called from their being often struck
by thunder. They are on the western coast ot Greece, and
terminate at a cape in Lat. 40. 25. N.
ACROCHERISMUS, among the Greeks, a sort of gym¬
nastic exercise, in which the two combatants contended with
their hands and fingers only, without closing or engaging the
other parts of the body.
ACROCORINTHUS, in Ancient Geography, a high
and steep hill overhanging the city of Corinth, on which
was built the acropolis, or citadel. Height 1885 feet.
ACRODUS, a genus of Placoid fossil Fish, established by
Agassiz.
ACROGASTER, a fossil genus of Placoid Fishes.—
Agassiz.
ACROGENS (\.e, point growers), a botanical term ap¬
plied to arborescent ferns, &c. that increase only at the top.
ACROGNATHUS, a fossil genus of Cycloid Fishes.—
Agassiz.
ACROLEPIS, a fossil genus of Ganoid Fishes.—
Agassiz.
ACROLITH, a statue, with the head and extremities
of stone, the trunk being usually made of wood, either gilt
or draped. Pausanias describes several such, particularly
the Minerva Areia of the Plataeans.
ACROMION, in Anatomy, the upper part of the sca¬
pula or shoulder-blade.
ACROMONOGRAMMATICUM, in Poetry, a kind
of poem, wherein every subsequent verse begins with the
letter wherewith the immediately preceding one termi¬
nated.
ACRON, a celebrated physician of Agrigentum, in
Sicily, who lived about the middle of the fifth century be¬
fore Christ. The successful measure of lighting large fires,
and purifying the air with perfumes, to put a stop to the pes¬
tilence that ravaged Athens, originated with him. He wrote
two treatises, according to Suidas, in the Doric dialect; the
one on physic, and the other on abstinence or diet.
ACRONICAL, Achronycal, or Achronical, in As¬
tronomy, is a term applied to the rising of a star when the
sun is set in the evening; but has been promiscuously used
to express a star’s rising at sunset, or setting at sunrise.
ACROPOLIS, AkpottoAis, a word signifying the upper
town, or chief place of a city, a citadel, which was usually on
the summit of a rock or hill. The most celebrated was that
in Athens, the remains of which still delight and astonish
travellers. It was enclosed by walls, part of which was ex¬
tremely ancient. It had nine gates ; but the principal was
a splendid structure of Pentelican marble, in noble Doric
architecture, which bore the name of Propylaion. Besides
other beautiful edifices, it contains the UapOevwv, or temple
of the virgin goddess Pallas, the most glorious monument
of ancient Grecian architecture. See Architecture and
Athens.
ACROPOLITA, George, one of the writers in the
Byzantine history, was born at Constantinople in the year
1220, and educated at the court of the Emperor John Ducas
at Nice. He was employed in the most important affairs of
the empire, being sent as ambassador to Larissa to establish
a peace with Michael of Epirus; and was constituted judge
to try Michael Comnenus, who was suspected of engaging in
a conspiracy. Theodorus Lascaris, the son of John, whom
he had taught logic, appointed him governor of all the west¬
ern provinces in his empire. In 12oo, he was taken prisoner
in a war with Michael Angelus; but gaining his liberty in
1260, by means of the Emperor Palaeologus, he was sent by Acrospire
him as ambassador to Constantine, prince of Bulgaria; and II
was employed in several other negotiations. He wrote a y ct-
Continuation of the Greek History, from the taking of Con-
stantinople by the Latins till its recovery by Michael Palseo-
logus in 1261, which makes part of the Byzantine history.
He died a.d. 1282.
ACROSPIRE, a vulgar term for what botanists call the
plumes.
ACROSPIRED, in Malt-Making, is the grain’s shooting
both at the root and blade end.
ACROSTIC, in Poetry, a kind of poetical composition,
disposed in such a manner that the initial letters of the verses
form the name of some person, kingdom, place, motto, &c.
The word is compounded of the Greek axpos, extremity, and
crrixos, verse. The acrostic is considered by the critics as a
species of false wit, and is therefore very little regarded by
the moderns.
ACROSTICHUM, Rustyback, Wall-rue, or Fork-
Fern.
ACROSTOLJUM, in Ancient Naval Architecture, the
extreme part of the ornament used on the prows of ships,
which was sometimes in the shape of a buckler, helmet,
animal, &c. but more frequently circular, or spiral. It was
usual to tear them from the prows of vanquished vessels, and
fix them to those of the conquerors, as a signal of victory.
They were frequently represented on the reverse of ancient
medals.
ACROTELEUTIC, among ecclesiastic writers, an ap¬
pellation given to anything added to the end of a psalm ; as
the Gloria Patri, or Doxology.
ACROTEMNUS, a fossil genus of Ganoid Fishes.—
Agassiz.
ACT, in general, denotes the exertion of power; and
differs from power, as the effect from the cause.
Act, in Logic, is particularly understood of an operation
of the human mind. Thus, to discern and examine are acts
of the understanding; to judge and affirm are acts of the will.
Act, in the Universities, signifies a thesis maintained in
public by a candidate for a degree ; or to show the capacity
and proficiency of a student.
Act of Faith, in Italian Atto di Fede, in Portuguese Auto
da Fe, in the Romish church, is a solemn day held by the
inquisition, for the punishment of heretics and the absolution
of the innocent accused. They usually contrive the Auto
to fall on some great festival, that the execution may pass
with the more awe and regard; at least it is always on a
Sunday.
The Auto da Fe may be called the last act of the inqui¬
sitorial tragedy: it is a kind of jail delivery, appointed as
often as a competent number of prisoners in the inquisition
are convicted of heresy, either by their own voluntary or
extorted confession, or on the evidence of certain witnesses.
The process as performed last in Lisbon is thus: In the
morning they are brought into a great hall, where they have
certain habits put on, which they are to wear in the pro¬
cession. The procession is led up by Dominican friars;
after which come the penitents, some with san-benitos and
some without, according to the nature of their crimes;
being all in black coats without sleeves, and barefooted, with
wax candles in their hands. These are followed by the
penitents who have narrowly escaped being burnt: over
their black coats they have flames painted, with their points
turned downwards, fuego revolto. Next come the negative
and relapsed, who are to be burnt, having flames on their
habits pointing upwards. After these come such as profess
doctrines contrary to the faith of Rome, who, besides flames
pointed upwards, have their picture painted on their breasts,
with dogs, serpents, and devils, all open-mouthed, around it.
ACT
Each prisoner is attended by a familiar of the inquisition ;
and those to be burnt have also a Jesuit on each hand, who
continually exhorts them to abjure. After the prisoners
comes a troop of familiars on horseback; and after them the
inquisitors, and other officers of the court, on mules ; last of
"11clu's^or‘Sener£d on a white horse, led by two men
with black hats and green hat-bands. A scaffold is erected
m the Terreiro de Pago, large enough for two or three
thousand people; at one end of which are the prisoners, at
the other, the inquisitors. After a sermon made up of en¬
comiums on the inquisition, and invectives against heretics,
a priest ascends a desk near the middle of the scaffold, and
having taken the abjuration of the penitents, recites the final
sentence of those who are to be put to death; and delivers
them to the secular arm, earnestly beseeching at the same
time the secular power not to touch their blood, or put their
Jives m danger. The prisoners being thus in the hands of
the civil magistrate, are presently loaded with chains, and
carried first to the jail, and from thence in an hour or two
rought before the civil judge; who, after asking in what
religion they intend to die, pronounces sentence on such as
declare they die in the communion of the church of Rome,
that they shall be first strangled, and then burnt to ashes ;
on such as die in any other faith, that they be burnt alive.
Roth are immediately carried to the Ribera, the place of
execution, where there are as many stakes set up as there
are prisoners to be burnt, each surrounded by a pile of dry
furze. The stakes of the professed, that is, such as persist
in then heresy, are about four yards high, having a small
board towards the top for the prisoner to be seated on. The
negative and relapsed being first strangled and burnt, the
professed mount their stakes by a ladder ; and the Jesuits,
after several repeated exhortations to be reconciled to the
church, part with them, telling them they leave them to the
devil, who is standing at their elbow to receive their souls,
and carry them with him into the flames of hell. On this
a great shout is raised; and the cry is, Let the dogs’ beards
be made; which is done by thrusting flaming furzes fastened
to long poles against their faces, till their faces are burnt to
a coal, which is accompanied with the loudest acclamations
of joy. At last, fire is set to the furze at the bottom of the
stake, over which the professed are chained so high that the
top of the flame seldom reaches higher than the seat they
sit on, so that they rather seem roasted than burnt. There
cannot be a more atrocious spectacle, yet it is beheld by all
sexes and ages with transports of joy and satisfaction.
Act, in Dramatic Poetry, signifies a certain division or
part of a play, designed to give some respite both to the
actors and spectators. The Romans were the first who
divided their theatrical pieces into acts; for no such divisions
appear in the works of the first dramatic poets.' Their pieces
indeed consisted of several parts or divisions, which they
called protasis, epitasis, catastasis, and catastrophe; but
these divisions were not marked by any real interruptions in
the theatre. Nor does Aristotle mention anything of acts
in his Art of Poetry. But, in the time of Horace, all regu¬
lar and finished pieces were divided into five acts.
Neve minor, neu sit quinto productior actu
Fabula, quoe posci vult, et spectata reponi.
If you would have your play deserve success,
Give it five acts complete, nor more nor less.
Francis.
The first act, according to some critics, besides introduc¬
ing upon the stage the principal characters of the play, ought
to propose the argument or subject of the piece; the second,
to exhibit this to the audience, by carrying the fable into exe¬
cution ; the third, to raise obstacles and difficulties; the
fourth to remove these, or raise new ones in the attempt;
and the fifth to conclude the piece, by introducing some ac-
A C T
cident that may unravel the whole affair. This division,
however, is not essentially necessary, but may be varied ac¬
cording to the humour of the author or the nature of the
subject.
Act, among Laimyers, is an instrument in writing for de¬
claring or justifying the truth of any thing; in which sense
records, decrees, sentences, reports, certificates, &c. are
called acts.
Act of Parliament is a positive law, passed by the two
houses of parliament, and assented to by the Crown, consist¬
ing of two parts, the words of the act, and its true sense and
meaning; which being joined, make the law. The words
of acts of parliament should be taken in a lawful sense.
Cases of the same nature are within the intention, though
without the letter of the act; and some acts extend by equity
to things not mentioned therein. See Legislation and
Statute.
Acta ( onsistorii, the edicts or declarations of the council
of state of the Roman emperors. These edicts were gene-
ially expressed in such terms as these: “ The august em¬
perors, Dioclesian and Maximin, in council declare, That
the children of decurions shall not be exposed to wild beasts
in the amphitheatre. —The senate and soldiers often swore,
either through abject flattery or by compulsion, upon the
edicts of the emperor, as we do upon the Bible. The
name of Apidius Merula was erased by Nero out of the re-
gistei of senators, because he refused to swear upon the
edicts of the Emperor Augustus.
Acta Diurna, was a sort of Roman gazette, containing
an authorized narrative of the transactions worthy of notice
which happened at Rome. Petronius has given us a speci¬
men of the acta diurna in his account of Trimalchi; and as
it may not perhaps be unentertaining, to see how exactly a
Roman newspaper runs in the style of an English one, the
following articles are extracted from it:
“ On the 26th of July, 30 boys and 40 girls were born at
Trimalchi’s estate at Cuma.
“At the same time a slave was put to death for uttering
disrespectful words against his lord.
“ 1 he same day a fire broke out in Pompey’s gardens,
which began in the night, in the steward’s apartment.” See
Le Clerc, des Journeaux chez les Romains, Par. 1838;
and Lieberkiihn de Diurnis Romanorum Actis. Weimar
1840.
Acta Eruditorum, a celebrated literary journal, which
was established at Leipzic in 1682 by Professor Otto
Mencke. It contains the papers of Leibnitz, and many
other learned men. The first series is in 50 volumes. The
new series, with supplements, &c. reaches to 77 volumes
more, making in all 127 volumes.
_ Acta Populi, among the Romans, were journals or re¬
gisters of the daily occurrences; as assemblies, trials, execu¬
tions, buildings, births, marriages, deaths, &c. of illustrious
persons, and the like. These were otherwise called Acta
Pubhca and Acta Diurna, or simply Acta. The Acta dif¬
fered from Annals, in that only the greater and more impor¬
tant matters were in the latter, and those of less note were
in the former. Their origin is attributed to Julius Caesar,
who first ordered the keeping and making public the acts of
the people. Some trace them higher, to Servius Tullius;
who, to discover the number of persons born, dead, and
alive, ordered that the next of kin, upon a birth, should put
a certain piece of money into the treasury of Juno Lucina;
upon a death, into that of Venus Libitina: the like was also
to be done upon assuming the toga virilis, &c. Under Mar¬
cus Antoninus, this was carried further: persons were obliged
to notify the births of their children, with their names and
surnames, the day, consul, and whether legitimate or spuri¬
ous, to the prefects of the AErarium Saturni, to be entered
117
Act
Acta.
118
ACT
ACT
Acta
II
Acts.
in the public acts ; though before this time the births of per¬
sons of quality appear to have been thus registered.
Acta Senatus, among the Romans, were minutes ot what
/ passed and was debated in the senate-house. I hese were
also called Commentarii, and by a Greek name wro/n^ara.
They had their origin in the consulship of Julius ( aesar, who
ordered them to be kept and also published. The keeping
of them was continued under Augustus, but the publication
was abrogated. Afterwards all writings relating to the de¬
crees or sentences of the judges, or what passed and was done
before them, or by their authority, in any cause, were also
called by the name Acta: in which sense we read of civil
acts, criminal acts, intervenient acts; acta civiha, cnminana,
mtervenientia, See.
Acts of the Apostles, one of the sacred books of the New
Testament, containing the history of the infant church dur¬
ing the space of 29 or 30 years, from the ascension of our
Lord to the year of Christ 63. It was written by St Luke,
and addressed to Theophilus, the person to whom the evan¬
gelist had before dedicated his gospel. We here find the
accomplishment of several of the promises made by our Sa¬
viour ; his ascension, the descent of the Holy Ghost, the first
preaching of the apostles, and the miracles whereby their
doctrines were confirmed ; an admirable picture of the man¬
ners of the primitive Christians; and, in short, every thing
that passed in the church till the dispersion of the apostles,
who separated themselves in order to propagate the gospel
throughout the world. From the period of that separation,
St Luke quits the history of the other apostles, who were
then at too great a distance from him, and confines himself
more particularly to that of St Paul, who had chosen him for
the companion of his labours. He follows that apostle in all
his missions, and even to Rome itself; for it appears^that
the Acts were published in the second year of St Paul’s re¬
sidence in that city, or the 63d year of the Christian era, and
in the ninth or tenth year of Nero’s reign. ^ The style of
this work, which was originally composed in Greek, is much
purer than that of the other canonical writers ; and it is ob¬
servable that St Luke, who was much better acquainted with
the Greek than with the Hebrew language, always, in his
quotations from the Old Testament, makes use of the Sep-
tuagint version. The council of Laodicea places the Acts ot
the Apostles among the canonical books, and all the churches
have acknowledged it as such without any controversy.
There were several spurious Acts of the Apostles; par¬
ticularly, 1. Acts, supposed to be written by Abdias, the pre¬
tended bishop of Babylon, who gave out that he was ordained
bishop by the apostles themselves when they were upon their
journey into Persia. 2. The Acts of St Peter: this book
came originally from the school of the Ebionites. 3. The
Acts of St Paul; which is entirely lost. Eusebius, who had
seen it, pronounces it of no authority. 4. The Acts of St
John the Evangelist; a book made use of by the Encratites,
Manichaeans, and Priscillianists. 5. The Acts of St Andrew ;
received by the Manichaeans, Encratites, and Apotactics. 6.
The Acts of St Thomas the Apostle ; received particularly
by the Manichaeans. 7. The Acts of St Philip. This book
the Gnostics made use of. 8. The Acts of St Matthias.
Some have imagined that the Jews for a long time had con¬
cealed the original Acts of the life and death of St Matthias,
written in Hebrew; and that a monk of the abbey of St
Matthias at Treves, having got them out of their hands, pro¬
cured them to be translated into Latin, and published them;
but the critics will not allow them to be genuine-
Acts of Pilate, a relation sent by Pilate to the Emperor
- Eusebii Tiberius, concerning Jesus Christ, his death, resurrection,
Hist. Hcd. ascension, and the crimes of which he was convicted before
lib. ii. cap. him.1 It was a custom among the Romans, that the pro-
2,andix.5.consu]s anci governors of provinces should draw up acts, or
Acta
memoirs, of what happened in the course of their govern¬
ment, and send them to the emperor and senate. The ge- ^c'j.j0
nuine acts of Pilate were sent by him to Tiberius, who re¬
ported them to the senate; but they were rejected by that
assembly, because not immediately addressed to them; as is
testified by Tertullian in his Apol. cap. 5, and 20, 21. The
heretics forged acts in imitation of them: in the reign of
the Emperor Maximin, the Gentiles, to throw an odium on
the Christian name, spread about spurious acts of Pilate;
which the emperor, by a solemn edict, ordered to be sent
into all the provinces of the empire, and enjoined the school¬
masters to teach and explain them to their scholars, and make
them learn them by heart. These acts, both the genuine
and the spurious, are lost. There is indeed extant, in the
Pseudo-Hegesippus, a letter from Pilate to the Emperor
Claudius, concerning Jesus Christ ;2 but it discovers itself3 Cave
at first sight to be spurious. ^ist-
ACTiE were meadows of remarkable verdure and \uxu-■Llterar
riancy near the sea-shore, where the Romans used to indulge
themselves to a great degree in softness and delicacy of liv¬
ing. The word is used in this sense by Cicerq and Virgil;
but Vossius thinks it can only be used in speaking of Sicily,
as these two authors did.
ACTtEA, Herb-Christopher, or Bane-Berries.
ACTvEON, in Fabulous History, son of Aristseus and
Autonoe, was a famous hunter. For the crime of looking
at Diana while bathing, he was transformed into a stag, and
devoured by his own dogs. The effect of impertinent curi¬
osity and expensive pleasures seems to be the moral of the
fable. Ovid. Met. iii.; Hygin. Fab. 181.
ACTIAN Games, in Roman Antiquity, were solemn
games instituted by Augustus, in memory of his victory
over Mark Antony at Actium, held every fifth year, and
celebrated in honour of Apollo, surnamed Actius. Hence
also Actian Years, an era commencing from the battle of
Actium, called the Era of Augustus. Virgil insinuates them
to have been instituted by Alneas, from that passage, Ain.
iii. v. 280:
Actiaque Iliacis celebramus littora ludis.
But this he only does by way of compliment to Augustus; at¬
tributing that to the hero from whom he descended, which
was done by the emperor himself; as is observed by Servius.
ACTINIA, in Zoology, a genus belonging to the class of
Acalcphce of Zoophytes, called Animal Flowers and Sea
Anemones.
ACTINOBATIS, a genus of fossil Fishes of the order
Placoid of Agassiz.
ACTING CAM AX, a division of Belemnites, according
to Miller.
ACTINOCERAS, a division of fossil Cephalopoda;.
ACTINOCRINITES, a genus of fossil Crinodea, or
lily-shaped animals.—Miller.
ACTINOMETER, a measurer of solar rays. It is a
thermometer with a large bulb, filled with a dark blue fluid,
and is enclosed in a box, the sides of which are blackened,
and the whole covered with a thick plate of glass. It is the
invention of Sir John Herschel; and is described in the
Edinburgh Journal of Science for 1825. The zero is ad¬
justed by a screw attached to the bulb.
ACTIO, in Roman Antiquity, is an action at lawin acourt
of justice. The formalities used by the Romans, in judicial
actions, were these: If the difference failed to be made up
by friends, the injured person proceeded in jus reum vocare,
to summon to court the offending party, who was obliged
to go, or give bond for his appearance.
The offending party might be summoned into court viva
voce, by the plaintiff himself meeting the defendant, declar¬
ing his intention to him, and commanding him to go before
the magistrate and make his defence. II he would not go
ACT
Action, willingly, the plaintiff might drag and force him, unless he
gave security for his appearance on some appointed day. If
he failed to appear on the day agreed on, then the plaintiff,
whensoever he met him, might take him along with him by
force, calling any bystanders to bear witness, by asking them
visne antestari ? The bystanders upon this turned their
ear toward him in token of their consent. To this Horace
alludes in his satire against the impertinent, lib. i. sat. 9.
Both parties being met before the praetor, or other su¬
preme magistrate presiding in the court, the plaintiff pro¬
posed to the defendant the action in which he designed to
prosecute him. This was termed edere actionem ; and was
commonly performed by writing it in a tablet, and offering
it to the defendant, that he might see whether it were better
for him to stand the suit or to compound.
In the next place came the postulatio actionis, or the
plaintiff’s petition to the praetor for leave to prosecute the
defendant in such an action. The petition was granted by
writing at the bottom of it actionem do ; or refused, by writ¬
ing in the same manner actionem non do.
The petition being granted, the plaintiff vadabatur reum,
i. e. obliged him to give sureties for his appearance on such
a day in the court; and this was all that was done in public
before the day fixed upon for the trial.
In the meantime, the difference was often made up either
fransactione, by letting the cause fall as dubious ; or pac-
tione, by composition for damages amongst friends.
On the day appointed for hearing, the praetor ordered the
several bills to be read, and the parties summoned by an
accensm, or beadle.
Upon the non-appearance of either party, the defaulter
lost his cause: if they both appeared, they were said se
stetisse ; and then the plaintiff proceeded litem sive actio¬
nem intendere, i. e. to prefer his suit; which was done in a
set form of words, varying according to the difference of the
actions. After this the plaintiff desired judgment of the
praetor, that is, to be allowed a judex or arbiter, else the
recuperatores or centumviri. These he requested for the
hearing and deciding the business : but none of them could
be selected without the consent of both parties.
The praetor, having assigned them their judges, defined
and determined the number of witnesses to be admitted, to
hinder the protracting of the suit; and then the parties pro¬
ceeded to give their caution, that the judgment, whatever it
were, should be admitted and performed on both sides. The
judges took a solemn oath to be impartial; and the parties
took the juramentum calumnice. Then the trial began with
the assistance of witnesses, writings, &c. which was called
disceptatio causes.
ACTION, in a general sense, implies nearly the same
thing with Act. Grammarians, however, observe some dis¬
tinction between action and act; the former being generally
restricted to the common or ordinary transactions, whereas
the latter is used to express those which are remarkable.
Thus, we say it is a good action to comfort the unhappy;
it is a generous act to deprive ourselves of what is necessary
for their sake.
Action, in Commerce, is a term used abroad for a certain
part or share of a public company’s capital stock. Thus, if
a company has 400,000 livres capital stock, this may be
divided into 400 actions, each consisting of 1000 livres.
Action, in Mechanics, implies either the effort which a
body or power makes against another body or powder, or the
effect itself of that effort.
All power is nothing more than a body actually in mo¬
tion, or which tends to move itself; that is, a body which
would move itself if nothing opposed it. The action there¬
fore of a body is rendered evident to us by its motion only;
and consequently we must not fix any other idea to the word
ACT
119
action than that of actual motion, or a simple tendency to
motion. The famous question relating to vis viva and vis
mortua owes its existence, in all probability, to an inade¬
quate-idea of the word action ; for had Leibnitz and his fol¬
lowers observed that the only precise and distinct idea we
can give to the word force or action reduces it to its effect,
that is, to the motion it actually produces or tends to pro¬
duce, they would never have made that curious distinction.
Quantity of Action, a name given by M. de Maupertuis,
in the Memoirs of the Parisian Academy of Sciences for
1744, and those of Berlin for 1746, to the product of the
mass of a body by the space which it runs through, and by
its celerity. He lays it down as a general law, that “ in the
changes made in the state of a body, the quantity of action
necessary to produce such change is the least possible.”
This principle he applies to the investigation of the laws of
refraction, of equilibrium, &c. and even to the ways of act¬
ing employed by the Supreme Being. In this manner M.
de Maupertuis attempts to connect the metaphysics of final
causes with the fundamental truths of mechanics.
Action, in Law, is a demand made before a judge for
obtaining what w^e are legally entitled to demand, and is
moi e commonly known by the name of law-suit or process.
Action, in Oratory, is the outward deportment of the
orator, or the accommodation of his countenance, voice, and
gesture, to the subject of which he is treating.
Action, in Painting and Sculpture, is the attitude or po¬
sition of the several parts of the face, body, and limbs, of
such figures as are represented, and whereby they seem to
be really actuated by passions. Thus, we say, the action of
such a figure finely expresses the passions with which it is
agitated; we also use the same expression with regard to
animals.
Action, in Physiology, is applied to the functions of the
body, whether vital, animal, or natural.—The vital func¬
tions, or actions, are those which are absolutely necessary
to life, and without which there is no life; as the action of
the heart, lungs, and arteries.—The natural functions are
those which are instrumental in repairing the several losses
which the body sustains; for life is destructive of itself, its
very offices occasioning a perpetual waste. The manduca-
tion of food, the deglutition and digestion thereof, also the
separation and distribution of the chyle and excrementitious
parts, &c. are under the head of natural functions, as by
these our aliment is converted into our nature. They are
necessary to the continuance of our bodies.—The animal
functions are those which, though not absolutely essential to
life, are distinctive of animal existence, such as sensation,
and voluntary motion.
Action, in Poetry, the same with subject or fable. Critics
generally distinguish two kinds, the principal and the inci¬
dental. The principal action is what is generally called the
fable, and the incidental an episode.
ACTIONARY, or Actionist, a proprietor of stock in a
trading company.
AC riVL denotes something that communicates action
or motion to another; in which acceptation it stands opposed
to passive.
Active, in Grammar, is applied to such words as express
action, and is therefore opposed to passive. The active per¬
forms the action, as the passive receives it. Thus we say,
a verb active, a conjugation active, &c. or an active participle.
Active Verbs are such as do not only signify doing, or
acting, but have also nouns following them, to be the subject
of the action or impression. Thus, to love, to teach, are verbs
active; because we can say, to love a thing, to teach a man.
See Grammar.
ACTIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town situate on the
coast of Acarnania, in itself inconsiderable, but famous for
Action
Actium.
120
Actius
Actus.
ACT
a temple of Apollo, a safe harbour, and an adjoining pro¬
montory of the same name, in the mouth of the Sinus Am-
bracius, opposite to Nicopolis, on the other side ot the bay.
It became famous on account of Augustus s victory over
Antony and Cleopatra, and for quinquennial games instituted
there, called Actia, or Ludi Actiaci. Hence the epithet
Actius, given to Apollo. (Virgil.) Actiaca iera, a compu¬
tation of time from the battle of Actium. See Roman
History. „ A „ .
ACTIUS, in Mythology, a surname of Apollo, from Ac¬
tium, where he was worshipped.
ACTON, a large village in the county of Middlesex and
hundred of Ossulton, about five miles from London. It was
formerly frequented on account of some saline springs, which
have now fallen into disuse. The grand junction canal, in
its way from Uxbridge to London, passes through the parish.
It is a rectory in the patronage of the bishop of London.
The number of inhabitants in 1831, was 2453; in 1841,
2665 ; and in 1851, 2582.
ACTOR, in the Drama, is a person who represents some
part or character. See Drama. Actors were highly hon¬
oured at Athens: at Rome they were despised, and not
only denied all rank among the citizens, but even when any
citizen appeared upon the stage, he was expelled his tribe,
and deprived of the right of suffrage by the censors. The
French have in this respect adopted the ideas of the Romans;
the English those of the Greeks. Female actors were un¬
known to the ancients, among whom men always performed
the female character; and hence one reason for the use of
masks among them. Actresses are by some said not to have
been introduced on the English stage till after the restora¬
tion of King Charles II. who has been charged with contri¬
buting to the corrupting of our manners by importing this
usage from abroad. But this can be but partly true, for
Prynne, in his Histriomastix, speaks of women actors as
prostitutes; which, as the Queen of Charles I. sometimes
acted in the court dramas, was one occasion of the severe
prosecution brought against him for that book. See Biblio¬
graphy, sect. 6.
Actor, the name of several persons in Fabulous History.
One Actor among the Aurunci is described by Virgil as a
hero of the first rank.—AEn. ix. xii.
ACTORUM Tabulae, in Antiquity, were tables insti¬
tuted by Servius Tullius, in which the births of children were
registered. They were kept in the treasury of Saturn.
ACTUARIAL Naves, a kind of long and light ships
among the Romans, thus denominated because they were
chiefly designed for swiftness and expedition. They cor¬
respond to what the French call brigantines.
ACTUARIES, a celebrated Greek physician of the
thirteenth century, and the first Greek author who has
treated of mild purgatives, such as cassia, manna, senna, &c.
He is the first also who mentions distilled waters. His works
were printed in one volume folio, by Henry Stephens, in 1567.
Actuarius, or Actarius, a notary, or officer, appointed to
write the acts or proceedings of a court, or the like. In the
eastern empire, the actuarii were, properly, officers who kept
the military accounts, received the corn from the susceptores,
or storekeepers, and delivered it to the soldiers.
ACTUARY, an officer of a society or company, usually
combining the functions of secretary and adviser. It is most
usually applied to the manager of an insurance company,
or joint stock association, under a board of directors.
ACTUS, in Ancient Architecture, a measure in length
equal to 120 Roman feet. In Ancient Agriculture the word
signified the length of one furrow, or the distance a plough
goes before it turns.
Actus Intervicinalis, a space of ground four feet in
breadth, left between the lands as a path or way.
A D
Actus Major, or Actus Quadratus, a piece of ground in
a square form, whose side was equal to 120 feet, equal to half
the jugerum. v
Actus Minimus was a quantity of land 120 feet in length
and four in breadth.
ACUANITES, in Ecclesiastical History, the same with
those called more frequently Manichees. They took the
name from Acua, a disciple of Thomas, one of the twelve
apostles.
ACULEATE, or Aculeati, a term applied to any plant
or animal armed with prickles.
ACULEI, the prickles of animals or of plants.
ACULER, in the Manege, is used for the motion of a
horse, when, in working upon volts, he does not go far enough
forward at every time or motion, so that his shoulders em¬
brace or take in too little ground, and his croupe comes too
near the centre of the volt. Horses are naturally inclined
to this fault in making demi-volts.
ACUMINA, in Antiquity, a kind of military omen most
generally supposed to have been taken from the points oi
edges of darts, swords, or other weapons.
ACUNA, Christopher o’, a Spanish Jesuit, born at
Burgos. He was admitted into the society in 1612, being
then but 15 years of age. After having devoted some years
to study, he went to America, where he assisted in making
converts in Chili and Peru. In 1640 he returned to Spain,
and gave the king an account how far he had succeeded in
the commission he had received to make discoveries on the
river of the Amazons ; and the year following he published,
at Madrid, in a quarto volume, a description of this river,
entitled Nuevo Descubrimiento del Gran Rio de las Ama¬
zonas. He was ten months together upon this river, hav¬
ing had instructions to inquire into every thing with the
greatest exactness, that his Majesty might thereby be en¬
abled to render the navigation more easy and commodious.
He embarked in a boat at Jaen in Quito with Peter Texiera,
who had already been so far up the river, and was therefore
thought a proper person to accompany him in this expedi¬
tion. They embarked in February 1639, but did not arrive
at Para till the December following. It is thought that the
revolution of Portugal, by which the Spaniards lost Brazil,
and the colony of Para, at the mouth of the river of the
Amazons, led to the suppression of Acuna’s narrative ; for,
as it could not be of any advantage to the Spaniards, they
were afraid it might prove of service to the Portuguese, by
instructing them in the navigation of that great river. M.
de Gomberville, the possessor of one of the few copies that
escaped, published a French translation at Paris in 1682, in
2 vols. 12mo. Acuna appears to have returned to Peru,
and to have died there; but the year of his death is uncer¬
tain.
ACUPUNCTURE, the name of a surgical operation
among the Chinese and Japanese, which is performed by
pricking the part affected with a silver needle. They em¬
ploy this operation in headaches, lethargies, convulsions,
colics, &c.; and it has more lately been introduced into
British practice.
ACUTE, an epithet applied to such things as terminate
in a sharp point or edge ; and in this sense it stands opposed
to obtuse.
AcuTE-angled, in Geometry, is that which is less than a
right angle, or which does not subtend 90 degrees.
ACUTIATOR, in wTiters of the barbarous ages, denotes
a person that whets or grinds cutting instruments ; called
also in ancient glossaries acutor, a/covTjT^s, samiarius, coti-
arius, &c. In the ancient armies there were acutiatores,
a kind of smiths, retained for whetting or keeping the arms
sharp.
AD, a Latin preposition, originally signifying to, and fre-
Actus
II
Ad.
ADA
Ad quently used in composition, both with and without the d,
II to express the relation of one thing to another.
v a bCTt,J Ad Bestias, in Antiquity, is the punishment of criminals
condemned to be thrown to wild beasts.
Ad Hominem, in Logic, a kind of argument drawn from
the principles or prejudices of those with whom we argue.
A d Ludos, in Antiquity, a sentence upon criminals among
the Romans, whereby they were condemned to entertain the
people by fighting either with wild beasts or with one another,
and thus executing justice upon themselves.
Ad Metalla, in Antiquity, the punishment of such cri¬
minals as were condemned to the mines, among the Romans;
and therefore called Metallici.
Ad Valorem, a term chiefly used in speaking of the duties
or customs paid for certain goods. The duties on some arti¬
cles are paid by the number, weight, measure, tale, &c.; and
others are paid ad valorem, that is, according to their value.
ADAGE, a proverb, or short sentence, containing some
wise observation or popular saying. Erasmus has made a
very large and valuable collection of the Greek and Roman
adages; and Mr Ray has done the same with regard to the
English. We have also Kelly’s Collection of Scots Proverbs.
ADAGIO, in Music. See Music.
ADAIR, or Adare, an ancient town in Ireland, now re¬
duced to a village. It is eight miles S.W. of Limerick, and
has a fine old bridge over the river Maig.
Adair is also the name of two counties in the United
States of America; the first in Kentucky, with a population
of 9917; the second in Missouri, with a population of 2351.
AD AL, or Adel, or Adaiel, a region between Abyssinia
and the Red Sea, to the south of Bab-el-Mandeb. It was little
known to Europeans until described in the travels of Isen-
berg and Krapf in 1839, and later by Beke. It forms the
S.W. coasts of the Red Sea for 300 miles, which are com¬
posed of coral rock. The country is generally barren, in¬
tensely hot, and rather flat. A lofty mountain of 5000 feet
high, Mount Gedem, stands isolated in the plain, and is suc¬
ceeded in the ascent to the table-land of Tigre by a series
of conical hills. Some, parts of it are fit for pasturage, and
those portions are inhabited by tribes possessing many do¬
mestic animals; andbeastsof prey, and elephants are said not
to be uncommon. The route to Abyssinia from Massowah lies
through this country; but that from Tajarrah to Ankobar,
to the south, is preferable, as less steep. On this route is
seen a remarkable salt lake, Bahr Assal, which is 570 feet
below the surface of the Red Sea; and volcanic rocks occur
in various parts of the route. Two mountains of 4000 feet
in height are mentioned, Abida and Aiyala, which occupy
the centre of a volcanic district, and have sent down streams
of lava on all sides to the distance of 30 miles. The river
Hawash runs through this district, and is said to be navi¬
gable for boats 300 miles from its embouchure. This country
has also been visited by the English missionaries, Messrs
Keith and Coffin.
Adal is inhabited by many tribes who call themselves
Danakil and Dankali. Riippel, who visited this country,
mentions only the name of Shohos, whom he describes as
strong and muscular, with black, crisp hair, short straight
noses, thick lips, but less so than the negro feature, their
colour dark brown. They are nomadic, and are Mahome-
dans. The only traffic in the country is in the salt of the
Bahr Assal. (t. s. t.)
ADALBERT, Saint, one of the first founders of Chris¬
tianity in Germany, was sprung of a noble family in pagan
Sclavonia, and raised to the see of Prague, a.d. 983. Hav¬
ing laboured incessantly to reclaim the clergy and laity from
their licentious ways, he retired in despair to the monastery of
St Alexis at Rome ; but from this retreat he was speedily
recalled by his flock, who received him with public honours.
VOL. u.
ADA 121
Finding little amendment, however, in their course of living, Adalidea
and having learnt that all his kinsmen had been massacred li
in a church, he resolved to end his days in missionary la- Adam-
hours. But while engaged in worship with some converts
in Pomerania, a pagan priest thrust a spear through his
heart, a.d. 997.
AD ABIDES, in the Spanish policy, are officers of justice
for matters touching the military forces. In the laws of
King Alphonsus, the adalides are spoken of as officers ap¬
pointed to guide and direct the marching of the forces in
time of war.
ADAM (0“!K), the word by which the Bible designates
the first human being.
The meaning of the primary word is, most probably, any
kind of reddish tint, as a beautiful human complexion; but
its various derivatives are applied to different objects of a red
or brown hue, or approaching to such. The word Adam,
therefore, is an appellative noun converted into a proper one.
That men and other animals have existed from eternity,
has been asserted by some: whether they really believed
their own assertion may well be doubted. Others have
maintained that the first man and his female mate, or a num¬
ber of such, came into existence by some spontaneous action
of the earth or the elements, a chance combination of matter
and properties, without an intellectual designing cause. We
hold these notions to be unworthy of a serious refutation.
An upright mind, upon a little serious reflection, must per¬
ceive their absurdity, self-contradiction, and impossibility.
It is among the clearest deductions of reason, that men
and all dependent beings have been created, that is, pro¬
duced or brought into their first existence by an intelligent
and adequately powerful being. A question, however, arises,
of great interest and importance. Did the Almighty Crea¬
tor produce only one man and one woman, from whom all
other human beings have descended?—or did he create se¬
veral parental pairs, from whom distinct stocks of men have
been derived ? The affirmative of the latter position has been
maintained by some, and, it must be confessed, not without
apparent reason.
But the admission of the possibility is not a concession of
the reality. So great is the evidence in favour of the deri¬
vation of the entire mass of human beings from one pair of
ancestors, that it has obtained the suffrage of the men most
competent to judge upon a question of comparative anatomy
and physiology. The late illustrious Cuvier and Blumen-
bach, and our countryman Lawrence, are examples of the
highest order. But no writer has a claim to deference upon
this subject superior to that of Dr J. C. Prichard.
It is evident upon a little reflection, and the closest in¬
vestigation confirms the conclusion, that the first human
pair must have been created in a state equivalent to that
which all subsequent human beings have had to reach by
slow degrees, in growth, experience, observation, imitation,
and the instruction of others : that is, a state of prime ma¬
turity, and with an infusion, concreation, or whatever we
may call it, of knowledge and habits, both physical and in¬
tellectual, suitable to the place which man had to occupy
in the system of creation, and adequate to his necessities in
that place. Had it been otherwise, the new beings could
not have preserved their animal existence, nor have held
rational converse with each other, nor have paid to their
Creator the homage of knowledge and love, adoration and
obedience ; and reason clearly tells us that the last was the
noblest end of existence. Those whom unhappy prejudices
lead to reject revelation must either admit this, or must re¬
sort to suppositions of palpable absurdity and impossibility.
If they will not admit a direct action of divine power in
creation and adaptation to the designed mode of existence,
they must admit something far beyond the miraculous, an
Q
122 ABA M.
Adam, infinite succession of finite beings, or a spontaneous produc-
—tion of order, organization, and systematic action, from some
unintelligent origin. The Bible coincides with this dictate
of honest reason, expressing these facts in simple and art¬
less language, suited to the circumstances of the men to
whom revelation was first granted. That this production in
a mature state was the fact with regard to the vegetable
part of the creation, is declared in Gen. ii. 4, 5: “ In the
day of Jehovah God’s making the earth and the heavens,
and every shrub of the field before it should be in the earth,
and every herb of the field before it should bud. The
reader sees that we have translated the verbs (which stand
in the Hebrew future form) by our potential mood, as the
nearest in correspondence with the idiom called by Dr
Nordheimer the “ Dependent Use of the Future.” {Criti¬
cal Grammar of the Heh. Lang., vol. ii. p. 186 ; New York,
1841.) The two terms, shrubs and herbage, are put, by the
common synecdoche, to designate the whole vegetable king¬
dom. The reason of the case comprehends the other divi¬
sion of organized nature; and this is applied to man and all
other animals, in the words, “ Out of the ground—dust out
of the ground—Jehovah God formed them.”
It is to be observed that there are two narratives at the
beginning of the Mosaic records, different in style and man¬
ner, distinct and independent; at first sight somewhat dis¬
crepant, but when strictly examined, perfectly compatible,
and each one illustrating and completing the other. The
first is contained in Gen. i. 1. to ii. 3.; and the other, ii. 4.
to iv. 26. As is the case with the Scripture history gene¬
rally, they consist of a few principal facts, detached anec¬
dotes, leaving much of necessary implication which the good
sense of the reader is called upon to supply; and passing
over large spaces of the history of life, upon which all con¬
jecture would be fruitless.
In the second of these narratives we read, “ And Jehovah
God formed the man \Heb. the Adam], dust from the
ground [ilftnNrh haadamahf and blew into his nostrils
the breath of life; and the man became a living animal ”
(Gen. ii. 7). Here are two objects of attention, the organic
mechanism of the human body, and the vitality with which
it was endowed.
The mechanical material, formed (moulded, or arranged,
as an artificer models clay or wax) into the human and all
other animal bodies, is called “dust from the ground.” This
would be a natural and easy expression to men in the early
ages, before chemistry was known or minute philosophical
distinctions were thought of, to convey, in a general form,
the idea of earthy matter, the constituent substance of the
ground on which we tread. To say, that of this the human
and every other animal body was formed, is a position
which would be at once the most easily apprehensible to an
uncultivated mind, and which yet is the most exactly true
upon the highest philosophical grounds. We now know,
from chemical analysis, that the animal body is composed,
in the inscrutable manner called organization, of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, lime, iron, sulphur, and phos¬
phorus. Now all these are mineral substances, which in
their various combinations form a very large part of the
solid ground.
In the Scripture narrative, we are told, “ God created
man in his own image: in the image of God created he
him ; male and female created he them.” (Gen. i. 27.) The
image in'-)'* tselem, resemblance, such as a shadow bears
to the object which casts it) of God is an expression which
breathes at once archaic simplicity and the most recondite
wisdom: for what term could the most cultivated and co¬
pious language bring forth more suitable to the purpose ? It
presents to us man as made in a resemblance to the author
of his being, a true resemblance, but faint and shadowy; an
outline, faithful according to its capacity, yet infinitely re- Adam,
mote from the reality: a distant form of the intelligence,
wisdom, power, rectitude, goodness, and dominion of the
Adorable Supreme.
On man was also conferred the shadow of the divine
dominion and authority over the inferior creation. The
attribute of power was given to him, in his being made able
to convert the inanimate objects and those possessing only
the vegetable life, into the instruments and the materials
for supplying his wants, and continually enlarging his sphere
of command.
In such a state of things knowledge and wisdom are im¬
plied : above all, moral excellence must have been com¬
prised in this “ image of God;” and not only forming a part
of it, but being its crown of beauty and glory.
In this perfection of the faculties, and with these high
prerogatives of moral existence, did human nature, in its
first subject, rise up from the creating hand. The whole
Scripture-narrative implies that this state of existence was
one of correspondent activity and enjoyment. It plainly re¬
presents the Deitt himself as condescending to assume a
human form and to employ human speech, in order to in¬
struct and exercise the happy beings whom God created
for immortality in the image of his own nature.
The noble and sublime idea that man thus had his Maker for
his teacher and guide, precludes a thousand difficulties. It
shows us the simple, direct, and effectual method by which the
newly-formed creature would have communicated to him all the
intellectual knowledge, and all the practical arts and manipu¬
lations, which were needful and beneficial for him. The uni¬
versal management of the “ garden in Eden eastward” (Gen.
ii. 8), the treatment of the soil, the use of water, the various
training of the plants and trees, the operations for insuring
future produce, the necessary implements and the way of using
them;—all these must have been included in the words “ to dress
it and to keep it” (ver. 15.)
Religious knowledge and its appropriate habits also requir¬
ed an immediate infusion : and these are pre-eminently com¬
prehended “ in the image of God.” It is not to be supposed
that the newly-created man and his female companion were in¬
spired with a very ample share of the doctrinal knowledge
which was communicated to their posterity by the successive
and accumulating revolutions of more thanfour thousand years:
and it is impossible that they could be left in gross ignorance
of the existence and excellencies of the Being w ho had made
them, their obligations to him, and the way in which they might
continue to receive the greatest blessings from him.
The next important article in this primeval history is the
creation of the human female. The narrative is given in the
more summary manner in the former of the two documents :—
‘ Male and female created he them.” (Gen. i. 27.) It stands a
little more at length in a third document, which begins the
fifth chapter, and has the characteristic heading or title by which
the Hebrews designated a separate work. “ This, the book of
the generations of Adam. In the day God created Adam, he
made him in the likeness [H’DI’ demuth, a different word from
that already treated upon, and which merely signifies resem¬
blance] of God, male and female he created them ; and he
blessed them, and he called their name Adam, in the day of
their being created” (ver. 1, 2.) The reader will observe that,
in this passage, we have translated the word for man as the pro¬
per name, because it is so taken up in the next following sentence.
The second of the narratives is more circumstantial: “And
Jehovah God said, it is not good the man’s being alone : I will
make for him a help suitable for him.” Then follows the pas¬
sage concerning the review and the naming of the inferior
animals ; and it continues—“ but for Adam he found not a help
suitable for him. And Jehovah God caused a deep sleep to fall
upon the man [the Adam], and he slept: and he took one out
of his ribs, and closed up the flesh in its place : and Jehovah
God built up the rib which he had taken from the man into a
woman, and he brought her to the man : and the man said, this
is the hit; bone out of my bones, and flesh out of my flesh ;
ADAM.
123
Adam.
this shall be called woman [isliaK], for this was taken from out
of man {isK]’ (Gen. ii. 18-23).
This peculiar manner of the creation of the woman has, by
some, been treated as merely a childish fable ; by others, as an
allegorical fiction intended to represent the close relation of the
female sex to the male, and the tender claims which women
have to sympathy and love. That such was the intention we
do not doubt; but why should that intention be founded upon
a mythic allegory ? Is it not taught much better, and impressed
much more forcibly, by its standing not on a fiction, but on a
fact ?
Another inquiry presents itself. How long did the state of
paradisiac innocence and happiness continue ? Some have re¬
garded the period as very brief, not more even than a single
day; but this manifestly falls very short of the time which a
reasonable probability requires. The first man was brought
into existence in the region called Eden ; then he was intro¬
duced into a particular part of it, the garden, replenished with
the richest productions of the Creator’s bounty for the delight
of the eye and the other senses; the most agreeable labour was
required “ to dress and to keep it,” implying some arts of cul¬
ture, preservation from injury, training flowers and fruits, and
knowing the various uses and enjoyments of the produce; mak¬
ing observation upon the works of God, of which an investiga¬
tion and designating of animals is expressly specified ; nor can
we suppose that there was no contemplation of the magnificent
sky and the heavenly bodies : above all, the wondrous com¬
munion with the condescending Deity, and probably with
created spirits of superior orders, by which the mind would be
excited, its capacity enlarged, and its holy felicity continually
increased. It is also to be remarked, that the narrative (Gen.
ii. 19,20) conveys the implication that some time was allowed
to elapse, that Adam might discover and feel his want of a com¬
panion of his own species, “ a help correspondent to him.”
These considerations impress us with a sense of probability,
amounting to a conviction, that a period not very short was
requisite for the exercise of man’s faculties, the disclosures of
his happiness, and the service of adoration which he could pay
to his Creator. But all these considerations are strengthened
by the recollection that they attach to man’s solitary state;
and that they all require new and enlarged application when
the addition of conjugal life is brought into the account. The
conclusion appears irresistible that a duration of many days,
or rather weeks or months, would be requisite for so many and
important purposes.
Thus divinely honoured and happy were the progenitors of
mankind in the state of their creation.
The next scene which the sacred history brings before us is
a dark reverse. Another agent comes into the field and suc¬
cessfully employs his arts for seducing Eve, and by her means
Adam, from their original state of rectitude, dignity, and hap¬
piness.
Among the provisions of Divine wisdom and goodness were
two vegetable productions of wondrous qualities and mysterious
significancy ; “the tree of life in the midst of the garden, and
the tree of knowledge of good and evil.” (Gen. ii. 9.)
We see no sufficient reason to understand, as some do, “ the
tree of life ” collectively, as implying a species, and that there
were many trees of that species.
The “ tree of the knowledge of good and evil ” might be any
tree whatever ; it might be of any species even yet remaining,
though, if it were so, we could not determine its species, for the
plain reason that no name, description, or information whatever
is given that could possibly lead to the ascertainment. One
cannot but lament the vulgar practice of painters representing
it as an apple-tree, and thus giving occasion to profane and
silly witticisms.
Yet we cannot but think the more reasonable probability to
be, that it was a tree having poisonous properties, stimulating
and intoxicating, such as are found in some existing species,
especially in hot climates. On this ground the prohibition to
eat or even touch the tree was a beneficent provision against
the danger of pain and death.
But the revealed object of this “ tree of the knowledge of
good and evil” was that which would require no particular pro¬
perties beyond some degree of external beauty, and fruit of an
immediately pleasant taste. That object was to be a test of Adam.
obedience. For such a purpose, it is evident, that to select an
indifferent act to be the object prohibited, was necessary; as the
obligation to refrain should be only that which arises simply,
so far as the subject of the law can know, from the sacred will
of the lawgiver. There was no difficulty in the observance of
their Creator’s precept. They were surrounded with a para¬
dise of delights, and they had no reason to imagine that any
good whatever would accrue to them from their seizing upon
any thing prohibited. If perplexity or doubt arose, they had
ready access to their Divine benefactor for obtaining informa¬
tion and direction. But they allowed the thought of disobe¬
dience to form itself into a disposition, and then a purpose.
Thus was the seal broken,—the integrity of the heart was
gone,—the sin was generated,—and the outward act was the
consummation of the entire process. Eve, less informed, less
cautious, less endowed with strength of mind, became the more
ready victim. ‘ ‘ The woman, being deceived, was in the trans -
gression;” but “ Adam was not deceived ” (1 Tim. ii. 14.) He
rushed knowingly and deliberately to ruin. The offence had
grievous aggravations. It was the preference of a trifling gra¬
tification to the approbation of the Supreme Lord of the uni¬
verse ; it implied a denial of the wisdom, holiness, goodness,
veracity, and power of God ; it was marked with extreme in¬
gratitude ; and it involved a contemptuous disregard of conse¬
quences, awfully impious as it referred to their immediate con¬
nection with the moral government of God, and cruelly selfish
as it respected their posterity.
The instrument of the temptation was a serpent; whether
any one of the existing kinds, it is evidently impossible for us to
know. Of that numerous order many species are of brilliant
colours, and playful in their attitudes and manners ; so that
one may well conceive of such an object attracting and fasci¬
nating the first woman. Whether it spoke in an articulate
voice, like the human, or expressed the sentiments attributed
to it by a succession of remarkable and significant actions, may
be a subject of reasonable question.
This part of the narrative begins with the words, “And the
serpent was crafty above every animal of the field” (Gen. iii.
1.) It is to be observed that this is not said of the order of ser¬
pents, as if it were a general property of them, but of that par¬
ticular serpent. Had the noun been intended generically, as
is often the case, it would have required to be without the sub¬
stantive verb ; for such is the usual Hebrew method of express¬
ing universal propositions: of this the Hebrew scholar may see
constant examples in the Book of Proverbs.
Indeed, this “ cunning craftiness, lying in wait to deceive ”
(Eph. iv. 14.), is the very character of that malignant creature
of whose wily stratagems the serpent was a mere instrument.
The existence of spirits, superior to man, and of whom some
have become depraved, and are labouring to spread wickedness
and misery to the utmost of their power, has been found to be
the belief of all nations, ancient and modern, of whom we pos¬
sess information. It has also been the general doctrine of both
Jews and Christians, that one of those fallen spirits was the
real agent in this first and successful temptation. Of this doc¬
trine, the declarations of our Lord and his apostles contain
abundant confirmation.
After their fearful transgression, the condescending Deity,
who had held gracious and instructive communion with the pa¬
rents of mankind, assuming a-human form, visibly stood before
them; by a searching interrogatory he drew from them the
confession of their guilt, which they aggravated by evasions
and insinuations against God himself: he then pronounced sen¬
tence on them and their seducer. On the woman he inflicted
the pains of child-bearing, and a deeper and more humiliating
dependence upon her husband. He doomed the man to hard
and often fruitless toil, instead of easy and pleasant labour.
On both, or rather on human nature universally, he pronounced
the awful sentence of death. The denunciation of the serpent
partakes more of a symbolical character, and so seems to carry
a strong implication of the nature and the wickedness of the
concealed agent. The human sufferings threatened are all, ex¬
cepting the last, of a remedial and corrective kind.
Of a quite different character are the penal denunciations
upon the serpent. If they be understood literally, and of course
124
ADAM.
Adam.
applied to the whole order of Ophidia (as, we believe, is the
common interpretation), they will be found to be flagrantly at
variance with demonstrated facts in their physiology and eco¬
nomy.
But all difficulty is swept away when we consider the fact,
that the Hebrew is H’ll hannachash haiah, the
serpent was, &c. and that it refers specifically and personally
to a rational and accountable being, the spirit of lying and
cruelty, the devil, the Satan, the old serpent. That God, the
infinitely holy, good, and wise, should have permitted any one
or more celestial spirits to apostatise from purity, and to be
the successful seducers of mankind, is indeed an awful and over¬
whelming mystery. But it is not more so than the permitted
existence of many among mankind, whose rare talents and ex¬
traordinary command of power and opportunity, combined with
extreme depravity, have rendered them the plague and curse
of the earth ; and the whole merges into the awful and insol v-
able problem, Why has the All-perfect Deity permitted evil
at all? We are firmly assured, that He will bring forth, at
last, the most triumphant evidence that “ He is righteous in all
his ways, and holy in all his works.” In the meantime, our
happiness lies in the implicit confidence which we cannot but
feel to be due to the Being of infinite perfection.
The remaining part of the denunciation upon the false and
cruel seducer sent a beam of light into the agonized hearts of
our guilty first parents : “ And enmity will I put between thee
and the woman, and between thy seed and her seed: he will
attack thee [on] the head, and thou wilt attack him [at] the
heel.” Christian interpreters generally regard this as the Prot-
evangelium, the first gospel-promise, and we think with good
reason. It was a manifestation of mercy ; it revealed a De¬
liverer, “ who should be a human being, in a peculiar sense
the offspring of the female, who should also, in some way not
yet made known, counteract and remedy the injury inflicted,
and who, though partially suffering from the malignant power,
should, in the end, completely conquer it, and convert its very
success into its own punishment.” (J. Pye Smith, Scripture
Testimony to the Messiah, vol. i. p. 226.)
The awful threatening to man was, “ In the day that thou
eatest of it, thou wilt die the death.” The infliction is Death,
in the most comprehensive sense,—that which stands opposed
to Life,—the life of not only animal enjoyment, but holy hap¬
piness, the life which comported with the image of God. This
was lost by the fall; and the sentence of physical death was
pronounced, to be executed in due time. Divine mercy gave
a long respite.
The same mercy was displayed in still more tempering the
terrors of justice. The garden of delights was not to be the
abode of rebellious creatures. But before they were turned out
into a bleak and dreary wilderness, God was pleased to direct
them to make clothing, suitable to their new and degraded con¬
dition, of the skins of animals. That those animals had been
offered in sacrifice, is a conjecture supported by so much pro¬
bable evidence, that we may regard it as a well-established
truth.
From this time we have little recorded of the lives of Adam
and Eve. Their three sons are mentioned with important cir¬
cumstances connected with each of them. Cain was probably
born in the year after the fall; Abel possibly some years later ;
Seth, certainly one hundred and thirty years from the creation
of his parents. After that Adam lived eight hundred years,
and had sons and daughters, doubtless by Eve, and then he
died, nine hundred and thirty years old. In that prodigious
period, many events, and those of great importance, must have
occurred ; but the wise providence of God has not seen fit to
preserve to us any memorial of them, and scarcely any ves¬
tiges or hints are afforded of the occupations and mode of life
of men through the antediluvian period.
Adam of Bremen was a canon of the cathedral of Bre¬
men, and lived in the latter part of the eleventh century.
He wrote a church history, in four books, treating of the pro¬
pagation of the Christian faith in the north, entitled His-
toria ecclesiastica ecclesiarum Hamburgensis et Bremensis,
ab anno 788 ad an. 1072; and also another work parti¬
cularly interesting to geographers, called Chronographia
Scandinavice, or, Be Situ Da,nice et reliquarum trans Adam.
Daniam regionum natura. The time of his death is not
known.
Adam, Alexander, Rector of the High School, Edinburgh,
and author of several valuable works connected with Roman
literature, was born on the 24th of June 1741, on a small
farm which his father rented, not far from Forres, in Moray¬
shire. He does not appear to have received any powerful
direction to literary pursuits, either from the attainments of
his parents or the ability of the parochial schoolmaster ; but
is referable to a class of men, of which Scotland can produce
a very honourable list, whom the secret workings of a natu¬
rally active mind have raised above the level of their asso¬
ciates, and urged on to distinction and usefulness under the
severest pressure of difficulties. The gentle treatment of
an old schoolmistress first taught him to like his book; and
this propensity induced his parents to consent that he should
learn Latin. To the imperfect instruction which he received
at the parish school, he joined indefatigable study at home,
notwithstanding the scanty means and poor accommoda¬
tion of his father’s house. Before he was sixteen he had
read the whole of Livy, in a copy of the small Elzevir edi¬
tion, which he had borrowed from a neighbouring clergyman,
omitting for the present all such passages as his own sagacity
and Cole’s Dictionary did not enable him to construe. It
was before day-break, during the mornings of winter, and
by the light of splinters of bog-wood dug out of an adjoining
moss, that he prosecuted the perusal of this difficult classic ;
for, as the whole family were collected round the only fire
in the evening, he was prevented by the noise from reading
with any advantage ; and the day-light was spent at school.
In the autumn of 1757 he was a competitor for one of
those bursaries, or small exhibitions, which are given by the
university of Aberdeen to young men who distinguish them¬
selves for their classical attainments; but as the prize was
awarded to the best written exercises, and as Adam, with all
his reading, had not yet been accustomed to write, he was
foiled by some youth who had been more fortunate in his
means of instruction. About the same time Mr Watson, a
relation of his mother’s, and one of the ministers of the
Canongate, sent him a tardy invitation to come to Edinburgh,
“ provided he was prepared to endure every hardship for a
season,”—a condition not likely to appal one who knew no¬
thing of life but its hardships. The interest of Mr Watson
procured him free admission to the lectures of the different
professors; and as he had now also access to books in the
College Library, his literary ardour made him submit with
cheerfulness to the greatest personal privations. Eighteen
months of assiduous application enabled him to repair the
defects of his early tuition, and to obtain, after a comparative
trial of candidates, the head mastership of the foundation
known by the name of Watson’s Hospital. At this period
he was only nineteen, on which account the governors of the
institution limited the appointment to half a year; but his
steadiness and ability speedily removed their scruples. After
holding the situation for three years, he was induced, by
the prospect of having more leisure for the prosecution of
his studies, to resign it, and become private tutor to the son
of Mr Kincaid, a wealthy citizen, and afterwards Lord Pro¬
vost of Edinburgh ; and it was in consequence of this con¬
nection that he was afterwards raised to the office for which
he was so eminently qualified. He taught in the High
School, for the first time, in April 1765, as substitute for
Mr Matheson, the rector; in consequence of whose growing
infirmities, an arrangement was made, by which he retired
on a small annuity, to be paid from the profits of the class;
and Mr Adam was confirmed in the rectorship on the 8th
of June 1768.
From this period the history of his life is little more than
A D
Adam, the history of his professional labours and of his literary
productions. No sooner was he invested with the office,
than he gave himself up with entire devotion to the business
of his class, and the pursuits connected with it. For forty
years his day was divided with singular regularity between
the public duties of teaching and that unwearied research
and industry in private which enabled him, amidst the in¬
cessant occupation of a High School master’s life, to give to
the world such a number of accurate and laborious compila¬
tions. So entirely did these objects of public utility engross
his mind, that he mixed but little with society, and considered
every moment as lost that was not dedicated in some way
or other to the improvement of youth. Few men certainly
could adopt, with more truth and propriety, the language
of Horace, both with regard to his own feelings and the
objects on which he was occupied.
 mihi tarda fluunt ingrataque tempora, quae spem
Consiliumque morantur agendi gnaviter id, quod
-iEque pauperibus prodest, locupletibus asque,
iEque, neglectum, pueris senibusque nocebit.
Epist. i. 1. 23.
The rector’s class, which in the High School is the most
advanced of five, consisted of no more than between thirty
and forty boys when Dr Adam was appointed. His cele¬
brity as a classical teacher, joined to the progress of the
country in wealth and population, continued to increase this
number up to the year of his death. His class-list for that
year contained 167 names,—the largest number that had
ever been collected in one class, and, what is remarkable,
equal to the amount of the whole five classes during the
year when he first taught in the school.
He performed an essential service to the literature of his
country by introducing, in his own class, an additional hour
of teaching for Greek and Geography; neither of which
branches seems to have been contemplated in the original
formation of the school. The introduction of Greek, which
he effected a year or two after his election, was regarded by
some professors of the university as a dangerous innovation,
and an unwarrantable encroachment on the province of the
Greek chair; and the measure was accordingly resisted
(though, it is satisfactory to think, unsuccessfully) by the
united efforts of the Senatus Academicus, in a petition and
representation to the town-council, drawn up and proposed
by the celebrated Principal of the university, Dr Robertson.
This happened in 1772.
It is not possible for a man of principle and ordinary affec¬
tions to be occupied in training a large portion of the youth
of his country to knowledge and virtue, without feeling a
deep responsibility, and a paramount interest in their pro¬
gress and welldoing. That such were Dr Adam’s feelings
is proved, not less by the whole tenor of his life, than by
his mode of conducting the business of his class; by the
free scope and decided support he gave to talent, particularly
when the possessor of it was poor and friendless; by the
tender concern with which he followed his pupils into life;
and by a test not the least unequivocal, the enthusiastic
attachment and veneration which they entertain for his
memory. In his class-room, his manher, while it imposed
respect, was kindly and conciliating. He was fond of re¬
lieving the irksomeness of continued attention by narrating
curious facts and amusing anecdotes. In the latter part of
his life, he was perhaps too often the hero of his own tale;
but there was something amiable even in this weakness,
which arose from the vanity of having done much good, and
was totally unmixed with any alloy of selfishness.
Dr Adam’s first publication was his Grammar, which ap¬
peared in 1772. Although it met with the approbation of
some eminently good judges, particularly of Bishop Lowth,
the author had no sooner adopted it in his own class, and
125
recommended it to others, than a host of enemies rose up Adam,
against him, and he was involved in much altercation and
vexatious hostility with the town-council and the four under
masters.
His work on Roman Antiquities was published in 1791,
and has contributed, more than any of his other productions,
to give him a name as a classical scholar.
In 1794, he published his Summary qf Geography and
History, in one thick octavo volume of 900 pages, which had
grown in his hands to this size from a small treatise on the
same subject, printed for the use of his pupils in 1784.
His last work was his Latin Dictionary, which appeared
in 1805, printed, like every other production of his pen, in
the most unassuming form, and with the utmost anxiety to
condense the greatest quantity of useful knowledge into the
smallest bulk, and afford it to the student at the cheapest
rate. It was intended chiefly for the use of schools, and to
be followed by a larger work, containing copious illustrations
of every word in the language. The MS. of this important
work, which he did not survive to complete, is deposited in
the library of the school over which he so long and so ably
presided. He died on the 18th of December 1809, after
an illness of five days. Amidst the wanderings of mind that
accompanied it, he was constantly reverting to the business
of the class, and addressing his boys; and in the last hour
of his life, as he fancied himself examining on the lesson
of the day, he stopped short, and said, “ But it grows dark,
you may go;” and almost immediately expired.
The magistrates of Edinburgh, whose predecessors had
not always been alive to his merits, showed their respect for
his memory by a public funeral. A short time before his
death, he was solicited by some of his old pupils to sit to Mr
Raeburn for his portrait, which was executed in the best
style of that eminent artist, and placed, as a memorial
of their gratitude and respect, in the library of the High
School.
He was twice married; first in 1775, to Miss Munro,
eldest daughter of the minister of Kinloss, by whom he had
several children, the last of whom died within a few days of
his father; and in 1789, to Miss Cosser, daughter of Mr
Cosser, Comptroller of Excise, by whom he had two daugh¬
ters and a son. (j. p—s.)
Adam, Melchior, lived in the seventeenth century. He
was born in the territory of Grotkaw in Silesia, and edu¬
cated in the college of Brieg, where he became a firm Pro¬
testant, and was enabled to pursue his studies by the libe¬
rality of a person of quality, who had left several exhibitions
for young students. He was appointed rector of a college
at Heidelberg, where he published, in the year 1615, the
first volume of his Vitae Germanorum Philosophorum, &c.
This volume was followed by three others: that which
treated of divines was printed in 1619; that of the lawyers
came next; and, finally, that of the physicians: the last two
were published in 1620. All the learned men whose lives
are contained in these four volumes lived in the sixteenth
or beginning of the seventeenth century, and are either Ger¬
mans or Flemings; but he published in 1618 the lives of
twenty divines of other countries in a separate volume, en¬
titled Decades duee, continentes Vitas Theologorum extero-
rumprincipum. All his divines are Protestants. His industry
as a biographer is commended by Bayle, who acknowledges
his obligations to his labours. He died in 1622.
Adam, Robert, an eminent architect, was born at Edin¬
burgh in the year 1728. He was the second son of Wil¬
liam Adam, Esq. of Maryburgh, in the county of Fife, who
also has left some respectable specimens of his genius and
abilities as an architect in Hopetoun House and the Royal
Infirmary of Edinburgh, which were erected from designs
executed by him. And it was perhaps owing to the fortu-
A M.
126 A D
Adam, nate circumstance of his father’s example that young Adam
first directed his attention to those studies, in the prosecu¬
tion of which he afterwards rose to such distinguished cele¬
brity. He received his education at the university ot Edin¬
burgh, where he had an opportunity of improving and en¬
larging his mind, by the conversation and acquaintance of
some of the first literary characters ot the age, who were
then rising into reputation, or have since established their
fame as historians and philosophers. Among these were Mr
Hume, Dr Robertson, Dr Smith, and Dr Ferguson, who
were the friends and companions of the father, and who con¬
tinued through life their friendship and attachment to the
son.
In the year 1754, Mr Adam travelled on the Continent,
with a view to extend his knowledge and improve his taste
in architecture, and resided in Italy for three years. Here
he surveyed and studied those noble specimens of ancient
grandeur which the magnificent public edifices of the Ro¬
mans, even in ruins, still exhibit. In tracing the progress of
architecture and the other fine arts among the Romans, Mr
Adam observed that they had visibly declined previously to
the time of Diocletian ; but he was also convinced that the
liberal patronage and munificence of that emperor had re¬
vived, during his reign, a better taste for architecture, and
had formed artists who were capable of imitating the more
elegant style of a purer age. lie had seen this remarkably
exemplified in the public baths at Rome, which were erected
by him, the most entire and the noblest of the ancient build¬
ings. Admiring the extent and fertility of genius of the
artists from whose designs such magnificent structures had
been executed, he was anxious to see and study any remains
that yet existed of those masters whose works were striking
monuments of an elegant and improved taste, but whose
names, amid the wrecks of time, have sunk into oblivion.
It was with this view that he undertook a voyage to Spala-
tro, in Dalmatia, to visit and examine the private palace of
Diocletian. Mr Adam sailed from Venice in July 1754, ac¬
companied by M. Clerisseau, a French artist and antiquary,
and two experienced draughtsmen. On their arrival at Spa-
latro, they found, that though the palace had suffered much
from the injuries of time, yet it had sustained no less from
the dilapidations of the inhabitants to procure materials for
building; and even the foundations of the ancient structure
were covered with modern houses. Suspecting that their
object was to view and make plans of the fortifications, an
immediate and peremptory order was issued by the gover¬
nor, commanding them to desist. This order, however, was
soon counteracted through the mediation of General Graeme,
the commander-in-chief of the Venetian forces. They re¬
sumed their labours with double ardour, and in five weeks
finished plans and views of the fragments which remain,
from which they were enabled to execute perfect designs of
the entire building.
Mr Adam now returned to England, and soon rose to very
considerable professional eminence. In 1762 he was ap¬
pointed architect to the king ; and the year following he pre¬
sented to the public the fruit of his voyage to Spalatro, in a
splendid work, containing engravings and descriptions of the
ruins of the palace.
In the year 1768, Mr Adam obtained a seat in parliament.
He was chosen to represent the county of Kinross ; and
about the same time he resigned his office of architect to the
king. But he continued his professional career with increas¬
ing reputation ; and about the year 1773, in conjunction
with his brother James, who also rose to considerable emi¬
nence as an architect, he published another splendid work,
consisting of plans and elevations of public and private build¬
ings which were erected from their designs. Among these
are, Lord Mansfield’s house at Caenwood; Luton House in
A M.
Bedfordshire, belonging to Lord Bute; the new Gateway Adam,
of the Admiralty Office ; the Register Office at Edinburgh,
&c.; which are universally admired as striking monuments
of elegant design and correct taste. The Adelphi buildings
at London, which also are a very fine example of the inven¬
tive genius of the Messrs Adam, proved an unsuccessful spe¬
culation.
The buildings more lately erected from the designs of
Mr Adam afford additional proofs of his invention and skill.
We may mention, in particular, the Infirmary of Glasgow, as
exhibiting the most perfect symmetry and useful disposition
of parts, combined with great beauty and lightness.
To the last period of his life Mr Adam displayed an in¬
creasing vigour of genius and refinement of taste; for, in the
space of one year preceding his death, he designed eight
great public works, besides twenty-five private buildings, so
various in their style and beautiful in their composition, that
they have been allowed, by the best judges, as sufficient of
themselves to establish his fame. The improved taste which
now pretty generally prevails in our public and private edi¬
fices, undoubtedly owes much to the elegant and correct
style introduced by this distinguished artist.
He died on the 3d of March 1792, by the bursting of a
blood-vessel, in the 64th year of his age, and was buried in
Westminster Abbey. The natural suavity of his manners,
joined to the excellence of his moral character, secured to
him the affectionate regard of his friends, and the esteem of
all who enjoyed his acquaintance. James Adam, already
mentioned as associated with his brother in many of his la¬
bours, died on the 20th October 1794.
Adam, William, nephew of the preceding, was the
eldest son of John Adam, Esq. of Blair-Adam (for a short
time called Maryburgh), in the county of Kinross, in Scot¬
land. He was born in Kinross-shire on the 2d of August
1751 ; and, after the usual courses at the colleges of Edin¬
burgh and Glasgow, passed advocate at the Scotch bar in
1773. But he made no serious attempt to practise there,
having very soon removed to England, where he obtained a
seat in the House of Commons in 1774, and in 1782 was
called to the English common-law bar. He continued in
parliament till 1795, when he withdrew from it till 1806.
Being then chosen to represent the united shires of Kinross
and Kincardine, he resumed his seat, and continued in the
House, but with some interruptions, till 1811.
His parliamentary life thus lasted about 30 years ; during
all which period he took a conspicuous part in most of the
proceedings of the House. But it would be idle to detail
his particular share in them here. It is only in the cases of
the few men who leave permanent impressions on their age,
that the details of parliamentary exertion, however honour¬
able to him who makes them, and however interesting to his
friends, are cared for by general readers. It is enough, there¬
fore, to state that Mr Adam, though a popular speaker, was
not an orator, and had far too much sense to try to be thought
one. But he was one of the many members who do, by
judgment and attention, what eloquence would in vain at¬
tempt to accomplish. He made himself of importance by good
sense, industry, popularity of manner, and a firm adherence,
though not without the incidental differences that will occa¬
sionally separate the steadiest partisans, to the Whig prin¬
ciples and the Whig party, which he had adopted, and from
which he never swerved. Some inconsiderate words which
occurred in a debate in 1779, produced a hostile meeting be¬
tween him and Mr Fox, when the latter was slightly wound¬
ed ; but neither before nor after could there be two better
friends. They were both of the small but noble band who
stood out for the practical exercise of the British constitu¬
tion, against the encroachments which they thought that,
under a real or pretended horror of the first French Revo-
ADAM.
Adam
lution, were making upon it by Government. None of his
parliamentary exertions were more valuable, or more ably con¬
ducted, than those which he made in March 1794, against
the shocking proceedings of the Scotch Criminal Court in
certain trials for sedition; when that court, while sedition,
how often soever committed, could, in England, be only pun¬
ished by fine and imprisonment, punished a first offence by
14 years’ transportation ; and this without a statute, and
solely in the exercise of judicial discretion, and at a time
when New South Wales, where these unfortunate men were
sent, as the court understood that they would be, was in a
state of desolate and unapproachable barbarism.
After being called to the English bar, he prosecuted its
business with the steady assiduity of one who knew that success
was necessary for his independence. If he had given him¬
self to this field exclusively, he would have risen still higher
in it than he actually did ; for this is a profession in which no
one can give himself fair play who attempts to combine it
with any other occupation. He was known to be deeply
engaged with parliament, and with the management of the
pecuniary affairs of several members of the royal family,
particularly of the Prince of Wales and the Duke of York,
to whom his practical sagacity was of the greatest use. But
still he rose to very considerable practice, and became a
king’s counsel in 1796,—counsel to the East India Company
in 1802,—and was successively Attorney and Solicitor Ge¬
neral to the Prince, afterwards George IV.,—one of the
managers of the impeachment of Warren Hastings, and one
of the counsel who conducted the defence of the first Lord
Melville, when he (as Mr Dundas) was impeached also. Dur¬
ing the short period when his party was in power, in 1806,
he was Chancellor of the Duchy of Cornwall, and was after¬
wards a Privy Councillor, and Lord-Lieutenant of Kinross-
shire.
In 1814 he withdrew from England, on being made a
Baron of Exchequer in Scotland. This was preparatory to
his last elevation as Chief Commissioner of the Jury-Court, to
which he was appointed in 1815, and in connection with
which institution he will be chiefly known historically.
The application of juries to the trial of civil causes was
till then unknown in Scotland. The want of them had been
long complained of, both by enlightened lawyers and by the
public; and, though there were some haters of change to
whom their introduction was offensive, it was recommended
by all liberal legislators, legal and political, in both quarters
of the island ; and Baron Adam was selected to preside over
the new tribunal. He continued to do so till 1830, by which
time he had matured our jury practice sufficiently to enable
it to be engrafted into the business of the permanent supreme
tribunal, and to admit of his own separate jury-court being
abolished.
The general problem of the fitness of juries for the decision
of facts involving civil interests, and the success of the effort
to introduce them into Scotland, are not questions for dis¬
cussion here. There has recently been an apparent abate¬
ment of the idolatry of jury-trial in England, and there are
some who hold the Scotch experiment to have totally failed.
The truth probably is, that the English use civil juries too
indiscriminately, and that the expectations of what they were
to effect in Scotland were extravagant. But their total
failure in Scotland is, unquestionably, not a fact. On the
contrary, they continue to perform most valuable service in
the administration of justice, and could not be given up with¬
out an instant revival of the unavoidable and intolerable evils,
which, though now forgotten by many, produced the absolute
necessity for their establishment.
But whatever may be now thought of the jury principle,
there can be but one just opinion of the exact merit of the
judge to whom its introduction into Scotland was entrusted.
127
His devotion to his task was ardent and constant. No man Adam,
ever gave himself more earnestly to the achievement of a v/—»
great judicial end. He did not bring profound law to the
work; one good effect of which was, that it liberated his
mind from exclusive addiction to the system in which he
had been trained. Unstiffened by previous habits, he was
able to relieve Scotch awkwardness by English experience,
and to enlarge English narrowness by Scotch reason. His
skdl in directing juries was not so great as his judgment in
the formation of rules for ripening the system. His candour,
—the cheerful endurance of his patience,—his simple but
dignified urbanity, and his uniform accessibility, were all
perfect. He and his court were, at first, so much obstructed
by prejudice, that without his protection the measure would
have been defeated without ever having had a fair trial.
Personally, he was, in all practical matters an able manager;
and always kind and pleasant,—beloved by his family and
a large circle of friends,—of excellent conversation, and de¬
lightful in society. His long residence in London, and his
acquaintance with almost all the celebrated men of all classes
of his time, supplied him with a never-failing store of well-told
anecdote. His connection with his native country pre¬
viously to his final return to it in 1815, had been kept up by
regular visits ;—as might have been expected of one who
never ceased to consider the country of his birth and edu¬
cation as his home, and to whom Blair-Adam was Arabia
Felix. It is now, through his tasteful management, adorned
by judiciously placed and thriving wood. When his grand¬
father acquired it, the whole foliage it could boast of was
supplied by a single tree. He was one of the very best de¬
positaries of all the old and fast-fading peculiarities of Scot¬
land ; the dialect of which, and when he chose, its accent,
he retained thoroughly; and remembered and enjoyed all
the sayings and customs of the country, its local literature,
and all its curious old characters and occurrences. His
combination of the social knowledge of both kingdoms,
added to his natural shrewdness of observation on all pass¬
ing subjects, gave him great conversational advantages, and
made him a most agreeable companion.
After maintaining a gallant battle against some personal
infirmities, and preserving his mental powers unimpaired, he
died at Edinburgh on the 17th of February 1839, in his 89th
year. He had long survived his wife, a daughter of Lord
Elphinstone, and was succeeded by his eldest surviving son,
Admiral Sir Charles Adam, governor of Greenwich Hos¬
pital ; his only other remaining child now surviving being
General Sir Frederick Adam. (H. c.)
Adam s Apple, a name given to a species of Citrus.
Adam s Bridge, or Rama's Bridge, in Geography, a
ridge of sands and rocks, extending across the north end of
Manaar gulf, from the island of that name on the north¬
west coast of Ceylon, to Ramencote or Ramisseram island, off
Raman point. The extent of this chain of shoals and islands
is about one degree ; but some of the sand-banks are dry,
while much of it has not more than three or four feet below
water; and it is divided by three or four deeper cuts, that
in calm weather permit the passage of native boats and small
vessels through tortuous and intricate channels.
Adam's Peak, the highest mountain in Ceylon, is stated by
Dr Davy, who ascended it, to rise to the height of 6680 feet
in a very steep acclivity, and to terminate in a point not more
than 74 feet by 24 feet. On this small plain is the sup¬
posed impression of the foot of Boodhu, an object of high
veneration to the Cingalese, who make frequent pilgrim¬
ages to this sacred spot, where a priest resides to receive the
offerings of the devotees, and to bless them on their departure.
The foot-mark is partly natural, partly artificial, and mea¬
sures 5 feet 4 inches by 2 feet 6 inches. It has a margin
of brass ornamented with some gems of small value, and is
128 ADA
Adamant covered by a roof. The mountain is wooded almost to the
II top, and is seen at the distance of twenty leagues from sea.
Adams. ^ jg very sujjpme- Long. 80. 39. E. Lat. 6.
'   55. N.
ADAMANT, a name sometimes given to the diamond.
(See Diamond.) It is likewise applied to the scoriae of gold,
the magnet, &c.
ADAMIC Earth, a name given to common red clay, al¬
luding to that species of earth of which the first man is sup¬
posed to have been made.
AD AMI Pomum, in Anatomy, a protuberance in the fore
part of the throat, formed by the os hyoides. It is thought
to be so called from a strange conceit that a piece of the
forbidden apple which Adam ate stuck by the way and oc¬
casioned it.
ADAMITES, or Adamians, in Ecclesiastical History,
the name of a sect of ancient heretics, supposed to have been
a branch of the Basilidians and Carpocratians.
Epiphanius tell us that they were called Adamites from
their pretending to be re-established in the state of inno¬
cence, and to be such as Adam was at the moment of his
creation, whence they ought to imitate him in his nakedness.
They rejected marriage, maintaining that the conjugal union
Mould never have taken place upon earth had sin been un¬
known.
This obscure and ridiculous sect did not at first last long;
but it was revived, with additional absurdities, in the twelfth
century, by one Tandamus, since known by the name of
Tanchelin, who propagated his errors at Antwerp in the
reign of the emperor Henry V. He maintained that there
ought to be no distinction between priests and laymen,
and that fornication and adultery were meritorious actions.
Tanchelin had a great number of followers, and was con¬
stantly attended by 3000 of these profligates in arms. His
sect did not, however, continue long after his death; but
another appeared under the name of Turlupins, in Savoy
and Dauphiny, where they committed the most brutal ac¬
tions in open day.
About the beginning of the fifteenth century, one Picard,
a native of Flanders, spread these errors in Germany and
Bohemia, particularly in the army of the famous Zisca, not¬
withstanding the severe discipline he maintained. Picard
pretended that he was sent into the world as a new Adam,
to re-establish the law of nature ; which, according to him,
consisted in exposing every part of the body, and having
all the women in common. This sect found also some
partisans in Poland, Holland, and England: they assembled
in the night; and it is asserted, that one of the fundamental
maxims of their society was contained in the following
verse:—
Jura, perjura, seeretum prodere noli.
ADAMS, a township of Berkshire county, in die state of
Massachusetts, in North America. It is 140 miles north¬
west of Boston, and contains 3703 inhabitants. In the
northern part of this district, a stream called Hudson’s brook
has worn a channel through a stratum of white marble, and
over the channel the rocks form a fine natural bridge, which
is 12 or 15 feet long, 10 feet broad, and more than 60 feet
above the water.
Adams, the name of six different counties in the United
States of America. 1st, in Pennsylvania, population, in 1850,
25,988; 2d, in the southern district of Mississippi, popula¬
tion, 18,621; 3d, in Ohio, population, 18,943; 4th, in In¬
diana, population, 5774 ; 5th, in Illinois, population, 26,537;
6th, in Wisconsin, population, 187.
Adams, John, a distinguished statesman of the United
States of North America. He was born on the 19th or (new
style) 30th of October 1736, in that part of the township of
ADA
Braintree, in Massachusetts, which on a subsequent division Adams,
was called Quincy. His parents were of that class, then ■
abounding in New England, who united the profession of
agriculture with that of some one of the mechanic arts. His
ancestor Henry had emigrated from Devonshire in the year
1632, and had established himself at Braintree with six sons,
all of whom married: from one descended the subject of
this memoir, and from another that Samuel Adams who,
with John Hancock, was by name proscribed by an act of
the British parliament, for the conspicuous part he acted in
the early stages of the opposition to the measures of the
mother country. When about fifteen years of age, his father
proposed to his son John either to follow the family pursuits,
and to receive in due time, as his portion, a part of the
estate which they had cultivated, or to have the expense of
a learned education bestowed upon him, with which, instead
of any fortune, he was to make his way in future life. The
son chose the latter alternative ; and having received some
preparatory instruction, was admitted a student at Harvard
College in the year 1751. After passing about three years
in that seminary, he removed to the town of Worcester,
where, according to the economical practice of that day in
Neu’ England, he became a tutor in a grammar school, and
at the same time was initiated into the practice of the law
in the office of Mr Putnam, then an attorney and a colonel
of militia, and subsequently a general of some celebrity in
the revolutionary war. A letter of Mr Adams, which has
lately come before the public, written at the early age of
nineteen, shows a degree of foresight which, like many other
predictions, may have led to its own accomplishment. It
is dated 12th October 1755, and says, “ Soon after the Re¬
formation, a few people came over to this new world for
conscience’ sake. Perhaps this apparently trivial incident
may transfer the great seat of empire to America. It looks
likely to me; for if we can remove the turbulent Gallic (the
French in Canada), our people, according to the exactest
computation, will in another century become more numerous
than England itself Should this be the case, since we have,
I may say, all the naval stores of the nation in our hands,
it will be easy to obtain the mastery of the seas; and then
the united force of all Europe will not be able to subdue
us. The only way to keep us from setting up for ourselves
is to disunite us.”
He was admitted to practice in the year 1758, and gra¬
dually rose to the degree of eminence which a local court
can confer ; and obtained distinction by some essays on the
subject of the canon and feudal law, which were directed to
point to the rising difference which commenced between
the mother country and the colonies, soon after the peace
of 1763 had delivered the latter from all disquietude respect¬
ing the establishments of France in the adjoining province
of Canada. His character rose, both as a lawyer and a pa¬
triot, so as to induce Governor Barnard, who wished to gain
him over to the royal party, to offer him the office of advo¬
cate-general in the Admiralty Court, which was deemed a
sure step to the highest honours of the bench. Two years
after, he was chosen one of the representatives of his native
town to the congress of the province-
His professional integrity was soon after exhibited in the
defence of Captain Preston and some soldiers, who were
tried before a Boston jury on a charge of murder. In this
case Adams was counsel for the defence ; and being con¬
sidered by the people, then in an inflamed state against
the troops, as a determined friend of liberty, his eloquence
obtained a verdict of acquittal, without lessening his popu¬
larity.
When it was determined, in 1774, to assemble a general
congress from the several colonies, Mr Adams was one of
those solicited for the purpose by the people of Massa-
ADA
uns. chusetts. Before departing for Philadelphia to join the
 / congress, he parted with the friend of his youth, his fellow-
student and associate at the bar, Jonathan Sewall, who had
attained the rank of attorney-general, and was necessarily
opposed to his political views. Sewall made a powerful
effort to change his determination, and to deter him from
going to the congress. He urged, that Britain was deter¬
mined on her system, and was irresistible; and would be
destructive to him and all those who should persevere in
opposition to her designs. To this Adams replied: “I
know that Great Britain has determined on her system,
and that very fact determines me on mine. You know I
have been constant and uniform in opposition to her mea¬
sures ; the die is now cast; I have passed the Rubicon; to
swim or sink, live or die, survive or perish with my country,
is my unalterable determination.” The conversation was
then terminated by Adams saying to his friend, “ I see we
must part; and with a bleeding heart, I say, I fear for ever.
But you may depend upon it, this adieu is the sharpest thorn
on which I ever set my foot.”
W' hen the continental congress was assembled, Mr Adams
became one of its most active and energetic leaders. He
vyas a member of that committee which framed the declara¬
tion of independence, and one of the most powerful advo¬
cates for its adoption by the general body; and by his elo¬
quence obtained the unanimous suffrages of that assembly.
Though he was appointed chief-justice in 1776, he declined
the office, in order to dedicate his talents to the general
purpose of the defence of the country.
In 1777, he, with three other members, was appointed a
commissioner to France. He remained in Paris about a
year and a half, when, in consequence of disagreements
among themselves, in which Adams was not implicated, all
but Franklin were recalled. In the latter end of 1779, he
was charged with two commissions, one as a plenipotentiary
to treat for peace, the other empowering him to form a com¬
mercial treaty with Great Britain. When arrived in Paris,
the French government viewed with jealousy the purpose
of the second commission; and Count de Vergennes advised
him to keep it secret, with a view to prevail on the congress
to revoke it. Mr Adams refused to communicate to the
Count his instructions on that subject; and an altercation
arose, from a claim made by France for a discrimination in
favour of French holders of American paper money in the
liquidation of it. The Count complained to congress, trans¬
mitted copies of Mr Adams’ letters, and instructed the
French minister at Philadelphia to demand his recal. The
demand was rejected, but afterwards four others were joined
with him in the commission. Whilst these negotiations
were in progress, he went to Holland, and there, in opposi¬
tion to the influence and talents of the British minister, Sir
Joseph Yorke, succeeded both in negotiating a loan, and in
procuring the assistance of that country in the defence
against Great Britain. He formed a commercial treaty with
that republic, and joined in the ephemeral association called
“ the armed neutrality.”
In 1785 Mr Adams was appointed ambassador to the
court of his former sovereign, where his conduct was such
as to secure the approbation of his own country, and the re¬
spect of that to which he was commissioned. Whilst in
London, he published his work entitled Defence of the Ame-
viccin Constitution, in which he combated ably the opinions
of Turgot, Mably, and Price, in favour of a single legisla¬
tive assembly; and thus perhaps contributed to the division
of power and the checks on its exercise, which became esta¬
blished in the United States. At the close of 1787 he re¬
turned, after ten years devoted to the public service, to
America. He received the thanks of congress, and was
elected soon after, under the presidency of Washington, to
VOL. II.
ADA 129
the office of vice-president. In 1790 Mr Adams gave to the Adams
public his Discourses on Davila, in which he exposed the If
revolutionary doctrines propagated by France and her emis- -Adamson,
saries in other countries. On the retirement of Washing-
ton, the choice of president fell on Mr Adams, who entered
on that office in May 1797. At that time the government
was entangled by the insolent pretensions of the French
demagogues, and by their partisans in many of the states.
Great differences of opinion arose between the individuals
at the head of affairs : one party, with Mr Hamilton at their
head, was disposed to resist the pretensions of France by
open hostilities; whilst Mr Adams was disinclined to war,
so long as there was a possibility of avoiding it with honour.
Owing to this division of his own friends, rather than to a
want of public confidence, at the conclusion of the four
years for which the president is chosen, Mr Adams was not
re-elected. Perhaps this was in some measure owing to the
preponderance of the slave states, in which Mr Jefferson,
his rival, and a proprietor of slaves, had a fellow-feeling
among the chief of the people.
He retired with dignity, at sixty-eight years of age, to his
native place, formed no political factions against "those in
power, but publicly expressed his approbation of the mea¬
sures which were pursued by him who had been his rival,
who had become his successor in power, but had never
ceased to be his firmly attached friend.
I he last public occasion on which Mr Adams appeared,
was as a member of the convention for the revision of the
constitution of Massachusetts, in which some slight altera¬
tions were requisite, in consequence of the province of Maine
being separated from it.
He seems to have enjoyed his mental faculties to the close
of his protracted life; and even on the last day of it, two
hours only before its final close, on the 4th July 1825, the
fiftieth anniversary of the act of independence, he dictated
to a friend, as a sentiment to be given at the public dinner
of the day, “ Independence for ever.”
Mr Adams was considered a sound scholar, well versed
in the ancient languages, and in many branches of general
literature. Flis style in writing was forcible and perspicu¬
ous, and, in the latter years of his life, remarkably elegant.
In person he was of middling stature ; his manners spoke the
courtesy of the old school; and his address, at least when
he was in England, was dignified and manly. (w. J.)
Adams, John Quincy, son of the preceding, was born at
Boston in 1767. After spending some years in Europe,
he settled as a lawyer in his native city. From 1794 to
1801 he filled the office of American minister at the Hague,
and at Berlin. After some years spent in the practice of
his profession, and the discharge of various public duties, he
was sent, in 1809, as ambassador to St Petersburg, where
his influence secured the treaty of peace with Great Britain.
He was next ambassador at the court of St James’s, from
which he was recalled, to act as secretary of state. His dis¬
tinguished abilities and services finally received their highest
acknowledgment, by his election, in 1825, to the president’s
chair, which high office he discharged with a purity and fide¬
lity that signalised his administration as a pattern of patriotic
government. On the expiry of his term of office he retired
into private life, acting, however, for many years as a repre¬
sentative in congress. He died at Washington on the 23d
of February 1848, in the eighty-second year of his age.
ADAMSON, Patrick, a Scottish prelate, archbishop of
St Andrews, was born in the year 1543, in the town of
Perth, where he received the rudiments of his education.
He afterwards studied philosophy, and took his degree of
master of arts at the university of St Andrews. In 1566
he set out for Paris as tutor to a young gentleman. In the
month of June of the same year, Mary Queen of Scots being
R
130 ADA
Adana, delivered of a son, afterwards James VI. of Scotland and I.
vy-**' of England, Mr Adamson wrote a Latin poem on the occa¬
sion. In this poem he gave the prince the title of king of
France and England. This proof of his loyalty involved
him in difficulties. The French court was offended, an
ordered him to be arrested; and he was confined for six
months. He was released only through the intercession of
Queen Mary and some of the principal nobility, who inter¬
ested themselves in his behalf. As soon as he recovered his
liberty, he retired with his pupil to Bourges. He was in
this city during the massacre at Paris; and the same perse¬
cuting spirit prevailing among the Catholics at Bourges as
at the metropolis, he lived concealed for seven months in a
public-house, the aged master of which, in reward for his
charity to heretics, was thrown from the roof, and had his
brains dashed out. Whilst Mr Adamson lay thus in his se¬
pulchre, as he called it, he wrote his Latin poetical version
of the book of Job, and his tragedy of Herod in the same
language. In the year 1573, he returned to Scotland, and,
having&entered into holy orders, became minister of Paisley.
In the year 1575, he was appointed one of the commission¬
ers, by the general assembly, to settle the jurisdiction and
policy of the church ; and the following year he was named,
with Mr David Lindsay, to report their proceedings to the
Earl of Morton, then regent. About this time the earl ap¬
pointed him one of his chaplains; and, on the death of
Archbishop Douglas, promoted him to the archiepiscopal see
of St Andrews. His new dignity brought upon him great
trouble and uneasiness. The clamour of the Presbyterian
party rose high against him, and many inconsistent and ab¬
surd stories were propagated concerning him. Soon after
his promotion, he published his catechism in Latin verse, a
work highly approved even by his enemies, who neverthe¬
less still continued to persecute him with great violence. In
1578 he submitted himself to the general assembly, which
procured him peace but for a very little time; for, the year
following, fresh accusations were brought against him.^ A
provincial synod was held at St Andrews in April 1586:
the archbishop was here accused and excommunicated. He
appealed to the king and the states, but this availed him
little. At the next general assembly, a paper being pro¬
duced containing the archbishop’s submission, he was ab¬
solved from the excommunication. In 1588 fresh accusa¬
tions were brought against him. The year following he
published the Lamentations of the prophet Jeremiah in
Latin verse, which he dedicated to the king, complaining
of his hard usage. In the latter end of the same year he
published a translation of the Apocalypse in Latin verse, and
a copy of Latin verses. The king was unmoved by his ap¬
plication, and granted the revenue of his see to the duke of
Lennox; so that the prelate and his family were literally re¬
duced to the want of bread. During the remaining part of
his unfortunate life he was supported by charitable contribu¬
tion, and died in 1591. The character of this prelate has been
variously represented, according to the sentiments of religion
and politics which prevailed. But there is little doubt that he
encouraged and supported, under the authority of the king,
oppressive and injurious measures. The panegyric of the
editor of his works, Mr Wilson, is extravagant and absurd.
He says, that “ he was a miracle of nature, and rather seemed
to be the immediate production of God Almighty, than born
of a woman.”
ADANA, a town of Asia Minor. It is a place of con¬
siderable trade; and, as commanding the passage of the
mountains to the north of Syria, was an important military
station in the contest between the Egyptians and Turks in
1832. After the defeat of the Turkish army at Konieh, it
was taken possession of by Ibrahim Pacha, and continued to
be held by the Egyptians until the treaty of July 1840 com-
ADA
polled them to evacuate it. It is the capital of the province
of the same name. It is situate on the river Sihoon, on the
banks of which stands a small but strong castle, built on a
rock. It has a great number of beautiful fountains brought
from the river by means of water-works. Over the river
there is a stately bridge of fifteen arches, which leads to the
water-works. The climate is pleasant and healthy, and the
winter mild and serene; but the summer is so hot as to
oblige the principal inhabitants to retire to the neighbouring
mountains, where they spend six months among shady trees
and grottos, in a most delicious manner. The adjacent
country is rich and fertile, and produces melons, cucumbers,
pomegranates, pulse, and herbs of all sorts, all the year round;
besides corn, wine, and fruits, in their proper season. It is
30 miles north-east of Tarsus, on the road to Aleppo. Long.
35. 12. E. Lab 37. 10. N.
AD ANSON, Michael, a celebrated naturalist, was de¬
scended from a Scottish family which had at the Revolution
attached itself to the fortunes of the house of Stuart; and
was born the 7th of April 1727, at Aix in Provence, where
his father was in the service of M. de Vintimille, then arch¬
bishop of that province. On the translation of this prelate
to the archbishopric of Paris, about the year 1730, the elder
Adanson also repaired thither, accompanied by his infant
family of five children, all of whom were provided for by
their father’s patron. A small canonry fell to the lot of our
future naturalist, the revenue of which defrayed the expenses
of his education at the college of Plessis. While there,
he was distinguished for great quickness of apprehension,
strength of memory, and mental ardour ; but his genius took
no particular bent, until he received a microscope from the
celebrated Tuberville Needham, who happened to be pre¬
sent at one of the public examinations, and was struck with
admiration of his talents and acquirements. From the mo¬
ment that young Adanson received this donation, to the last
hour of his life, he persevered with a zeal almost unexam¬
pled, in the observation and study of nature.
On leaving college, his youthful ardour was well employed
in the cabinets of Reaumur and Bernard de Jussieu, as well
as in the Jardin des Plantes. Such was his zeal, that he
repeated the instructions of the professors to such of his fel¬
low-students as could not advance with a rapidity equal to
his own ; and before he had completed his nineteenth year,
he had actually described (for his own improvement) four
thousand species of the three kingdoms of nature. In this
way he soon exhausted the rich stores of accumulated know¬
ledge in Europe ; and having obtained a small appointment
in the colony of Senegal, he resigned his canonry, and em¬
barked on the 20th of December 1748 for Africa.
The motives which decided the choice of Senegal as the
scene of his observations are recorded by himselt, and are
too remarkably indicative of his ardent thirst of knowledge
not to be noticed, “ It was,” says he, in a memorandum
found after his death, “ of all European establishments the
most difficult to penetrate, the most hot, the most unhealthy,
the most dangerous in every respect, and consequently the
least known to naturalists.”
His ardour remained unabated during the five years that
he remained in Africa, in which period he collected and
described an immense number of animals and plants; deli¬
neated maps of the country, and made astronomical obser¬
vations ; prepared grammars and dictionaries of the lan¬
guages spoken on the banks of the Senegal; kept meteoio-
logical registers; composed a detailed account of all the
plants of the country ; and collected specimens of every ob¬
ject of commerce. M. Cuvier mentions that he had seen the
produce and results of all these multifarious and laborious
exertions.
He founded his classification of all known organized beings
A D A
Adanson. on the consideration of each individual organ. As each or-
gan gave birth to new relations, so he established a corre¬
sponding number of arbitrary arrangements. Those beings
possessing the greatest number of similar organs were re¬
fen ed to one great division, and the relationship was con¬
sidered more remote in proportion to the dissimilarity of
organs.
The chief defect of this method consists in presupposino-
a knowledge of species and their organization, altogether be-
yond the existing stage of attainment. It gives, however,
distinct ideas of the degree of affinity subsisting between or¬
ganized beings, independent of all physiological science. Of
this universal method, as he called it, Adanson gave some ac¬
count in an essay contained in his Treatise on Shells, pub¬
lished at the end of his Voyage au Senegal.
Until the appearance of this work, the animals inhabiting
shells had been much neglected. On this branch of his sub¬
ject our author exercised his wonted zeal, while his methodi¬
cal distribution, founded on not less than twenty of the par¬
tial classifications already alluded to, is decidedly superior to
that of any of his predecessors. Like every first attempt,
however, it had its imperfections, and these arose from not
having examined the anatomical structure of the animals;
from which cause he omitted, in his arrangement of the class
of Mollusca, all molluscous animals without shells.
His original plan was to have published the whole of the
observations made during his residence at Senegal, in eight
volumes ; but being deterred by the difficulties attending so
extensive a publication, he abandoned the scheme, and ap¬
plied himself entirely to his Families of Plants, which he
published in 1763. In this he found the application of his
general principle not less advantageous than in his preced¬
ing works.
In 1774 (eleven years after the appearance of his Fami¬
lies of Plants), he submitted to the consideration of the Aca¬
demy of Sciences an immense work, containing what may be
called the universal application of his universal method;
for it extended to all known beings and substances, whether
in the heavens or on the earth. Twenty-seven large vol¬
umes of manuscripts were employed in displaying the gene¬
ral relations of all these matters, and their distribution. &()ne
hundred and fifty volumes more were occupied with the al¬
phabetical arrangement of 40,000 species. " There was also
a vocabulary, which contained 200,000 words, with their ex¬
planations ; and the whole was closed by a number of de¬
tached memoirs, 40,000 figures, and 30,000 specimens of the
three kingdoms of nature. The committee of the academy
to which the inspection of this enormous mass had been in¬
trusted, warmly recommended to Adanson to separate and
publish all that was peculiarly his own, leaving out what was
merely compilation : but he obstinately rejected this reason¬
able advice; by which means science has been deprived of
many essays, which, if we may judge from others which he
at different times gave to the world, would have possessed
great merit. But his life was now drawing near to its close.
He died, after many months of severe suffering, on the 3d
of August 1806.
Adanson was never married. In his will he requested, as
the only decoration of his grave, a garland of flowers gathered
from the fifty-eight families which he had established;—“ a
touching though transitory image,” says Cuvier, “of the
more durable monument which he has erected to himself in
his works.” His zeal for science, his unwearied industry,
and his talents as a philosophical observer, are conspicuous
in all his writings. The serenity of his temper, and the un¬
affected goodness of his heart, endeared him to the few who
knew him intimately.
His most important works are, his Voyage to Senegal, and
his Families of Plants. To the former some essays, already
add
131
noticed, were subjoined ; and various others were published, Adansonia
at different times, in the Transactions of the Academy of
Sciences. The volumes for the years 1759 and 1761 con¬
tain his observations upon the Taret, (a species of shell-fish
exceedingly destructive to vessels,) and his account of the
Baobab, an enormous African tree, now known under the
name of Adansonia. The volume for 1769 contains an in¬
teresting discussion by Adanson, upon the origin of the va¬
rieties of cultivated plants ; and in those for 1773 and 1779
will be found his valuable observations on gum-bearing trees.
In the Transactions of 1767 he gave an account of the Os-
cillatona Adansonii, which he considered a self-moving
vegetable ; but which ought, according to some observations
of M. Vaucher, to be ranked as a zoophyte. Besides these
essays, Adanson contributed several valuable articles in
natural history to the earlier part of the Supplement to
the first Encyclopedic; and he is also supposed to have
been the author of an essay on the Electricity of the Tour¬
maline (Paris 1757), which bears the name of the Duke of
Noya Caraffa. See Eloge Historique de M. Adanson, par
Cuvier; Mem. Maihem. et Physiques de VInst. National,
tom. vii. \
ADANSONIA, Ethiopian Souk Gourd, Monkeys’
Bread, or African Calabash Tree. (See Botany.)
AD APIS, an extinct quadruped, described by Cuvier in
his Ossemens Fossiles. It seems to have been about the size
of a hare, but belonged to the Pachydermata.
AD AR, the name of a Hebrew month, answering to the
end of February and beginning of March, the 12th of their
sacred and 6th of their civil year. On the 7th day of it the
Jews keep a fast for the death of Moses; on the 13th they
have the feast of Esther; and on the 14th they celebrate
the feast of Purim, for their deliverance from Haman’s con¬
spiracy. As the lunar year, which the Jews followed in
their calculations, is shorter than the solar by about eleven
days, which at the end of three years make a month, they
then intercalate a thirteenth month, which they call Veadar
or the second Adar.
ADARCON,or Daric, the most ancient gold coin
of which any specimens have been preserved to the present
day. It was the earliest coined money known among the
Jews; the impression on thecoin is a crowned archer,in a«-arb
such as is seen in the sculptures of Pei sepolis. The speci¬
mens weighed by Dr Bernard were fifteen grains heavier
than our English guinea ; their intrinsic value may therefore
be reckoned at twenty-five shillings.—Eckhel, Doctrina
Nummorum Veterum; Bernard, De Mensuris et Ponderibus.
ADARME, in Commerce, a small weight in Spain, which
is also used at Buenos Ayres, and in all Spanish America.
It is the 16th part of an ounce, which at Paris is called the
demi-gros. But the Spanish ounce is seven per cent, lighter
than that of Paris. Stephens renders it in English bv a
drachm. •’
ADATAIS, Adatis, or Adatys, in Commerce, a mus¬
lin or cotton cloth, very fine and clear, of which the piece
is ten r rench ells long, and three quarters broad. It comes
h'°™ the East Indies, and the finest is made in Bengal.
AD CORD ABIDES Denarii, in old law-books, signify
money paid by the vassal to his lord, upon the selling or
exchanging of a feud.
among the Romans, denoted a kind
of soldiery, entered in the army, but not yet put on duty :
from these the standing forces were recruited.
ADDA, the ancient Addua, a river of Switzerland and
Italy, which rises in Mount Braulio, in the country of the
Orisons, and passing through the Valteline, traverses the lake
Como and the Milanese, and falls into he Po near Cre¬
mona.
ADDECIMATE, to ascertain or levy tithes.
132
ADD
ADD
Addepha-
gia
II
Addison.
ADDEPHAGIA, in Medicine, a term used by some
physicians for gluttony, or a voracious appetite.
ADDER, in Zoology, a name for the Viper.
ADDER’S GRASS, Adder’s Tongue, and Adder’s
Wort, are English names for the cryptogamian plant, Ophio-
glossum vulgatum.
ADDEXTRATORES, in the court of Rome, the pope’s
mitre-bearers; so called, according to Ducange, because they
walk at the pope’s right hand when he rides to visit the
churches.
ADDICE, or Adze, a kind of crooked axe used by ship¬
wrights, carpenters, coopers, &c.
ADDICTI, in Antiquity, a kind of slaves, among the Ro¬
mans, adjudged to serve some creditor whom they could
not otherwise satisfy, and whose slaves they became till they
could pay or work out the debt.
ADDICTIO in Diem, among the Romans, the adjudg¬
ing a thing to a person for a certain price, unless by such a
day the owner, or some other, give more for it.
ADDICTION, among the Romans, was the making
over goods to another, either by sale or by legal sentence:
the goods so delivered were called bona addicta. Debtors
were sometimes delivered over in the same manner, and
thence called servi addicti.
ADDISCOMBE COLLEGE is situate about a mile
east of Croydon in the county of Surrey. It was established
by the East India Company in 1809, for the purpose of pro¬
viding a suitable education for officers intended for the scien¬
tific branches of the Indian army. The present system of
education at Addiscombe is considered to be very efficient,
and includes the following branches:—mathematics and
classics; fortification and artillery ; military drawing; mili¬
tary surveying ; landscape drawing; French and Hindustani
languages; geology and mineralogy; chemistry; and the
sword exercise. There is also a chaplain in connection with
the college. The appointment of the professors is vested
in the court of directors, which has also the sole power of
removing them. Pupils are admitted only on obtaining a
nomination either from a director of the company or from
the president of the board; and must be between 14 and
18 years of age. On entering they have to undergo a pre¬
liminary examination on the following subjects, viz.:—
English, Latin, writing, the ordinary rules of arithmetic, with
fractions, and the extraction of the square root; besides
these, it is of great advantage to the cadet in his future
studies to have some knowledge of mathematics and drawing.
The academical course extends over four terms, comprised
in two years study. The number of students at Addiscombe
is 150; and, on an average, it annually furnishes the army
with 75 cadets. All the officers of the engineers and ar¬
tillery are required to study at Addiscombe; but those de¬
signed for the cavalry and the infantry generally do not
study here. Appointments in the corps of engineers and
artillery are given as prizes to those students who pass
the highest examinations; the most distinguished being se¬
lected for the engineers according to the vacancies in that
branch ; those immediately following in succession are pro¬
moted to the artillery; and the others receive commissions
in the infantry. The company receive annually L.100 from
each pupil for his board and education. The average expenses
of a pupil for the year may be estimated at a total of L.120,
which includes uniform, books, instruments, and every con¬
tingent expense.
ADDISON, Joseph, was the eldest son of Dean Addi¬
son, the subject of the following article. He was born at his
father’s rectory of Milston in Wiltshire, on the 1st day of
May 1672. After having passed through several schools, the
last of which was the Charter-house, he went to Oxford,
when he was about fifteen years old. He was first entered of
Queen’s College, but after two years was elected a scholar Addison,
of Magdalen College, having, it is said, been recommended -
by his skill in Latin versification. He took his master’s de¬
gree in 1693, and held a fellowship from 1699 till 1711.
The eleven years extending from 1693, or his twenty-first
year, to 1704, when he was in his thirty-second, may be set
down as the first stage of his life as a man of letters. During
this period, embracing no profession, and not as yet entangled
in official business, he was a student, an observer, and an
author; and though the literary works which he then pro¬
duced are not those on which his permanent celebrity rests,
they gained for him in his own day a high reputation. He
had at first intended to become a clergyman ; but his talents
having attracted the attention of leading statesmen belong¬
ing to the Whig party, he was speedily diverted from his ear¬
lier views by the countenance which these men bestowed on
him. His first patron (to whom he seems to have been in¬
troduced by Congreve) was Charles Montague, afterwards
Earl of Halifax, who was himself a dabbler in literature, and
a protector of literary men; and he became known after¬
wards to the accomplished and excellent Somers. While
both of them were quite able to estimate justly his literary
merits, they had regard mainly to the services which they
believed him capable of rendering to the nation or the party ;
and accordingly they encouraged him to regulate his pursuits
with a view to public and official employment. For a con¬
siderable time, however, he was left to his own resources,
which cannot have been otherwise than scanty.
His first literary efforts were poetical. In 1693, a short
poem of his, addressed to Dryden, was inserted in the third
volume of that veteran writer’s Miscellanies. The next
volume of this collection contained his translation, in toler¬
able heroic couplets, of “all Virgil’s Fourth Georgic, except
the story of Aristaeus.” Two-and-a-half books of Ovid were
afterwards attempted; and to his years of early manhood
belonged also his prose Essay on Virgil's Georgies, a per¬
formance which hardly deserved, either for its style or for
its critical excellence, the compliment paid it by Dryden, in
prefixing it to his own translation of the poem. The most
ambitious of those poetical assay-pieces is the “ Account of
the Greatest English Poets,” dated April 1694, and ad¬
dressed affectionately to Sacheverell, the poet’s fellow-col¬
legian, who afterwards became so notorious in the party-
quarrels of the time. This piece, spirited both in language
and in versification, is chiefly noticeable as shewing that igno¬
rance of old English poetry which was then universal. Addi¬
son next, in 1695, published one of those compositions, cele¬
brating contemporary events, and lauding contemporary great
men, on which, during the half-century that succeeded the
Revolution, there was wasted so much of good writing and of
fair poetical ability. His piece, not very meritorious even
in its own class, was addressed “ To the King,” and commemo¬
rates the campaign which was distinguished by William’s tak¬
ing of Namur. Much better than the poem itself are the
introductory verses to Somers, then lord keeper. This pro¬
duction, perhaps intended as a remembrancer to the writer’s
patrons, did not at once produce any obvious effect; and we
are left in considerable uncertainty as to the manner in which
about this time Addison contrived to support himself. He
corresponded with Tonson the bookseller about projected
works, one of these being a Translation of Herodotus. It was
probably at some later time that he purposed compiling a
Dictionary of the English language. In 1699 a considerable
collection of his Latin verses was published at Oxford, in the
“ Musae Anglicanse.” These appear to have interested some
foreign scholars; and several of them show curious symptoms
of his characteristic humour.
In the same year, his patrons, either having still no office
to spare for him, or desiring him to gain peculiarly high quali-
ADDISON.
Addison, fications for diplomatic or other important business, provided
' for him temporarily by a grant, which, though bestowed on
a man of great merit and promise, would not pass unques¬
tioned in the present century. He obtained, on the recom¬
mendation of Lord Somers, a pension of L.300 a year, de¬
signed (as Addison himself afterwards said in a memorial
addressed to the crown) to enable him “ to travel, and qua¬
lify himself to serve His Majesty.” In the summer of 1699
he crossed into France, where, chiefly for the purpose of
learning the language, he remained till the end of 1700; and
after this he spent a year in Italy. In Switzerland, on his
way home, he was stopped by receiving notice that he was
to be appointed envoy to Prince Eugene, then engaged in
the war in Italy. But his Whig friends were already totter¬
ing in their places; and, in March 1702, the death of King
William at once drove them from power and put an end to
the pension. Indeed Addison asserted that he never received
but one yeai s payment of it, and that all the other expenses
of his travels were defrayed by himself. lie was able, how¬
ever, to visit a great part of Germany, and did not reach
Holland till the spring of 1103. His prospects were now
sufficiently gloomy: he entered into treaty, oftener than
once, for an engagement as a travelling tutor; and the cor¬
respondence in one of these negotiations has been preserved.
Tonson had recommended him as the best person to
attend in this character the son of the Duke of Somerset,
commonly called “ The Proud.” The duke, a profuse man
in matters of pomp, was economical in questions of edu¬
cation. He wished Addison to name the salary he expected ;
this being declined, he announced, with great dignity, that
he would give a hundred guineas a-year ;"Addison accepted
the munificent offer, saying, however, that he could not find
his account in it otherwise than by relying on his Grace’s
future patronage ; and his Grace immediately intimated that
he would look out for some one else. Towards the end of
1703 Addison returned to England.
Works which he composed during his residence on the
Continent, were the earliest that showed him to have attained
maturity of skill and genius. There is good reason for be¬
lieving that his tragedy of Cato, whatever changes it may
afterwards have suffered, was in great part written while he
lived in France, that is, when he was about twenty-eight
years of age. In the winter of 1701, amidst the stoppages
and discomforts of a journey across the Mount Cenis, he com¬
posed, wholly or partly, his Letter from Italy, which is by
far the best of his poems, if it is not rather the only one
among them that at all justifies his claim to the poetical cha¬
racter. It contains some fine touches of description, and is
animated by a noble tone of classical enthusiasm. While
in Germany, he wrote his Dialogues on Medals, which,
however, were not published till after his death. These
have much liveliness of style, and something of the gay hu¬
mour which the author was afterwards to exhibit more
strongly; but they show little either of antiquarian learning
or of critical ingenuity. In tracing out parallels between
passages of the Roman poets and figures or scenes which
appear in ancient sculptures, Addison opened the easy course
of inquiry which was afterwards prosecuted by Spence ; and
this, with the apparatus of spirited metrical translations from
the classics, gave the work a likeness to his account of his
travels. This account, entitled Remarks on Several Parts
of Italy, fyc., he sent home for publication before his own re¬
turn. It wants altogether the interest of personal narrative:
the author hardly ever appears. The task in which he chiefly
busies himself is that of exhibiting the illustrations which
the writings of the Latin poets, and the antiquities and
scenery of Italy, mutually give and receive. Many of the
landscapes are sketched with great liveliness : and there are
not a few strokes of arch humour. The statistical informa-
133
tion is very meagre; nor are there many observations on Addison,
society; and politics are no further meddled with than to
show the moderate liberality of the writer’s own opinions.
With the year ] 704 begins a second era in Addison's life,
which extends to the summer of 1710, when his age was
thirty-eight. This was the first term of his official career;
and, though very barren of literary performance, it not only
raised him from indigence, but settled definitively his posi¬
tion as a public man. His correspondence shows that, while
on the Continent, he had been admitted to confidential inti¬
macy by diplomatists and men of rank: immediately on his
return he was enrolled in the Kitcat Club, and brought thus
and otherwise into communication with the gentry of the
W big party. Although all accounts agree in representing
him as a shy man, he was at least saved from all risk of
making himself disagreeable in society, by his unassuming
manners, his extreme caution, and that sedulous desire to
oblige, which his satirist Pope exaggerated into a positive
fault. His knowledge and ability were esteemed so highly,
as to confirm the expectations formerly entertained of his
usefulness in public business; and the literary fame he had
already acquired soon furnished an occasion for recommend¬
ing him to public employment. Though the Whigs were
out of office, the administration which succeeded them was,
in all its earlier changes, of a complexion so mixed and uncer¬
tain, that the influence of their leaders was not entirely lost.
Not long after Marlborough’s great victory at Blenheim, it is
said that Godolphin, the lord treasurer, expressed to Lord
Halifax a desire to have the great duke’s fame extended by
a poetical tribute. Halifax seized the opportunity of recom¬
mending Addison as the fittest man for the duty; stipulat-
ing, we are told, that the service should not be unrewarded,
and doubtless satisfying the minister that his protege pos¬
sessed other qualifications for office besides dexterity in
framing heroic verse. The Campaign, the poem thus writ¬
ten to order, was received with extraordinary applause ; and
it is probably as good as any that ever was prompted by no
more worthy inspiration. It has indeed neither the fiery
spirit which Dryden threw into occasional pieces of the sort,
nor the exquisite polish that would have been given by Pope,
if he had stooped to make such uses of his genius: but many
°f the details are pleasing; and in the famous passage of the
Angel, as well as in several others, there is even something
of force and imagination.
The consideration covenanted for by the poet’s friends
was faithfully paid. A vacancy occurred by the death of
another celebrated man, John Locke; and in November
1 < 04, Addison was appointed one of the five commissioners
of appeal in Excise. Fhe duties of the place must have been
as light for him as they had been for his predecessor; for he
continued to hold it with all the appointments he subse¬
quently received from the same ministry. But there is no
reason for believing that he was more careless than other
public servants in his time; and the charge of incompetency
as a, man of business, which has been brought so positively
against him, cannot possibly be true as to this first period of
his official career. Indeed the specific allegations refer ex¬
clusively to the last years of his life; and, if he had not
really shown practical ability in the period now in question,
it is not easy to see how he, a man destitute alike of wealth,
of social or fashionable liveliness, and of family interest, could
have been promoted, for several years, from office to office,
as he was, till the fall of the administration to which he was
attached. In 1706, he became one of the under-secretaries
of state, serving first under Hedges, who belonged to the
Tory section of the government, and afterwards under Lord
Sunderland, Marlborough’s son-in-law, and a zealous fol¬
lower of Addison’s early patron, Somers. The work of this
office however, like that of the commissionership, must often
134 ADD
Addison, have admitted of performance by deputy. For in 1707, the
Whigs having become stronger, Lord Halifax was sent on a
mission to the Elector of Hanover; and, besides taking Van¬
brugh the dramatist with him as king-at-arms, he selected
Addison as his secretary. In 1708 he entered parliament,
sitting at first for Lostwithiel, but afterwards for Malmesbury,
which, being six times elected, he represented from 1710 till
his death. Here unquestionably he did fail. What part he
may have taken in the details of business we are not in¬
formed ; but he was always a silent member, unless it be
true that he once attempted to speak and sat down in con¬
fusion. In 1709, Lord Wharton, the father of the noto¬
rious duke, having been named lord-lieutenant of Ireland,
Addison became his secretary, receiving also an appointment
as keeper of records. This event happened only about a
year and a-half before the dismissal of the ministry ; and the
Irish secretary would seem to have transacted the business
of his office chiefly in London. But there are letters show¬
ing him to have made himself acceptable to some of the best
and most distinguished persons in Dublin; and he escaped
without having any quarrel with Swift, his acquaintance
with whom had begun some time before. In the literary
history of Addison, those seven years of official service are
almost a blank, till we approach their close. He defended
the government in an anonymous pamphlet on The Pre¬
sent State of the War; he united compliments to the all-
powerful Marlborough with indifferent attempts at lyrical
poetry in his opera of Rosamond; and, besides furnishing
a prologue to Steele’s comedy of The Tender Husband,
he perhaps gave some assistance in the composition of the
play. Irish administration, however, allowed, it would seem,
more leisure than might have been expected. During the
last few months of his tenure of office, Addison contributed
largely to the Tatler. But his entrance on tjiis new field
does nearly coincide with the beginning of a new section in
his history.
Even the coalition-ministry of Godolphin was too Whig-
gish for the taste of Queen Anne ; and the Tories, the fa¬
vourites of the court, gained, both in parliamentary power
and in popularity out of doors, by a combination of lucky
accidents, dexterous management, and divisions and double¬
dealing among their adversaries. The real failure of the
prosecution of Addison’s old friend Sacheverell, completed
the ruin of the Whigs; and in August 1710, an entire
revolution in the ministry had been completed. The Tory
administration, which succeeded, kept its place till the
Queen’s death in 1714 ; and Addison was thus left to devote
four of the best years of his life, from his thirty-ninth year
to his forty-third, to occupations less lucrative than those in
which his time had recently been frittered away, but much
more conducive to the extension of his own fame, and to
the benefit of English literature. Although our information
as to his pecuniary affairs is very scanty, we are entitled to
believe that he was now independent of literary labour. He
speaks, in an extant paper, of having had (but lost) property
in the West Indies ; and he is understood to have inherited
several thousand pounds from a younger brother, who was
governor of Madras. In 1711 he purchased, for L.10,000,
the estate of Bilton, near Rugby; the same place which, in
our own day, became the residence of Mr Apperley, better
known by his assumed name of “ Nimrod.”
During those four years he produced a few political writ¬
ings. Soon after the fall of the ministry, he contributed
five numbers to The Whig Examiner, a paper set up in
opposition to the Tory periodical of the same name, which
was then conducted by the poet Prior, and afterwards became
the vehicle of Swift’s most vehement invectives against the
party he had once belonged to. These are certainly the
most ill-natured of Addison’s writings ; but they are neither
: son.
lively nor vigorous. There is more spirit in his allegorical Addison,
pamphlet, The Trial and Conviction of Count Tariff.
But from the autumn of 1710 till the end of 1714, his
principal employment was the composition of his celebrated
Periodical Essays. The honour of inventing the plan of
such compositions, as well as that of first carrying the idea into
execution, belongs to Richard Steele, who had been a school¬
fellow of Addison at the Charter-house, continued to be on
intimate terms with him afterwards, and attached himself with
his characteristic ardour to the same political party. When,
in April 1709, Steele published the first number of the Tat¬
ler, Addison was in Dublin, and knew nothing of the design.
He is said to have detected his friend’s authorship only by re¬
cognising, in one of the early papers, a critical remark which
he remembered having himself communicated to Steele. He
began to furnish essays in a few weeks, assisted occasionally
while he held office, and afterwards wrote oftener than Steele
himself. He thus contributed in all, if his literary executor se¬
lected his contributions correctly, more than sixty of the 271
essays which the work contains. The Tatler exhibited, in
more ways than one, symptoms of being an experiment. The
projector, imitating the news-sheets in form, thought it pru¬
dent to give, in each number, news in addition to the essay;
and there was a want, both of unity and of correct finishing, in
the putting together of the literary materials. Addison’s
contributions, in particular, are in many places as lively as
anything he ever wrote; and his style, in its more familiar
moods at least, had been fully formed before he returned
from the Continent. But, as compared with his later pieces,
these are only what the painter’s loose studies and sketches
are to the landscapes which he afterwards constructs out of
them. In his invention of incidents and characters, one
thought after another is hastily used and hastily dismissed, as
if he were putting his own powers to the test, or trying the
effect of various kinds of objects on his readers ; his most
ambitious flights, in the shape of allegories and the like, are
stiff and inanimate ; and his favourite field of literary criti¬
cism is touched so slightly, as to show that he still wanted
confidence in the taste and knowledge of the public.
The Tatler was dropped at the beginning of 1711 ; but
only to be followed by the Spectator, which was begun on
the 1st day of March, and appeared every week-day till the
6th day of December 1712. It had then completed the
555 numbers usually collected in its first seven volumes.
Addison, now in London and unemployed, co-operated with
Steele constantly from the very opening of the series ; and
the two, contributing almost equally, seem together to have
written not very much less than five hundred of the papers.
Emboldened by the success of their former adventure, they
devoted their whole space to the essays. They relied, with
a confidence which the extraordinary popularity of the work
fully justified, on their power of exciting the interest of a
Made audience by pictures and reflections drawn from a field
which embraced the whole compass of ordinary life and ordi¬
nary knowledge ; no kind of practical themes being positively
excluded except such as were political, and all literary topics
being held admissible, for which it seemed possible to com¬
mand attention from persons of average taste and informa¬
tion. A seeming unity was given to the undertaking, and
curiosity and interest awakened on behalf of the conductors,
by the happy invention of the Spectator’s Club, in which
Steele is believed to have dravra all the characters. The
figure of Sir Roger de Coverley, however, the best even in
the opening group, is the only one that was afterwards ela¬
borately depicted; and Addison was the author of all the
papers in which his oddities and amiabilities are so admi¬
rably delineated. To him, also, the Spectator owed a very
large share of its highest excellences. His were many, and
these the most natural and elegant, if not the most original,
ADDISON.
Addison
of its humorous sketches of human character and social ec-
cen tricities, its good-humoured satires on ridiculous features
in manners, and on corrupt symptoms in public taste; these
topics, however, making up a department in which Steele was
fairly on a level with his more famous coadjutor. But Steele
had neither learning, nor taste, nor critical acuteness, suffi-
cient to qualify him for enriching the series with such lite-
xary disquisitions, as those which Addison insinuated so often
into the lighter matter of his essays, and of which he gave
an elaborate specimen, in his celebrated and agreeable criti¬
cism on Paradise Lost. Still further beyond the powers
of Steele were those speculations on the theory of literature
and of the processes ot thought analogous to it, which, in the
essays On the Pleasures of the Imagination, Addison pro¬
secuted, not, indeed, with much of philosophical depth, but
vv ith a sagacity and comprehensiveness which we shall under¬
value much, unless we remember how little of philosophy
was to be found in any critical views previously propounded
in England. To Addison, further, belong those essays which
(most frequently introduced in regular alternation in the
papers of Saturday) rise into the region of moral and reli-
gious meditation, and tread the elevated ground with a step
so graceful as to allure the reader irresistibly to follow;
sometimes, as in the Walk through Westminster Abbey, en¬
livening solemn thought by gentle sportiveness; sometimes
flowing on with an uninterrupted sedateness of didactic elo¬
quence ; and sometimes shrouding sacred truths in the veil of
ingenious allegory, as in the majestic Vision of Mirza.
While, in a word, the Spectator, if Addison had not taken
part in it, would probably have been as lively and humorous
as it was, and not less popular in its own day, it would have
wanted some of its strongest claims on the respect of pos¬
terity, by being at once lower in its moral tone, far less
abundant in literary knowledge, and much less vigorous
and expanded in thinking. In point of style, again, the two
friends resemble each other so closely as to be hardly dis¬
tinguishable, when both are dealing with familiar objects, and
writing in a key not rising above that of conversation. But,
in the higher tones of thought and composition, Addison
showed a mastery of language raising him very decisively,
not above Steele only, but above all his contemporaries. In¬
deed, it may safely be said, that no one, in any age of our
literature, has united, so strikingly as he did, the colloquial
grace and ease which mark the style of an accomplished
gentleman, with the power of soaring into a strain of ex¬
pression nobly and eloquently dignified.
On the cessation of the Spectator, Steele set on foot The
Guardian, which, started in March 1713, came to an end
in October, with its 175th number. To this series Addison
gave fifty-three papers, being a very frequent writer during
the latter half of its progress. None of his essays here aim
so high as the best of those in the Spectator ; but he often
exhibits both his cheerful and well-balanced humour, and
his earnest desire to inculcate sound principles of literary
judgment. In the last six months of the year 1714, the
Spectator received its eighth and last volume; for which
Steele appears not to have written at all, and Addison to have
contributed twenty-four of the eighty papers. Most of these
form, in the unbroken seriousness both of their topics and
of their manner, a contrast to the majority of his essays in
the earlier volumes; but several of them, both in this vein
and in one less lofty, are among the best known, if not the
finest, of all his essays. Such are the Mountain of Miseries;
the antediluvian novel of Shallum and Hilpa; the Reflec¬
tions by Moonlight on the Divine Perfections.
In April 1713, Addison brought on the stage, very reluc¬
tantly, as we are assured, and can easily believe, his tragedy of
Cato. Its success was dazzling: but this issue was mainly owing
to the concern which the politicians took in the exhibition.
135
The Whigs hailed it as a brilliant manifesto in favour of con- Addison,
stitutional freedom. The Tories echoed the applause, to show
themselves enemies of despotism, and professed to find in
Julius Caesar a parallel to the formidable Marlborough. Even
with such extrinsic aids, and the advantage derived from
the established fame of the author, Cato could never have
been esteemed a good dramatic work, unless in an age in
which dramatic power and insight were almost extinct. It is
poor even in its poetical elements, and is redeemed only by
the finely solemn tone of its moral reflections, and the singular
refinement and equable smoothness of its diction.
The literary career of Addison might almost be held as
closed soon after the death of Queen Anne, which occurred in
August 1714, when he had lately completed his forty-second
year. His own life extended only five years longer; and this
closing portion of it offers little that is pleasing or instructive.
W e see him attaining the summit of his ambition, only to totter
for a little and sink into an early grave. We are reminded
of his more vigorous days by nothing but a few happy inven¬
tions interspersed in political pamphlets, and the gay fancy
of a trifling poem on Kneller’s portrait of George I.
The Lord Justices who, previously chosen secretly by the
Elector of Hanover, assumed the government on the Queen’s
demise, were, as a matter of course, the leading Whigs. They
appointed Addison to act as their secretary. He next held,
for a very short time, his former office under the Irish Lord-
Lieutenant; and, early in 1715, he was made one of the Lords
of Trade. In the course of the same year occurred the first
of the only two quarrels with friends, into which the prudent,
good-tempered, and modest Addison is said to have ever
been betrayed. His adversary on this occasion was Pope,
who, only three years before, had received, with an appear¬
ance of humble thankfulness, Addison’s friendly remarks on
his Essay on Criticism; but who, though still very youn<>-,
was already very famous, and beginning to show incessantly
his literary jealousies, and his personal and party hatreds.
Several little misunderstandings had paved the way for a
breach, when, at the same time with the first volume of
Pope’s Iliad, there appeared a translation of the first book
of the poem, bearing the name of Thomas Tickell. Tickell,
in his preface, disclaimed all rivalry with Pope, and declared
that he wished only to bespeak favourable attention for his
contemplated version of the Odyssey. But the simultaneous
publication was awkward; and Tickell, though not so good a
versifier as Pope, was a dangerous rival, as being a good
Greek scholar. Lurther, he was Addison’s under-secretary
and confidential friend; and Addison, cautious though he was
does appear to have said (quite truly) that Tickell’s trans¬
lation was more faithful than the other. Pope’s anger could
not be restrained. He wrote those famous lines in which
he describes Addison under the name of Atticus; and, as
if to make reconciliation impossible, he not only circulated
these among his friends, but sent a copy to Addison himself.
Afterwards, he went so far as to profess a belief that the
rival translation was really Addison’s own. It is pleasant to
observe that, after the insult had been perpetrated, Addi¬
son was at the pains, in his Freeholder, to express hearty
approbation of the Iliad of Pope: who, on the contrary,
after Addison’s death, deliberately printed the striking but
malignant lines in the Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot. In 1715,
there was acted, with little success, the comedy of The Drum¬
mer, or the Haunted House, which, though it appeared under
the name of Steele, was certainly not his, and was probably
written in whole or chiefly by Addison. It contributes very
little to his fame. From September 1715 to June 1716, he
defended the Hanoverian succession, and the proceedings of
the government in regard to the rebellion, in a paper called
Freeholder, which he wrote entirely himself, dropping
it with the fifty-fifth number. It is much better tempered,
136 ADD
Addison, not less spirited, and much more able in thinking, than his
v v—> Examiner. The finical man of taste does indeed show
himself to be sometimes weary of discussing constitutional
questions; but he aims many enlivening thrusts at weak
points of social life and manners ; and the character of the
Fox-hunting Squire, who is introduced as the representative
of the Jacobites, is drawn with so much humour and force
that we regret not being allowed to see more of him.
In August 1716, when he had completed his forty-fourth
year, Addison married the Countess-Dowager of Warwick,
a widow of fifteen years’ standing. She seems to have for¬
feited her jointure by the marriage, and to have brought
her husband nothing but the occupancy of Holland House
at Kensington. We know hardly anything positively in
regard to the affair, or as to the origin or duration of his
acquaintance with the lady or her family. But the current
assertion that the courtship was a long one, is very probably
erroneous. There are better grounds for believing the as¬
sertion, transmitted from Addison’s own time, that the mar¬
riage was unhappy. The Countess is said to have been
proud as well as violent, and to have supposed that, in con¬
tracting the alliance, she conferred honour instead of receiv¬
ing it. To the uneasiness caused by domestic discomfort,
the most friendly critics of Addison’s character have attri¬
buted those habits of intemperance, which are said to have
grown on him in his later years to such an extent as to have
broken his health and accelerated his death. His most recent
biographer, who disbelieves his alleged want of matrimonial
quiet, has called in question, with much ingenuity, the whole
story of his sottishness; and it must at any rate be allowed
that all the assertions which tend to fix such charges on him
in the earlier parts of his life, rest on no evidence that is
worthy of credit, and are in themselves highly improbable.
Sobriety was not the virtue of the day; and the constant
frequenting of coffee-houses, which figures so often in the
Spectator and elsewhere, and which was really practised
among literary men as well as others, cannot have had good
effects. Addison, however, really appears to have had no
genuine relish for this mode of life ; and there are curious
notices, especially in Steele’s correspondence, of his having
lodgings out of town, to which he retired for study and com¬
position. But, whatever the cause may have been, his health
was shattered before he took that which was the last, and
certainly the most unwise step, in his ascent to political power.
For a considerable time dissensions had existed in the
ministry ; and these came to a crisis in April 1717, when
those who had been the real chiefs passed into the ranks of
the opposition. Townshend was dismissed ; and Walpole
anticipated dismissal by resignation. There was now formed,
under the leadership of General Stanhope and Lord Sunder¬
land, an administration which, as resting on court-influence,
was nicknamed the “ German ministry.” Sunderland, Addi¬
son’s former superior, became one of the two principal
secretaries of state; and Addison himself was appointed as
the other. His elevation to such a post had been contem¬
plated on the accession of George I., and prevented, we are
told, by his own refusal; and it is asserted, on the authority
of Pope, that his acceptance now was owing only to the
influence of his wife. Even if there is no ground, as there
probably is not, for the allegation of Addison’s inefficiency
in the details of business, his unfitness for such an office in
such circumstances was undeniable and glaring. It was
impossible that a government, whose secretary of state could
not open his lips in debate, should long face an opposition
headed by Robert Walpole. The decay of Addison’s health,
too, was going on rapidly; being, we may readily conjecture,
precipitated by anxiety, if no worse causes were at work.
Ill health was the reason assigned for retirement, in the
letter of resignation which he laid before the King in March
ADD
1718, eleven months after his appointment. He received Addison,
a pension of fifteen hundred pounds a-year. . Jj.
Not long afterwards, the divisions in the Whig party alie-^ 1 lons;
nated him from his oldest friend. The Peerage bill, intro-
duced in February 1719, was attacked, on behalf of the op¬
position, in a weekly paper, which was called the Plebeian, and
written by Steele. Addison answered it temperately enough
in the Old Whig; provocation from the Plebeian brought
forth angry retort from the Whig; Steele charged Addison
with being so old a Whig as to have forgotten his principles ;
and Addison sneered at Grub Street, and called his friend
“ little Dicky.” How Addison felt after this painful quarrel
we are not told directly; but the Old Whig was excluded
from that posthumous collection of his works, for which his
executor Tickell had received from him authority and direc¬
tions. In that collection was inserted a treatise on the evi¬
dences of the faith, entitled Of the Christian Religion. Its
theological value is very small; but it is pleasant to regard
it as the last effort of one who, amidst all weaknesses, was a
man of real goodness as well as of eminent genius.
The disease under which Addison laboured appears to have
been asthma. It became more violent after his retirement
from office; andwas now accompanied by dropsy. His death¬
bed was placid and resigned, and comforted by those reli¬
gious hopes which he had so often suggested to others, and
the value of which he is said, in an anecdote of doubtful
authority, to have now inculcated in a parting interview with
his stepson. He died at Holland House, on the 17th day
of June 1719, six weeks after having completed his forty-
seventh year. His body, after lying in state, was interred
in the Poets’ Corner of Westminster Abbey.
The Biographia Britannica gives an elaborate memoir of
him: particulars are well collected in the article under his
name in the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the
Diffusion of Useful Knowledge ; and a good many new
materials, especially letters, will be found in The Life of
Joseph Addison, by Lucy Aikin, 1843. (w. s.)
Addison, Lancelot, father of the preceding, a clergy¬
man, was born in the parish of Crosby-Ravensworth, in
Westmoreland, in the year 1632. He was educated at
Queen’s College, Oxford, and at the restoration of King
Charles II. accepted of the chaplainship of the garrison of
Dunkirk ; but that fortress being delivered up to the French
in 1662, he returned to England, and was soon after made
chaplain to the garrison of Tangier, where he continued
seven years, and was greatly esteemed. In 1670 he re¬
turned to England, and was made chaplain in ordinary to the
king; but his chaplainship of Tangier being taken from him
on account of his absence, he found himself straitened in his
circumstances, when he seasonably obtained the rectory of
Milston in Wiltshire, worth about L.120 per annum. He
afterwards became a prebendary of Sarum, took his degree
of doctor of divinity at Oxford, and in 1683 was made dean
of Lichfield, and the next year archdeacon of Coventry.
His life was exemplary, his conversation and writings were
pleasing and instructive, and his behaviour as a gentleman, a
clergyman, and a neighbour, did honour to the place of his
residence. He died 20th April 1703.
Addison, a county in the state of Vermont, North Ame¬
rica, on the banks of Lake Champlain. It has an area of
700 square miles; and, in 1850, contained 26,549 inhabi¬
tants.
ADDITION, in Law, is that name or title which is given
to a man over and above his proper name and surname, to
show of what estate, degree, or mystery he is; and of what
town, village, or country.
Additions of Place are, of Thorpe, of Dale, of Wood-
stock. Where a man has household in two places, he shall
be said to dwell in both, so that his addition in either may
A D E
Addix suffice. By stat. 1st. Hen. V., cap. 5, it was ordained, that in
Adelfors. s,iC|1 _ su'ts or actions where process of outlawry lies, such
v , addition should be made to the name of the defendant, to
show his estate, mystery, and place where he dwells ; and
that the writs not having such additions should abate if the
defendant take exception thereto, but not by the office of
the court. _
ADDIX, a Greek measure of capacity, equal to 4 voivikcs,
each of which equalled 4 kotvXxu. As this last was about
half an English pint, the aS8i£ was about a gallon.
ADDLE EGGS, such as have not received impregnation
from the semen of the cock.
ADDUCENT MUSCLES, or Adductors, in Anatomy,
muscles which pull one part of the body towards another.
(freedomfrom fear), at Athens, was an indemnity
such persons as possessed not the full rights of citizenship
were obliged to obtain, before they could publicly accuse
another of an offence. A citizen also having incurred drtuia,
or ignominy, was under the same obligation before he could
take part in public affairs.
ADELAIDE, a town in a county of the same name in
Australia. It has rapidly increased within a few years, and
is now the seat of government of the province of South Aus¬
tralia. The town occupies the steep banks on both sides
of an impetuous stream called the Torrens, which is, how¬
ever, very scanty of water in the dry season. Adelaide is
six miles from the Gulf of St Vincent, and from its two har¬
bours, Port Adelaide on the N., and Glenelg on the S.W.
of the town. The reason of fixing its site here is not obvi¬
ous ; for it stands on a rather bare soil, resting on limestone,
and is inconveniently distant from the sea. The population
in 1850 was about 14,000, although the town was only
founded in 1836. It contains several substantial structures
of stone and brick, among which we may mention the two
Episcopal churches of St John and the Trinity, and four
commodious chapels built by other religious bodies. The
Government House is a commodious structure in a park of
10 acres, and adjoining a public promenade called N. Terrace.
The principal seat of business is Windley street, in which
are many substantial mercantile establishments, and the two
banks of this rising town. Two bridges cross the Torrens ;
and there are many good private houses in various streets.
The manners and appearance of the inhabitants are quite
British, here and there diversified with groups of the sable
aborigines,—a race perhaps the least comely, and one of the
most degraded of the human family, but not so deficient in
estimable qualities as they have been sometimes represented.
Adelaide has Presbyterian, Roman Catholic, Baptist, In¬
dependent, Methodist, and other chapels, a synagogue, a
mechanics’ institution, botanical garden, and several schools.
It has also manufactories of woollen goods, starch, soap, &c.,
several breweries, and tanneries. In its vicinity are exten¬
sive copper and lead mines. Eat. 34.57. S. Long. 138.38. E.
Port Adelaide is about seven miles N.W. from the city,
on an inlet of the Gulf of St Vincent. It has a number of
warehouses and wharfs, and in 1850 had about 2500 inha¬
bitants. The harbour is safe and commodious; but a bar
at its mouth, with a depth varying with the tides from 8 to
16 feet, prevents large vessels from entering. Its principal
exports are grain, copper and lead ores, wool, tallow, beer,
&c. In 1849, the value of its exports was L.403,167, and
of its imports L.599,548.
ADELARD, or Athelard, a learned monk of Bath, in
the time of Henry I., who travelled much, and translated
from the Arabic the Elements of Euclid, before the Greek
original had been discovered. Some of his MSS. are pre¬
served at Oxford.
ADELFORS, a town in Sweden, in the province of
Jonkoping and district of Oestra, wherein are two gold
VOL. H.
A D E 137
mines worked but very sluggishly; whilst the iron mines Adelie
found there are very productive, and give employment both II
to the forges in making bar-iron, and to individuals as nail- Adelung-
makers.
ADELIE, atractof desolate land in the Antarctic Ocean,
discovered by the French in 1840. Eat. 66. 30. S. Lone.
136. to 142. E. 8
ADELME. See Aldhelm.
ADELNAU, a circle in the province of Posen, in Prus¬
sia. It extends over 357 square miles, or 228,480 acres,
and contains, in four cities and 107 villages, 52,530 inhabi¬
tants. The river Proszna waters the east side, and the Olla-
bok the centre of the circle. There are several smaller rivers,
and some lakes, the most considerable of which bears the
name of the chief place near to which it is found. It is a
poor district, abounding with woods and game, and yielding
fresh-water fish in plenty. It is very deficient in corn and
cattle. The capital, of the same name, contains two Catho¬
lic and one Lutheran church, and a synagogue, with 200
houses, and 1930 inhabitants.
ADELPHIANI, in Church History, a sect of ancient
heretics, who fasted always on Sundays.
ADELSBERG, a market town of Illyria, capital of a
circle of the same name in the government of Laybach.
Pop. 1<j00. At the distance of about a mile from the town
is the entrance to the famous grotto of Adelsberg, said to be
the largest and most magnificent in Europe. It has been
explored to the distance of 1310 fathoms, where it is ter¬
minated by a lake. About 180 yards from the entrance is
the Bom,‘a vast hall upwards of 300 feet long, and 100 feet
high; which was the only part of the cavern known pre¬
vious to 1819, when a partition of stalactite was broken
through, and the magnificence of the interior exposed. It
consists of a series of chambers of various dimensions, en¬
riched by stalactites of the greatest purity and most fantastic
shapes, and frequently uniting with the stalagmites below.
ADELSCALC, in ancient customs, denotes a servant of
the king. The word is also written adelscalche, and adel-
scalus. It is compounded of the German add, or edel,
noble, and scale, servant. Among the Bavarians, adelscalcs
appear to have been the same with royal thanes among the
Saxons, and those called ministri regis in ancient charters.
ADELSO, an island in Sweden, in the same lake in
which the city of Stockholm is built, a little to the west of
Munso, containing a parish of the same name.
ADELUNG, John Christopher, a very eminent Ger¬
man grammarian, philologer, and general scholar, was born
at Spantekow in Pomerania, on the 30th of August 1734.
He acquired his elementary instruction at the public school"
of Anclam, and that of Closterbergen, near Magdeburg, and
completed his academical education at the university of
Halle. In the year 1759 he was appointed professor at the
gymnasium of Erfurt, but relinquished this situation two
years after, and went to reside in a private capacity at Leip-
S!C, where he continued to devote himself for a long period
to the cultivation of letters, and particularly to those exten¬
sive and laborious philological researches which proved so
useful to the language and literature of his native country.
In 1787 he received the appointment of principal librarian
to the elector of Saxony at Dresden, with the honorary title
0 Aulic Counsellor. Here he continued to reside during
the remainder of his useful life, discharging with diligence
and integrity the duties of his situation, and prosecuting his
laborious studies to the last with indefatigable industry and
unabated zeal. He died at Dresden on the 10th of Sep¬
tember 1806, at the age of 72.
The life of a mere scholar is generally destitute of in¬
terest; and that of Adelung, which was spent entirely in
literary seclusion, presents no variety of incident to the pen
138 A D E L U N G.
A delung, of the biographer. Of his private character and habits, few
memorials have been preserved; but in these few he is re¬
presented as a man of an amiable disposition. He was never
married. His constitution, which was remarkably robust,
rendered him capable of the most intense and unremitted
application to study, insomuch that, down to the period of
his death, he is said to have devoted fourteen hours of every
day to literary labour. He was a lover of good cheer, and
spared neither pains nor expense in procuring a variety of
foreign wines, of which his cellar, which he facetiously de¬
nominated his Bibliotheca Selectissima, is said to have con¬
tained no less than forty different kinds. His manners were
easy and affable, and the habitual cheerfulness of his dispo¬
sition rendered his society most acceptable to a numerous
circle of friends.
The works of Adelung are very voluminous ; and there
is not one of these, perhaps, which does not exhibit some
proofs of the genius, industry, and erudition of the author.
But although his pen was usefully employed upon a variety
of subjects in different departments of literature and science,
it is to his philological labours that he is principally indebted
for his great reputation; and no man ever devoted himself
with more zeal and assiduity, or with greater success, to the
improvement of his native language.
In a country which is subdivided into so many distinct
sovereign states, possessing no common political centre, and
no national institution whose authority could command de¬
ference in matters of taste,—in a country whose indigenous
literature was but of recent growth, and where the dialect
• of the people was held in contempt at the several courts,—
it was no easy task for a single writer to undertake to fix the
standard of a language which had branched out into a variety
of idioms, depending in a great measure upon principles al¬
together arbitrary. Adelung effected as much in this respect
as could well be accomplished by the persevering labours of
an individual. By means of his excellent grammars, dic¬
tionary, and various works on German style, he contributed
greatly towards rectifying the orthography, refining the idiom,
and fixing the standard of his native tongue. Of all the dif¬
ferent dialects, he gave a decided preference to that of the
margraviate of Misnia, in Upper Saxony, and positively re¬
jected every thing that was contrary to the phraseology in
use among the best society of that province, and in the writ¬
ings of those authors whom it had produced. In adopting
this narrow principle, he is generally thought to have been
too fastidious. The dialect of Misnia was undoubtedly the
richest, as it was the earliest cultivated, of any in Germany ;
but Adelung probably went too far in restraining the lan¬
guage within the limits of this single idiom, to the exclusion
of others, from which it might have, and really has, acquired
additional richness, flexibility, and force.
His dictionary of the German language is generally al¬
lowed to be superior to our English dictionary by Dr John¬
son. It is eminently so in its etymologies ; and is, perhaps,
upon the whole, the best work of the kind of which any na¬
tion can boast. Indeed, the patient spirit of investigation
which Adelung possessed in so remarkable a degree, together
with his intimate knowledge of the ancient history and pro¬
gressive revolutions of the different dialects from which the
modern German is derived, rendered him peculiarly qualified
for the successful performance of the duties of a lexicogra¬
pher.
It would greatly exceed our limits, and lead us into far
too wide a field, were we to attempt to present our readers
with an analysis of the several productions of this voluminous
author ; but we should do injustice to his memory, were we
to pass over in total silence his last very learned work, en¬
titled Mithridates, or a General History of Languages, with
the Lords Prayer, as a specimen, in nearly Jive hundred
languages and dialects. The hint of this work appears to Adelung.
have been taken from a publication, with a similar title, pub- ^
lished by the celebrated Conrad Gesner in 1555 ; but the
plan of Adelung is much more extensive. Unfortunately,
he did not live to finish what he had undertaken; but the
work has been continued with much ability by that eminent
philologer, Professor Vater, formerly of Halle, now of
Konigsberg. The first volume, which contains the Asiatic
languages, was published immediately after the death of
Adelung; the second, which comprehends the European
dialects, was published by Professor Vater in 1809 ; the first
part of the third volume, which is almost entirely the work
of the last-mentioned scholar, appeared in 1812. This third
and last volume contains the languages of Africa and Ame¬
rica, and is enriched with some very valuable materials, com¬
municated to the editor by Baron Humboldt.
Many of the works of Adelung were published anony¬
mously, but we believe the following list will be found to be
complete and correct.
1. Neue Schaubiihne der vorfallenden Staats-Kriegs und
Friedenshandel.—Erfurt, 1759-61, 8vo.—2. Neues Lehrge-
baude der Diplomatik, aus dem Franz, iibersetzt, und mit An-
merk. versehen. Vols. i. ii. iii. Erfurt, 1760-63, 4to.—3. Neue
Denkwiirdigkeiten der gegenwartigen Geschichte von Europa.
1761, 2 vols. 8vo.'—4. Geschichte der Streitigkeiten zwischen
Danemark und den Herzogen von Holstein-Gottorp. Frankf.
Leipsic, 1762, 4to.—5. Pragmatische Staatsgeschichte Euro¬
pens von dem Ableben Kaiser Karls des 6ten an. Vols. i.-ix.
Gotha, 1762-9, 4to.—6. Auserlesene Staatsbriefe. . Gotha,
1763-4, 3 vols. 8vo.—7. Vollstandige Geschichte der Schifi-
fahrten nach den Sudlandern. Halle, 1767,4to.—8. Mineralo-
gische Belustigungen. Vols. i.-vi. Copenhagen and Leipsic,
1767-71, 8vo.—9. Einleitung zur allgemeinen Weltgeschiehte.
Berlin, 1767, 2 vols. (The first volume by Prof. Franz.)—10.
AVerke des Philosophen von Sans Souci. (Translated from
the French.) Erfurt, 1768.—11. Staatsmagazin, 14 Stiicke.
Leipsic, 1766-8.—12. Geschichte der Schifffahrten und Ver-
suche, welche zur Entdeckung des nordostlichen AVegs nach
Japan und China unternommen worden. Halle, 1768, 4to.—•
13. Versuch einer neuen Geschichte des Jesuiter-ordens. Vols.
i. and ii. Berlin and Halle, 1769-1770, 8vo.'—>14. Natiirliche
und biirgerliche Geschichte von Californien. (Translated from
the English.) Lemgo, 1769-70, 3 vols. 4to.—15. Unterweis-
ung in den vornehmsten Kiinsten und Wissenschaften, zum
Nutzen der niedern Schulen. Frankfort and Leipsic, 1771,
8vo.—-16. Glossarium Manuale ad Scriptores mediae et infimae
Latinitatis, ex magnis Glossariis Carol! du Fresne Domini
Ducange et Carpentarii, in compendium redactum, multisque
verbis et dicendi formulis auctum. Tomi v. Halle, 1772-78.—
17. Versuch eines vollstandigen grammatisch-kritischen AVort-
erbuchs der Hoch Teutschen Mundart, mit bestandiger Ver-
gleichung der iibrigen Mundarten, besonders aber der Ober
Teutschen. 1774-86, 5 vols. 4to.—18. AVallerius Chemie.
(Translated from the Latin.)—19. Allgemeines Verzeichniss
neuer Bucher, mit kurzen Anmerkungen, nebst einem gelehrten
Anzeiger. Leipsic, 1776-81, 8vo.—20. Schauplatz des Baier-
ischen Erbfolge Kreigs, u. s. w. Leipsic, 1778, 1780, 4to.—
21. Militarisches Taschenbuch auf das Jahr 1780. Leipsic,
12mo.—22. J. Williams Ursprung, Wachsthum und Gegen-
wartiger Zustand der Nordischen Iteiche. (Translated and
corrected from the English.) Leipsic, 1779-81, 2 vols. 8vo.—
23. Kurzer BegrifF menschlicher Kenntnisse und Fertigkeiten,
so fern sie auf Erwerbung des Unterhalts, auf Vergnugen, auf
Wissenschaft, und auf Regierung der Gesellschaft abzielen.
Leipsic, 1778-81, 4 vols. 8vo.—24. Ueber die Geschichte der
Teutschen Sprache, fiber Teutsche Mundarten und Teutsche
Sprachlehre. Ibid. 1781, 8vo.—25. Ueber den Ursprung der
Sprache und den Bau der Worter. Ibid. 1781, 8vo.—26.
Teutsche Sprachlehre, zum Gebrauch der Schulen in den
Konigl. Preuss. Landen. Berlin, 1781.'—27. Auszug aus
der Teutschen Sprachlehre fur Schulen. 1781, 8vo.—28.
Lehrgebaude der Teutschen Sprache, zur Erlauterung der
Teutschen Sprachlehre fur Schulen.—29. Tindals und Mores
Anmerkungen zu Rapins Geschichte von England. (Trans-
Aden.
A D E
Ademption luted from the English.) 30. Versuch einer Geschichte der
II Cultur des Menschlichen Geschlechts. 1782, Svo.—51. Leip-
ziger Politische Zeitung und Allerlei.—32. XeuesGrammatisch-
kritisches Wdrterbuch der Englischen Sprache, fur die Teut-
scheru Leipsic, 1783, 8vo.—33. Beytrage zur Biirgerlichen
Geschichte, zur Geschichte der Cultur, zur Naturgeschichte,
Aaturlehre, und dem Feldbaue ; aus den Schriften der Aka-
demie der Wissenschaften zu Brussel. Leipsic, 1783, 8vo.—34.
Fortsetzung und Erganzungen zu Christ. Gotti. Jbchers allge-
meinem Gelehrten Lexico. Leipsic, 1784, 2 vols. 4to.—35.
Ueberden Teutschen Stvl. Berlin, 1785,3 yoIs. 8vo.—36. Neue
Leipziger Gelehrte Zeitung. 1785, &c.—37. Grundsatze der
Teutschen Orthographic. Leipsic, 1782, 8vo.—38. Geschichte
der Menschlichen Isarrheit oder Lebens beschreibungen be-
riihniter Schwarzkiinstler, Goldmacher, Teufelsbanner, Zeichen
und Liniendeuter, Schwarnier, Wahrsager, und anderer philo-
sophischer Unholden. Leipsic, 1785-87-89, 7 vols.—39. Ges¬
chichte der Philosophic fur Liebhaber. 1786-87, 3 vols.—
40. Vollstandige Anweisung zur Teutschen Orthographic,
nebst einem kleinen Wbrterbuche fiir die Aussprache, Or¬
thographic, Biegung und Ableitung. Leipsic, 1786,2 vols—
41. Jacob Piiterich von Reicherzhausen, ein Kleiner Beytrag
zur Geschichte der Teustchen Dichtkunst im Schwabischen
Zeitalter. Leipsic, 1788, 4to.—42. Auszug aus dem Gram-
matisch-kritischen Worterbuch der Hohen Teutschen Mundart.
Leipsic, 1/93, 1 vol. 1795, 2 vols. 8vo.—43. Mithridates, oder
Allgemeine Sprachenkunde. 3 vols. Berlin, 1806-1812.
It is observed by Madame de Stael, that the English are
much better acquainted than the French with the literature
of Germany; but we have met with very few possessed of
any knowledge of the works of this learned and celebrated
writer; and, with the exception of one or two of his smaller
essays, none of them, we believe, has ever been translated
into the language of this country. In the above list there
are more works than one which might probably be published
with advantage in the English tongue. (j. c.)
ADEMPTION, in the Civil Law, implies the revoca¬
tion of a grant, donation, or the like.
ADEN, a town and sea-port of Arabia, in the province of
Yemen, situate to the east of the Straits of Bab-El-Mandeb.
According to the Arabians, it derives its name from Aden
the son of Saba, and grandson of Abraham. It was formerly
an opulent and flourishing city, covering as much space as
Mocha, Jedda, or Suez, but subsequently dwindled into
insignificance. It is built on a small flat, probably the bot¬
tom of a crater, surrounded by precipitous rocks, on the
east side of a peninsula formed by two fine bays, in
the one of which, opposite the town, is the fortified island
of Sir ah, which commands the approach. The penin¬
sula consists chiefly of a mass of volcanic rocks, extending
five miles east and west, and three broad, and having as its
most southern point, Ras Sanailah or Cape Aden, in Lat.
12. 45. 10. N. Long. 45. 3. E. The highest part of the pe¬
ninsula is Jehel Shamshan, a rocky promontory of limestone,
rising 1776 feet above the level of the sea. The peninsula
is connected with the mainland by a neck of flat sandy
ground only a few feet high. But both the peninsula and
the mainland present the most desolate aspect; not a tree
or a shrub is to be seen; and the heat is intolerable. The
place, however, is healthy. In a military point of view,
Aden presents one of the strongest positions in Arabia. Its
possession affords the means of blockading the Red Sea, and
of controlling the trade of the coast of Malabar. Its com¬
mercial advantages are superior to those of the neighbour¬
ing port of Mocha. Since its occupation by the British,
Aden has been constituted a free port, and no duties of cus¬
toms are now levied there ; its trade has steadily increased,
and there seems little doubt that it must again become the
principal emporium for the products of Arabia and the shores
of the Red Sea. As a coal depot no place on the coast is
so advantageous; it divides the distance between Bombav
A D E
139
and Suez, and steamers may load and unload at all seasons Adenau
with perfect security. ||
Aden has not unfrequently changed its rulers. At the Ade^sbach•
commencement of the sixteenth century, a Portuguese na- V'—
val force proceeding to the Red Sea, touched at Aden.
The Arabian chief offered to surrender the town, but the
Portuguese proposed to defer its occupation till the return
of the expedition. In the meantime, however, reinforce¬
ments were received, and the chief refused to fulfil his en¬
gagement. Subsequently, however, the Portuguese became
its possessors, but after a brief tenure were expelled by the
Turks in 1538. In the following century the Turks relin¬
quished their conquests in Yemen, and withdrew their troops
from the province, when the sultan of Senna established a
supremacy over Aden, which was maintained until towards
the middle of the last century. The sheik of Lahidge then
threw off his allegiance, and established in his own family
the line of independent sultans of Aden. The circumstances
under which the British became masters of the place may
be briefly stated. In 1837 a ship under British colours was
wTecked near Aden, her cargo plundered, and the crew and
passengers grievously maltreated by the sultan’s people.
An explanation of the outrage being demanded by the Bom¬
bay government, the sultan promised compensation for the
plunder of the vessel, and moreover agreed to make a for¬
mal cession of the town and port of Aden to the British for
a pecuniary consideration. Captain Haines of the Indian
navy had been deputed to Aden to complete these arrange¬
ments, but the sultan’s son, who now exercised the powers
of government, met the requisition of the British agent by
language and conduct the most violent and insulting. A
combined naval and military force was thereupon despatched
to Aden, and the place was captured on the 16th January
1839, with trifling loss on the part of the British. A stipen¬
diary allowance Avas made to the sultan in consideration of
his loss, he, however, retaining the whole of his other terri-
tories. (E. T.)
ADENAU, a circle in the department of Coblentz, in the
Prussian province of the Lower Rhine. It extends over
212 square miles, and in 1849 contained 21,882 inhabi¬
tants, all Catholics, except 8 Jews and 64 Protestants, in
one city, four market towns, and 104 villages. It is watered
by the river Ahr. It is generally a hilly and woody country,
where little corn except oats grows, and where the chief
subsistence is potatoes. Cattle and sheep are bred with
tolerable success ; and potashes and charcoal are made from
the forests. There is some little employment furnished by
spinning and weaving both linens and woollens on a small
scale. The chief place of the same name contains 1450 in¬
habitants.
ADEPTS, a term among alchemists for those who pre¬
tended to have found the panacea and philosopher’s stone.
ADERNO, a city at the foot of Mount Altna in Sicily,
in the intendancy of Catania. It is built in an unhealthy
situation, but contains 8000 inhabitants. It has several
churches, the chief of which is supported by beautiful pillars
of polished lava. It is the site of the ancient city Hadranum,
whose ruins are still visible. On the river Giarretta, which
passes the city, is a remarkable waterfall.
ADERSBACH FELSEN, a remarkable group of rocks
in the form of detached or isolated columnar rocks in a valley
of the Riesengebirge, in the district of Glatz in Silesia. The
mountain for several miles appears divided into detached
masses by perpendicular cuts, varying in depth from 600 to
1200 feet. These masses have a diameter from a few feet
to several hundred yards. The part called the labyrinth con¬
sists of smaller masses confusedly grouped into columnar
forms, from 100 to 200 feet in height, resting on each other.
The descent into this wild scene is by a few narrow footpaths
140
A D H
Ades of great sublimity. Geologists suppose that the whole area
|| has once been a tabular mass of sandstone, of unequal hard-
Adhesion. ness; that the soft parts, which formed perpendicular veins
or seams, have been washed away by water, leaving the
harder portions in their natural position. Others suppose that
this process has been begun by some subterranean commo¬
tion that split the rock, and that the fissures have been en¬
larged by the action of water.
ADES, or Hades, denotes the invisible state. In the
heathen mythology, it comprehends all those regions that lie
beyond the river Styx, viz. Erebus, Tartarus, and Elysium.
(See Hell.)
ADESSENARIANS, Adessenarii, in Church History,
a sect of Christians who hold the real presence of Christ’s
body in the eucharist, though not by way of transubstantia-
tion. They differ considerably as to this presence; some
holding that the body of Christ is in the bread, others that
it is about the bread, and others that it is under the bread.
AD HA, a festival which the Mahometans celebrate on
the 10th day of the month Dhoulhegiat, which is the 12th
and last of their year. This month being particularly des¬
tined for the ceremonies which the pilgrims observe at
Mecca, it derives its name from this; for the word signifies the
month of Pilgrimage. On that day they sacrifice with great
solemnity, at Mecca, and nowhere else, a sheep, which is
called by the same name as the festival itself. The Turks
commonly call the festival the Great Bairam, to distinguish
it from the lesser, which ends their fast, and which the Chris¬
tians of the Levant call the Easter of the Turks. The Ma¬
hometans celebrate this festival, out of the city of Mecca, in
a neighbouring valley; and sometimes they sacrifice there a
camel.
ADHESION, a term chiefly used to denote the force with
which the surface of a solid remains attached to the surface
of a liquid, after they have been brought into contact. Sup¬
pose a polished glass plate to be suspended horizontally from
one extremity of a balance, and to be exactly counterpoised
by weights put into the opposite scale ; if we bring this plate
in contact with the surface of a quantity of mercury, we shall
find that a certain additional weight must be placed in the
opposite scale in order to separate the glass from the mer¬
cury. The force which kept the two bodies in contact is
called adhesion. Three sets of experiments on this subject
have been published by different philosophers.
Dr Brook Taylor, in a paper on Magnetism, inserted in
the Philosophical Transactions for 1721, describes the result
of his trials to determine the weight necessary to separate
fir-boards of different sizes from the surface of water. The
result of his experiments was, that the weight necessary is
proportional to the surface of the fir-board to be raised.
In the year 1773, Guyton-Morveau ascertained experi¬
mentally the force of adhesion of eleven different metals of
mercury. The metals which he employed were pure. The
surface of each was an inch (French) in diameter, and
polished. The following table exhibits the weight in French
grains necessary to separate each metal from the mercury.
Gold 446
Silver 429
Tin 418
Lead 397
Bismuth 372
Platinum 282
Zinc 204
Copper 142
Antimony 126
Iron 115
Cobalt  8
M. Morveau ascertained likewise that the adhesive force is
not diminished by removing the pressure of the air.
A great number of experiments on the same subject were
made at a still later period by Mr Achard of Berlin. He
measured the force of adhesion between various substances
and water. He found that when the temperature was in¬
creased, the adhesion proportionally diminished. He even
A D H
attempted to determine the diminution occasioned by the Adhesion,
elevation of temperature, amounting to a single degree of y
the thermometer ; and gives us a formula denoting that
diminution. But it is not necessary to enter into any de¬
tails respecting his experiments here, for a reason that will
appear immediately.
Besides these three philosophers, many others have ex¬
amined the rise of liquids in capillary tubes, a phenomenon
which is nothing else than a peculiar case of adhesion,
though we cannot with propriety treat of it here. Laplace
published a dissertation on the subject in the year 1805, in
which he has given us an historical detail, which, however,
is far from accurate. His reasoning appears to us in general
correct; though several very plain propositions are rather
obscured than elucidated by his mathematical demonstra¬
tions.
When we make experiments on the adhesion of solids to
liquids, and endeavour to ascertain the force requisite to se¬
parate them from each other, two cases may occur: the
solid body may separate from the liquid dry, or its surface
may be covered with a thin coating of the liquid, which it
retains. If a surface of tallow be placed in contact with
water, and separated from it by weights successively intro¬
duced into the opposite scale, we shall find, after the sepa¬
ration has taken place, that the surface of the tallow is dry,
or that it has not carried along with it a thin coating of the
water. But when we employ a fir-board, as Dr Brook
Taylor did in his experiments, and as Mr Achard did in
many of his, the case is very different; we shall find the
whole surface of the board thoroughly wetted; that is to
say, a thin film of the liquid remains adhering to the wood.
Now, it is only the first of these two cases that can be con¬
sidered as exhibiting the true force of adhesion. In the second
case, it is not the solid winch separates from the liquid, but
one portion of the liquid winch separates from the other. Such
experiments, therefore, really show the force of cohesion
between the particles of the liquid, not the force of adhesion
between the solid and the liquid. Now, as the experiments
of Brook Taylor and Achard belong all to this last case, it
is obvious that they cannot be considered as experiments on
adhesion. We must therefore leave them out of our con¬
sideration at present. The cohesion of the particles of
liquids is well known to diminish as the temperature in¬
creases, till at a certain temperature this cohesion disappears
altogether, and the liquids assume the state of elastic fluids,
the particles of which repel each other. Hence the reason
why, in Achard’s experiments, the adhesive force diminished
as the temperature increased.
Adhesion is obviously an attractive force, by which the
two surfaces are kept in contact. It must evidently increase
as the surfaces adhere, because the number of adhering
particles increases in the same ratio. This force is insensible
when the two surfaces are at any perceptible distance from
one another; so that it acts only at insensible distances.
From Morveau’s experiments it appears, that it differs very
much in intensity when different solids are made to adhere
to the same liquid. Thus, gold adheres to mercury with a
force more than twice as great as zinc does, and almost fifty-
six times as great as cobalt does. Now these two properties,
namely, acting only at insensible distances, and varying in
intensity in different bodies, characterize that peculiar force
known by the name of chemical affinity. But there is one
particular in which chemical affinity appears at first sight to
differ from adhesion. Chemical affinity is confined to the
ultimate particles or atoms of bodies; whereas adhesion takes
place between surfaces of any size whatever.
But if we consider that these surfaces consist each of a
congeries of atoms united into a large mass by the force of
cohesion ; that adhesion is not sensible at any perceptible
ADI
Adhil distance, however great the extent of surfaces may be ; and
AdLe fliat ^ts strfngth increases in proportion to the surfaces ;—
> ii we consider these phenomena, we shall find reason to
conclude that adhesion is a force which acts only between
the atoms or integrant particles of bodies. It is therefore
merely a case of chemical affinity.
The phenomena of adhesion depend upon the strength of
affinity between the adhering bodies. If the affinity be weak,
the two surfaces will separate by a small force applied, and
the solid will retain no impression of the liquid whatever.
This happens when cobalt is brought in contact with mer-
cury, or tallow with water. If the affinity be strong, a con-
siderafile force will be requisite to separate the two surfaces.
1 his is the case when gold or silver is brought in contact
with mercury. So great is the affinity, indeed, in these cases,
that if the adhesion continue for a short time, a combination
actually takes place between the two metals. In that case the
gold comes away white, or coated over with a film of mer¬
cury ; the experiment is no longer an example of the force
of adhesion between mercury and gold, but exhibits the co¬
hesive force of the particles of mercury to each other. We
have even found that this holds with platinum, though it
be a metal which has a much weaker affinity for mercury
than gold has. If a clean surface of platinum be kept for
some time in contact with that of mercury, a very evident
amalgamation takes place.
When a surface of wood, marble, or metal, comes in con¬
tact with water, on removing it we find that surface moist;
that is to say, it has carried with it a thin film of water.
This shows us that the adhesive force of water, or the
affinity of water to these different bodies, is greater than
the cohesive force of the particles of water to each other.
Yet this force is not sufficiently strong to produce a chemi¬
cal combination between the respective bodies. When a
surface of sugar or common salt comes in contact with water,
this surface is not merely wetted. If the contact be con¬
tinued for a sufficient time, the solid loses its cohesion, and
is dissolved by the liquid. This is a complicated case. The
water by capillary attraction insinuates itself through the
pores of the sugar. The minute crystals of sugar are de¬
prived of their cohesion to each other by this intervening
liquid. Being separated from each other, they gradually
dissolve or enter into a chemical combination with the
water. (T, T.)
ADHIL, in Astronomy, a star of the sixth magnitude,
upon the garment of Andromeda, under the last star in her
foot.
ADIABENE, one of the provinces into which the country
of Assyria was divided. It was situate east of the Tigris,
between the rivers Lycus, or Zabatus, and Caprus ; and was
so important as sometimes to give name to the whole of As¬
syria.
ADIANTUM, a family of widely-diffused ferns, being
found in Europe, Asia, America, the South Sea Islands,
Australia, and New Zealand; but the greatest number are
natives of tropical forests. Our Maiden-Hair belongs to this
genus.
ADIAPHORISTS, in Church History, a name import¬
ing lukewarmness, given in the 16th century to the moderate
Lutherans, who embraced the opinion of Melancthon, whose
disposition was much more pacific than that of Luther.
ADIGE, the ancient Athesis, a large river of Italy, formed
by several rivulets which rise in the Rhaetian Alps and unite
near Glarus, where it has the name of Etsch. After flowing
eastward to Bolsano it takes the name of Adige, and, receiv¬
ing the Eisach, becomes navigable. Then flowing south¬
wards, and afterwards in an eastern direction, it passes Trent
and Verona, and at length falls into the Gulf of Venice, after
a course of about 250 miles.
A D J i4i
ADIMANTIUS, a Greek physician about a.d.415, wrote Adiman-
a treatise on Physiognomy. See Scriptores Physiognomies tius
Veteres, edited by Franzius, 1780. ‘ ||
ADIPOCIRE, derived from adeps, fat, and cera, wax, AdjutaSe-
denotes a substance which has been lately examined by
chemists. It is formed by a certain change which the soft
parts of animal bodies undergo when kept for some time in
running water, or when animals are buried, especially in
damp soil, as in a common churchyard. Great quantities
of this substance were found on removing the animal matters
from a burial-ground at Paris in the year 1787. In this burial-
ground 1200 or 1500 bodies were thrown together into the
same pit, and being decomposed, were converted into this
substance. It has some of the properties of wax or sper¬
maceti.
ADIPOSE, a term used by anatomists for any cell, mem¬
brane, &c., that is remarkable for its fatness.
ADIRONDACK, a name recently given to a group of
mountains in the north-eastern part of the state of New
York, in North America, and to the south-west of Lake
Champlain. They are connected with the Catskill Moun¬
tains. Their chief summits are Whiteface, 5000 feet; and
Mount Marcy, 5460.
ADIT, in a general sense, the passage to, or entrance of,
any thing.
Adit of a Mine, the hole or aperture whereby it is entered
and dug, and by which the water and ores are carried away.
1 he term is sometimes used for the air-shaft, which is a hole
driven perpendicularly from the surface of the earth into
some part of the mine, to give entrance to the air.
ADJAZZO, Adrazzo. See Ajaccio.
ADJECTIVE, in Grammar, a kind of noun joined with
a substantive, either expressed or implied, to denote its qua¬
lities or incidents.
ADJ O URNMENT, the putting off a court or other meet¬
ing till another day. There is a difference between the ad¬
journment and the prorogation of parliament; the former
not only being for a shorter time, but also done by the house
itself; whereas the latter is an act of royal authority.
ADJUDICATION, in Scottish Law, the name of that
action by which a creditor attaches the heritable estate of
his debtor, or his debtor’s heir, in order to appropriate it to
himself either in payment or security of his debt; or that
action by which the holder of an heritable right, labour¬
ing under any defect in point of form, may supply that de¬
fect.
ADJUSTMENT, the act of adjusting; a reducing to
just form or order, a making fit, or conformable to, any as¬
sumed standard.
Adjustment, in Commerce, the settlement of a loss in¬
curred at sea on insured goods. If the policy be what is
called an open one, and the loss of the goods be total, the
insurer must pay for them, at the value of prime cost, which
includes not only the invoice price of the goods, but all
duties paid, the premium of insurance, and all expenses
incurred on them when put on board. In the case of a loss,
the insurer is to be put in just the same position in regard
to ^ the property insured, as he was before the policy was
effected. If the policy be a valued one, and a total loss be
incurred, then they are settled for at the valuation fixed at
the time of the insurance, unless the insurers can prove that
the insured had not a real interest in the goods, or that they
were overvalued. In case of a partial loss, the value of
the goods must be proved. See Park on Marine Insur¬
ance, fyc.
ADJUTAGE. The effect of a tube fitted to an aper¬
ture on a vessel from which water is flowing, as in a jet or
fountain. The term seems to have been derived from the
effect of pipes, dilated at their extremity, in promoting the
142 A D M
Adjutant discharge of the fluid. (See Venturi Michelotti Speri-
II menti IdrauL—Gilb. An. II. III.—Prony, Pecker. Phys.
Admiral.
^ ADJUTANT, in the Military Art, is an officer whose
business it is to assist the major. Each battalion of foot and
regiment of horse has an adjutant, who receives the orders
every night from the brigade-major; which, after carrying
them to the colonel, he delivers out to the serjeants. When
detachments are to be made, he gives the number to be fur¬
nished by each company or troop, and assigns the hour and
place of rendezvous.
AdjuTANTs-genera,l, among the Jesuits, a select number
of fathers, who resided with the general of the order, each
of whom had a province or country assigned him, as Eng¬
land, Holland, &c.; and their business was to inform the
father-general of state occurrences in such countries. To
this end they had their correspondents delegated, emissaries,
visitors, regents, provincials, &c.
AD LEGATION, a term formerly used in the public
law of the German empire, to denote the right claimed by
the states of the empire of adjoining plenipotentiaries, in
public treaties and negotiations, to those of the emperor, for
the transacting of matters which relate to the empire in
general; in which sense allegation differs from legation,
which is the right of sending ambassadors on a person’s own
account.
ADLOCUTION, Adlocutio, in Antiquity, is chiefly
understood of speeches made by Roman generals to their
armies, to encourage them before a battle. We frequently
find those adlocutions expressed on medals by the abbre¬
viature Adlocut. Coh.—The general is sometimes repre¬
sented as seated on a tribunal, often on a bank or mound of
turf, with the cohorts ranged in order around him, in mani-
puli and turmce. The usual formula in adlocutions was,
Fortis esset ac fidm.
ADMINICLE, a term used chiefly in old law-books to
imply an aid, help, assistance, or support. The word is
Latin, adminiculum; and derived from adminiculor, to
prop or support.
Adminicle, in Scottish Law, signifies any writing or deed
referred to by a party, in an action of law, for proving his
allegations.
ADMINISTRATOR, in English Law, he to whom the
ordinary commits the administration of the goods of a per¬
son deceased, in default of an executor. The origin of ad¬
ministrators is derived from the civil law. Their establish¬
ment in England is owing to a statute made in the 31 st year
of Edward III. Till then, no office of this kind was known
besides that of executor ; in default of whom, the ordinary
had the disposal of goods of persons intestate, &c.
Administrator, in Scottish Laio, a person legally em¬
powered to act for another whom the law presumes incap¬
able of acting for himself.
Administrator is sometimes used for the president of a
province; for a person appointed to receive, manage, and
distribute the revenues of an hospital or religious house ;
for a prince who enjoys the revenues of a secularized bishop ;
and for the regent of a kingdom during the minority of a
prince or a vacancy of the throne.
ADMIRABILIS Sal, the same with Glauber’s Salt.
ADMIRAL, a great officer or magistrate, who has the
government of a navy, and the hearing of all maritime
causes.
Anciently there were generally three or four admirals ap¬
pointed for the English seas, all of them holding the office
durante beneplacito, and each of them having particular
limits under his charge and government; as admirals of the
fleet of ships from the mouth of the Thames, northward,
southward, or westward. Besides these, there were admirals
ADM
of the Cinque Ports. We sometimes find that one person Admiral,
had been admiral of the fleets to the southward, northward, ^
and westward; but the title of Admiralis Anglice was not
frequent till the reign of Henry IV., when the king’s brother
had that title given him, which in all commissions afterwards
was granted to the succeeding admirals. It may be observed,
that there was a title above that of admiral of England, which
was, locum tenens regis super mare, the king’s lieutenant-
general of the sea: this title we find mentioned in the reign
of Richard II. Before the use of the word admiral was
known, the title of custos maris was made use of.
Of the rank of admiral there are three degrees ; admiral,
vice-admiral, rear-admiral. Each of these degrees consists
of three divisions, which are distinguished by as many dif¬
ferent colours or flags; hence all admirals assume the com¬
mon title offlag-officers, and take rank and command in the
following order:—
Admirals of the Red, of the White, of the Blue Squad¬
rons, bearing their respective flags at the main-top-gallant-
mast head ; Vice-admirals of the Red, of the White, of the
Blue Squadrons, bearing their respective flags at the fore¬
top-gallant-mast head; Rear-admirals of the Red, of the
White, of the Blue Squadrons, bearing their respective flags
at the mizen-top-gallant-mast head.
It may be remarked, that for nearly a century we had no
Admiral of the Red Squadron ; that flag, according to a vul¬
gar error, having been taken from us by the Dutch in one
of those arduous struggles for naval superiority which that
nation was once able to maintain against the naval power of
England. But the fact is, the red flag was laid aside on the
union of the two crowns of England and Scotland, when the
Union flag was adopted in its place, and usually hoisted by
the admiral commanding in chief. The red flag, however,
has recently been revived, on an occasion worthy of the
event; namely, on the promotion of naval officers which
took place in November 1805, in consequence of the memo¬
rable victory off Trafalgar. (See Navy.)
Admiral of the Fleet is a mere honorary distinction,
which gives no command, but an increase of half-pay, his
being three guineas a day, and that of an admiral two gui¬
neas. It is sometimes conferred, but not always, on the
senior admiral on the list of naval officers, and was a short
time held by the duke of Clarence, afterwards William IV.
In 1851 were appointed, for the first time, two admirals of
the fleet, Sir Thomas Byam Martin, G.C.B., and Sir George
Cockburn, G.C.B., the last having been appointed for his
long and highly distinguished services. If the admiral of the
fleet should happen to serve afloat, he is authorised to carry
the union flag at the main-top-gallant-mast head ; which was
the case when the duke of Clarence escorted Louis XVIII.
across the Channel to take possession of the throne of
France.
The comparative rank which flag-officers hold with officers
in the army has been settled as follows by his Majesty’s
order in council, in the reign of George IV.
The admiral and commander-in-chief of the fleet has the
rank of a field-marshal in the army ; admirals with flags at
the main take rank with generals of horse and foot; vice-
admirals with lieutenant-generals ; rear-admirals with major-
generals ; commodores of the first and second class with
broad pendants with brigadier-generals. (See Navy.)
On the active list of admirals, there are at present (1853)
seven of the Red, seven of the White, and seven of the
Blue squadron. Of the vice-admirals nine of each squad¬
ron, and of the rear-admirals seventeen.
In addition to these, there are on the reserved half-pay
list, fifty-eight flag-officers ; thirty-six retired rear-admirals
(to be reduced to twenty-five), and eighty-two additional
retired rear-admirals, with the pay of retired captains.
ADMIRAL.
Admiral, the Lord High, of England, an ancient
^ officer of high rank in the state, who not only is vested with
the government of the navy, but who, long before any regu¬
lar navy existed in England, presided over a sovereign court,
with authority to hear and determine all causes relating to
the sea, and to take cognizance of all offences committed
thereon.
There can be little doubt of the Asiatic origin of the name
given to this officer, which does not appear to have been
known in the languages of Europe before the time of the
holy wars. Amir, in Arabic, is a chief or commander of forces;
it is the same word as the ameer of the peninsula of India
(as ameer al omrah, the chief of lords or princes), and the
emir of the Turks or Saracens, who had, and still have, their
emir or ameer’l dureea, commander of the sea, amir’l asker
dureea, commander of the naval armament. The incorpo¬
ration of the article with the noun appears, we believe, for
the first time in the Annals of Eutychius, patriarch of Alex¬
andria, in the tenth century, who calls the Caliph Omar
Amirol munumim, seu, Imperator fidelium. Spelman says,
“ In regno Saracenorum quatuor praetores statuit, qui admi-
ralli vocabantur.” The d is evidently superfluous, and is
omitted by the French, who say Amiral. The Spanish
write Almirante ; the Portuguese the same. Milton would
seem to have been aware of the origin of the word, when he
speaks of “ the mast of some great Ammiral.” It is obvious,
then, that the supposed derivations of aA/wposfrom the Greek,
aumer from the French, and aen mereal from the Saxon, are
fanciful and unauthorised etymologies.
The period of time about which this officer first makes his
appearance in the governments of European nations, corro¬
borates the supposition of its having been adopted in imita¬
tion of the Mediterranean powers, at the return of the Chris¬
tian heroes from the holy wars. According to Moreri, Flo-
rent de Yarenne, in the year 1270, was the first admiral
known in France ; but by the most approved writers of that
nation, the title was unknown till, in 1284, Enguerand de
Coussy was constituted Admiral. The first admiral by name
that we know of in England was W. de Leybourne, who was
appointed to that office by Edward I. in the year 1286, under
the title of Admiral de la mer du Roy dAngleterre. Ma¬
riana, in his History of Spain, says that Don Sancho, having
resolved to make war on the barbarians (Moors), prepared
a great fleet; and as the Genoese were at that time very
powerful by sea, and experienced and dexterous sailors, he
sent to Genoa to invite, with great offers, Benito Zacharias
into his service; that he accepted those offers, and brought
with him twelve ships ; that the king named him his admi¬
ral {Almirante), and conferred on him the office for a limit¬
ed time. This happened in the year 1284. Several Por¬
tuguese authors observe, that their office of Almirante was
derived from the Genoese, who had it from the Sicilians, and
these from the Saracens; and it appears, from Souza’s His-
toria Genealogica da Caza Real, that, in 1322, Micer
Manuel Pi^agow was invited from Genoa into Portugal, and
appointed to the office of Almirante, with a salary of three
thousand pounds {livras) a year, and certain lands, &c., on
condition that he should furnish, on his part, twenty men of
Genoa, all experienced in sea affairs, and qualified to be al-
caidis (captains) and arraises (masters) of ships: all of which
terms, almirante, alcaidi, and arrais, are obviously of Ara¬
bic derivation.
Edward I. who began his reign in 1272, went to the Holy
Land, and visited Sicily on his return. He must therefore
have had an opportunity of informing himself concerning the
military and naval science of the various countries bordering
on the Mediterranean—an opportunity which so able and
warlike a prince would not neglect; but whether the title
and office of admiral existed in England before his time, as
143
some are inclined to think, or whether W. de Leybourne Admiral,
was first created to that office in 1286, as before mentioned,
we believe there is no authentic record to enable us to de¬
cide. Supposing him, however, to be the first, Edward may
either have adopted the office and title from the Genoese,
or the Sicilians, or the Spaniards, or the French; or even
had it directly from the Saracens, against whom he had
fought, and with whom he had afterwards much amicable
intercourse. It would seem, however, that the office was in
Edward’s time merely honorary ; for that monarch, in 1307,
orders the lord mayor of London, at his peril and without
delay, to provide a good ship, well equipped, to carry his pa¬
vilions and tents; and, in the same year, another order is
addressed to the Vicecomes Kantice, to provide, for imme¬
diate passage across the seas, tot et tales pontes et claias as
the constable of Dover Castle should demand, without one
word being mentioned of the admiral. (Rymer, vol. hi.
p. 32.)
From the 34th Edward II. we have a regular and unin¬
terrupted succession of admirals. In that year he appointed
Edward Charles Admiral of the North, from the mouth of
the river Thames northward, and Gervase Allard Admiral
of the West, from the mouth of the Thames westward; and
these two admirals of the north and the west were continued
down to the 34th Edward III., when John de Beauchamp,
lord warden of the Cinque Ports, constable of the Tower of
London, and of the Castle of Dover, was constituted High
Admiral of England ; but nine years afterwards the office
was again divided into north and west, and so continued until
the 10th Richard II., when Richard, son of Alain earl of
Arundel, was appointed Admiral of England. Two years
after this it was again divided as before; and in the 15th
year of the same reign, Edward earl of Rutland and Cork,
afterwards duke of Albemarle, was constituted High Admiral
of the North and West; and after him the marquis of Dor¬
set, and earl of Somerset, son of John of Gaunt, duke of
Lancaster; Percy earl of Winchester next succeeded to
the same title, which once more was dropped in the 2d of
Henry IV., and divided as before. But in the 6th of the
same reign the office of Admiral of England became perma¬
nently vested in one person. In the 14th Henry VI., John
Holland duke of Exeter was created Admiral of England,
Ireland, and Aquitaine, for life; and in the third year of Ed¬
ward VI., John Dudley earl of Warwick was constituted
High Admiral of England, Ireland, Wales, Calais, Boulogne,
the marches of the same, Normandy, Gascony, and Aqui¬
taine, also Captain-general of the navy and seas of the king,
&c. In the 27th Elizabeth, Charles Lord Howard had all
the aforesaid titles, with the addition of Captain-general of
the navy and seas of the said kingdoms.
On the 20th November 1632, the office of high admiral
was for the first time put in commission, all the great officers
of state being the commissioners. During the Common¬
wealth, a committee of parliament managed the affairs of the
admiralty. At the Restoration, in 1660, his royal highness
James duke of York was constituted Lord High Admiral of
England. The commission was revoked on the 22d May
1684, and King Charles II. held the admiralty in his own
hands, and managed it by the great officers of his privy coun¬
cil until his death. He took this occasion of reserving for
his own use all the droits and perquisites claimed by the lord
high admiral. King James II. declared himself in council
Lord High Admiral and Lord General; and he managed
the affairs of the admiralty and navy by Mr Secretary Pepys
all the time of his reign. Iifihe 1st William and Mary, the
admiralty was again put in commission. In the 6th Anne
(1707), his royal highness George prince of Denmark was
appointed High Admiral of Great Britain (in consequence
of the union of the two crowns), with a council to assist him;
144
A D M
A D M
Admiral, and at his death the queen acted in the office by Mr Bur-
chett. On the 29th November 1708, it was again put in
commission, or rather, the earl of Pembroke was constituted
High Admiral, with a council to assist him; since which
time the office of lord high admiral continued to be executed
by lords commissioners of the admiralty, until the 2d of May
1827, when his royal highness the duke of Clarence was ap¬
pointed Lord High Admiral, with a council of four members
to assist him ; in which office he continued to act, to the great
satisfaction of the navy at large, until, at his own request, he
was permitted by his Majesty to resign his high office, on the
19th September 1828, when it was again put in commission,
and so it still remains.
Prince George of Denmark, when lord high admiral, hav¬
ing surrendered, by a formal instrument, all the rights, pro¬
fits, perquisites, and advantages whatsoever, appertaining to
the office, for the benefit and use of the public, with the
exception of the sum of L.2500 a-year, to be disposed of in
such manner, and for such particular uses, as her Majesty,
under her sign manual, should direct; the salary of the lord
high admiral, which had hitherto been no more than 300
marks, was now fixed, by warrant under privy seal, at L.7000
a-year; which sum, by 1st George II. was divided equally
among seven commissioners, and continued to be so down to
the present time, the part of the commissioner who stood
first in the patent having, however, been made up from other
funds to L.3000 a-year, and, in the year 1806, further in¬
creased by Lord Howick, then first lord commissioner, to
L.5000 a-year. Since the surrender above mentioned, all
the droits of admiralty, as they are called, with all the fees,
emoluments, perquisites, &c. whatsoever, have been taken
from the admiral, and applied to public purposes.
These droits and perquisites are by no means inconsider¬
able. As enumerated in the patent, they consist of flotson,
jetson, lagon, treasure, deodands, derelicts, found within his
jurisdiction; all goods picked up at sea; all fines, forfeitures,
ransoms, recognizances, and pecuniary punishments ; all
sturgeons, whales, porpesses, dolphins, rigs, and grampusses,
and all such large fishes ; all ships and goods of the enemy
coming into any creek, road, or port, by stress of weather,
mistake, or ignorance of the war; all ships seized at sea, sal¬
vage, &c. together with his shares of prizes; which shares
were afterwards called tenths, in imitation probably of the
French, who gave their admiral, for supporting the dignity
of his office, son droit de dixieme. All prizes are now wholly
given up by the crown to the captors, and such share of the
droits as from circumstances may be thought proper. The
lord high admiral also claimed, and enjoyed as his due, the
cast ships; and the subordinate officers of the navy, as their
perquisites, all other decayed and unserviceable stores.
Though by act of 2d William and Mary, st. 2, c. 2 (ex¬
tended by the 1st Geo. IV., c. 90, and 7th and 8th Geo. IV.,
c.65), the lords commissionex*s of the admiralty are vested with
all and singular authorities, jurisdictions, and powers, which
have been and are vested, settled, and placed in the lord
high admiral of England for the time being, to all intents
and purposes, as if the said commissioners were lord high
admiral of England ; yet there is this remarkable difference
in the two patents by which they are constituted, that the
patent of the lord high admiral mentions very little of the
military part of his office, but chiefly details his judicial duties
as a magistrate; whilst, on the contrary, the patent to the
lords commissioners of the admiralty is very particular in
directing them to govern the afiairs of the navy, and is almost
wholly silent as to their juditMl powers.
These powers, as set forth in the patent to the earl of
Pembroke in 1.701, are, the power to act by deputy ; to take
cognizance of all causes, civil and maritime, within his juris¬
diction ; to arrest goods and persons; to preserve public
streams, ports, rivers, fresh waters, and creeks whatsoever, Admiralty,
within his jurisdiction, as well for the preservation of the ships, v—
as of the fishes; to reform too straight nets, and unlawful
engines, and punish offenders; to arrest ships, mariners,
pilots, masters, gunners, bombardiers, and any other persons
whatsoever, able and fit for the service of the ships, as often
as occasion shall require, and wheresoever they shall be met
with; to appoint vice-admirals, judges, and other officers,
durante beneplacito; to remove, suspend, or expel them, and
put others in their places, as he shall see occasion ; to take
cognizance of civil and maritime laws, and of death, murder,
and maim.
It was by no means necessary that the lord high admiral
should be a professional man. Henry VIII. made his na¬
tural son, the duke of Richmond, lord high admiral of Eng¬
land, when he was but six years old. When the high ad¬
miral, however, went to sea in person, he had usually a com¬
mission under the great seal, appointing him Admiral and
Captain-general of the fleet, sometimes with powers to con¬
fer knighthood, and generally to punish with life and limb.
Such a commission was granted by Henry VIII. to Sir
Edward Howard, who executed indenture with the king to
furnish 3000 men, 18 captains, 1750 soldiers, 1232 mariners
and gunners ; his own pay to be 10s. a day, that of a captain
Is. 6d., of the rest 5s. as wages, and 5s. for victuals each man
for twenty-eight days, together with certain dead shares.
It appears, from Mr Pepys’s Naval Collections, that the
lord high admiral did anciently wear, on solemn occasions, a
gold whistle, set with precious stones, hanging at the end of
a gold chain. The whistle, it would seem, has long since
descended to the boatswain and his mates.
The salary of the first lord commissioner is L.4500 a-year,
and of each of the five lords L.1000. (j. b—w.)
Admiral is also an appellation given to the most consi¬
derable ship of a fleet of merchantmen, or of the vessels em¬
ployed in the cod fishery of Newfoundland. This last has
the privilege of choosing what place he pleases on the shore
to dry his fish ; gives proper orders, and appoints the fishing
places to those who come after him ; and as long as the fish¬
ing season continues, he carries a flag on his main-mast.
Admiral, in Conchology, the English name of a species
of mollusca belonging to the order of Gasteropoda, conus
ammiralis.
ADMIRALTY, High Court of. This is a court of
law, in which the authority of the lord high admiral is exer¬
cised, in Yus judicial capacity. Very little has been left on
record of the ancient prerogative of the admirals of England.
For some time after the first institution of the office, they
judged all matters relating to merchants and mariners, which
happened on the main sea, in a summary way, according
to the laws of Oleron (so called because promulgated by
Richard I. at that place). These laws, which were litttle
more than a transcript of the Rhodian laws, became the uni¬
versally received customs of the western part of the world.
“ All the sea-faring nations,” says Sir Leoline Jenkins,
“ soon after their promulgation, received and entertained
these laws from the English, by way of deference to the sove¬
reignty of our kings in the British ocean, and to the judg¬
ment of our countrymen in sea affairs.”
In the patents granted to the early admirals between the
latter end of the reign of Henry III., and until the close of
that of Edward III., no mention is made of marine perqui¬
sites or of civil power, nor does it appear that the admirals
enjoyed either; but after the death of the latter, new and
extraordinary powers were granted to them, and it would
appear that they usurped others. The preamble to the sta¬
tute of 13th Richard II., stat. 1, c. 5, sets forth, that “for¬
asmuch as a great and common clamour and complaint hath
been oftentimes made before this time, and yet is, for that
ADMIRALTY.
Admiralty, the admirals and their deputies hold their sessions within
divers places of this realm, as well within the franchise as
without, accroaching to them greater authority than belong-
eth to their office, in prejudice of our lord the king, and the
common law of the realm, and in diminishing of divers
nanchises, and in destruction and impoverishing of the com¬
mon people and it is therefore directed “ that the admi¬
rals and their deputies shall not meddle from henceforth of
any thing done within the realm, but only of a thing done
upon the sea. And two years afterwards (15th R. II., c. 3), in
consequence, as stated in the preamble of the statute, “ of
t le great and grievous complaint of all the commons,” it was
ordained that the admiral’s court should have no cognizance
of any contracts, pleas, or quarrels, or of any thing done or
arising within the bodies of counties, whether by land or by
water, nor of wreck of the sea; but that the admiral should
have cognizance of the death of a man, and of maihem done
in gieat ships being and hovering in the main stream of
great rivers, yet only beneath the bridges of the same rivers
nigh to the sea. He may also arrest ships in the great flotes
for the great voyages of the king and of the realm, saving
always to the king all maroner of forfeitures and profits
thereof coming, and have jurisdiction over the said flotes,
but during the said voyages only. But if the admiral or his
lieutenant exceed that jurisdiction, then, by 2d Henry IV.,
c. 11, the statute and the common law may be holden against
them; and if a man pursues wrongfully in the admiralty
court, his adversary may recover double damages at com¬
mon law, and the pursuant, if attainted, shall incur the pe¬
nalty of L.10 to the king.
The place which, according to Spelman, is absolutely sub¬
ject to the jurisdiction of the admiral, is the sea; which, how¬
ever, comprehends public rivers, fresh waters, creeks, and
all places whatsoever, within the ebbing and flowing of the
sea, at the highest water, the shores or banks adjoining, from
all the first bridges to the seaward; and in these, he observes,
the admiralty hath full jurisdiction in all causes, criminal and
civil, except treasons and the right of wreck. Lord Coke
observes (5 Rep. 107), that between the high water mark and
the low water mark, the admiral hath jurisdiction.
ad plenitudinem marts, and as long as it flows, though the
land be infra corpus comitatus at the reflow, so as of one
place there is divisum imperium interchangeably.
But though the statute restraineth the lord high admiral,
that he shall not hold plea of a thing rising in the body of a
county, he is not restrained from making execution upon
the land, but is empowered to take either body or goods
upon the land; otherwise his jurisdiction would often prove
a dead letter. He also can and does hold his court in the
body of a county. So, likewise, the civil power may appre¬
hend and try persons who may have been guilty of offences
cognizable at common law, though committed in the fleet, in
any port or harbour of Great Britain, or at sea, provided such
persons have not already been tried for such offences, either
by court-martial or in the admiralty court; and in all ports,
harbours, creeks, &c. lying in any county, the high admiral
and the sheriff, or coroner, as the case may be, have con¬
current jurisdiction.
By the 6th and 7th Will. IV., c. 53, the admiralty jurisdic¬
tion is extended to Prince of Wales’ Island, Singapore, and
Malacca; and under the 3d and 4th Viet., c. 65, the court has
jurisdiction in the following cases :—
^Whenever a vessel is arrested by process issuing from the
said court, or the proceeds of any vessel are brought into the
registry, to take cognisance of all claims in respect of any mort¬
gage of such vessel.
To decide all questions as to the title to, or ownership of,
such vessel, or the proceeds thereof remaining in the registry’
arising in any cause of possession, salvage, damage, wages, or
bottomry, instituted in the said court.
145
YOL. II.
To decide all claims and demands whatsoever in the nature Admiralty
ot_ salvage, or in the nature of towage, or for necessaries sup- W- —. 
plied to any foreign vessel, and enforce the payment of the V
same, whether such vessel may have been in the body of the
county, or upon the high seas at the time when the service
was rendered, or damage received, or necessaries furnished, in
respect of which claim is made.
To decide all matters and questions concerning booty of war,
or the distribution thereof, which it shall please her Majesty
by the advice of the privy council, to refer to tlie judgment of tha
said court, who shall proceed therein as in cases of prize of war.
And under § 40 of the 9th and 10th Viet., c. 99, to decide
on all claims and demands whatsoever in the nature of salvage,
for services performed, whether on sea or land.
The Lord High Admiral was assisted in his judicial func¬
tions by the following principal officers :—1. The Vice-ad¬
miral; 2. the Judge; 3. the Registrar: 4. the Marshal;
5. Advocate-general; 6. Procurator-general; 7. Counsellor;
8. Solicitor ; which officers are continued.
1. The Vice-admiral. This officer is the admiral’s deputy
or lieutenant, mentioned in the statutes of 13th and 15th
Richard II., and was the person, most probably, who pre¬
sided in the court. At present the office of vice-admiral of
England is a perfect sinecure, generally conferred on some
naval officer of high rank and distinguished character in the
service, having a salary of L.434, Is. 9d. per annum, at¬
tached to it in addition to his half-pay. That of rear-admiral
of Engla-nd is the same, and the salary in addition to his
half-pay is L.342, 9s. per annum. Each county of England
has its vice-admiral, which is little more than an honorary
distinction, though the patent gives to him all the powders
vested in the admiral himself. Similar powers were also
granted to the judges of the admiralty county-courts; but
this was found so inconvenient and prejudicial to those who
had suits to commence or defend before them, that the duke
of York, when lord high admiral, in 1663, caused instruc¬
tions to be drawn up in order to ascertain to each his pro¬
vince, whereby the whole judicial power remained with the
judge, and the upholding of the rights of the admiral, and
levying and receiving the perquisites, &c. appertained to the
vice-admiral.
Each of the four provinces of Ireland has its vice-admiral.
There is one vice-admiral for all Scotland, who has a salary
of L.1000 a year on the ordinary estimate of the navy, and
one for the Shetland and Orkney islands. The governor of
most of our colonies had a commission of vice-admiral grant¬
ed to him by the lord high admiral or lords commissioners
of the admiralty, and generally a commission from the kino-
under the great seal, grounded on the 11th and 12th Wil-
ham HI., c. 7, and further confirmed by 46th Geo. HI., c.
54, by which he was authorised to try all treasons, piracies’
felonies, robberies, murders, conspiracies, and other offences,
of what nature or kind soever, committed on the seas, where
the parties were taken into custody in places remote from
England. The court consisted of seven persons at the least,
of whom the governor, the lieutenant-governor, the vice-
admiral, the flag-officer, or commander-in-chief of the squa¬
dron, the members of the council, the chief-justice, judge of
the vice-admiralty court, captains of men-of-war, and secre¬
tary of the colony, were specially named in the commission;
but any three of these, with four others selected from known
merchants, factors, or planters, captains, lieutenants, or war¬
rant officers of men-of-war, or captains, masters, or mates of
merchant ships, constituted a legal court of piracy. By the
an^ 13th Viet., c. 96, all persons charged in any colony
with offences committed on the sea may be dealt with in the
same manner as if the offences had been committed on
waters within the local jurisdiction of the courts of the
colony.
I he vice-admiralty courts in the colonies are of two de-
T
146
ADMIRALTY.
Admiralty. scriptions. The one has power to inquire into the causes
of detention of enemies or neutral vessels, to try and con¬
demn the same for the benefit of the captors, as well as to
take cognizance of all matters relating to the office of the
lord high admiral. The other has power only to institute
inquiries into misdemeanours committed in merchant ves¬
sels, and to determine petty suits, &c., and to guard the privi¬
leges of the admiral. The former are usually known by the
name of Prize Courts, the latter by that of Instance Courts.
The following are the colonies and foreign possessions in
which Prize Courts have been established in the course of
the last war:—Gibraltar, Malta, Newfoundland, Halifax,
Bermuda, Bahama Islands, Barbadoes, Antigua, Tortola,
Jamaica, Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, Bombay, Madras,
and Calcutta. The following colonies had Instance Courts
only.—Dominica, Grenada, St Vincent, St Christopher,
Trinidad, St Cervix, Martinique, Berbice, Demerara, and
Essequibo ; in addition to which is a court established at
Sierra Leone for the trial and condemnation of captured
slaves only; and since that time, Gibraltar, Malta, St
Helena, Berbice, Demerara, and Essequibo, Sierra Leone
(this court has jurisdiction only over ships concerned in
the slave trade), Newfoundland, Halifax, Nova Scotia,
Prince Edward’s Island, Lower Canada, Barbadoes, Tobago,
and St Lucca, Antigua, Montserrat, and Barbadoes, Tortola,
Jamaica, Bahamas, Falkland Islands, Cape of Good Hope,
Gambia, Gold Coast, Ceylon, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras,
New South Wales, Van Diemen’s Land, Western Aus¬
tralia, South Australia, New Zealand, Vancouver’s Island,
Hong Kong, Lahuan.
In none of the patents to the lord high admiral, vice-
admiral, or judge, is any mention made of prize jurisdiction.
Lord Mansfield had occasion to search into the records of
the court of admiralty in Doctors’ Commons, to ascertain on
what foundation this jurisdiction was exercised by the judge
of the admiralty; but he could not discover any prize-act
books farther back than 1643; no sentences farther back
than 1648. The registrar could go no farther back than
1690. “ The prior records,” says his lordship, “ are in con¬
fusion, illegible, and without index.” The prize jurisdiction
may therefore be considered as of modern authority, and
distinct altogether from the ancient powers given to the
admiral. To constitute the authority for trying prize causes,
a commission under the great seal issues to the lord high
admiral, at the commencement of every war, to wall and
require the court of admiralty, and the lieutenant and judge
of the said court, his surrogate or surrogates, to proceed
upon all manner of captures, seizures, prizes, and reprisals,
of all ships and goods that are or shall be taken ; and to hear
and determine according to the course of the admiralty, or
the law of nations ; and a warrant issues to the judge of the
admiralty accordingly.
The admiralty court being in this respect a court in which
foreigners of all nations may become suitors, an appeal may
be had from its decisions to a committee of the lords of the
privy council, who hear and determine according to the
established laws of nations.
At the breaking out of a war, the lord high admiral also
receives a special commission from the crown, under the
great seal, to empower him to grant letters of marque and
reprisals against the enemy, he having no such power by his
patent. These letters are either general or special; general,
when granted to private men to fit out ships at their own
charge to annoy the enemy; special, when in the case of
any of our merchants being robbed of their estates or pro¬
perty by foreigners, the king grants them letters of reprisal
against that nation, though we may be in amity with it.
Before the latter can be sued for, the complainant must
have gone through the prosecution of his suit in the courts
of the state whose subjects have wronged him; where, if jus- Admiralty,
tice be denied, or vexatiously delayed, he must first make
proof of his losses and charges in the admiralty court here;
whereupon, if the Crown is satisfied he has pursued all lawful
means to obtain redress, and his own interceding should pro¬
duce no better effect, special letters of reprisal are granted;
not, however, as must be evident, until a very strong case
has been made out. This custom, which we may now con¬
sider as obsolete, seems to be a remnant of the law of an¬
cient Greece, called androlepsia, by which, if a man was slain,
the friends and relations of the deceased might seize on any
three citizens of the place where the murderer took refuge,
and make them slaves, unless he was delivered up. Both
Oliver Cromwell and King Charles II. granted letters of
reprisal. In 1638 the Due d’Epernon seized on the ship
Amity of London, for the service of the French king against
the Spaniards, promising full satisfaction ; but none being
made, the owners obtained letters of reprisal from the
usurper, and afterwards, in 1665, from Charles II. In
1666 Captain Butler Barnes had letters of reprisal against
the Danes. The Dutch having burnt six English merchant
vessels in the Elbe, within the territories of Hamburg, which
city, instead of giving any assistance or protection, hindered
the English from defending themselves, letters of reprisal
were granted to the sufferers against that city. Lastly, one
Justiniani, a noble Genoese, being indebted in a great sum
to Joseph Como, a merchant in London, which he had seve¬
ral years solicited for, but could get no satisfaction, Captain
Scott, commander of his Majesty’s ship the Dragon, sta¬
tioned at that time in the Mediterranean, received orders to
make reprisals upon the ships of that republic; upon which
the debt was paid.
2. The Judge. The patents to the judge of the admi¬
ralty and vice-admiralty courts run pretty nearly in the same
manner as those of the lord high admiral, and point out the
several matters of which he can take cognizance. The par¬
liament of 1640 established the office of judge of the admi¬
ralty court in three persons, with a salary of L.500 a year to
each. At the Restoration there were two judges of the high
court of admiralty, which sometimes proved inconvenient;
for when they differed in opinion no judgment could be had.
These judges, before the Revolution, held their appointment
only during pleasure. At that period Sir Charles Hedges
was constituted judge under the great seal of England,
quamdiu se bene gesserit, with a salary of L.400 a year, and
an additional L.400 out of the proceeds of prizes and per¬
quisites of the admiralty; but in the year 1725 the latter sum
was diminished from the ordinary estimate by the House of
Commons. Lord Stowell, the late judge, in consequence of
the extraordinary increase of the business in the admiralty
court, had a salary of L.2500 a year on the ordinary esti¬
mate of the navy. Under the 3d and 4th Viet., c. 66, § 1,
the salary is fixed at L.4000 per annum.
The judges of the vice-admiralty courts in certain of the
colonies, limited by 41st George III., c. 96, are allowed a
salary not exceeding to each the sum of L.2000 a year, to
be paid out of the consolidated fund of Great Britain; to¬
gether with profits and emoluments not exceeding to each
the further sum of L.2000 per annum, out of the lees to be
taken by the said judges, of which a table is directed to be
hung up in some conspicuous place in the court; and no
judge is to take any fee beyond those specified, directly or
indirectly, on pain of forfeiture of his office, and being pro¬
ceeded against for extortion ; and on his retirement from of¬
fice, after six years’ service, or from some permanent infir¬
mity, the Crown may, by authority of the act above men¬
tioned, grant unto such judge an annuity for the term of his
life, not exceeding per annum. This liberal provi¬
sion puts the judges of the colonial courts of vice-admiralty
ADMIRALTY.
147
Admiralty, above all suspicion of their decisions being influenced by
unworthy motives ; a suspicion they were not entirely free
from when their emoluments depended mainly on their fees.
During the late war, a session of oyer and terminer to
try admiralty causes was held at the Old Bailey, now the
central criminal court, twice a year. The commission for
this purpose is of the same nature with those which are
granted to the judges when they go the circuits; that is to
say, to determine and punish all crimes, offences, and mis¬
demeanours, and abuses ; the end of both being the same,
their limits different; the one relating to things done upon
the land, the other to things done upon the water. The
lords commissioners of the admiralty, all the members of the
privy council, the chancellor and all the judges, the lords of
the treasury, the secretary of the admiralty, the-, treasurer
and commissioners of the navy, some of the aldermen of
London, and several doctors of the civil law, are the mem¬
bers of this commission ; any four of whom make a court,
the quorum being the lords of the admiralty, judge of the
admiralty, the twelve judges, and the doctors of the civil
law.
The proceedings of the court are continued de die in
diem, or, as the style of the court is, from tide to tide.
3. The Registrar of the Admiralty has hitherto held his
place by patent from the lord high admiral generally for life,
though the admiral himself and the lords commissioners of
admiralty hold their places only during pleasure; and, what
is still more remarkable, the office of registrar has sometimes
been granted, and is now vested in reversion. He had no
salary, the amount of his emoluments depending on the
number of captures, droits, &c. condemned by the court;
which, during the late war, were so enormous, that in 1810
an act was passed for regulating the offices of registrars of
admiralty and prize courts, by which it is enacted, “ that no
office of registrar of the high court of admiralty, or of the
high court of appeals for prizes, or high court of delegates
in Great Britain, shall, after the expiration of the interest
now vested in possession or reversion therein, be granted
for a longer term than during pleasure, nor be executed by
deputy; that an account be kept in the said offices respec¬
tively of all the fees, dues, perquisites, emoluments, and pro¬
fits received by and on account of the said registrars, out of
which all the expenses of their offices are to be paid; that
one-third of the surplus shall belong to the registrar and to
his assistant (if an assistant should be necessary), and the
remaining two-thirds to the consolidated fund of Great Bri¬
tain, to be paid quarterly into the exchequer; the account
of such surplus to be presented to the court at least fourteen
days before each quarter day, and verified on oath. Under
the 3d and 4th Viet. c. 66, § 2, a yearly salary of L.1400 is
substituted for “ all fees, dues, perquisites, emoluments, and
profits,” and which may be increased in time of war to
L.2000.
4. The Advocate-general. This officer is appointed by
warrant of the lords commissioners of the admiralty. His
duties are, to appear for the lord high admiral in his court
of admiralty, court of delegates, and other courts; to move
and debate in all causes wherein the rights of the admiral
are concerned ; for which he had anci ently a salary of twenty
marks (L.13, 6s. 8d.) a year. In May 1803, Dr William Bat-
tine, who was appointed in 1791, had an addition of L.200
to his salary, “ for his extraordinary trouble and attendance
during the present hostilities.” His salary was continued to
him and his successor, Dr Arnold, till 1816; since that time
the allowance has been reduced to its original amount of
L.13, 6s. 8d. Formerly the admiral’s advocate was always
retained as leading counsel, but since the droits were trans-
ferred to the crown, he has gradually been supplanted by
the king’s advocate, who is generally retained in all cases,
the admiralty advocate acting only as junior counsel; and Admiralty,
while the former, during the war, made sometimes from
L.15,000 to L.20,000 a year, the latter rarely received from
his professional duties more than from L.1500 to L.2000 a
year.
5. The Counsel of the Admiralty is the law officer who
is chiefly consulted on matters connected with the military
duties of the lord high admiral; his salary is L.100 a year,
besides his fees, which in time of war may be reckoned to
amount to from L.1200 to L.1800 a year.
6. The Solicitor to the Admiralty is also an officer more
immediately connected with the military functions of the
admiralty. He is styled sometimes assistant to the counsel:
his salary is L.1600 a year, in lieu of all fees, bills, and dis¬
bursements, with an allowance of L.1000 a year for an office
and assistance of clerks.
7. The Procurator. The admiralty’s proctor stands pre¬
cisely in the same situation to the king’s proctor that his ad¬
vocate does to that of the king, though there is not quite so
great a difference in their emoluments. They act as the
attorneys or solicitors in all causes concerning the king’s
and the lord high admiral’s affairs in the high court of ad¬
miralty and other courts. All prize causes are conducted
by the king’s proctor, which the captors are disposed to con¬
sider as a grievance, but which the gentlemen of Doctors’
Commons, on the contrary, maintain to be for their conve¬
nience and advantage. It is supposed that in some years of
the war the king’s proctor did not receive less than L.20,000
a year.
8. The Marshal. This officer receives his appointment
from the lord high admiral or lords commissioners of the ad¬
miralty, and holds his situation by patent under the seal of
the high court of admiralty during pleasure. His duties are,
to arrest ships and persons, to imprison in the Marshalsea,
to bear the mace before the judge, and to attend executions.
His emoluments depended chiefly on the number of prizes
brought into port for condemnation, and the number of ships
embargoed, and might probably be reckoned in time of war.
communibus annis, from L.1500 to L.2000 a year, out of
which he had to pay about L.400 a year to a deputy. The
office can, however, be no longer performed by deputy, ex¬
cept in case of illness, § 9 of the 3d and 4th Viet., c. 66.
He is now paid by a salary of L.500, besides his travelling ex¬
penses of attending the judge, which may be raised to L.800
in time of war.
The Judge Advocate of the fleet is a sinecure appoint¬
ment, with a salary of L.I82, 10s. a year, on the ordinary
estimate of the navy; but the Deputy Judge Advocate re¬
sides at Portsmouth, and assists at all courts-martial held at
that port, for which he is allowed an annual salary of L.146.
See Nayy. (j. b—w.)
Admiralty Bay, a spacious bay, with good anchorage,
on the west coast of Cook’s straits, in the southern island of
New Zealand. Long. 174. 54. E. Lat. 40. 37. S.—There
is a bay of the same name on the north-west coast of Ame¬
rica, in Long. 140. 81. W. Lat. 59. 31. N.
Admiralty Inlet, the entrance to the supposed straits of
Juan de Fuca, on the west coast of New Georgia, in Long.
124.15. W. Lat. 48.30. N. It was visited by Captain Van¬
couver in 1792, who found the soil on the shores rich and
fertile, well watered, and clothed with luxuriant vegetation.
Admiralty Island, in Russian America, is about 90 miles
in length from north to south, and 25 in breadth. Lat. 58.
N. Long. 134. W.—See Vancouver’s Voyage, vol. hi.
Admiralty Islands lie in about Long. 146. 44. E. and
Lat. 2. 18. S. There are between 20 and 30 islands said
to be scattered about here, the largest of which is about 60
miles in length. Captain Carteret, who first discovered
them, was prevented from touching at them, although their
148 ADO
Admiralty appearance was very inviting, on account of the condition of
II his ship, and his being entirely unprovided with the articles
Adonia. 0f barter which suit an Indian trade. He describes them as
clothed with a beautiful verdure of woods, lofty and luxu¬
riant, interspersed with spots that have been cleared for
plantations, groves of cocoa-nut trees, and houses of the na¬
tives, who seem to be very numerous.
Admiralty, Scotland. At the Union, while the National
functions of the lord high admiral were merged in the Eng¬
lish office, there remained a separate court of admiralty, with
subsidiary local courts, having civil and criminal jurisdic¬
tions in maritime questions. The separate courts were abo¬
lished in 1831, and their powers merged in the courts of
session and justiciary, and the local courts.
ADMONITION, in ecclesiastical affairs, a part of dis¬
cipline much used in the ancient church. It was the first
act or step towards the punishment or expulsion of delin¬
quents. In private offences it was performed, according to
the evangelical rule, privately; in case of public offence,
openly, before the church. If either of these sufficed for the
recovery of the fallen person, all further proceedings in the
way of censure ceased: if they did not, recourse was had to
excommunication.
Admonitio Fnstium, a military punishment among the
Romans, not unlike our whipping, but performed with vine
branches.
ADMORTIZATION, the settling of lands or tene¬
ments in mortmain.
ADNATA, in Anatomy, one of the coats of the eye,
called also albuginea. See Anatomy.
Adnata is also used for any hair, wool, or the like, which
grows upon animals or vegetables.
Adnata, or Adnascentia, among gardeners, denote those
offsets which, by a new germination under the earth, proceed
from the lily, narcissus, hyacinth, and other flowers, and af¬
terwards become true roots.
ADOLESCENCE, the state of growing youth, or that
period of a person’s age commencing from his infancy and
terminating at his full stature or manhood. The word is
formed of the Latin adolescere, to grow. The state of ado¬
lescence lasts so long as the fibres continue to grow either
in magnitude or firmness. The fibres being arrived at the
degree of firmness and tension sufficient to sustain the parts,
no longer yield or give way to the efforts of the nutritious
matter to extend them; so that their further accretion is
stopped, from the very law of their nutrition. Adolescence
is commonly computed to be between 15 and 25, or even 30
years of age ; though in different constitutions its terms are
very different. The Romans usually reckoned it from 12 to
25 in boys, and to 21 in girls, &c. And yet, among their
writers, juvenis and adolescens are frequently used indif¬
ferently for any person under 45 years.
ADONAI, one of the names of the Supreme Being in
the Scriptures. The proper meaning of the word is my
lords in the plural number, as Adoni is my lord in the sin¬
gular. The Jews, who, either from reverence or supersti¬
tion, do not pronounce the name of Jehovah, read Adonai
in the room of it as often as they meet with Jehovah in the
Hebrew text. But the ancient Jews were not so scrupulous;
nor is there any law which forbids them to pronounce the
name of God in a religious service.
ADONIA, in Antiquity, solemn feasts in honour of
Venus, and in memory of her beloved Adonis. The Adonia
were observed with great solemnity by the Greeks, Phoeni¬
cians, Lycians, Syrians, Egyptians, &c. From Syria they
are supposed to have passed into India. The prophet Eze-
1 Ch. viii. kiel1 is understood to speak of them. They were still ob-
14. ’ served at Alexandria in the time of St Cyril, and at Antioch
in that of Julian the Apostate, who happened to enter that
ADO
city during the solemnity, which was taken for an ill omen. Adonic
The Adonia lasted two days; on the first of which certain II
images of Venus and Adonis were carried, with all the pomp^d°Ptiam;
and ceremonies practised at funerals : the women wept, tore ^
their hair, beat their breasts, &c. imitating the cries and
lamentations of Venus for the death of her paramour. This
lamentation they called ASomao-po?. The Syrians were not
contented with weeping, but subjected themselves to severe
discipline, shaved their heads, &c. The second day was
spent in merriment and feasting. This festival was a sym¬
bol of the dying and revival of nature ; hence Adonis is said
to have spent a part of the year in the lower world, and part
in the upper, with Aphrodite, who represented the fructify¬
ing principle. See Adonis.
ADONIC VERSE, consists of a dactyle, and a spondee or
trochee, as rdrajuventus, and is adapted to gay and sprightly
poetry. It is seldom used alone, but construed with other
kinds of verse. The adonic verse of the Anglo-Saxons con¬
sisted of one long, two short, and two long syllables.
ADONIJAH, fourth son of David king of Israel, put to
death by his brother Solomon, for conspiring against the
throne, 1 Kings i. ii. 13-25.
ADONIS, son of Cinyras, king of Cyprus, the favourite
of Venus. Being killed by a wild boar in the Idalian woods,
he was turned into a flower of a blood-colour, supposed to
be the anemone. Venus was inconsolable ; and no grief was
ever more celebrated than this, most nations having perpe
tuated the memory of it by a train of anniversary ceremo¬
nies.1 The text of the Vulgate, in Ezekiel viii. 14, says thati see
this prophet saw women sitting in the temple and weeping Adonia.
for Adonis; but according to the reading of the Hebrew
text, they are said to weep for Thammuz, or the hidden one.
Among the Egyptians, Adonis was adored under the name
of Osiris, the husband of Isis. But he was sometimes called
by the name of Ammuz, or Thammuz, the concealed, to
denote probably his death or burial. The Hebrews, in de¬
rision, call him sometimes the dead, Psal. cvi. 28. and Lev.
xix. 28, because they wept for him, and represented him as
one dead in his coffin ; and at other times they call him the
image of jealousy, Ezek. viii. 3, 5, because he was the ob¬
ject of the god Mars’ jealousy. The Syrians, Phoenicians,
and Cyprians, called him Adonis; and F. Calmet is of opi¬
nion that the Ammonites and Moabites gave him the name
of Baal-peor.
Adonis, Adonius, in Ancient Geography, a river of Phoe¬
nicia, rising in Mount Lebanon, and falling into the sea, after
a south-west course, at Byblus. When in flood, its waters
exhibited a deep red tinge ; hence the legend that connects
the river with the wound of Adonis the minion of Venus.
( Vide Lucian?)
“ While smooth Adonis from his native rock,
Ean purple to the sea, suppos’d with hlood
Of Thammuz yearly wounded.”—Milton.
Adonis, in Botany, Bird's Eye, or Pheasant's Eye.
ADONISTS, a sect or party among divines and critics,
who maintain that the Hebrew points ordinarily annexed to
the consonants of the word Jehovah are not the natural points
belonging to that word, nor express the true pronounciation
of it, but are the vowel points belonging to the words Adonai
and Elohim, applied to the consonants of the ineffable name
Jehovah, to warn the readers, that instead of the word Je¬
hovah, which the Jews were forbidden to pronounce, and the
true pronounciation of which had been long unknown to
them, they are always to read Adonai. They are opposed
to Jehovists; of whom the principal are Drusius, Capellus,
Buxtorf, Alting, and Reland, who has published a collection
of their writings on this subject.
ADOPTIANI, in Church History, a sect of ancient he¬
retics, followers of Felix of Urgel and Elipand of Toledo,
ADO
Adoption, who, towards the end of the eighth century, advanced the
notion that Jesus Christ in his human nature is the Son of
God, not by nature, but by adoption.
. an act by which any one takes another
into his family, owns him for his son, and appoints him for
his heir.
• ^be custom of adoption was very common among the an¬
cient Greeks and Romans; yet it was not practised but forcer-
tain ca,uses expressed in the laws, and with certain formalities
usual in such cases. It was a sort of imitation of nature, in¬
tended for the comfort of those who had no children : where¬
fore, he that was to adopt was to have no children of his own,
and to be past the age of getting any; nor were eunuchs
allowed to adopt, as being under an actual impotency of
begetting children: neither was it lawful for a young man
to adopt an elder, because that would have been contrary to
the order of nature ; nay, it was even required that the per¬
son who adopted should be eighteen years older than his
adopted son, that there might at least appear a probability
of his being the natural father.
Among the Greeks it was called ino-nys, filiation. It was
allowed to such as had no issue of their own, excepting
those who were not Kvpioi iavriov, their own masters, e. g.
slaves, women, madmen, infants, or persons under twenty
years of age; who being incapable of making wills, or man¬
aging their own estates, were not allowed to adopt heirs to
them. Foreigners being incapable of inheriting at Athens,
if any such were adopted, it was necessary first to make them
free of the city. The ceremony of adoption being over, the
adopted had his name enrolled in the tribe and ward of his
new father; for which entry a peculiar time was allotted,
viz. the festival OapyrjXLa. To prevent rash and inconsiderate
adoptions, the Lacedemonians had a law, that adoptions
should be transacted, or at least confirmed, in the presence
of their kings. The children adopted were invested with all
the privileges, and obliged to perform all the duties, of na¬
tural children. Being thus provided for in another family,
they ceased to have any claim of inheritance or kindred in
the family which they had left, unless they first renounced
their adoption, which by the laws of Solon they were not
allowed to do, unless they had first begotten children to bear
the name of the person who had adopted them. This pro¬
vided against the ruin of the families, which would otherwise
have been extinguished by the desertion of those who had
been adopted to preserve them. If the children adopted
happened to die without children, the inheritance could not
be alienated from the family into which they had been
adopted, but returned to the relations of the adopter. It
would seem that, by the Athenian law, a person, after hav¬
ing adopted another, was not allowed to marry without per¬
mission from the magistrate ; and there are instances of per¬
sons who, being ill used by their adoptive children, petitioned
for such leave. However this may be, it is certain that some
men married after they had adopted sons; in which case,
if they begat legitimate children, their estates were equally
shared between the begotten and the adopted.
The Romans had two forms of adoption ; the one before
the praetor, the other at an assembly of the people, in the
times of the commonwealth, and afterwards by a rescript
from the emperor. In the former, the natural father ad¬
dressed himself to the praetor, declaring that he emancipated
his son, resigned all his authority over him, and consented
that he should be translated into the family of the adopter.
The latter was practised where the party to be adopted was
already free ; and this was called adrogation. The person
adopted changed all his names, assuming the prename, name
and surname, of the person who adopted him.
Besides the formalities prescribed by the Roman law, vari¬
ous other methods have taken place, which have given de-
A D 0
149
nominations to different species of adoption among the Gothic Adoption
nations, in different ages. Thus, ||
Adoption by Arms was when a prince made a present of Adoraim-
arms to a person, in consideration of his merit and valour.
The obligation here laid on the adoptive son was to protect
and defend the father from injuries, affronts, &c. And hence
according to Selden, the ceremony of dubbing knights took
its origin as well as name.
Adoption by Baptism is that spiritual affinity which is
contracted by godfathers and godchildren in the ceremony
of baptism. This kind of adoption was introduced into the
Greek church, and came afterwards into use among the
ancient Franks, as appears by the capitulars of Charle¬
magne.
Adoption by Hair was performed by cutting off the hair
of a person, and giving it to the adoptive father. It was
thus that Pope John VIII. adopted Boson, king of Arles,
which perhaps is the only instance in history of adoption in
the order of the ecclesiastics; a law that professes to imitate
nature not daring to give children to those in whom it would
be thought a crime to beget any.
Adoption by Matrimony is the taking of the children of
a wife or husband by a former marriage into the condition of
proper or natural children, and admitting them to inherit on
the same footing with those of the present marriage.
Adoption by Testament, that performed by appointing a
person heir by will, on condition of his assuming the name,
aims, &c. of the adopter; of which kind we meet with se¬
veral instances in the Roman history. Among the Turks,
the ceremony of adoption is performed by obliging the per¬
son adopted to pass through the shirt of the adopter. Hence
among that people, to adopt is expressed by the phrase, to
draw another through my shirt. It is said that something
like this has also been observed among the Hebrews, where
the prophet Elijah adopted Elisha for his son and successor,
and communicated to him the gift of prophecy, by letting
fall his cloak or mantle on him. But adoption, properly so
called, does not appear to have been practised among the
ancient Jews. Moses says nothing of it in his laws ; and
Jacob’s adoption of his two grandsons, Ephraim and Ma-
nasseh, is not so properly an adoption as a kind of substitu¬
tion, whereby those two sons of Joseph were allotted an
equal portion in Israel with his own sons.
ADOPTIVE denotes a person or thing adopted by an¬
other. Adoptive children, among the Romans, were on the
same footing with natural ones, and accordingly were either to
be instituted heirs or expressly disinherited, otherwise the
testament was null. 1 he emperor Adrian preferred adoptive
children to natural ones ; because we choose the former but
are obliged to take the latter at random.—M. Menage’ has
published a book of eloges or verses addressed to him, which
he calls Liber Adoptivus, an adoptive book, and adds it to
his other works. Heinsius, and Furstemberg of Munster,
have likewise published adoptive books.—In ecclesiastical
writers we find adoptive women or sisters (adoptive fcemince
or sorores) used for those handmaids of the ancient clergy
otherwise called sub-introductce.
Adoptwe Arms are those which a person enjoys by the
gift or concession of another, and to which he was not other¬
wise entitled. J hey stand contradistinguished from arms of
alliance. We sometimes meet with adoptive heir by way of
opposition to natural heir, and adoptive gods by way of con¬
tradistinction to domestic ones. The Romans, notwithstand¬
ing the number of their domestic, had their adoptive gods,
taken chiefly from the Egyptians: such were Isis, Osiris,
Anubis, Apis, Harpocrates, and Canopus.
ADORAIM, in Judah, one of the cities fortified by Re-
hoboam. It is called Adora in the Apocrypha, and by Jo¬
sephus ; since which time it was unknown, until its recent
150
ADO
Adoration, discovery by the American traveller, the Rev. Dr. Robin-
son, under the name of Dura. It is noiv a large village about
five miles W.S.W. of Hebron, on the eastern slope of a cul¬
tivated hill.—Biblical Researches.
ADORATION, the act of rendering divine honours, or
of addressing a being, as supposing it a god. The word is
compounded of ad, to, and os, oris, mouth ; and literal y
signifies to apply the hand to the mouth ; nianum ad os ad-
movere, to kiss the hand ; this being in the eastern countries
one of the great marks of respect and submission. I he
Romans practised adoration at sacrifices and othei solemni¬
ties ; in passing by temples, altars, groves, &c.; at the sight
of statues, images, or the like, whether of stone or wood,
wherein anything of divinity was supposed to reside. Usu¬
ally there were images of the gods placed at the gates of
cities, for those who went in or out to pay their respects to.
The ceremony of adoration among the ancient Romans was
thus :—The devotee, having his head covered, applied his
right* hand to his lips, the fore-finger resting on his thumb,
which was erect, and thus bowing his head, turned himself
round from left to right. The kiss thus given was called
osculum labratum ; for ordinarily they were afraid to touch
the images of their gods themselves with their profane lips.
Sometimes, however, they would kiss their feet, or even
knees, it being held an incivility to touch their mouths ; so
that the ceremony passed at some distance. Saturn, how¬
ever, and Hercules, were adored with the headZ»are; whence
the worship of the last was called institutum peregrinum,
and ritus Grcecanicus, as departing from the customary Ro¬
man method, which was to sacrifice and adore with the face
veiled, and the clothes drawn up to the ears, to prevent any
interruption in the ceremony by the sight of unlucky ob¬
jects.—The Jewish manner of adoration was by prostration,
bowing, and kneeling. The Christians adopted the Criecian
rather than the Roman method, and adored always uncovered.
The ordinary posture of the ancient Christians was kneel¬
ing, but on Sundays standing; and they had a peculiar re¬
gard to the east, to which point they ordinarily directed their
prayers. .
Adoration is also used for certain extraordinary civil
honours or respects which resemble those paid to the Deity,
yet are given to men.
The Persian manner of adoration, introduced by Cyrus,
was by bending the knee and falling on the face at the
prince’s feet, striking the earth with the forehead, and kiss¬
ing the ground. This ceremony, which the Greeks called
TrpocTKWGLv, Conon refused to perform to Artaxerxes, and
Callisthenes to Alexander the Great, as reputing it impious
and unlawful.
The adoration performed to the Roman and Grecian em¬
perors consisted in bowing or kneeling at the prince’s feet,
laying hold of his purple robe, and presently withdrawing
the hand and pressing it to the lips. Some attribute the
origin of this practice to Constantius. It was only persons
of some rank or dignity that were entitled to the honour.
Bare kneeling before the emperor to deliver a petition was
also called adoration.
The practice of adoration may be said still to subsist in
England, in the ceremony of kissing the king or queen’s
hand, and in some other acts which are performed kneel¬
ing.
Adoration is also used among Roman writers for a high
species of applause given to persons who had spoken or per¬
formed well in public. See Acclamation. We meet with
adoration paid to orators, actors, musicians, &c. The me¬
thod of expressing it was by rising, putting both hands to
the mouth, and then returning them towards the person in¬
tended to be honoured.
Adoration is also used in the court of Rome for the
ADO
ceremony of hissing the pope's feet. It is said of Diocletian, Adoration
that he had gems fastened to his shoes that divine honours ^^
might be more willingly paid him, by kissing his feet. 1 he v ^ ,
like usage was afterwards adopted by the popes, and is ob¬
served to this day. These prelates, finding a vehement dis¬
position in the people to fall down before them and kiss
their feet, procured crucifixes to be fastened on their slip¬
pers ; by which stratagem the adoration intended for the
pope’s person is supposed to be transferred to Christ.
Adoration is also used for a method of electing a pope.
The election of popes is performed two ways ; by adoration
and by scrutiny. In election by adoration, the cardinals
rush hastily, as if agitated by some spirit, to the adoration of
some one among them to proclaim him pope. When the
election is carried by scrutiny, they do not adore the new
pope till he is placed on the altar.
Barbarous Adoration is a term used, in the laws of
king Canute, for that performed after the manner of the
heathens, who adored idols. The Romish church is charged
with the adoration of saints, martyrs, images, crucifixes, re¬
lics, the virgin, and the host; all which by Protestants are
generally aggravated into idolatry, on a supposition that the
honour thus paid to them is absolute and supreme, called
by way of distinction Latria, which is due only to God.
The Roman Catholics, on the contrary, explain them as
only a relative or subordinate worship, called Dulia and
Hyperdulia, which terminates ultimately in God alone. But
may not the same be said of the idol worship of the hea¬
thens ? The Phoenicians adored the winds, on account of
the terrible effects produced by them : the same was adopted
by most of the other nations, Persians, Greeks, Romans,
&c. The Persians chiefly paid their adorations to the sun
and fire ; some say also to rivers, the wind, &c. The motive
of adoring the sun was the benefits they received from that
glorious luminary, which of all creatures has doubtless the
best pretensions to such homage.
ADO REA, in Roman Antiquity, a word used in dift'e-
rent senses: sometimes for all manner of grain ; sometimes
for a kind of cakes made of fine flour, and offered in sacri¬
fice ; and finally, for a dole or distribution of corn, as a re¬
ward for some service; whence by metonymy it is put for
praise or rewards in general.
ADORE, the chief town of a district of the same name
in the circle of Zwickau in Saxony. In 1849 the town
contained 2829 inhabitants, and the district 18,737, of whom
18,604 were Lutherans, and the rest Romanists. Its chief
manufactures are cottons, woollens, and musical instru¬
ments.
ADOSCULATION, a term used by Dr Grew to imply
a kind of impregnation without intromission ; and in this
manner he supposes the impregnation of plants is effected,
by the falling of the farina fcecundans on the pistil.
ADOSSEE, in Heraldry, signifies two figures or bear¬
ings being placed back to back.
AD OUR, the name of a river of France, which rises in
the mountains of Bigorre, in the department of the Upper
Pyrenees, and running north by Tarbes through Gascony,
afterwards turns west, and passing by Dax, falls into the
Bay of Biscay below Bayonne.
ADOWA, the capital of Tigre in Abyssinia, is situate
on the declivity of a hill, on the west side of a small plain,
which is surrounded on every side by mountains. The name,
signifying pass or passage, is characteristic of its situation ;
for the only road from the Red Sea to Gondar passes by
Adowa. The town consists of 500 houses, is the residence
of the governor, and has a manufactory of coarse cotton
cloth, which circulates in Abyssinia as the medium of ex¬
change in place of money. Long. 39. 5. E. Lat. 14.
7. N.
ADR
ADR
151
ADOXA, in Botany, Tuberous Moschatel, Hollow-
root, or Inglorious.
ADR A, a seaport town of the province of Granada, in
Spain, 47 miles south-east of Granada. In its vicinity are
extensive lead mines. Population 9113.
ADRACHNE, in Botany, a species of the strawberry
tree.
ADRAMMELECH, one of the gods of the inhabitants
of Sepharvaim, who were settled in the country of Samaria
in the room of those Israelites who were carried beyond the
Euphrates. The Sepharvaites made their children pass
through the fire in honour of this idol and another called
Anammelech. It is supposed that Adrammelech meant the
sun, and Anammelech the moon.
ADRAMYTTIUM, in Ancient Geography, now Adra-
miti, a town of Mysia, at the foot of Mount Ida, an Athe¬
nian colony, with a harbour and dock.
ADRASTEA, in Mythology, was the daughter of Jupiter
and Necessity, and, according to Plutarch, the only fury who
executed the vengeance of the gods. The name is derived
from King Adrastus, who first erected a temple to that deity.
Aims!steA Certamina, in Antiquity, a kind of Pythian
games instituted by Adrastus, king of Argos, in the year of
the world 2700, in honour of Apollo, at Sicyon. These are
to be distinguished from the Pythian games celebrated at
ADRASTUS, in Ancient History, king of Argos, son of
Talaus and Lysianassa, daughter of Polybus, king of Si¬
cyon, acquired great honour in the famous war of Thebes,
in support of Polynices his son-in-law, who had been ex¬
cluded from the sovereignty of Thebes by Eteocles his
brother, notwithstanding their reciprocal agreement. Adras¬
tus, followed by Polynices, and Tydeus his other son-in-
law, by Capaneus and Hippomedon his sister’s sons, by Am-
phiaraus his brother-in-law, and by Parthenopaeus, marched
against the city of Thebes; and this is the expedition of
the Seven Worthies, which the poets have so often sung.
They all lost their lives in this war except Adrastus, who
was saved by his horse Arion. This war was revived ten
years after by the sons of those deceased warriors, which was
called the war of the Epigones, and ended with the taking
of Thebes. None of them perished in this war except TEgi-
aleus, the son of Adrastus; which afflicted him so much
that he died of grief in Megara, as he was leading back his
victorious army.
ADRAZZO. See Ajaccio.
ADRIA, a town of Lombardy, in the government of
Venice, and delegation of Rovigo ; situate between the
rivers Po and Adige, in Lat. 45. 3. 22. N. Long. 12. 3. 40.
E. This is a very ancient city, and was, at an early period,
a seaport of such importance and celebrity as to give name
to the sea on which it stood. It is said by some Greek
writers to have been of Grecian origin; but the Roman
writers, who are of much greater authority, agree in describ¬
ing it as an Etruscan colony. Under the Romans it appears
never to have been of much importance, and after the fall
of the Western Empire it rapidly declined. The dykes
which protected the surrounding country from inundation
were neglected, and it became marshy and unhealthy. The
mud and other deposits brought down by the waters of the
Po and Adige, caused a gradual extension of the land into
the Adriatic; so that Adria ceased to be a seaport, and is
now 16 miles from the sea, on whose shores it formerly
stood. By the draining of the neighbouring lands, the
place has latterly been much improved, and has now begun
to revive. It has a population of 10,400, and some trade
in grain, cattle, fish, wine, and earthenware ; is the seat of
a bishopric ; and has a museum of Greek and Roman anti¬
quities. A little to the south of the present town, remains
of the ancient city have been discovered at a considerable Adrian,
depth. They are all of Roman date, and include part of
the ancient walls, ruins of a theatre, baths, and mosaic
pavements.
ADRIAN, Publius jElius. See Hadrian.
Adrian I. Pope, ascended the papal throne a. d. 772.
He was the son of Theodore, a Roman nobleman, and pos¬
sessed considerable talents for business. He maintained a
steady attachment to Charlemagne, which provoked Desi-
derius, a king of the Lombards, to invade the state of Ra¬
venna, and to threaten Rome itself. Charlemagne rewarded
his attachment by marching with a great army to his aid;
and having gained many considerable advantages over De-
siderius, he visited the pope at Rome, and expressed his
piety by the humiliating ceremony of kissing each of the
steps as he ascended to the church of St Peter. The affairs
of the church now claimed Adrian’s particular attention;
for Irene, who in 780 assumed the regency at Constanti¬
nople, during the minority of her son Constantine, wishing
to restore the worship of images, applied to Adrian for his
concurrence. The pontiff readily acquiesced in her pro¬
posal for calling a council, and commissioned two legates
to attend it. The first council, however, was dispersed by an
insurrection of the citizens ; but at the next meeting in the
city of Nice, in 787, which was protected by a military force,
a decree was passed for restoring the worship of images.
Adrian approved the decree, but in the western church it
was deemed heretical and dangerous. Charlemagne con¬
demned the innovation, and the French and English clergy
concurred in opposing it. A treatise, containing 120 heads
of refutation, was circulated as the work of Charlemagne,
under the title of The Caroline Books, in opposition to the
decree of the council. This work was presented to the pope
by the king’s ambassador, and the pope wrote a letter to
Charlemagne by way of reply. The king, and also the Gal-
lican and English churches, retained their sentiments ; and
in 794 a council was held at Frankfort-on-the-Maine, con¬
sisting of about 300 western bishops, by which every kind
of image-worship was condemned. Adrian did not live to
see a termination of this contest; for he died in 795, after
a pontificate of nearly 24 years. Adrian seems to have
directed his chief attention to the embellishment of the
churches and the improvement of the city of Rome ; and he
was probably furnished by Charlemagne, out of the plunder
of his conquests, with ample means for this purpose.
Adrian II. Pope, succeeded Nicholas I. a.d. 867. Hav¬
ing twice refused the dignity, he accepted it in the 76th year
of his age, at the united request of the clergy, nobility, and
people. The contest for power between the Greek and
Latin churches had been very violent some years before his
accession to the papal chair. Adrian, during this contest
with the eastern patriarch, was extending his authority over
the kings and princes of the west. He employed his whole
interest to induce Charles the Bald, who had taken posses¬
sion of the kingdom of Lorraine, and who had been crowned
at Rheims by the archbishop Hincmar, to relinquish it in
favour of the emperor; and he even sent legates to the king,
after having attempted to engage Hincmar, the clergy, and
the nobility, to desert him, ordering him to surrender to the
emperor’s right. The king was invincible; and the pope
was obliged to give up the contest. He also further inter¬
fered in the concerns of princes, by taking Charles’s rebel¬
lious son Carloman, and the younger Hincmar, bishop of
Laon, under the protection of the Roman see. He pro¬
ceeded in this business so far, that he was under the neces¬
sity of submitting without gaining his point. Death termi¬
nated his ambitious projects and his life of inquietude A. d.
872, after a pontificate of five years.
Adrian III. Pope, was a Roman by birth, and succeeded
152 A D R I A N.
Adrian. Marinus, or Martin II. in 884. His virtue, zeal, and firm-
ness, gave favourable presages of his future career; but he
was cut off by death in the 13th month of his pontificate,
during a journey to Worms, whither he was proceeding to
hold a diet. He was at variance, like his predecessor, with
the patriarch Photius, who rejected the doctrine that the
Holy Ghost proceeds from the Father and the Son.
Adrian IV. Pope, the only Englishman who ever had
the honour of sitting in the papal chair. His name was
Nicholas Brekespere, and he was born at Langley, near St
Albans, in Hertfordshire. His father having left his family
and taken the habit of the monastery of St Albans, Nicholas
was obliged to submit to the lowest offices in that house for
daily support. After some time he desired to take the habit
in that monastery, but was rejected by the abbot Richard.
Upon this he resolved to try his fortune in another country,
and accordingly went to Paris; where, though in very poor
circumstances, he applied himself to his studies with great
assiduity, and made a wonderful proficiency. But having
still a strong inclination to a religious life, he left Paris and
removed to Provence, where he became a regular clerk in
the monastery of St Rufus. He was not immediately al¬
lowed to take the habit, but passed some time by way of
trial, recommending himself to the monks by a strict at¬
tention to all their commands. This behaviour, together
with the beauty of his person and prudent conversation,
rendered him so acceptable to the monks, that after some
time they entreated him to take the habit of the canonical
order. Here he distinguished himself so much by his learn¬
ing and strict observance of the monastic discipline, that
upon the death of the abbot he was chosen superior of that
house ; and we are told that he rebuilt the convent. Pope
Eugenius III. being apprised of the great merit of Nicholas,
and thinking he might be serviceable to the church in a
higher station, created him cardinal-bishop of Alba in 1146.
In 1148 the Pope sent him as legate to Denmark and Nor¬
way, where, by his fervent preaching and diligent instruc¬
tions, he converted those barbarous nations to the Christian
faith, and erected Upsal into an archiepiscopal see. When
he returned to Rome, he was received by the pope and car¬
dinals with great marks of honour; and Pope Anastasius,
who succeeded Eugenius, happening to die at this time,
Nicholas was unanimously chosen to the holy see in No¬
vember 1154, and assumed the name of Adrian. When the
news of his promotion reached England, King Henry II.
sent Robert, abbot of St Albans, and three bishops, to
Rome, to congratulate him on his election ; upon which oc¬
casion Adrian granted very considerable privileges to the
monastery of St Albans, particularly an exemption from all
episcopal jurisdiction, excepting to the see of Rome. In
virtue of the pretensions of the Roman see in those days
to dispose of kingdoms, Adrian, by a papal bull, con¬
ferred on Henry II. of England the sovereignty of Ire¬
land ; and that prince, stimulated by the success with which
some of his own subjects had established themselves in
that distracted country, eagerly closed with the pope’s pro¬
posal to resign for this bull the long-contested point of lay
investiture to ecclesiastical offices. The consequence of
this agreement was the speedy reduction of Ireland, by a
trifling force, to the crown of England. Adrian, in the be¬
ginning of his pontificate, boldly withstood the attempts of
the Roman people to recover their ancient liberty under
the consuls, and obliged those magistrates to abdicate their
authority, and leave the government of the city to the pope.
In 1155 he drove the heretic Arnold of Brescia, and his fol¬
lowers, out of Rome. The same year he excommunicated
William, king of Sicily, who ravaged the territories of the
church, and absolved that prince’s subjects from their alle¬
giance. About the same time Frederick, king of the
Romans, having entered Italy with a powerful army, Adrian Adrian,
met him near Sutrium, and concluded a peace with him. ^
At this interview Frederick consented to hold the pope’s
stirrup whilst he mounted on horseback. After this, hi?
holiness conducted that prince to Rome, and in St Peter’s,
church placed the imperial crown on his head, to the grea
mortification of the Roman people, who assembled in ?
tumultuous manner, and killed several of the imperialists-
The next year a reconciliation was brought about between
the pope and the Sicilian king, that prince taking an oath
to do nothing further to the prejudice of the church, and
Adrian granting him the title of King of the Two Sicilies.
He built and fortified several castles, and left the papal
dominions in a more flourishing condition than he found
them. But notwithstanding all his success, he was extremely
sensible of the disquietudes attending so high a station;
and declared to his countryman, John of Salisbury, that all
the former hardships of his life were mere amusement to
the misfortunes of the popedom, that he looked upon St
Peter’s chair as the most uneasy seat in the world, and
that his crown seemed to be clapped burning on his head.11 Baronii
He died September 1. 1159, in the fourth year and tenth Annales,
month of his pontificate, and was buried in St Peter’s tom* xii*
church, near the tomb of his predecessor Eugenius. ThereaniK 1154
are extant several letters and some homilies written by
this pope.
Adrian V. Pope, a Genoese, whose name was Ottoboni
Fiesci, succeeded Innocent V. A. d. 1276. He was by his
uncle Innocent IV. created cardinal-deacon of St Adrian,
and in 1254 sent by him to England, to settle the disputes
between Henry III. and his barons. He was employed again
for the same purpose by Clement III., when he issued a
sentence of excommunication against the king’s enemies.
When he was congratulated on his accession to the papal
chair, he said, “ I wish you had found me a healthy cardi¬
nal rather than a dying pope.” After his election he went
to Viterbo to meet the emperor Rodolphus, for the purpose
of opposing the usurpation of Charles, king of the Two
Sicilies; but died soon after his arrival, having enjoyed his
dignity only 38 days. He zealously encouraged the crusade
to the Holy Land, and upon his election sent a large sum
to Constantinople towards building galleys.
Adrian VI. Pope, was born at Utrecht in 1459. Elis
father was not able to maintain him at school, but he got a
place at Louvain, in a college in which a certain number of
scholars were maintained gratis. It is reported that he used
to read in the night-time by the light of the lamps in the
churches or streets. He made considerable progress in all
the sciences, led an exemplary life, and there never was a
man less intriguing or less forward than he. He took his
degree of doctor of divinity at Louvain, was soon after made
canon of St Peter’s and professor of divinity at Utrecht, and
then dean of St Peter’s and vice-chancellor of the university.
He was obliged to leave an academical life to be tutor to
the archduke Charles. This young prince made no great
progress under him: but never was a tutor more emi¬
nently rewarded; for it was by Charles V.’s interest that he
was raised to the papal throne. Leo X. had given him the
cardinal’s hat in 1517. After this pope’s death, several cabals
in the conclave ended in the election of Adrian, with which
the people of Rome were very much displeased. He would
not change his name, and in every thing he showed a dis¬
like to all ostentation and sensual pleasures, in marked con¬
trast to the general temper of the times. He was very
partial to Charles V., and did not enjoy much tranquillity
under the triple crown. He lamented much the wicked
morals of the clergy, and wished to establish a reformation
of manners among them. He died September 14. 1523, it
is said, bv noison.
ADR
Adrian Adrian, Cardinal, an Italian of great learning and ability,
i| was a native of Cornetto, in Tuscany, and studied at Rome.
o^r waS sent by Innocent VIII. as nuncio into England,
A > where Henry VII. rewarded his services with the bishopric
of Hereford, and afterwards with that of Bath and Wells;
but he never resided in either of these dioceses. On his
return to Rome, he became secretary to Pope Alexander
VI., who employed him in various missions, and subsequently
invested him with the purple. He narrowly escaped death
on the day that Alexander VI. fell a victim to his own wicked¬
ness, in the plot which he had contrived, in concert with his
son Caesar Borgia, against Adrian and several other cardi¬
nals, in order to seize upon their possessions; but although
Adrian likewise partook of the poison, he recovered. He
then took refuge in the mountains of Trent, where he re¬
mained until the elevation of Leo X. to the papal chair; but,
not long after, he was implicated in the conspiracy of car¬
dinal Petrucci against that pontiff, and obliged a second time
to fly from Rome. His subsequent history has not been
ascertained; but it is generally supposed that he was mur¬
dered by a domestic, who coveted his wealth. Adrian was
one of the first who restored the Latin tongue to its original
purity. He wrote two good works,—De Vera Philosophia,
a religious treatise, printed at Cologne in 1548; and De
Sermone Latino, a learned work, published at Rome in 1515,
in folio.
ADRIANI, Giambattista, was born of a patrician fa¬
mily of Florence in 1503. He wrote a history of his own
times in Italian, which is a continuation of Guicciardini, be¬
ginning at the year 15>36, and continued to 1574; to which
Thuanus acknowledges himself greatly indebted: besides
which, he composed six funeral orations on the Emperor
Charles V. and other noble personages; and is thought to
have been the author of a long letter on ancient painters and
sculptors, prefixed to the third volume of Vasari. He died
at Florence in 1579, at the age of seventy-six.
ADRIANISTS, in Ecclesiastical History, a sect of he¬
retics, divided into two branches. The first were disciples
of Simon Magus, and flourished about the year 34. Theo-
doret is the only person who has preserved their name and
memory, but he gives us no account of their origin. Pro¬
bably this sect, and the six others which sprung from the
Simonians, took their name from the particular disciples of
Simon. The second were the followers of Adrian Hamstead
the anabaptist, and held some particular errors concerning
Christ.
ADRIANOPLE (called by the Turks Edreneh), a city
of European Turkey, in the province of Rumelia 137 miles
W.N.W. of Constantinople ; Lat. 41. 41.26. N.; Long. 26.
35.41. It is pleasantly situated partly on a hill and partly
on the banks of the Tundja, near its confluence with the
Maritza. Next to Constantinople, it is the most important
-ity of the empire. The streets are narrow, crooked, and
filthy ; and its ancient citadel, with the walls which formerly
surrounded the town, are now in ruins. Of its public build¬
ings the most distinguished are the ancient palace of the
sultans, now in a state of decay ; the famous bazaar of Ali
Pacha, appropriated to the warehousing and sale of various
kinds of commodities; and the mosque of Sultan Selim
II., a magnificent specimen of Turkish architecture, and
ranked among the finest Mohammedan temples. It has nu¬
merous baths, caravanseries, and bazaars, and considerable
manufactures of silk, leather, tapestry, woollens, linen, and
cotton, and an active general trade. Its exports include raw
silk, cotton, opium, rose-water, attar of roses, fruits, and agri¬
cultural produce. The city is supplied with fresh water by
means of a noble aqueduct carried by arches over an exten¬
sive valley. There is also a fine stone bridge here over the
Tundja. During winter and spring the Maritza is navigable
VOL. II.
A D U 153
up to the town, but Enos at the mouth of that river is pro- Adriatic
perly its seaport, and formerly admitted large vessels; but Sea
owing to the carelessness of the Turks, a sand-bank has ac-
cumulated, so that now it is accessible only to vessels of com- ^
paratively small burden. The population is said to amount ^
to 130,000, of whom about 30,000 are Greeks. Adrianople
was called Uskadama previous to the time of the Emperor
Hadrian, who improved and embellished the town, and
changed its name to Hadrianopolis. Uskadama was the capital
of the Bessi, a fierce and powerful Thracian people. In
1360 it was taken by the Turks, who, from 1366 till 1453,
when they got possession of Constantinople, made it the seat
of their government. In the campaign of 1829, so disastrous
to the Turks, Adrianople surrendered on the 20th of Au¬
gust to the Russians, under Diebitsch, without making any
resistance. It was restored after the treaty of peace, de¬
finitively signed on the 14th September 1829. For the terms
of this treaty, so humiliating to the Porte, see Turkey.
ADRIATIC SEA, or Gulf of Venice, the Adriaticum
Mare of the ancients, is an arm of the Mediterranean which
separates Italy from Illyria, Croatia, Dalmatia, and Albania.
It extends from N. Lat. 40. to 45.50. in a N.W. direction. Its
western or Italian coasts are generally low and deficient in
harbours; but the eastern shores are steep, rocky, and
abounding in creeks and inlets, forming numerous is¬
lands. The prevalence of sudden squalls from the N.E.,
and sometimes from the S.E., renders its navigation hazar¬
dous. Its ebbs and flows are inconsiderable, but more ob¬
servable than in the Mediterranean generally; and its salt¬
ness is a little greater than that of the ocean. The Adriatic
receives no considerable rivers, except the Po, Adige, and
Narenta. Its chief emporia of trade are Venice, Trieste,
and Ancona. The ancients seem to have originally applied
the name of Adriaticum to that part of the sea which is in
the vicinity of Adria, or to the northern part of the modern
Adriatic; but in its extended signification it corresponded
to the modern sea, and sometimes even included that part
of the Mediterranean which lies between Sicily and Crete.
There is no doubt that its name is derived from the town
of Adria, which was situate on its coast, between the
mouths of the Po and Adige, and not from Adria in Pice-
num as some writers have supposed.—See Livy, Pliny,
Strabo, Szc.
ADRIPALDA, a city in the province of Principato
Ulteriore, in the kingdom of Naples. It is situate on the
river Sabato, near Avellino. The number of inhabitants
is 4236, who carry on trade in cloth and paper, in iron and
copper goods, and make large quantities of nails.
ADROGATION, in Homan Antiquities, a species of
adoption, whereby a person who was capable of choosing
for himself was admitted by another into the relation of a
son. The word is compounded of ad, to, and rogare, to
ask, on account of a question put in the ceremony, Whether
the adopter would take such a person for his son ? and
another to the adoptive, Whether he consented to become
such a person’s son ?
ADSIDEL/E, in Antiquity, the tables at which the
flamens sat during the sacrifices.
ADSTRICTION, among Physicians, a term used to
denote the rigidity of any part.
ADULA, in Ancient Geography, a mountain in Rhaetia,
or the country of the Grisons, part of the Alps, in which are
the fountains of the Rhine; now St Gothard.
ADULE, or Adulis, in Ancient Geography, a town of
^Ethiopia, built by fugitive slaves, distant from its port on
the Red Sea 20 stadia. Pliny calls the inhabitants Adulitce.
The epithet is either Adulitanus, as Monumentum Aduli-
tanum, on the pompous inscription of the statue of Ptolemy
Euergetes, published by Leo Allatius at Rome in 1631, and
u
154 A D U
A duUam (-0 ]je found in Spon and Thevenot; or Adulicus, as Aduli-
A duller a- cus ^nus> a Part °f Red Sea.
tion. ADULLAM, an ancient city in the plain country of
i v > the tribe of Judah, and one of those fortified by Rehoboam.
The “ cave of Adullam,” in which David took refuge when
pressed by the Philistines, is believed not to have been near
the city, but towards the Dead Sea, not far from Beth¬
lehem.
ADULT, an appellation given to any thing that is ar¬
rived at maturity: thus, we say an adult person, an adult
plant, &c. Among civilians, it denotes a youth between 14
and 25 years of age.
ADULTERATION, the act of debasing, by mixing
with any pure and genuine commodity a spurious article,
or an inferior one of the same kind, for pecuniary profit;
but it may also occur accidentally, as, for instance, by the
action of acids and oils on vessels of copper or lead in culi¬
nary and other operations. (See Medical Jurisprudence^)
But few articles of commerce, comparatively, are exempt
from fraudulent deterioration; and although the adulteration
of exciseable commodities and of food are offences punish¬
ably, by law, the risk too frequently is outweighed by the
temptation of gain. In Paris, malpractices connected
with the adulteration of food are investigated by the Con-
seil de Salubrite, and punished; but our laws are directed
chiefly to the protection of such articles as affect the revenue.
Adulterations of food, when wilful, have been made punish¬
able by the laws of most countries. In Great Britain nu¬
merous acts have been passed for the prevention of adulter¬
ations : they are usually punished by a fine, determined by
a summary process before a magistrate. In Turkey a culprit
baker has his ears nailed to his door. By 5th and 6th Viet,
c. 93, §§ 1,3, 8, manufacturers of tobacco or snuff are liable
to a penalty of L.200 for having in their possession any
substance or liquid to be used, or capable of being used, as
a substitute for tobacco or snuff, or to adulterate or give
them weight. The preparer, vender, or disposer of such
articles, is liable to the same. For actual adulteration the
penalty is L.300, and for having such adulterated goods in
possession, L.200. After a similar manner beer is protected
by still heavier penalties; which laws extend to chemists,
druggists, and beer retailers. See 56<A Geo. III. c. 58, 1^
Will. IV. c.51,64, ±thand 5th Will. IV. c. 85. Tea, coffee,
cocoa, pepper, &c. are protected by law, but the adultera¬
tions of these, as of most other articles of food, are almost
endless. The mixture of chicory with coffee, is, however,
authorized under certain conditions. A treasury minute
of 27th July 1852 prohibiting the sale of “chicory or other
vegetable substances mixed with coffee,” was rescinded by
a subsequent minute of 25th Feb. 1853, which permits
dealers in coffee “to keep and sell chicory prepared and
mixed with coffee, provided the packages in which such
mixture is delivered to purchasers have printed distinctly
thereon, according to directions which will be given by the
Board of Inland Revenue, the whole of the following words,
£ Mixture of Coffee and Chicory.’ ”
The following results were obtained by a recent series of
analyses of some articles of common domestic consumption,
purchased from different dealers, chiefly in the metropolis. In
the several kinds of tea were found (partly, perhaps, accident¬
ally present) exhausted tea-leaves, leaves of the beech, elm,
horse-chestnut, plane, bastard-plane, fancy oak, willow, pop¬
lar, hawthorn, and sloe ; catechu, rose-pink, blacklead, soap¬
stone, sulphate of iron, logwood, indigo, starch, rice husks,
excrement of silkworms, Prussian blue, sulphate of lime, ver-
degris, &c. Of 18 samples of chicory procured from manu¬
factories, 5 were adulterated with roasted wh'eat-flour; and of
16 samples of chicory purchased from different grocers, several
were coloured with Venetian red, or reddle. Of 68 samples
A D U
of cocoa and chocolate, 39 contained coloured earthy sub- Adultera-
stances; in some samples of cocoa, sugar and starch con- tion.
stituted more than half the article. Of 24 samples of bread,
all contained more or less alum; and it may be observed
that the quartern loaf, as delivered at houses by 13 different
bakers, showed deficiency in weight, the maximum being
between 3 and 4 ounces. Out of 30 samples of oatmeal,
16 were adulterated with barley-meal; in one instance,
apparently, much more than one-half. Of 36 samples of
arrowroot, 18 were mixed with potato-flour, or potato-starch,
sago-powder, or tapioca-starch, &c.; and 5 were almost
entirely potato-starch. Of 26 samples of milk, 11 were
mixed with water, in proportions varying from 10 to 50 per
cent. Of 28 samples purchased as isinglass, 10 consisted
entirely of gelatine. (See Lancet, vol. i. 1851.) It is well
known that quack medicines frequently contain ingredients
they are guaranteed not to contain; hence the evils resulting
fi’om their indiscriminate use. Nor are woollen, linen, and
silk goods, exempt from inferior admixture; various sub¬
stances are employed to give body to silk fabrics; as in
China a gluey preparation from the Fueus Tenax is used to
give them weight and gloss. The above facts will give
some idea of the extent to which adulteration is practised
in the most common articles of consumption. We may add
that all legislative enactments on the subject will prove in¬
effectual unless the public exercise their own discrimination,
and dealers who are discovered to have imposed spurious
commodities are made to feel that honesty is the best policy.
Adulteration of Wines. The various substances used
in the manufacture to flavour and to colour wines (such as
almonds, raisins, orris root, burnt sugar, brandy, logwood,
whortleberries, elderberries, &c.), must be distinguished
from others which are directly deleterious, such as alum, used
to impart astringency, and litharge and ceruse, to dulcify
“ pricked ” or sour wines. The following is an excellent
test for any of the preparations of lead: mix an aqueous so¬
lution of tartaric acid with liquid sulphuretted hydrogen ;
when added to the suspected wine, should any copper or
iron be present, they are kept in solution by the tartaric
acid, while the lead is thrown down by the sulphuretted hy¬
drogen as a dark precipitate. Red wine should be deco¬
lorized before using the test, which is conveniently done by
mixing the wine with an equal weight of milk, and filtering
it. When the tartrate of lead is found in the bottom of the
cask, it may easily be detected by calcining a portion of the
insoluble matter, and reducing it by the blowpipe on char¬
coal. A portion of the sediment may be digested with vine¬
gar, which would give, by evaporation, acetate of lead; and
it may be tried by sulphuretted hydrogen. Alum may be
precipitated from white wine by carbonate of soda gradually
added until no more falls down ; filter; on the filter will be
found alumine. The sulphate of potassa remains in the so¬
lution ; but the quantity present may be found by precipitat¬
ing the sulphuric acid by muriate of baryta. Iron is some¬
times accidentally present in wines; but it is not dangerous,
and may be detected by nutgalls. Copper sometimes oc¬
curs from the use of copper stopcocks: it is detected by the
addition of ammonia; and, if much, by a plate of polished
iron left some time in the wine. Arsenic has occasionally
occurred from the sulphuring of the cask. After decolora¬
tion by animal charcoal, pass a stream of sulphuretted hydro¬
gen through the wine, and a yellow precipitate will fall,
which may be reduced to the metallic state by charcoal and
soda. The same tests are applicable to all fermented liquors.
—See Henderson’s Hist, of Ancient and Modern Wines.
Adulteration of Coin. This has been accounted among
all nations, both in ancient and modern times a very grave
offence, and punishable by death in several ways. It was
formerly considered as treason in Great Britain, and ri-
f
A D U
Adulterine gorously punished with death; but in the amelioration of
our criminal code by Lord John Russell’s act (Will. IV.,
c. 34, Viet. 1), the punishment has been commuted to trans¬
portation for any period not less than seven years, or by im¬
prisonment for not more than four years, at the discretion
of the judge.
Ihe specific gravity of pure gold = 19-30; standard gold
= 18*88 ; pure silver = 10-51; standard silver = 10-34. The
proportion of alloy in the gold and silver coin of Britain is
tV copper, which gives durability, A genuine coin, unless
it be cracked, is quite sonorous; yet even this quality is not
an invariable test for counterfeit money. Much false coin
is in circulation, especially in the metropolis, a statement
confirmed by its very frequent reception as change. Be¬
sides the frauds by clipping, filing, casing, electroplating, &c.
the debasement of coin has been effected by boring the edge
of a piece, and plugging the cavity with inferior metal: in
this manner has platinum been inserted in gold. Another
method has been practised by sawing a gold piece laterally,
and skilfully filling the centre with platinum ; a fraud which
cutting alone could detect.
To ascertain the adulteration of silver and gold coin by
excess of copper, the following processes will suffice: dis¬
solve a given weight of the silver in nitric acid, and precipi ¬
tate by a solution of common salt; dry, and weigh the pre¬
cipitate, which is the chloride of silver, and contains 75*5
per cent, of the metal; or it may be reduced on charcoal be¬
fore the blowpipe, when a button of pure silver will be ob¬
tained, by weighing which, the proportions of silver and of
copper will be known. Silver coin is very frequently imi¬
tated by some white alloy, generally of tin, antimony, and
lead: it may be known by its pliancy and dull appearance,
or it may be tested for silver, as described above. German
silver, a beautiful imitation of silver by nickel and copper,
may be detected by its deficient specific gravity, and its
emitting, when briskly rubbed, a faint, coppery odour; or by
dissolving it in nitric acid, and adding a solution of common
salt, when it will give no precipitate. The amount of alloy
in gold may readily be ascertained, for ordinary purposes,
by the streak on touchstone, and comparing that with the
streak of the gold needles made for the purpose; or more
nicely by this process; file off a given weight of the gold,
and dissolve in aqua regia, then precipitate the gold by im¬
mersing in the . solution a plate of silver or copper; or more
quickly, by weak galvanic action; or the gold may be thrown
down by addition of an alkaline solution, or by adding the
muriate of tin, which throws down the purple powder of Cas¬
sius, from which the quantity of gold may be easily ascer¬
tained, by oxidating with the blowpipe a given weight of
the powder, and so obtaining a button of pure gold.
The purity of copper is ascertained by dissolving a given
weight in any of the mineral acids, and obtaining copper of
cementation by immersing a plate of iron or zinc in the so¬
lution ; or by decomposing the salt of copper by charcoal,
alkali, and heat, in the usual way. See Chemistry. It
may be noticed as a curious fact, that the copper coinage of
Will. IV. was found to contain gold, from which discovery
these coins speedily became scarce.
ADULTERINE, in the Civil Law, is particularly ap¬
plied to a child issued from an adulterous amour or com¬
merce. Adulterine children are more odious than the ille¬
gitimate offspring of single persons. The Roman law even
refuses them the title of natural children, as if nature dis¬
owned them, and the Canon law discouraged their ad¬
mission to orders. Those are not deemed adulterine
who are begotten of a woman openly married through
ignorance of a former wife being alive. By a decree of the
parliament of Paris, adulterine children are declared not legi¬
timated by the subsequent marriage of the parties, even
A D U 155
though a papal dispensation be had for such man-iage, where- Adulterine
in is a clause of legitimation. ^ ^
Adulterine Marriages, in St Augustine’s sense, denote ( ^ ^
second marriages contracted after a divorce.
ADULTERY, an unlawful commerce between one mar¬
ried person and another, or between a married and unmar¬
ried person.
Punishments have been annexed to adultery in most ages
and nations, though of different degrees of severity. In
many it has been capital; in others venial, and attended only
with slight pecuniary mulcts. Some of the penalties are
serious, and even cruel; others of a jocose and humorous
kind. Even contrary things have been enacted as punish¬
ments for adultery. By some laws the criminals are for¬
bidden marrying together in case they become single; by
others they are forbidden to marry any besides each other;
by some they are incapacitated from ever committing the
like crime again ; by others they are glutted with it till it
becomes nauseous.
Among the rich Greeks, adulterers were allowed to re¬
deem themselves by a pecuniary fine; the woman’s father,
in such cases, returned the dower he had received from her
husband, which some think was refunded by the adulterer.
Another punishment was putting out the eyes of adulterers.
The Athenians had an extraordinary way of punishing
adulterers, called aTropcw/xzi'iScoo-is /cat 7rap<mAp,os, practised at
least on the poorer sort who were not able to pay the fines.
This was an awkward sort of empalement, performed by
thrusting one of the largest radishes up the anus of the adul¬
terer, or, in defect thereof, a fish with a large head, called
mugil, mullet. One Alcaeus is said to have died in this way,
though it is doubted whether the punishment was reputed
mortal. Juvenal and Catullus speak of this custom as re¬
ceived also among the Romans, though not authorized by
an express law, as it was among the Greeks.
There are various conjectures concerning the ancient
punishment of adultery among the Romans. Some will
have it to have been made capital by a law of Romulus, and
again by the twelve tables; others, that it was first made
capital by Augustus; and others, not before the time of
Constantine. The truth is, the punishment of it in early days
was very various, much being left to the discretion of the
husband and parents of the adulterous wife, who exercised it
differently, rather with the acquiescence and countenance of
the magistrate, than by any formal authority from him. Thus,
we are told the wife’s father was allowed to kill both parties,
when caught in the fact, provided he did it immediately,
killed both together, and as it were with one blow. The
same power ordinarily was not indulged the husband, except
the crime were committed with some mean or infamous per¬
son ; though, in other cases, if his rage carried him to put
them to death, he was not punished as a murderer. On
many occasions, however, revenge was not carried so far;
but mutilating, castrating, cutting off the ears, noses, &c.
served the turn. The punishment allotted by the lex Julia
was not, as many have imagined, death, but rather banish¬
ment or deportation, being interdicted fire and water, though
Octavius appears in several instances to have gone beyond
his own law, and to have put adulterers to death. Under
Macrinus, many were burnt at a stake. Constantine first
by law made the crime capital. Under Constantius and
Constans, adulterers were burnt, or sewed in sacks and thrown
into the sea. Under Leo and Marcian, the penalty was
abated to perpetual banishment, or cutting off the nose.
Lender Justinian, a further mitigation was granted, at least
in favour of the wife, who was only to be scourged, lose her
dower, and be shut up in a monastery. After two years, the
husband was at liberty to take her back again : or, if he re¬
fused, she was shaven, and made a nun for life. In the case
156 A D U
A D Y
Adultery, of the husband the crime continued capital. The reason
alleged for this difference was, that the woman is the weaker
vessel. Matthaeus declaims against the Empress Theodora,
who is supposed to have been the cause of this law, as well
as of others in favour of that sex by the emperor.
Under Theodosius, women convicted of this crime were
punished after a very singular manner; being locked up in
a narrow cell, and forced to admit to their embraces all the
men that would offer themselves. This custom was abolished
by the same prince.
By the Jewish law, adultery was punished with death in
both parties, where they were both married, or only the
woman. The Jews had a particular trial or ordeal for a
woman suspected of the crime, by making her drink the bit¬
ter waters of jealousy ; which were supposed, in the case of
guilt, to cause the body to swell.
Amongst the Mingrelians, according to Chardin, adultery
is punished with the forfeiture of a hog, which is usually
eaten in good friendship between the paramour, the adul¬
teress, and the husband. In some parts of the East, it|is
said any man’s wife is permitted to prostitute herself to him
who will give an elephant for the use of her ; and it is re¬
puted no small glory to her to have been x-ated so high.
Adultery is said to be so frequent in Ceylon, that there is
not a woman who does not practise it, notwithstanding its
being punishable with death. Among the Japanese, and
divers other nations, adultery is only penal in the woman. In
the Marian islands, the woman is not punishable for adul¬
tery ; but if the man go astray he pays severely; the wife and
her relations waste his lands, turn him out of his house, &c.
In Spain they punished adultery in men by cutting off the
instrument of the crime. In Poland, before Christianity was
established, they punished adultery and fornication in a
peculiar manner: they carried the criminal to the market¬
place, and there fastened him by the offending part with a
nail, laying a razor within his reach, and leaving him under
a necessity either of doing justice upon himself, or of perish¬
ing in that condition.
In England adultery by the ancient laws was severely
punished. King Edmund the Saxon ordered it to be punished
in the same manner as homicide; and Canute the Dane or¬
dered that a man who committed adultery should be banished,
and that the woman should have her nose and ears cut oft*.
In the time of Henry I. it was punished with the loss of eyes
and genitals.
In Britain adultery is now reckoned a spiritual offence,
that is, cognizable by the spiritual courts, where it is pun¬
ished by fine and penance. The common law takes no
farther notice of it than to allow the party aggrieved an
action and damages. This practice is often censured by
foreigners, as making too light of a crime, the bad conse¬
quences of which, public as well as private, are so great.
It has been answered, that perhaps this penalty, by civil
action, joined with the ignominy attached to it, is more
calculated to prevent the frequency of the offence, which
ought to be the end of all laws, than a severer punishment.
Adultery is, both in England and Scotland, a ground of
divorce. In England, a complete divorce or dissolution of
the marriage can only be obtained through an act of parlia¬
ment ; but in Scotland, a complete divorce may be effected
by proceedings in the Court of Session, as succeeding to the
old commissary jurisdiction. The adulterous parties are
by the law of Scotland prohibited from intermarrying.
Fraser on Personal and Domestic Relations, vol. i. p. 82.
See Divorce.
Adultery is used in Scripture for idolatry, or departing
from the true God to the worship of a false one.
Adultery is used by ecclesiastical writers for a person’s
invading or intruding into a bishopric during the former
bishop’s life. The reason of the appellation is, that a bishop Adultery
is supposed to contract a kind of spiritual marriage with his II
church. The translation of a bishop from one see to another Adversa-
was also reputed a species of adultery, on the supposition of v ^Iive^ ;
its being a kind of second marriage, which in those days w'as
esteemed a degree of adultery. This conclusion was founded
on the text of St Paul, Let a bishop be the husband of one
wife; by a forced construction of church for wife, and of
bishop for husband.
Adultery is used by ancient naturalists for the act of
ingrafting one plant upon another; in which sense Pliny
speaks of the adulteries of trees, arborum adulteria, which
he represents as contrary to nature, and a piece of luxury
or needless refinement.
ADUNATI, aSwaroi, those persons at Athens who from
bodily defects or infirmity, were unable to support themselves,
and had a maintenance from the state.
ADVANCED, in a general sense, denotes something
posted or situated before another. Thus,
Advanced Ditch, in Fortification, is that which surrounds
the glacis or esplanade of a place.
Advanced Guard, or Vanguard, in the art of war, the first
line or division of an army, ranged or marching in the order
of battle; or, it is that part which is next the enemy, and
marches first towards them.
Advanced Guard is more particulary used for a small
party of horse stationed before the main guard.
ADVENT, in the calendar, properly signifies the ap¬
proach of the feast of the nativity. It includes four Sundays,
and begins on St Andrew’s day, or on the Sunday before or
after it. During advent, and to the end of the octaves of
epiphany, the solemnizing of marriage is forbidden without
a special licence. It is intended to direct the thoughts of
Christians to the first advent or coming of Christ in the
flesh, and to his second advent or coming to judge the world.
The primitive Christians practised great austerity during this
season.
Ad ventrem inspiciendum, in Law, a writ by which a
woman is to be searched whether she be with child by a
former husband, on her withholding lands from the next,
failing issue of her own body.
Adventure Bay, the name of a bay in Van Diemen’s
Land, so called by Captain Cook. Lat. 43. 20. S. Long.
147. 30. E.
ADVENTURER, in a general sense, denotes one who
hazards something.
Adventurers is particularly used for an ancient company
of merchants and traders, erected for the discovery of lands,
territories, trades, &c. unknown. The society of adven¬
turers had its rise in Burgundy, its first establishment from
John duke of Brabant, in 1248, being known by the name
of the Brotherhood of St Thomas a Bechet. It was after¬
wards translated into England, and successively confirmed
by Edwards III. and IV. Richard III. Henries IV. V. VI.
and VII. who gave it the appellation of Merchant Adven¬
turers.
ADVERB, in Grammar, & particle joined to a verb, ad¬
jective, or participle, to explain their manner of acting or
suffering, or to mark some circumstance or quality signified
by them. The word is formed from the preposition ad, to,
and verbum, a verb ; and signifies literally a word joined to
a verb, to show how, when, or where, one is, does, or suffers;
as, the boy paints neatly, writes ill; the house stands there,
&c.
ADVERSARIA, among the ancients, a book of accounts
not unlike our journals or day-books. It is also used as a
title for books of miscellaneous remarks and observations.
ADVERSATIVE, in Grammar, a word expressing some
difference between what goes before and what follows it.
A D Y
Adversitor Thus in the phrase, lie is an honest man, but a great enthu-
II siast, the word but is an adversative conjunction.
v ^dvic^- j ADVERSITOR, in Antiquity, a servant who attended
- the rich in returning from supper, to give them notice of
any obstacles in the way, which might cause them to stumble.
ADVERTISEMENT, in a general sense, denotes any
information given to individuals or the public. In a com¬
mercial sense it refers to intimations of the sale of articles,
and to other matters connected with trade, inserted in the
newspapers.
To advertise advantageously requires both experience and
judgment; without a knowledge of the character and circu¬
lation of the public journals, much expenditure may be
wasted, by either advertising in papers that have a very
limited circulation, or are generally read by persons to whom
the intimation is inappropriate. The expense of advertising
falls very heavily on particular commodities, especially, and
very deservedly, on quack medicines, on some of which it
has been said that if the vender has the courage to continue
advertising to the extent of L.20,000, he will make his fortune
by the worthless drug.
Advertising is also a very heavy burden on books, as it is
absolutely necessary that notice of new publications should
be circulated if they are to be sold: on small low priced
books the expense is particularly heavy, one advertisement
of a book which sells at two shillings costing as much as one
of a work that sells at two guineas. From this, and their
generally ephemeral character, it may be said that ninety-
nine pamphlets out of a hundred are published at a loss.
The advertising of the last edition of the Encyclopaedia
Britannica, during its publication, cost above L.3000.
It is the profit derived from advertisements which supports
the large number of newspapers (533) published in the
United Kingdom. While some of these drag out a sickly ex¬
istence, others of them yield a princely revenue from this
source ; the lowest price for an advertisement in a London
daily newspaper being 5s. (for servants wanting places 4s.)
The Times, whose daily circulation reaches nearly 40,000,
had, on 1st February 1853 (which was a fair average num¬
ber), 1086 advertisements, of which 125 were from servants
wanting places, and 185 from masters wanting servants.
The duty upon advertisements is one of those which has
been branded as a tax upon knowledge. It is certainly very
unequal and oppressive, being the same upon that of the sale
of an estate worth L.100,000, and that of a servant wanting
a place; the same upon an advertisement of a sixpenny
pamphlet and of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Previous to 1833 the duty was, on each advertisement,
3s. 6d. in Great Britain, and 2s. 6d. in Ireland; in which
year it was reduced to Is. 6d. in Great Britain, and Is. in
Ireland. In 1832, the last year of the high duty, the total
number of newspaper advertisements in the United Kingdom
was 921,943 : viz. 787,649 in England, 108,914 in Scotland,
and 125,380 in Ireland; the amount of duty paid in that year
was L.l 72,570. In 1841 the number of advertisements had
increased to 1,778,957: viz. 1,386,625 for England, 188,189
for Scotland, and 204,143 for Ireland; and the total duty
paid amounted to L.128,318. The amount of duty in 1851
had risen to L. 175,094,10s. 8d.; being for England, L. 142,365,
3s. 6d.; Scotland, L.19,940, 11s.; Ireland, L.12,788,16s.2d.
It is now proposed to reduce the duty to 6d. for each ad¬
vertisement ; but it would be better that this obstacle to
the circulation of information of much importance to the
community were entirely removed. See Newspapers.
ADVICE, in Commercial Language, signifies informa¬
tion communicated, generally by letter, on matters of busi¬
ness ; as between bankers and merchants.
Advice Boat, in Nautical Affairs, is a small vessel em¬
ployed to convey despatches or information between places.
A D V 157
corresponding to the Naves Tabellarice of the Romans.— Advocate.
Senear Epist. 77. ^
ADVOCATE, a lawyer authorised to plead the causes
of litigants in courts of law. The word is used technically
in Scotland, and a derivative from the same Latin source is
so used in most of the countries of Europe where the civil
law is in force. In England, the word is used colloquially
instead of barrister. The advocatus of the Romans meant,
as the word implies, a person whose assistance was called in
or invoked. The word is not often used among the earlier
jurists, and appears not to have had a strict meaning. It
is not always associated with legal proceedings, and might
apparently be applied to a supporter or coadjutor in the pur¬
suit of any desired object. When it came to be applied
with a more specific limitation to legal services, the position
of the advocatus was still uncertain. It was different from,
and evidently inferior to, that of the juris-consultus, who
gave his opinion and advice in questions of law, and may be
identified with the consulting counsel of the present day.
Nor is the merely professsional advocate to be confounded
with the more distinguished orator, who came forward in the
guise of the disinterested vindicator of justice. This dis¬
tinction, however, appears to have arisen in later times,
when the profession became mercenary. By the lex Cincia,
passed about two centuries before Christ, and subsequently
renewed, the acceptance of remuneration for professional
assistance in law suits was prohibited. This law, like all
others of the kind, was evaded. The skilful debater was
propitiated with a present; and though he could not sue for
the value of his services, it was ruled that any honorarium
so given could not be demanded back, even though he died
before the anticipated service was performed. The traces
of this evasion of a law may be found in the existing prac¬
tice of rewarding counsel by fees in anticipation of services.
In the Justinian collection, we find that legal provisions had
been made for the remuneration of advocates. {Big. Lib.
50. Tit. 12 §, 10-13. Brissoniusde verb. Sig. Heineccius
ad Band. Lib. III. Tit. I.) The advocatus fisci, or fiscal
advocate, was an officer, whose function, like that of a soli¬
citor of taxes at the present day, was connected with the
collection of the revenue.
The term advocate is of frequent use in the chronicles,
capitularies, chartularies, and other records of ecclesiastical
matters, during the middle ages. Whoever wishes to have
a key to the learning on this subject may consult Du Cange,
who affords a profuse supply of references to original autho¬
rities. It appears that the term was applied in the primitive
church to those who defended the Christians against malig-
nants or persecutors. As the church waxed rich and power¬
ful, its temporal supporters assumed a more important posi¬
tion. The advocate, defender, or patron, was of a temporal
rank, corresponding to the power of the ecclesiastical body
who sought his advocacy. Princes sought the distinction
from Rome; and it was as a relic of the practice of propi¬
tiating temporal sovereigns by desiring their protection, that
Henry VIII. received his title of Defender of the Faith.
The office of advocate to any of the great religious houses,
possessed of vast wealth, was one of dignity and emolument,
generally held by some feudal lord of power and influence.
This kind of protection, however, was sometimes oppressive.
In the authorities quoted by Du Cange, we find that, so early
as the twelfth century, the advocates were accused of rapine
and extortion ; and by a capitulary of the popedom of In¬
nocent III., they are prohibited from taking and usurping
rewards and privileges beyond use and wont. The office
at length assumed a fixed character in its powers and emolu¬
ments ; and it became the practice for the founders of
churches and other ecclesiastical endowments to reserve the
office of advocate to themselves and their representatives.
158 A D V
Advocate The term advocate was subsequently superseded by the
Advowee wor(^ Patr0Ii; but a relic of it still exists in the term advow-
K vowee'/ son, and the word advowee, which is the form in which the
Latin advocatus found its way into the technicalities of
English law. The term advocate came afterwards to be
applied in ecclesiastical, as in other matters, to those who
gave their clients professional legal assistance.
In France, corporations or faculties of avocats were at¬
tached to the parliaments and other tribunals. They formed,
before the revolution, a part of the extensive and powerful
body commonly called the nobility of the robe. It was not
necessary that the avocat should be born noble, and his
professional rank was little respected by the hereditary aris¬
tocracy ; but as a middle rank, possessed of great powers
and privileges, which it jealously guarded, the profession
acquired great influence. In the Encyclopedic Methodique,
the avocat is called “ the tutelary genius of the repose of
families, the friend of man, his guide and protector.” The
avocats, as a body, were re-organised under the empire by
a decree of 15th December 1810.
The Faculty of Advocates is the collective term by which
the members of the bar are known in Scotland. They pro¬
fessionally attend the supreme courts in Edinburgh; but
they are privileged to plead in any cause before the inferior
courts, where counsel are not excluded by statute. They
may act in cases of appeal before the House of Lords, and
in some of the British colonies where the civil law is in
force, it is customary for those who practise as barristers to
pass as advocates in Scotland. This body has existed by
immemorial custom. Its privileges are constitutional, and are
founded on no statute or charter of incorporation. The body
formed itself gradually, from time to time, on the model of the
French corporations of avocats, appointing like them a Dean
or doyen, who is their president and principal officer. No
curriculum of study, residence, or professional training, is
required on entering this profession ; but the faculty have
the power, believed to be liable to control by the Court of
Session, of rejecting any candidate for admission. The can¬
didate undergoes two private examinations; the one in
Roman law, and the other, at the interval of a year, in
Scottish law. He has then to undergo the old academic
form of the public impugnment of theses on some title of
the pandects; but this ceremony, called the public exami¬
nation, has degenerated into a mere form. The fees of
entrance are considerable, the greater part of them being
devoted to the magnificent library belonging to the faculty,
which literary investigators in Edinburgh find so eminently
useful. The number of members is fluctuating; but for
some years past (1852), it has been upwards of four hun¬
dred. (j. h. B.)
Lord Advocate, or King’s Advocate, is the principal
law-officer of the crown in Scotland. His business is to act
as a public prosecutor, and to plead in all causes that con¬
cern the crown. He is at the head of the system of public
prosecutions by which criminal justice is administered in
Scotland, and thus his functions are of a far more extensive
character than those of the English law-officers of the
crown. He is aided by a solicitor-general and subordinate
assistants called advocates-depute. The office of king’s ad¬
vocate is not very ancient: it seems to have been esta¬
blished about the beginning of the sixteenth century. Ori¬
ginally he had no power to prosecute crimes without the
concurrence of a private party; but, in the year 1597, he
was empowered to prosecute crimes at his own instance.
He has the privilege of pleading in court with his hat on.
ADVOCATION, in Scottish Law, a mode of appeal
from certain inferior courts to the supreme court. The writ
employed is called a Note of Advocation.
ADVOWEE. See Advocate ; Advowson.
ADZ
ADVOWSON, or AdvoAvzen, in Common Law, sig-Advo
nifies a right to present to a vacant benefice. Advowson
is so called because the right of presenting to the church v
was first gained by such as were founders, benefactors, or
maintainers of the church. Though the nomination of fit
persons to officiate in every diocese was originally in the
bishop, yet they were content to let the founders of chur¬
ches have the nomination of the persons to the churches so
founded, reserving to themselves a right to judge of the
fitness of the persons nominated.—Advowsons formerly were
most of them appendant to manors, and the patrons were
parochial barons. The lordship of the manor and patron¬
age of the church were seldom in different hands, until ad¬
vowsons were given to religious houses. But of late times
the lordship of the manor and advowsons of the church have
been divided.—Advowsons are presentative, collative, or
donative: presentative, where the patron presents or offers
his clerk to the bishop of the diocese, to be instituted in his
church ; collative, where the benefice is given by the bishop,
as original patron thereof, or by means of a right he has
acquired by lapse ; donative, where the king or other patron
does, by a single donation in writing, put the clerk into pos¬
session, without presentation, institution, or induction.
Sometimes, anciently, the patron had the sole nomination
of the prelate, abbot, or prior, either by investiture («. e. de¬
livery of a pastoral staff) or by direct presentation to the
diocesan ; and if a free election was left to the brotherhood,
yet a conge d’elire, or licence of election, was first to be
obtained of the patron, and the person elected was con¬
firmed by him. If the founder’s family became extinct, the
patronage of the convent went to the lord of the manor.—
Advowsons are temporal inheritances and lay fees: they
may be granted by deed or will, and are assets in the hands
of heirs or executors. Presentations to advowsons for
money or other reward are void. (31st Eliz. cap. 6.) In
Scotland this right is csAed patronage.
ADY, a name that has been given to a species of palm
which grows at St Thome, on the coast of Calabar. It is
a tall tree, with a bare, upright stem, growing single on its
root, of a thin light timber, and full of juice. The head of
this tree shoots into a multitude of leaves, which on being cut
off, or having an incision made in them, afford a great quantity
of sweet juice; and this, when fermented, supplies the place of
wine among the Indians. The fruit of this tree is called by
the Portuguese caryocesa.ndLcariosse,aLD&hy\he black natives
ahanga. This fruit is of the size and shape of a lemon,
and contains a kernel, which is good to eat. The fruit itself
is eaten roasted, and the raw kernels are often mixed with
mandioc meal. These kernels are esteemed very cordial.
An oil is also prepared from the fruit, which answers the
purpose of butter. This oil is also used for anointing stiff and
contracted parts of the body.
ADYNAMIA, in Medicine (a, privative, and Swap,ts,
strength), want of power, debility or weakness from sick¬
ness.
ADYNAMON, among Ancient Physicians, a kind of
weak factitious wine, prepared from must boiled down with
water, to be given to patients to whom genuine wine might
be hurtful.
ADYTUM, in Pagan Antiquity, the most retired and
sacred place of temples, into which none but the priests
were allowed to enter. The Sanctum Sanctorum of the
temple of Solomon was of the nature of the pagan adytum,
none but the high-priest being admitted into it, and he but
once a year.
ADZE, or Addice, a cutting tool of the axe kind, hav¬
ing its blade made thin and arching, and its edge at right
angles to the handle; chiefly used for taking off thin chips
of timber or boards, and for paring away certain irregula-
iE D I
Ae rities which the axe cannot come at. The adze is used by
II carpenters, but more by coopers, as being convenient for
j cutting the liollow sides of boards, &c. It is ground from
a base on its inside to its outer edge; so that, when it is
blunt, they cannot conveniently grind it without taking its
helve out of the eye.
AE, or JE, a diphthong compounded of A and E. Au¬
thors are by no means agreed as to the use of the ce in Eng¬
lish words. Some, out of regard to etymology, insist on its
being retained in all words, particularly technical ones, bor¬
rowed from the Greek and Latin ; while others, from a con¬
sideration that it is no proper diphthong in our language (its
sound being no other than that of the simple e), contend that
it ought to be entirely disused ; and in fact the simple e has
°f late been adopted instead of the Roman <e, as in the word
equator, &c.
A1ACEA, in Grecian Antiquity, solemn festivals and
games celebrated at iEgina in honour of iEacus.
A5ACLTS, the son of Jupiter by iEgina. When the isle
of Jigina was depopulated by a plague, his father, in com¬
passion to his griefj changed all the ants upon it into men
and women, who were called Myrmidones, from fivpfirj^, an
ant. The foundation of the fable is said to be, that when
the country had been depopulated by pirates, who forced the
few that remained to take shelter in caves, iEacus encouraged
them to come out, and by commerce and industry to recover
what they had lost. His character for justice was such, that,
in a time of universal drought, he was nominated by the
Delphic oracle to intercede for Greece, and his prayer was
answered. See the article AIgina. The Pagans also im¬
agined that Alacus, on account of his impartial justice, was
chosen by Pluto one of the three judges of the dead; and
that it was his province to judge the Europeans.
iECHMALOTARCHA (at^u,aA.0JTos and apypi), a title
given to the principal leader or governor of the Hebrew cap¬
tives residing in Chaldea, Assyria, and the neighbouring
countries. This magistrate was called by the Jews rasch-
galuth, i. e. the chief of the captivity; but the above term,
of like import in the Greek, is that used by Origen and others
who wrote in the Greek tongue.
AIDES, in Homan Antiquity, besides its more ordinary
signification of a house, likewise signified an inferior kind
of temple, consecrated to some deity.
yEDICULA, a term used to denote the inner part of the
temple, where the altar or statue of the deity stood.
.EDILE (cedilis), in Homan Antiquity, a magistrate whose
chief business was to superintend buildings of all kinds, but
more especially public ones, as temples, aqueducts, bridges,
&c. To the axliles likewise belonged the care of the high¬
ways, public places, weights and measures, &e. They also
fixed the prices of provisions, took cognizance of debauches,
punished lewd women and such persons as frequented gam¬
ing-houses. The custody of the plebiscita, or decrees of the
people, was likewise committed to them. They had the in¬
spection of comedies and other pieces of wit; and were
obliged to exhibit magnificent games to the people, at their
own expense, whereby many of them were ruined. They
had the power, on certain occasions, of issuing edicts, and
by degrees they procured to themselves a considerable juris¬
diction. All these functions, which rendered the aediles
so important, belonged at first to the aediles of the people,
cediles plebeii, or minores. These were only two in number,
and were first created in the same year as the tribunes,
b.c. 494 ; for the tribunes, finding themselves oppressed with
the multiplicity of affairs, demanded of the senate to have
officers to whom they might intrust matters of less impor¬
tance ; and accordingly two aediles were created; and hence
it was that the aediles were elected every year at the same
assembly as the tribunes. But these plebeian aediles having
AS G E 159
refused, on a signal occasion, to treat the people with shows, -Edilitium
pleading that they were unable to support the expense, the II
patricians made an offer to do it, provided they would admit yEgeus‘ J
them to the honours of the mlilate. On this occasion there
were two new aediles created, of the number of the patricians,
in the year of Rome 388. They were called mliles curules,
or majores, as having a right to sit on a curule chair, en¬
riched with ivory, when they gave audience; whereas the
plebeian aediles only sat on benches. Besides that the cur¬
ule aediles shared all the ordinary functions with the plebeian,
their chief employment was to procure the celebration of
the grand Roman games, and to exhibit comedies, shows of
gladiators, &c. to the people ; and they were also appointed
judges in all cases relating to the selling or exchanging of
estates. To assist these first four aedilefe, Caesar (b.c. 45)
created a new kind, called cediles cereales, as being deputed
chiefly to take care of the corn, which was called donum
Cereris; for the heathens honoured Ceres as the goddess
who presided over corn, and attributed to her the invention
of agriculture. These aediles cereales were also taken out
of the order of patricians. In the municipal cities there were
aediles, and with the same authority as at Rome.
We also read of an cedilis alimentarius, expressed in ab¬
breviature by JEdil. alim. whose business seems to have
been to provide diet for those who were maintained at the
public charge, though others assign him a different office.
—In an ancient inscription we also meet with cedile of the
camp, aidilis castrorum.
ADILITIUM Edictum, among the Romans, was that
whereby a remedy was given to a buyer in case a vicious
or unsound beast or slave was sold to him. It was called
cedilitium, because the preventing of frauds in sales and
contracts belonged especially to the curule aediles.
.EDITUUS, in Homan Antiquity, an officer belonging to
the temple, who had the charge of the offerings, treasure,
and sacred utensils. The female deities had a female officer
of this kind called AEditua.
.EGADES or Egates, islands off the western coast of
Sicily, between Trapani and Marsala, consisting of Maritime,
Levanso, and Favignana, which were of some note during
the first Punic war.
EGAGROPILA, a ball composed of hair, generated in
the stomach of the chamois goat, and very similar to those
found in cows, hogs, &c. There is another species of ball
found in some animals, particularly horses, which is a cal¬
culous concretion.
EGEAN SEA, in Ancient Geography, now the Archi¬
pelago, a part of the Mediterranean, bounded on the north
by Thrace and Macedonia, on the west by Greece, and on
the east by Asia Minor. The origin of the name is greatly
disputed. Festus advances three opinions: one, that it is
so called from the many islands therein appearing at a dis¬
tance like so many goats; another, because Egea, queen
of the Amazons, perished in it; a third, because Egeus,
the father of Theseus, threw himself headlong into it. See
Archipelago.
EGEUS, in Fabulous History, was king of Athens, and
the father of Theseus. The Athenians having basely killed
the son of Minos, king of Crete, for carrying away the prize
from them, Minos made war upon them; and being vic¬
torious, imposed this severe condition on Egeus, that he
should annually send into Crete seven of the noblest of the
Athenian youths, chosen by lot, to be devoured by the
Minotaur. On the fourth year of this tribute, the choice
fell on Theseus; or, as others say, he himself entreated to
be sent. The king, at his son’s departure, gave orders, that
as the ship sailed with black sails, it should return with the
same in case he perished; but, if he came back victorious, he
should change them into white. When Theseus returned
160
2E G 1
JE G I
^Egias to Crete, after killing the Minotaur, and forgot to change
[I the sails in token of his victory, according to the agreement
/Egina. father, the latter, who watched the return of the
“~ v ^ vessel, supposing by the black sails that his son was dead,
cast himself headlong into the sea, which afterwards obtained
the name of the JEgean Sea. The Athenians decreed
/Egeus divine honours, and sacrificed to him as a marine
deity and adopted son of Neptune.
iEGIAS, among Physicians, a white speck on the pupil
of the eye, which occasions a dimness of sight.
iEGIDA, now Capo d'Istria, the principal town on the
north of the territory of Istria, situate in a little island,
joined to the land by a causeway. In an inscription it is
called JEgidis Insula. Long. 13. 43. E. Lat. 45. 31. N.
It was afterwards called Justinopolis, after the emperor
Justinus II.
Al GIL OPS, the name of a tumour in the great angle of
the eye, either with or without an inflammation. The word
is compounded of ai£, goat, and wi/f, eye ; as goats are sup¬
posed to be extremely liable to this distemper. If the segilops
be accompanied with an inflammation, it is supposed to take
its rise from the abundance of blood which a plethoric habit
discharges on the corner of the eye. If it be without an in¬
flammation, it is supposed to proceed from a viscous pitui-
tous humour thrown upon this part. The method of cure
is the same as that of the ophthalmia. But before it has
reached the lachrymal passages, it is managed like other ul¬
cers. If the aegilops be neglected, it bursts, and degenerates
into a fistula, which eats into the bone.
iEGIMURUS, in Ancient Geography, an island in the
bay of Carthage, about 30 miles distant from that city,
(Livy); now Zowamour. This island being afterwards sunk
in the sea, two of its rocks remained above water, which
were called Arce, because the Romans and Carthaginians
entered into an agreement or league to limit their respective
boundaries by these rocks.
iEGINA, in Fabulous History, the daughter of Asopus,
king of Boeotia, was beloved by Jupiter, who ravished her
in the similitude of a lambent flame, and then carried her
from Epidaurus to a desert island called CEnopia, which
afterwards obtained her own name.
-/Egina, or Egina, or Engia, an island in the Saronic gulf,
20 miles distant from the Piraeus, formerly vying with Athens
in naval power, and, at the sea-fight of Salamis, disputing
the palm of victory with the Athenians. It was the coun¬
try and kingdom of /Eacus, who called it AEgina, from
his mother’s name, it being before called (Enopia. (Ovid.)
The inhabitants were called ZEginetce and AEginenses.
iEgina is about 8 miles from N.W. to S.E., and about 6 in
a transverse direction. Strabo states its periphery at 180
stadia, which would give a circumference of about 22^ English
miles. Its western side consists of stony but yet fertile plains,
which are well cultivated, and produce luxuriant crops of
grain, with some cotton, vines, almonds, and figs. The rest
of the island is mountainous : the southern end rises in the
conical Mount Oros ; and the Panhellenian ridge stretches
to the north ; from which fertile narrow valleys descend on
either hand. From the absence of marshes, and its insu¬
larity, the climate is mild, and the most salubrious of Greece.
The ruins of the ancient .Egina extend along two small
ports, still protected by well-built ancient moles, and the
shores of an open bay, defended by an ancient breakwater,
near the N.W. cape of the island On the land side, the
city-walls are still distinctly traceable, 10 feet in thickness,
strengthened by towers at unequal distances, and pierced by
three gates. They abutted on those of the ports, which were
thus included within the line of fortifications; as at Athens
and elsewhere in ancient Greece. Two elegant Doric co¬
lumns and sub-structures are all that remain of the buildings
noticed by Pausanias within the precincts of a city that was
long the greatest and most opulent maritime power of Greece;
but the ruins of seventeen Christian churches, still visible, prove
that after the glories of the proud city had passed away,—
after what it suffered from the jealousy of its rival, Athens,
and from an earthquake about the beginning of our era,—a
considerable modern town had occupied its site. Some of
these may perhaps only date from the time that /Egina re¬
mained under its Venetian masters, as does a tower erected
at the entrance of the largest port; but they resigned pos¬
session of the island to the Turks in 1715, under whom it
became the prey of Mainote and other pirates; until the
emancipation of Greece made it, in 1828-29, the seat of the
Greek government. On a hill near the N.E. corner of the
island, stands the modern little town of iEgina (as it is pro¬
nounced by the modern Greeks). It is separated by a ra¬
vine from the hill, on which rises in lonely majesty the ruins of
the noble temple of Jupiter Panhellenius, occupying, at the
extremity of the mountain ridge known by that name, the
rocky summit of a hill, in the midst of a forest of pines.
The temple was a ruin in the days of Cicero, as mentioned
in one of his letters; and seems to have been thrown down
by an earthquake at an unknown epoch. This temple is
conspicuous from a distance, and was visited by Chandler in
the last century; but has been chiefly known to us by the
successful excavations of our countrymen Cockerell and Fos¬
ter, assisted by Baron Haller, and M. Linckh of Stuttgard in
1811. These gentlemen united in clearing away the rub¬
bish which the lapse of 2000 years had accumulated on the
basement and floor of the cell; and after 20 days exertion
they were rewarded by the discovery not only of many
interesting details relating to Grecian architecture, but
also of many statues in most wonderfully energetic action,
that had once adorned the fallen pediments of this celebrated
temple. These consist of the 11 figures of the eastern, and 5
statues of the western pediment, almost entire; besides frag¬
ments of the rest, and two statuettes, and other ornaments
of the acroteria. These sculptures supply an important
link in the history of ancient art, and connect the schools
of early Greece with that of Etruscan sculpture. The ef¬
forts of Messrs Cockerell and Foster to secure those treasures
to their country are well known; and how they were defeated
by the unlucky mistake of the agent sent out to purchase
them for the British Museum. They now form one of the
most interesting acquisitions of tire magnificent Glyptothek
of Munich.
The temple stands on a stylobate of 94 feet by 45 feet. The
original number of columns in the peristyle was 32, of which
12 were ranged on each side, and six in each front; 17 feet
2 inches high, including the wide-spreading ovolo of the
capital, and a diameter of 3 feet 3 inches at the base. Two
other columns of 3 feet 2 inches between antae, are in the
pronaos, and two similar in the opisthodomos or posticum.
The cella had a door at each end ; a double row of smaller
columns 2 feet 4 inches in diameter, were within the cella
to support its partial roof; but the greatest portion of the
cella was open, as this temple was hypcethral. There still
remain 21 columns of the peristyle with their architraves ;
six of the eastern front, and continuously with them are five
columns of the north side; the four columns of the pronaos
and opisthodomos ; and the lower part of the shafts of five
within the cella. The tympana had been painted of a bright
azure to give relief to the statues, and the drapery of Miner¬
va, the middle figure of each group, had been painted red
and blue. The whole of the ornaments on the cornices and
upper mouldings of the pediment had been painted in en¬
caustic, not carved.
/Egina.
The subject of the groups of statuary appears to be the
contest for the body of Patroclus, one of the JEacidce (or
iE G I
^Egineta royal progeny of iEgina of old) as described by Horner.
JSgis Cockerell on the CEgina Marbles. Brand’s Journal.
. , / This magnificent structure undoubtedly belongs to the
brilliant period of /Eginetan power, when its navy and its
commerce were the pride of Greece, and carried its citizens
to the remotest shores of the Mediterranean and the Euxine.
Money was struck at J^gina long before it was fabricated
even at Athens. The victory of Salamis was mainly owing
to the 30 ships of iEgina, and the voice of grateful Greece
assigned to her warriors on that eventful day the prize of
valour. Yet not long after, the rivalry of Athens began
to cloud the prosperity of the haughty islanders, whose
fleet she had before defeated; and /Egina at length sunk
under the enmity of a relentless commercial rival, that
banished her citizens, and supplied their place with Attic
colonists. g> T ^
/EGINEI A, Pattltts, a celebrated surgeon of the island
of /Egina, from whence he derived his name. According
to M. le Clercs calculation, he lived in the fourth century;
but Abulfaragius the Arabian, who is allowed to give the
best account of those times, places him with more proba¬
bility in the seventh. His knowledge in surgery was very
great, and his works are deservedly famous. Fabricius ab
Aquapendente has thought fit to transcribe him in a great
variety of places. Indeed, the doctrine of Paulus iEgineta,
together with that of Celsus and Albucasis, make up the
whole text of this author. He is the first writer who takes
notice of the cathartic quality of rhubarb; and, according
to Dr Milward, is the first in all antiquity who deserves the
title of accoucheur.
ASGINETARUM FERLE, a festival in honour of Nep¬
tune, originally instituted at ./Egina after the Trojan war,
when those families whose friends returned in safety dis¬
missed their attendants, and held their rejoicings in private,
out of respect to such as mourned.—Plutarch, Quasi.
Grcec. 44.
vEGINHARD, the celebrated secretary and supposed
son-in-law of Charlemagne. He is said to have been car¬
ried through the snow on the shoulders of Imma, to prevent
his being traced from her apartments by the emperor her
father ; a story which the elegant pen of Addison has copied
and embellished in the third volume of the Spectator. There
is a letter of /Eginhard’s still extant, lamenting the death of
his wife, written in the tenderest strain of connubial affec¬
tion : but it does not say that this lamented lady was the
princess ; and indeed some critics have supposed that Imma
was not the daughter of Charlemagne. He was a native of
Germany, and educated by the munificence of his imperial
master, of which he has left the most grateful testimony in
his preface to the life of that monarch. /Eginhard, after the
loss of his wife, is supposed to have passed the remainder of
his days in religious retirement, and to have died soon after
the year 840. His life of Charlemagne, his annals from 741
to 889, and his letters, are all inserted in the 2d volume of
Duchesne’s Scriptores Francorum. An improved edition
of this valuable historian, with the annotations of Hermann
Schmincke, in 4to, was published in 171E
TEGIPHILA, in Botany, Goat-friend.
7EGIS, in Ancient Mythology, a name given to the shield
or buckler of Jupiter and Pallas. The goat Amalthma,
which had suckled Jove, being dead, that god is said to have
covered his buckler with the skin; whence the appellation
cegis, from ai£, aiyos, she-goat. Jupiter afterwards restored
the animal to life, covered it with a new skin, and placed it
among the stars. He made a present of his buckler to
Minerva; whence that goddess’s buckler is also called cegis.
Perseus, having killed Medusa, Minerva nailed her head in
the middle of the aegis, which thenceforth had the faculty
of converting into stone all those who looked upon it; as
VOL. II.
L F 161
Medusa herself had during her life. Others suppose the iEgisthus
aegis not to have been a buckler, but a cuirass or breast- II
plate ; and it is certain that the aegis of Pallas, described by yElfric-
Virgil, AEn. lib. viii. v. 435, must have been a cuirass, since
that poet says expressly that Medusa’s head was on the
breast of the goddess. But the aegis of Jupiter, mentioned
a little higher, v. 354, seems to have been a buckler. The
words—
 Cum saepe nigrantem
^Egida concuteret dextra,
are descriptive of a buckler, but not at all of a cuirass or
breastplate. Servius makes the same distinction on the two
passages of Virgil; for on verse 354 he takes the aegis for
the buckler of Jupiter, made, as above mentioned, of the
skin of the goat Amalthaea; and on verse 435 he describes
the aegis as the armour which covers the breast, and which
in speaking of men is called cuirass, and cegis in speaking
of the gods. Many authors have overlooked these distinc¬
tions for want of going to the sources.
A1GISTHUS, in Ancient History, was the son of Thyes-
tes by his own daughter Pelopea, who, to conceal her shame,
exposed him in the woods. Some say he was taken up by
a shepherd, and suckled by a goat; whence he was called
AEgisthus. He seduced Clytemnestra, the wife of Agamem¬
non, and lived with her during the siege of Troy. After¬
wards, with her assistance, he slew her husband, and reigned
seven years in Mycenae. He was slain, together with Cly¬
temnestra, by Orestes. Pompey used to call Julius Caesar
AEgisthus, on account of his having seduced his wife Mutia,
whom he afterwards put away, though he had three children
by her.
A5GIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Achaia Pro¬
pria, five miles from the place where Helice stood, and fa¬
mous for the council of the Achaeans, which usually met
there, on account probably of the commodious situation of
the place.
7EGOBOLIUM, in Antiquity, the sacrifice of a goat
offered to Cybele. The aegobolium was an expiatory sacri¬
fice, which bore a near resemblance to the taurobolium and
criobolium, and seems to have been sometimes joined with
them.
7EGOPODIUM, in Botany, Small Wild Angelica,
Goatwort, Goatsfoot.
iEGOSPOl AMOS, in Ancient Geography, a river in the
Thracian Chersonesus, falling with a south-east course into
the Hellespont, to the north of Sestos; with a town, and a
station or road for ships, at its mouth. Here the Athenians
under Conon, through the fault of his colleague Philocles,
received a signal overthrow from the Lacedemonians under
Lysander (b.c. 405), which was followed by the taking of
Athens, and put an end to the Peloponnesian war.
TEGYPTUS, in Fabulous History, was the son of Belus,
and brother of Danaus.
AFINA UTiE, in Antiquity, aeivcumu, always mariners,
a denomination given to the senators of Miletus, because
they held their deliberations on board a ship, and never re¬
turned to land till matters had been agreed on.
iELFRIC, an eminent ecclesiastic of the tenth century,
was the son of an earl of Kent, and a monk of the Benedic¬
tine order in the monastery of Abingdon. In 993 he was
settled in the cathedral of Winchester, under Athelwold
the bishop, and undertook the instruction of the youth of
the diocese ; for which purpose he compiled a Latin-Saxon
vocabulary, and some Latin colloquies. He also translated
from the Latin into Saxon many of the historical books of
the Old Testament. While he resided at Winchester he
drew up Canons, which are a kind of charge to be delivered
by the bishops to their clergy. He was afterwards abbot
of St Albans, then bishop of Wilton, and finally, in 1022, was
162
vE N E
iE O L
iElia
II
iEneas.
translated to the see of York. Here he had a hard struggle
for some years in bravely defending his diocese against the
incursions of the Danes. /Elfric is held up as one oi the
most distinguished prelates ot the Saxon church. His learn¬
ing for the times, was considerable, his morals pure, and his
religious sentiments untainted with many of the corruptions
of his age. Besides the works already mentioned, he trans¬
lated two volumes of Homilies from the Latin Fathers. He
was born in 964, and died in XOoO. Allans York.
yELIA Capitolina, a name given to the city built by
the emperor Hadrian, a.d. 134, near the spot where the an¬
cient Jerusalem stood, which he found in ruins when he
visited the eastern parts of the Roman empire. A Roman
colony was settled here, and a temple, in place ot that of
Jerusalem, was dedicated to Jupiter Capitolinus. Hence
the name, to which he prefixed that of his own family.
JELIANUS, Claudius, born at Prseneste, in Italy. He
taught rhetoric at Rome, according to Perizonius, under the
Emperor Alexander Severus. He was surnamed MeAt-
yAoxrcros, Honey-tongued, on account of the sweetness of his
style in his discourses and writings. He was likewise
honoured with the title of Sophist, an appellation in his days
given only to men of learning and wisdom. He loved retire¬
ment, and devoted himself to study. He greatly admired
and studied Plato, Aristotle, Isocrates, Plutarch, Homer,
Anacreon, Archilochus, &c. and, though a Roman, gives the
preference to the writers of the Greek nation. His curious
and entertaining work entitled Varice Historic has been
frequently republished, as well as his treatise De Natura
Animalium. A very useful edition of the latter was published
by Schneider, at Leipsic, in 1784, in 8vo; another at Jena,
in 1832, by Fr. Jacobs. The collated edition of his works,
by Gesner, 1556, fob, contains his Epistolce Rusticce.
yElianus, Tacticus, a Greek writer on military tactics, in
the reign of the Emperor Hadrian.
AELTERE, a town with 6383 inhabitants, in the arron-
dissement of Ghent, and province of East Flanders.
AXURUS, the Latinised Greek name of the cat deity
of Egypt; represented sometimes like a cat, and sometimes
as a human body with a cat’s head. The Egyptians had so
superstitious a regard for this animal, that the killing of it,
whether by accident or design, was punished with death;
and Diodorus relates, that, in a time of famine, they chose
rather to eat one another than touch these sacred animals.
The cat was sacred to the goddess Pasht or Bubastis.
YEMILIUS L. Paullus, son of that L. Paullus JEmi-
lius who was killed at the battle of Cannae. He was twice
consul. In his first consulate he triumphed over the Ligu¬
rians, and in the second subdued Perseus, king of Macedo¬
nia, and reduced that country to a Roman province, for
which he obtained the surname of Macedonicus. He died
b.c. 160, at the age of seventy.
Tlmili us, Pautus, or Paolo Emilio, a celebrated histo¬
rian, born at Verona, who obtained such reputation in Italy,
that he was invited into France by the cardinal of Bourbon,
in the reign of Louis XIL, in order to write the history of
the kings of France in Latin, and was presented to a canonry
in the cathedral of Paris. He died at Paris on the 5th of
May 1529. His work entitled De Rebus gestis Francorum
was translated into French by Renard in 1581, and has also
been translated into Italian and German.
AMO BO LI UM, in Antiquity, the blood of a bull or ram
offered in the sacrifices, called taurobolia and criobolia ; in
which sense the word occurs in ancient inscriptions.
yENEAS, in Fabulous History, a Trojan prince, the son of
Venus and Anchises. He plays a conspicuous part in the
Iliad, and is represented, along with Hector, as the chief
bulwark of the Trojans. Virgil has chosen him as the hero
of Ins great epic, and the story of the Aneid, though not
only at variance with other traditions, but inconsistent with Aneaa
itself, can never lose its place as a biography of the mythical II
founder of the Latin power. Aneas is described in the ^ 0 1C’
Aneid as escaping from the destruction of Troy, bearing his
aged father on his shoulders, carrying in one hand his house¬
hold gods, while with the other he leads his little son Ascanius
or lulus. His wife Creusa is separated from them and lost in
the tumult. After a perilous voyage he lands in Africa, and is
kindly received by Dido, queen of Carthage; who, on his for¬
saking her to seek a new home, destroys herself. Again
escaping the dangers of the sea, he arrives in Italy, where he
forms an alliance with Latinus, a prince of the country, marries
his daughter Lavinia, and founds a city which he calls after
her, Lavinium. Turnus, king of the Rutuli, a rejected
suitor of Lavinia, makes war on Latinus, and both are slain
in battle. Aneas assumes the sovereignty of Latium, and
the Trojan and Latin powers are united in one nation. After
a reign of three years, Aneas falls in a battle with the
Rutuli, assisted by Mezentius, king of Etruria, and is carried
up into heaven.
Aneas Sylvius, Pope. See Pius II.
ANEID, the name of Virgil’s epic poem, in celebration
of the settlement of Aneas in Italy. See Virgil.
ANIGMA denotes any dark saying, wherein some well-
known thing is concealed under obscure language. The
word is Greek, Aiviy/ia, from aivirrecr^at, obscure innuere,
to hint a thing darkly (tuvos, a tale, saying, or proverb). The
popular name is riddle; from the Belgic raeden, or the Saxon
araeihan, to interpret.
Painted AEsigmas are representations of the works of na¬
ture or art, concealed under human figures, drawn from his¬
tory or fable.
A Verbal AEnigma is a witty, artful, and abstruse descrip¬
tion of any thing. In a general sense, every dark saying,
every difficult question, every parable, may pass for an aen-
igma. Hence obscure laws are called cenigmata juris. The
alchemists are great dealers in the aenigmatic language, their
processes for the philosopher’s stone being generally wrapt
up in riddles: e. g. Fac ex mare et fcemina circulum, inde
quadrangulum, him triangulum, fac circulum, et habebis
lapidem philosophorum.
ANITHOLOGIUS, in Poetry, a verse of two dactyls
and three trochaei; as Prcelia dir a placent truci juventai.
AOLIA Insula:, now Isole di Lipari, in Ancient Geo¬
graphy, seven islands situate between Sicily and Italy; so
called' from Aolus, the god of the winds, who was supposed
to have ruled there. The Greeks call them Hephcestiades ;
and the Romans Vulcanite, from their fiery eruptions. They
are also called Liparceorum Insula:, from their principal
island Lipari. Dionysius Periegetes calls them ILWat, be¬
cause circumnavigable.
AOLIAN HARP, a musical instrument consisting of cat¬
gut strings stretched over a wooden sound-box. When ex¬
posed to a current of air, the strings produce a variety of
pleasing harmonic sounds in wild succession and combina¬
tion. See Music.
AOLIC, in a general sense, denotes something belonging
to Aolis.
Aolic, or Aolian, in Grammar, denotes one of the five
dialects of the Greek tongue. It was first used in Bceotia,
whence it passed into Aolia, and was that in which Sappho
and Alcaeus wrote. The Aolic dialect generally throws out
the aspirate or sharp spirit, and agrees in so many things
with the Doric dialect, that the two are usually confounded.
The /Folic digamma is a name given to the letter F,
which the Aolians used to prefix to words beginning with
vowels, as Foivos for otvos; also to insert between vowels, as
oFis for ois.
/Folic Verse, in Prosody, a verse consisting of an iambus
iE 0 N
Aolipile or spondee ; then of two anapaests, separated by a long sylla-
bIe5 and, lastly, of another syllable: such as, O stelliferi
v  , conditor orbis. It is also called eulogic verse ; and, from the
C a? Wk° l?se<^ ’h Archilochian and Pindaric.
11 IP^E, in Hydraulics, is a hollow ball of metal, ge¬
nerally used in courses of experimental philosophy, in order
o demonstrate the possibility of converting water into an
e astic steam or vapour by heat. The instrument, therefore,
consists ot a slender neck or pipe, having a narrow orifice in¬
serted into the ball by means of a shouldered screw. This
pipe being taken out, the ball is filled almost full of water
and the pipe being again screwed in, the ball is placed on a
pan ot kindled charcoal, where it is well heated, and there
issues from the orifice a vapour, with prodigious violence and
great noise, which continues till all the included water is
discharged. The stronger the fire is, the more elastic and
violent will be the steam; but care must be taken that the
small orifice of the pipe be not by any accident stopped up,
because the instrument would in that case infallibly burst in
pieces, with dangerous violence. Another way of introdu-
cmg the water is to heat the ball red-hot when empty, which
Mull drive out almost all the air; and then, by suddenly im¬
mersing it m water, the pressure of the atmosphere will
orce in the fluid, till it is nearly full. Descartes and others
have used this instrument to account for the natural cause
and generation of the wind: and hence it was called CEoli-
pila : q. d. pila JEoli, the ball of Aldus.
AOLIS, or /Eolia, in Ancient Geography, a country of
Asia Minor, settled by colonies of Aolian Greeks. Taken
widely, it comprehends all Troas and the coast of the Helles¬
pont to the Propontis, because in those parts there were
several Aolian colonies. In a more limited sense it is applied
to the district between Troas to the N. and Ionia to the S.
AOLUS, in Heathen Mythology, the god of the winds,
was said to be the son of Jupiter by Acasta or Sigesia, the
daughter of Hippotas; or, according to others, the son of Hip-
Iiotas by Meneclea, daughter of Hyllus, king of Lipara. He
dwelt in the island now called Stromboli, one of the Aolian
islands. Others place his residence at Rhegium, in Italy;
and others, again, in the island Lipara. He is represented as
having authority over the winds, which he held enchained in
a vast cavern. Strabo, and some other WTiters, consider him
to have had a real existence; and derive the fable of his
power over the winds, from his skill in meteorology and the
management of ships
AE P I
1()3
Hie vasto rex AjoIus antro,
Luctantis ventos tempestatesque sonoras
Imperio premit, ac vinclis et carcere frenat.
Illi indignantes magno cum murmure mentis
Circum claustra fremunt; celsa sedet JMus arce
Sceptra tenens, mollitque animos, et temperat iras :
Ni faciat, maria ac terras ccelumque profundum
Quippe ferant rapidi secum, verrantque per auras.
-<Eneid, Lib. i. 52.
ALON, a Greek word, properly signifying the age or
duration of any thing.
A£on, among the followers of Plato, was used to signify
any virtue, attribute, or perfection: hence they repre¬
sented the deity as an assemblage of all possible aeons,
and called him pleroma, a Greek term signifying fulness.
The Valentinians, who, in the first ages of the church,
blended the conceits of the Jewish cabalists, the Platonists,
and the Chaldean philosophers, with the simplicity of the
Christian doctrine, invented a kind of Theogony, or Gene¬
alogy of Gods (not unlike that of Hesiod), whom they
called by several glorious names, and all by the general
appellation of TEons : among which they reckoned Zw?],
life; Aoyog, word; Movoyovrjs, only-begotten; nXjjew/icc,
fulness; and many other divine powers and emanations,
amounting in number to thirty; which they fancied to be Alora
successively derived from one another, and all from one H
self-originated deity, named Bythus, i. e. profound or un- ^pinus.
fathomable ; whom they called likewise, the most high and^^~^
ineffable father.
iEOR A, among ancient writers on medicine, is used for
gestation ; which sort of exercise was often prescribed by
the physicians of those days. Other exercises consisted
principally in the motion of the body ; but in the ceora the
limbs were at rest, while the body was carried about and
moved from place to place, in such a manner as the phy¬
sician prescribed. It had therefore the advantage of ex¬
ercise, without the fatigue of it. This exercise was pro¬
moted several ways ; sometimes the patient was laid in a
sort of hammock, supported by ropes, and moved back¬
ward and forward ; sometimes his bed ran nimbly on its
feet; and sometimes he was carried in a litter, in a boat
or ship, or on even ground in a chariot. Asclepiades was
the first who brought gestation into practice, which was
used, as a means to recover strength after a fever, &c.
M\ INUS, Francis Ulrich Theodore, eminent in
the mathematics, and in natural philosophy, was born at
Rostock in Lower Saxony in 1724, and died at Dorpt in
Livonia in 1802. We regret that our means of informa¬
tion do not enable us to communicate any particulars in
regard to his personal history; but we shall give some
account of his contributions to science; and these, after all,
form the most interesting memorials of a philosopher’s life.
The work by which he is best known is entitled Ten-
tamen Theorice Electricitatis et Magnetismi, published at
Petersburg in 1759. It appeared under the sanction of
the Imperial Academy, to which the theory had been in
part communicated; and it is said on the title-page to be
Instar Sapplementi Comment. Acad. Petropolitance. The
work indeed merited this distinction, as being the first
systematic and successful attempt to apply mathematical
reasoning to the subjects of electricity and magnetism.
Already the theory of Franklin with regard to the for-
mer was very generally received, and was supposed to
afford a satisfactory explanation of the phenomena. But
though it seemed sufficient for this purpose in the common
and somewhat loose manner in which the matter had
hitherto been treated, it was not certain that the same
would hold when the conclusions were accurately and
mathematically deduced. To apply this test was what
Aipinus undertook, and what he has executed in a manner
very satisfactory and complete. He has treated very ful¬
ly, and perhaps has nearly exhausted, what may be called
the statics of electricity and magnetism, or the equilibrium
of their forces. A great field yet remains, where the mo¬
tion of the electric fluid is to be considered, and its dis-
ti ibution over the surfaces of bodies of a given figure;
where greater difficulties are to be encountered, and where
the latest improvements of the integral calculus in the
hands of Laplace and Poisson have begun to be applied.
I le investigations of iEpinus in their own department led
to very satisfactory results, and the exact agreement be¬
tween them and the phenomena actually exhibited was
extensively observed. Notwithstanding this agreement,
wje cannot consider the theory of positive and negative
electricity as being yet sufficiently established. Though
t e assumption on which it is founded appear very simple
at first, it is found more complex on a nearer inspection.
Ihe assumption is, that a fluid resides in the surfaces of
all the bodies termed electrics, which is highly elastic, and
strongly attracted, at the same time, by the particles of the
body; and that while this fluid remains equally diffused over
the surface of the body, no phenomenon whatever gives any
information of its existence. By certain mechanical opera-
164
iE P I
-(Gpinus. tions, however, the equilibrium of this fluid maybe destroy-
the fluid may be accumulated at one end, or on one side
of a body, and entirely withdrawn from the opposite. It is
when an electric is brought into this state that it exhibits
the phenomena of electricity, between which and the cal¬
culus instituted on the suppositions just laid down, /hpmus
has everywhere remarked the most exact agreement. One
great difficulty, however, still remains : the negative ends
of two electrified bodies repel one another just as much as
the ends which are reckoned positive. But such an enect
cannot result from the mere absence of a substance : when
the electric fluid is withdrawn, if repulsion still continue,
it must arise from the mutual action of the pai tides of the
body itself. Thus it would appear, that, in the absence of
the electric fluid, the tendency of the particles of matter
is to repel one another. This is an essential part of the
theory ; and it is not accurate to say, that the doctrine of
Franklin or iEpinus supposes no more than the existence
of an elastic fluid diffused over the surfaces, and strongly
attracted by the particles, of bodies. It supposes, besides,
that those particles, in the absence of this fluid, mutually
repel one another. This not only takes away from the
simplicity of the hypothesis, but it is obviously a very un¬
natural, not to say a contradictory supposition ^because,
when the electric matter is removed, how comes it to pass
that the particles of the body, notwithstanding their mu¬
tual repulsion, still cohere together as firmly as before ?
This difficulty is acknowledged by ZEpinus himself; but it
would seem that the theory had taken a strong hold of
his mind before he was aware of this consequence from it,
so that he became by degrees reconciled to a supposition
which appeared to him at first not a little incongruous.
This must not surprise us : it is not always that, even
among philosophers, we meet with the candour, or perhaps
we should say the courage, with which Newton suspended
his belief in his own great discovery, the principle of uni¬
versal gravity, as long as the erroneous opinion then exist¬
ing about the magnitude of the earth made the moon s
motion in her orbit appear inconsistent with the descent
of falling bodies. # . .
Another remark, made by ZEpinus himself, involves in
it a difficulty which should have induced him to view his
theory with considerable diffidence. Though he considei s
the difference of the two electricities to be the same as
between excess and defect, or to consist in this, that the
fluid which is deficient in the one part is in excess in the
other, he admits that no phenomenon points out on which
side the excess, or on which the defect lies. This is a
strong indication that the difference is not of the kind sup¬
posed. We are not left at a loss to tell whether cold is
the absence of a substance which we call heat, or heat the
absence of a substance which we call cold. If there were
just as much reason for asserting the one of these propo¬
sitions as the other, one would certainly be inclined to re¬
ject both. The same should be done with respect to elec¬
tricity and magnetism.
The investigations of ZEpinus, however, are by no means
rendered useless, even if the theory of positive and nega¬
tive electricity, or of positive and negative magnetism, be
exchanged for that of two elastic fluids, each attracting
the other, and both attracted by the particles of bodies.
Most of his investigations may be easily accommodated to
this supposition, and, therefore, they are, fortunately for
themselves and for their author, of a more permanent na¬
ture than the principles from which they were deduced.
It is to be added to this, that ZEpinus was the first who
saw the affinity between electricity and magnetism in its
full extent, and perceived the light that these two mutu¬
ally cast on one another. He instituted a regular sciies
iE F I
of experiments on the nature of the tourmaline, on which^®pinus^
he wrote a small treatise, published in 1762. He is to be
regarded also as the inventor of the condenser of electri¬
city, and of the electrophorus, of which he gave the com-
plctc theory,
A very excellent view of the theory of ZEpinus was
published at Paris by M. Hauy in 1787, in 8vo. The
same author has, however, adopted the theory of the two
fluids in his own treatise, Lemons de Physique. There is a
remarkable coincidence between ^Epinus’s work on elec¬
tricity and magnetism, and that of l\fi Eavendish, given in
the Philosophical Transactions for 1771, p. 584. The prin¬
ciples from which they set out, and the conclusions at
which they arrive, are in a great measure the same. It
appears, however, quite certain, that Mr Cavendish knew
nothing of the work of the Russian philosopher till his own
was completed. His mode of proceeding is more geome¬
trical, and in some parts he has gone farther.
The researches of ZEpinus were not confined to the
subjects now mentioned, but extended to most of the
branches of natural philosophy. Beside the treatise on
the tourmaline, he published, in 1762, a work, in 4to,
On the distribution of heat at the surface of the earth ; a
work which, though translated into French, has hardly,
we believe, made its way into this country, and of which
we are therefore unable to speak from our own knowledge.
Fie is also the author of many valuable memoirs on dif¬
ferent subjects in pure mathematics, in astronomy, mecha¬
nics, optics, meteorology, contained in the 7th, 8th, 9th,
10th, and 12th volumes of the Novi Commentarii Petro-
politance, and in the volumes of the Berlin Memoirs for
1755, 1756. In a memoir contained in the last of these,
is the first account of his experiments on the tourmaline,
which were conducted with great accuracy and judgment,
and do honour to the author as a man of a sound and
philosophical understanding, well instructed in the true
principles of inductive investigation. Indeed, notwith¬
standing the objections we have made to his theoiies of
electricity and magnetism, we must acknowledge that this
is the general impression produced by the perusal of his
works. He appears to have been well acquainted with
practical astronomy, and sometimes to have had the
charge of the imperial observatory. He made improve¬
ments on the micrometer and the reticulum, and wrote a
memoir on the effects of parallax in the transit of a planet
over the sun ; a difficult subject, and one rendered at that
time (1764) peculiarly interesting, on account of the tran¬
sit of Venus which was just past, and that which was
soon expected. (Novi Com. Pet. tom. x. p.433.) In the
same volume he has a memoir on the subject of accidental
colours, which at that time had hardly been treated of by
any author but Buffon ; and another on the affinity between
electricity and magnetism. In the 12th volume he notices,
we believe for the first time, the electric property of the
Brazilian emerald. He was not aware that this emerald
is in reality the green tourmaline (Brogniart, tom. i.
p. 418.) ; a variety of that mineral on which he had already
exercised his ingenuity with so much success.
It is rare, in an advanced state of science, to have the
satisfaction of making a new discovery with regard to a
subject quite elementary, and one that has been long a
subject of attention. This, however, happened to ZEpinus
with respect to the lever, and to the simplest kind of le¬
ver—that which has equal arms; of which he has demon¬
strated a new property, in the 8th volume of the Com¬
mentaries above referred to. It is this :—If a lever wit
equal arms be acted on at its opposite ends by forces in
a given ratio to one another, and having their directions
parallel to straight lines given in position; and if these
iE R A
^Equi forces be resolved each into two, one at right angles to the
.Erarium. lev^’ the otllcr in the direction of it; in the case of
* ,, / equilibrium, the sum of the two forces, having the same di¬
rection with the lever, will be the greatest possible. This
theorem, remarkable for its simplicity, and for illustrating the
connection between the equilibrium of bodies, and certain
problems concerning the maxima or minima of variable quan¬
tities, occurred when he was pursuing some of his inquiries
concerning magnetism. He seems not to have been very
fortunate, however, in his investigation, which is more com-
plex than is necessary, as the proposition admits of a geome¬
trical demonstration remarkable for its simplicity, (j. p.)
fEQUd, a brave ancient people of Italy, inhabiting the
upper valley of the Anio, who, in confederacy with the Vol-
sci carried on a long series of hostilities with the early Ro¬
mans ; but were finally subdued in the year b.c. 302.
A2QUIMELIUM, in Antiquity, a place in Rome where
stood the house of Spurius Maelius, who, by largesses cor¬
rupting the people, affected the supreme power. Refusing
to appear before the dictator Cincinnatus, he was slain by
Servilius Ahala, master of the horse ; his house was razed to
the ground, and the spot on which it stood was called Area
AEquimelii.—Livy, iv. 13-16.
AiRA, in Chronology, a fixed point of time from whence
a,ny number of years is begun to be counted. It is some¬
times also written in ancient authors Era. The origin of the
term is contested, though it is generally allowed to have had
its rise in Spain. Sepulveda supposes it formed from A. ER.
A. the notse or abbreviatures of the words annus erat Au~
gusti, occasioned by the Spaniards beginning their compu¬
tation from the time their country came under the dominion
of Augustus, or that of receiving the Roman calendar. This
opinion, however ingenious, is rejected by Scaliger, not only
on account that in the ancient abbreviatures A never stood
for annus, unless when preceded by Vfor vixit; but that it
seems improbable they should put ER for erat, and the let¬
ter A, without any discrimination, both for annus and Augus¬
tus. Vossius nevertheless favours the conjecture, and judges
it at least as probable as either that of Isidore, who derives
eera from ces, the tribute-money wherewith Augustus taxed
the world; or that of Scaliger himself, who deduces it like¬
wise from (es, though in a different manner. AEs, he ob¬
serves, was used among the ancients for an article or item
in an account; and hence it came also to stand for a sum or
number itself. From the plural cera, came the corruption
«ra, (b, eeram, in the singular; much as Ostia, ce, Ostiam,
the name of a place, from Ostia, the mouths of the Tiber.
The difference between the terms cera and epoch is, that
the aeras are certain points fixed by some people or nation,
and the epochs are points fixed by chronologists and histo¬
rians. The idea of an sera comprehends also a certain suc¬
cession of years proceeding from a fixed point of time, and
the epoch is that point itself. Thus the Christian sera be¬
gan at the epoch of the birth of Jesus Christ. See Chro¬
nology.
iERARIUM, the treasury or place where the public
money was deposited amongst the Romans.
AErarium Ilithyce, or Junonis Lucince, was where the
moneys were deposited which parents paid for the birth of
each child.
AErarium Privatum was the emperor’s privy purse, or the
place where the money arising from his private patrimony
was deposited.
AErarium Sanctius contained the moneys arising from
A E R 165
the twentieth part of all legacies i this was kept for the ex- -Erarium
treme necessities of the state. ||
AErarium Vicesimarum, the place where the money aris- Aer0‘
ing from the taxes levied from foreign countries was laid up; vnautica-;
so called because it most commonly consisted of a twentieth
part of the produce.
There are several other treasuries mentioned in history,
as the AErarium Juventutis, Veneris, &c. The temple of
Saturn was the public treasury of Rome, either because Sa¬
turn first taught the Italians to coin money, or, which is most
likely, because this temple was the strongest and most se¬
cure, and therefore the fittest place for that purpose.
AErarium differs from Fiscus, as the first contained the
public money, the second that of the prince. The two are,
however, sometimes indiscriminately used for each other.
ARARIUS, a name given by the Romans to a degraded
citizen, who had been struck off the list of his century. Such
persons were so called, because they were still liable to all
the taxes {(era), though deprived of the privileges of citi¬
zens.
The cerarii were incapable of making a will, of inheriting,
of voting in assemblies, or of enjoying any post of honour or
profit; in effect, they were only subject to the burdens, with¬
out the benefits of society ; yet they retained their freedom,
and were not reduced to the condition of slaves. To be
made an eerarius was a punishment inflicted for some offence,
and reputed one degree more severe than to be expelled a
tribe, tribu moveri.
.Ararius was likewise an officer instituted by Alexander
Severus, for the distribution of the money given in largesses
to the soldiery or people.
/Erarius was also used for a person employed in coining
or working brass. These are sometimes called cerarii fus-
ores. At other times, cerarius is distinguished from /ksor;
the former answering to what we now call coppersmiths, the
latter to founders.
Ararius was also applied to a soldier who receives pay.
AERIA, or Eeria, in Ancient Geography, the ancient
name of Egypt. The scholiast on Apollonius Rhodius says,
that not only Thessaly, but Egypt, was called Hepux by the
Greeks, which Eusebius also confirms ; and hence Apollina-
rius, in his translation of the 114th Psalm, uses it for Egypt.
Hesychius applies this name to Ethiopia.
AERIE. See Airy.
AERNEN, a market town near the river Rhone, in the
canton of Wallis or Valais, in Switzerland, in the district of
Gambs. It has a State-house and other good buildino-s, and
is the seat of justice for the district.
AERODYNAMICS. See Dynamics.
AEROLITE, a term recently, but perhaps improperly,
applied to those singular substances commonly called Me¬
teoric Stones. See Meteorolite.
AEROMANGY, a species of divination performed by
means of air, wind, &c.
AEROMETRY, the science of measuring the air. It
comprehends not only the doctrine of the air itself, consi¬
dered as a fluid body, but also its pressure, elasticity, rare¬
faction, and condensation. But the term is at present not
much in use, this branch of natural philosophy being more
frequently called Pneumatics.
AERONAUTICA, from arjp, and vavriKos, derived from
vavs, ship ; the art of sailing in a vessel or machine through
the atmosphere, sustained as a ship in the sea. See Aero¬
nautics.
166
AERONAUTICS.
Aeronau- TN every stage of society men have eagerly sought, by the
tics. JL combination of superior skill and ingenuity, to attain
those distinct advantages which nature has confeired on
Gradual the different tribes of animals, by endowing them with a
Of navW peculiar structure and a peculiar force of organs. The
tion. “ ' rudest savage learns from his very infancy to imitate the
swimming of a fish, and plays on the surface of the water
with an agility and a perseverance which seem to decline
with the advancement of civilisation. Tut an art so con¬
fined in its exercise, and requiring such a degree of bo¬
dily exertion, could not be considered of much avail. It
was soon, perceived, that the fatigue of impulsion through
the water could be greatly diminished, by the support and
floating of some light substance. The trunk of a tree
would bear its rude proprietor along the stream; or, hol¬
lowed out into a canoe, and furnished with paddles, it
might enable him even to traverse a river. From this
simple fabric, the step was not great to the construction
of a boat or barge, impelled by the force of oars. But it
was a mighty stride to fix masts and apply sails to the
vessel, and thus substitute the power of wind for that of
human labour. The adventurous sailor, instead of plying
on the narrow seas, or creeping timidly along the shore,
could now launch with confidence into the wide ocean.
Navigation, in its most cultivated form, may be fairly re¬
garded as the consummation of art, and the sublimest
triumph of human genius, industry, courage, and perse¬
verance.
Vain at- Having by his skill achieved the conquest of the waters
tempts to that encompass the habitable globe, it was natural for
fly through man to desire likewise the mastery of the air in which we
the air. breathe. In all ages, accordingly, has ingenuity been
tortured in vain efforts at flying. The story of Icarus tes¬
tifies how fatal such daring attempts had generally proved
to their projectors. Trials made with automatons, though
less liable to risk and danger, were yet equally fallacious.
Archytas, a most eminent Greek geometer and astrono¬
mer, who perished by shipwreck on the coast of Calabria,
was believed by his admiring contemporaries to have con¬
structed an artificial dove, which, by the action of a sys¬
tem of internal springs, wafted itself through the air. If
such a piece of mechanism was ever made, we may be
sure that its flight was really produced, as in the scenes
of the opera, by means of invisible strings or wires.
Flying as- So thoroughly were the ancients convinced of the im-
cribed to possibility of men being able to fly, that they ascribed the
demons, absolute rule of the sky to divinities of the first order.
The supreme Jupiter alone reposed on his empyreal throne,
far above the heights of Olympus; and to him was it
given, from the region of the clouds, to point the winged
lightning, and to hurl the flaming thunderbolt. On spe¬
cial missions he dispatched Mercury, as his messenger,
through the wide range of atmosphere. The oriental
nations, from whom we have borrowed the greater part
of our vulgar mythology, likewise committed such journeys
to certain genii or ministering spirits. But the glowing
visions of the East received a darker tinge from the cha¬
racter and climate of our Gothic ancestors. The arch¬
fiend himself was, at no very distant period, firmly be¬
lieved to have the especial control of the air, and to career
in the whirlwind and impel the howling tempest. Those
wretched creatures whom the unfeeling credulity of our
ancestors, particularly during the prevalence of religious
fanaticism, stigmatized and murdered under the denomi¬
nation of witches, were supposed to work all their enchant- Aeronau-
ments, to change their shapes at will, and to transport ^tics.
themselves through the air with the swiftness of thought,
by a power immediately derived from their infernal mas¬
ter. At a period somewhat earlier, every person in pos¬
session of superior talents and acquirements was believed
to deal in magic, and to perform his feats of skill chiefly
through the secret aid granted him by the prince of
darkness. In spite of the incurable perverseness of his
conduct, it must be confessed that the devil has always
had the credit of retaining some little inclination to assist
the efforts of genius.
During the darkness of the middle ages, every one at and to ma-
all distinguished by his knowledge in physics was gene-gicians.
rally reputed to have attained the power of flying in the
air. Our famous countryman Friar Bacon, among other
dreams engendered in his fervid brain, has not scrupled
to claim the invention of that envied and transcendent
art. To these pretensions the credulity and indulgent
admiration of some authors have lent more credit than
they really deserved. Any person who will take the
trouble to examine the passages of Bacon’s obscure though
ponderous works, must soon be convinced, that the pro¬
positions advanced by him are very seldom founded on
reality, but ought rather to be considered as the sportive
illusions of a lively and teeming fancy. Albertus Magnus,
who lived about the same period, and was esteemed in
Germany as a perfect prodigy, pretended also to the art of
flying. More than a century afterwards, John Muller of
Kdnigsberg, and thence styled Regiomontanus, one of the
chief restorers of genuine mathematical learning in Europe,
was reported by some writers of note to have, like Archy¬
tas, fashioned an artificial dove, which displayed its wings,
and flew before the emperor Charles V. at his public
entrance into Niiremburg. But, unfortunately for the
veracity of the story, Regiomontanus died in early life,
full sixty years before that visit took place.
While the belief in necromancy prevailed, such tales Dark fea
assumed colours of the most lurid hue. Fiery dragons, tures of
created by infernal machination, were imagined to rush that art.
impetuous through the sky, vomiting flames, and widely
scattering the seeds of pestilence. Grave writers, in
those benighted ages, even ventured to describe the me¬
thod of imitating the composition of such terrific monsters.
A mass of large hollow reeds were to be disposed and
bound together, then sheathed completely in skin, and
smeared over with pitch and other inflammable matters :
this light and bulky engine, partially set on fire, and
launched in the thickest darkness into the air, might be
sufficient, when borne along by the force of the wind, to
strike the ignorant populace with affright and horror.
But such spectacles wTould come to lose their terrors by
repeated failure and the insensible progress of knowledge.
So late as the year 1750, a small Catholic town in Swabia
was almost entirely burnt to ashes by an unsuccessful expe¬
riment of that sort, instigated, and probably directed, no
doubt for the edification of their flock, by the lowest or¬
der of priests. It was attempted to represent the effigy
of Martin Luther, whom the monks firmly believe to be
the very imp of Satan, under the form of a winged serpent,
furnished with all the requisite appendages of a forked tail
and hideous claws. Unluckily for the skill of the machinist,
this phantom directly fell against the chimney of a house,
to which it set fire ; and the flames spreading furiously in
AERONAUTICS.
ev?y direction, the people had soon cause to lament bit-
terly their intemperate zeal.
Later at- ®clleme of flying in the air, which men of the first
tempts at Senms had once entertained, appears to have gradually
flying. descended to a lower class of projectors. Those who
afterwards occupied themselves with such hopeless at¬
tempts, had commonly a smattering of mechanics, with
some little share of ingenuity, but wrought up by exces¬
sive conceit.
In the beginning of the sixteenth century, an Italian
adventurer visited Scotland, during the reign of James
I V.; and being a man of some address, and at the same
time a pretender to alchemy, he contrived to insinuate
unself into the favour of that gay and needy prince, by
olding out hopes of augmenting his scanty treasury by
the acquisition of the philosopher’s stone. He was collat¬
ed by royal favour to the abbacy of Tungland in Galloway;
but not having succeeded in creating artificial riches, he
resolved, m the height of his enthusiasm, at once to gra¬
tify and astonish the courtiers, by the display of a feat
still moie extraordinary. Having constructed a set of
ample wings, composed of various plumage, he undertook,
from the walls of Stirling Castle, to fly through the air to
trance. This experiment he had actually the folly or
hardihood to try; but he soon came to the ground, and
broke his thigh-bone by the violence of the fall. For his
unlucky failure, however, the abbot had the dexterity to
draw a very plausible excuse from the wretched sophistry,
termed science in that age. “ My wings,” said the artful
Italian, “ were composed of various feathers ; among them
were the feathers of dunghill fowls, and they, by a certain
sympathy, were attracted to the dunghill; whereas, had
my wings been composed of the feathers of eagles alone,
the same sympathy would have attracted them to the re¬
gion of the air.” This anecdote has furnished to Dunbar,
the Scotish poet, the subject of one of his rude Satires.
A century afterwards, Fleyder, rector of the grammar-
school at Tubingen, entertained, in 1617, the worshipful
magistrates of that city with a lecture on the art of flying,
which he published at the lapse of eleven years, yet pru¬
dently contented himself with barely explaining his theory.
A poor monk, however, ambitious to reduce this theory
into practice, having provided himself with spacious wings,
took his flight from the top of a high tower; but encoun¬
tering a cross wind, his machinery misgave, and falling
precipitously to the ground, he broke both his legs, and
perished miserably. An accident of a similar kind is re¬
lated to have happened not long since near Vienna.
Impossilr- The impossibility of rising, or even remaining suspend-
lity of fly-ed in the airj by the action of any machinery impelled by
167
any application of inherent strength, of ascending into Aeronau-
the atmosphere, it was natural for men of ardent minds, tics,
who still pursued that dazzling project, to look for sorne^^^''
extraneous aid among the varied powers of the elements.
The notions entertained by the ancients respecting theCosmoIo-
composition of the world might have suggested important§‘cal no¬
hints for realizing the scheme of aerial navigation. Thetionsoflhe
four elements—earth, water, air, and fire or ether, ar.ancients.
ranged according to their several qualities and tendencies,
were supposed to constitute this universal frame. Earth,
being heavy and inert, occupies the centre of the system*
and above it flowed the waters; air, from its lightness,
rose upwards, and invested the globe with an atmosphere ;
while the diffuse ethereal substance soared, by its extreme*
buoyancy, to the celestial regions, and filled with splen¬
dour their pure expanse. Every portion of these distinct
elements, if transported from its place, was conceived as
having a natural and constant appetency to return to its
original situation. Earth and water sink downwards by
their gravity, while air and fire, endued with an opposite
principle, as invariably rise to the higher spaces. A por¬
tion of fire, joined to water or to air, communicates, in a
corresponding degree, its levity, or disposition to ascend.
I hus, warm air always rises ; water, subdued by excessive
heat, flies upwards in the form of vapour; and the volatile
parts of inflamed bodies are borne to the sky in smoke.
The first person that seems to have formed a just idea Idea of
of the principle on which a balloon could be constructed sailin#
was Albert of Saxony, a monk of the respectable order of through
St Augustin, who lived in the fourteenth century, and cie a*r
wrote n learner! eemvv,en+„,.„ „l __/„i , Hrst g!Veil
denwnf hui?ian forc^ ^as first demonstrated by Borelii, i moat
strated"by ?m‘nent Italian mathematician and philosopher, who lived
Hore.li. in the fertile age of discovery, and was thoroughly ac¬
quainted with the true principles of mechanics and pneu¬
matics. In his celebrated and excellent work De Motu
Animalium, published in 1670, he showed, by accurate
calculation, the prodigious force which the pectoral mus¬
cles of birds must exert and maintain. The same princi¬
ples, applied to the structure of the human frame, proved
how very disproportionate was the strength of the cor¬
responding muscles in man. It is not, therefore, the mere
difficulty of contriving and combining machinery which
should perform the peculiar motions of wings, that has
rendered all attempts of the kind futile, but the utter
want of adequate force in the human body to give such
impulsion to those extended vanes as would be necessary
for supporting so great a weight in the thin medium of
the atmosphere.
Having found by experience the impossibility, from
wrote a learned commentary on the physical works of^Vu^T
Aristotle. Since fire is more attenuated than air, and of Saxony,
floats above the region of our atmosphere, this ingenious
person conceived that a portion of such ethereal substance,
inclosed in a light hollow globe, would raise it to a cer¬
tain height, and keep it suspended in the sky. But the
same philosopher rightly subjoined, that a greater mixture
of air introduced into the balloon, by rendering this heavier
than before, would cause it to descend proportionally, in
the same way precisely as water admitted through the
seams of a ship makes the vessel to sink in the ocean.
It is evident that nothing was wanted for completing
Montgolfier’s discovery, but to carry those fine views into
execution.
The ideas of Albert of Saxony were long afterwards ami arlopt-
zealously embraced by Francis Mendoza, a Portuguese e(l by Men-
Jesuit, who died at Lyons in the course of a tour through t*oza
France in 1626, at the age of 46. He maintained that
the combustible nature of fire was no real obstacle to its
application in balloons, since its extreme levity, and the
exclusion of the air, would hinder it from supporting in¬
flammation. Casper Schott, a Jesuit likewise, pursued and Casper
more soberly the same speculation in Germany, He Schott,
stated that no air of these lower regions is ever light
enough to produce an ascent, and that the lucid ethereal
matter which swims above our atmosphere is alone fit¬
ted for aerial navigation. Were any superhuman power,
therefore, to bring down a store of that buoyant substance,
to be inclosed in a hollow ball of wood or thin lead, the
vessel, being furnished with a rudder and sails, might
then, he conceived, boldly navigate the sky.
Similar notions have been renewed at different times. Blended
I hey were likewise often blended with the alchemical with alche-
tenets so generally received in the course of the fifteenth, ™ical no-
sixteenth, and part of the seventeenth centuries. Con-^10ns‘
ceiving with the ancients that the dew which falls during
the night is of celestial origin, and shed by the stars,
speculative men still imagined this pure humidity to be
drawn up again to the heavens by the sun’s rays in the
168 AERONAUTICS.
Aeronau- heat of the day. Many persons, imbued with the wretch-
tics. e(i learning of that age, had the simplicity to believe that
an egg-shell filled with the morning dew, and placed at
the foot of a ladder leaning against the roof of a house,
would, as the day advanced, spontaneously rise along the
Whimsical bars, and mount to the chimney-tops. This whimsical
projects of fancy is confidently related as an observed fact by Father
Father Lauretus Taurus. “ Take,” says he, very gravely, “ a
Taurus. googe ^ andj having filled it with dew gathered fresh in
the morning, expose it to the sun during the hottest part
of the day, and it will ascend, and rest suspended for a
few moments.” To perform the experiment on a greater
scale, however, he proposed to employ the largest swan’s
egg, or a bag artificially prepared from the thinnest and
lightest skin, into which, instead of dew, he would intro¬
duce the three alchemical elements, nitre, sulphur, and
mercury; and he imagined that these active bodies, ex¬
panded and sublimed by the mere heat of the sun, must
spring powerfully upwards. In this way he thought the
dove of Archytas might be constructed. But the vision¬
ary priest had yet another scheme to advance for effect¬
ing the ascent of the automaton : he proposed to cram the
cavity of the dove with highly condensed air ; and was so
grossly ignorant of the principles of motion as to suppose
that this imprisoned fluid would impel the machine in
the same manner as wind does a sail. Should such a
force be found not sufficiently efficacious, he finally recom¬
mended the application of fire; not, however, on account
of its buoyant property, but because of the propulsive
power which it exerts. To prevent the fire from con¬
suming the wooden machine, he recommends lining the
inside with cloth of asbestos or other incombustible mate¬
rials ; and to feed and support steadily this fire, he sug¬
gested a compound of butter, salts, and orpiment, lodged
in metallic tubes, which he imagined wrould at the same
time heighten the whole effect, by emitting a variety of
musical tones like an organ.
Proposals Influenced by the same views, other authors, and par-
of Cardan ticularly the famous Cardan, have proposed, for aerial
and Fabry. ascen(.Sj apply fire acting as in a rocket. Still later,
but in the same country, Honoratus Fabry, penitentiary
of the pope, and teacher in the gymnasium at Rome,
who died about the end of the seventeenth century, de¬
scribed a huge apparatus, consisting of very long tin pipes,
in which air was compressed by the vehement action of
fire below. In a boat suspended from the machine, a man
was to sit and direct the whole, by the opening or shut¬
ting of valves.
Philoso- The projects and vagaries of learned men about the
phical ro- misty period of the restoration of science were finely
mance of ridiculed by Cyrano de Bergerac, a very witty and elo-
Cyrano c e quent French writer, in a philosophical romance, entitled
ergeiac. Q0mical History of the States and Kingdoms in the
Sun and Moon. This eccentric genius, born at Perigord
in 1620, was noted for his impetuous temper and boiling
courage. He spent his youth in dissipation and feats of
arms; but afterwards, in riper life, he quitted the military
profession, and betook himself to the study of poetry and
philosophy, which he prosecuted with great ardour and
success till he died, at the early age of 35. In his ro¬
mance, from which perhaps Swift borrowed the idea of
Gulliver’s voyage to Laputa, Bergerac introduced a good
deal of the Cartesian philosophy, then just coming into
vogue ; but lashed severely the pedantry and ignorance of
various pretenders to science. To equip himself for per¬
forming the journey to the moon, the French traveller
fastens round his body a multitude of very thin flasks fill¬
ed with the morning’s dew. The heat of the sun, by its
attractive power exerted on the dew, raised him up to
the middle region of the atmosphere; where some of his Aeronau-
flasks happening unluckily to break, the adventurer sunk
again to the ground, and alighted in Canada. There he
constructed a new machine, acting by a train of wheels,
with which he mounted to some height; but falling down,
he had the misfortune to break his leg. He crept aside,
in search of ox-marrow to compose a salve, with which he
instantly healed his bruises ; and returning again, he found
his engine in the possession of some soldiers, who had
fixed to it a number of sky-rockets. Replacing himself
now in the car, he applied fire to the rockets, and darted
upwards with inconceivable swiftness: the earth retired
gradually from view, while the orb of the moon appeared
proportionally to expand, till, approaching the sphere of
her activity, he was borne softly along, and descended
on the lunar surface into a most delicious and luxuriant
grove. Here, of course, he met with angelic personages,
endowed with every perfection of body and mind, and far
exalted above the mean vices and the rancorous passions
which poison and inflame the inhabitants of this blood¬
stained globe. In the conversations which Bergerac held
with those supernal beings, he was informed that a na¬
tive of our planet, utterly disgusted at the crimes which
pollute its “ sin-worn mould,” had once on a time provided
himself with a pair of very large and thin metallic vessels,
which he filled with smoke, and sealed in the light; and
having attached himself below them, the buoyant power
of the confined smoke carried him to the highest region
of our atmosphere, where the attraction of the moon at
length prevailing, drew him to her surface, while the great
extent of the machinery, by opposing resistance, served to
break the force of his fall. The moment, however, those
slender capacious vessels were liberated from his weight,
they rose again by the action of the smoke, till they
reached a medium of the same density, and finally took
their station in the bright fields of ether, where they form
the constellation now called the Balance.
In further discourse with his sublime instructor, our
romantic voyager was shown how to obtain the power of
ascension from the loadstone. He was directed to take
two magnets, each about a foot square, to roast them in
the fire, to separate their impurities by solution, and thus
concentrate their attractive virtue in a mere calx, which
could be formed into a ball. Aided by such counsels, he
now resolved to visit the sun. With much labour and
perseverance he constructed a chest of very thin steel,
six feet high and three feet wide; an icosahedron of
crystal, the highest of all the regular solids, being fitted
into the top, and the bottom having a small valve which
opened outwards. Into this chest he shut himself, while
the sun’s rays, concentrated and multiplied by reflection
from the numerous facets of the crystal, heated the air
intensely, and drove a great part of it out below; and he
ascended rapidly towards the glorious luminary, breathing
ecstaticly in divine light, which gleamed with the richest
tints of enamelled gold and purple. But it would be fo¬
reign to our purpose to follow the rest of the narrative,
which, though disguised and mingled with fantastic vi¬
sions, evidently contains the true principles of aeronautics.
The most noted and elaborate scheme for navigating Lana’s
the atmosphere was proposed by the Jesuit Francis Lana, scheme for
in a book written in the Italian language, and printed at^J1^11^
Brescia in 1670, with the aspiring title of Prodromo dell
Arte Maestra. His project was to procure four copper
balls of very large dimensions, yet so extremely thin, that,
after the air had been extracted, they should become, in
a considerable degree, specifically lighter than the sur¬
rounding medium. He entered into some calculations to
prove that the buoyant power thus obtained would be
AERONAUTICS.
169
Aeronau- fully adequate to produce the desired effect. Yet he
seems to have had only a slender knowledge of geometry,
and but little acquaintance with the progress of physical
science. For instance, he founds his computations en¬
tirely on the pneumatical discoveries of Galileo and Tori-
celli, without making any reference to those important
facts which the invention of the air-pump by Otto Gue¬
ricke had successively detected in the course of near 30
years. He assumes that air is 640 times lighter than
water; that a cubic foot of water weighs 80 pounds, and
consequently that the weight of the same bulk of air is
His calcu- an ounce and a half. If we rectify the estimate of Lana,
ations. an(j reduce it to English measures, each of his copper balls
had about 25 feet in diameter, with the thickness of only
the 225th part of an inch, the metal weighing 365 pounds
avoirdupois, while the weight of the air which it contain¬
ed must amount to 670 pounds, leaving, after a vacuum
had been formed, an excess of 305 pounds, for the power
of ascension. Those four balls would therefore rise to¬
gether into the atmosphere with a combined force of 1220
pounds, which was thought sufficient by the projector to
transport a boat completely furnished with masts, sails,
oars, and rudders, and carrying several passengers. To
extract the air from their cavities, the method proposed
was, to procure a Toricellian vacuum, by connecting each
globe, fitted with a stop-cock, to a tube of at least thirty-
five feet long; the whole being filled with pure water, and
raised gently into a vertical position, the mass of liquid,
exceeding the pressure of the atmosphere, would flow
out, and subside to some point below the cock, which
could then be shut.
His at- Lana enumerates the different objections which might
tempts to be urged against his scheme, and endeavours to answer
answer ob- them. He thinks that the spherical and perfectly arched
lections. form 0f t]le g^gji 0f COpper would, notwithstanding its ex¬
treme thinness, enable it, after the exhaustion was effect¬
ed, to sustain the enormous pressure of the external air,
which, acting equally on every point of the surface, would
rather tend to consolidate than to crush or tear the
metal. As the atmosphere becomes always lighter in the
upper regions, the machinery could only rise to a certain
limit; and if this were found too high for easy breathing,
the ascent could be regulated by opening occasionally the
cocks to admit some air into the cavity of the balls, and
thus increase their specific gravity. There seemed to him
no very great difficulty in directing and impelling the
aerial bark, by means of rudders, oars, and sails; but the
objection was more serious on account of the hazards of
tremendous shipwreck, from the violence of winds and
tempests. Yet what most alarmed the insinuating Jesuit,
and which he earnestly prays God to avert, was the dan¬
ger that would result, from the successful practice of the
art of aeronautics, to the existence of civil government,
and of all human institutions. No walls or fortifications
could then protect cities, which might be completely sub¬
dued or destroyed, without having the power to make
any sort of resistance, by a mere handful of daring as¬
sailants, who should rain down fire and conflagration from
the region of the clouds.
So sanguine was Lana, as to conceive that the very
moderate sum of a hundred ducats would be sufficient to
defray the expense of all this huge and delicate apparatus.
But his poverty, fortunately, no doubt, for his credit as a
man of learning, prevented him from proceeding further
than mere speculation; and none of the foreign princes,
who about that period often squandered, like gamesters,
much of their wealth in the dark and chimerical search
after the philosopher’s stone, seemed any way disposed to
engage in the magnificent scheme of aerial navigation.
VOL. II.
The project of Lana appears to have in some degree Aeronau-
excited the attention of the learned, though it was at the Acs.
same time very generally condemned. Hooke, Borelli,
Leibnitz, and Sturmius, examined it, and severely expos¬
ed its defects. Indeed, any person at all acquainted with
actual experiment must see that it was absolutely im¬
practicable. Passing over other circumstances, the at¬
tenuated shell of copper, from its size and excessive thin¬
ness, could not have strength enough to support even its
own weight, far less the slightest pressure of the atmo¬
sphere. The plate, however, that Lana has given of his
whole combined apparatus appears very striking ; andafter
Montgolfier’s discovery, it could not fail to attract a greater
share of notice than it was otherwise entitled to claim.
So late as the year 1755, and not very long before the Project of
final invention of balloons, a very fanciful scheme, yet on Galien.
the grandest scale, for navigating the atmosphere, was pub¬
lished with most circumstantial detail, in a small pamphlet,
by Joseph Galien, a Dominican friar, and professor of phi¬
losophy and theology in the papal university of Avignon.
This visionary proposed to collect the fine diffuse air of
the higher regions, where hail is formed, above the sum¬
mit of the loftiest mountains, and to inclose it in a bag
of a cubical shape, and of the most enormous dimensions,
extending more than a mile every way, and composed of
the thickest and strongest sail-cloth. With such a vast
machine, far outrivalling in boldness and magnitude the
ark of Noah, it would be possible, he thought, to transport
a whole army, and all their ammunitions of war. But we
need not stop one moment to consider a project so per¬
fectly chimerical, which involves, besides, the erroneous
supposition that the air of the upper regions is, indepen¬
dently of its diminished compression, essentially thinner
and more elastic than the air below.
It cannot fail to. strike the reader, that the persons who
have occupied themselves the most with attempts at
aerial navigation, were all of them Catholic priests;—
whether this pursuit is to be explained from their habits
of seclusion and their ignorance of the affairs of real life,
or from their familiar acquaintance with the relations of
miracles and other legendary tales, which might lead them
to see nothing very extraordinary in the art of flying
through the air. The various schemes of that kind, pro¬
duced at different times, contain a few just principles,
generally mixed up, however, with a large portion of ab¬
surdity. But very wide is the distance from such specu¬
lations to the real exhibition of the experiment itself.
Some writers have stated that Lord Bacon first pub-Confused
lished the true principles of aeronautics. This round as-ideas of
sertion we cannot help noticing, because it has really no Lord Ba-
foundation, except in the propensity, fostered by indolence,0011 on
which would gladly refer all the discoveries ever made toafronau*
a few great names. They mistake, indeed, the character tlcs‘
of Bacon, who seek to represent him as an inventor. His
claim to immortality rests chiefly on the profound and
comprehensive views which he took of the bearings of
the different parts of human knowledge; for it would be
difficult to point out a single fact or observation with
which he enriched the store of physical science. On the
contrary, being very deficient in mathematical learning,
he disregarded or rejected some of the noblest discoveries
made in his own time.
We can find only two passages in Lord Bacon’s works
which can be considered as referring to aeronautics, and
they both occur in that collection of loose facts and in¬
conclusive reasonings which he has entitled Natural His¬
tory. The first is styled Experiment Solitary, touching
Flying in the Air, and runs thus : “ Certainly many birds
of good wing (as kites and the like) would bear up a good
y
170 AERONAUTICS.
Aeronau- weight as they fly; and spreading feathers thin and close,
tics. and in great breadth, will likewise bear up a great
weight, being even laid, without tilting up on the sides.
The further extension of this experiment might he thought
upon” This hint is not in fairness obnoxious to stric¬
ture, since the ingenious Bishop Wilkins, twenty years
afterwards, still believed that men could acquire the
art of flying. Nor was there any reason to despair,
till Borelli at length demonstrated its absolute impos¬
sibility.—The second passage is more diffuse, but less
intelligible : it is styled Experiment Solitary, touching the
Flying of unequal Bodies in the Air. “ Let there be a
body of unequal weight (as of wool and lead, or bone and
lead) ; if you throw it from you with the light end forward,
it will turn, and the weightier end will recover to be for¬
wards, unless the body be over long. The cause is, for
that the more dense body hath a more violent pressure of
the parts from the first impulsion; which is the cause
(though heretofore not found out, as hath been often said)
of all violent motions: and when the hinder part moveth
swifter (for that it less endureth pressure of parts) than
the forward part can make way for it, it must needs
be that the body turn over; for (turned) it can more
easily draw forward the lighter part.” The fact here
alluded to is the resistance that bodies experience in
moving through the air, which depending on the quan¬
tity of surface merely, must exert a proportionally great¬
er effect on rare substances. The passage itself, however,
after making every allowance for the period in which it
was written, must be deemed confused, obscure, and un-
philosophical.
True the- That a body must remain suspended in a fluid denser
ory of bal- than itself, was first established by Archimedes, whose pro¬
loons. positions in hydrostatics were further extended in modern
times by Stevinus and other early mathematicians. But
the principles on which a balloon could be made to rise in
the atmosphere were scarcely understood till very long
afterwards, when chemistry, near the latter part of the
last century, had succeeded in ascertaining the properties
of the different kinds of aeriform substances. The Greeks
of the lower empire knew that air is greatly dilated by
warmth; and Sanctorio, the ingenious medical professor
at Padua, by applying this expansion, about the year
1590, to the construction of the thermometer, had hap¬
pily placed it in a strong light. His countryman Borelli
remarked, almost a century afterwards, that a heated iron
or a burning taper brought near one of the scales of a
well-poised balance, by exciting a vertical current, will
cause it to mount up with force,—a fact which affords the
only true explication of the numerous experiments of
Buffon with the weighing of red-hot balls, wdiose regular
and constant results appeared to that eloquent philosopher
to exhibit a conclusive demonstration of the actual pon¬
derability of heat. Yet warm air, alone and unassisted,
has still no very great power of ascension. The buoyancy
communicated to that fluid by the distensible vapour of
water and other more volatile liquids is in some cases
considerable, especially when combined at the same time
with heat. But those aeriform substances which are
more elastic than common air display the most steady
and powerful tendency to rise in the atmosphere. Such,
in a remarkable degree, is the hydrogen gas, owdng pro¬
bably to the expansive force communicated by the very
Lightness large share of heat which is embodied with it. The late
of hydro- most ingenious and accurate Mr Cavendish, in 1766,
gen gas found, by a nice observation, this fluid to be at least seven
found by tjmes lighter than atmospheric air. It therefore occurred
Ca\endish. to j~jr j}]ac]< 0f Edinburgh, that a very thin bag filled
with hydrogen gas would rise to the cieling of a room
He provided, accordingly, the allantois of a calf, with the Aeronau-
view of showing, at a public lecture, such a curious ex- tics-
periment before his numerous auditors; but, owing to
some unforeseen accident or imperfection, it chanced to
fail, and that celebrated professor, whose infirm state of
health and cold or indolent temper more than once al¬
lowed the finest discoveries, when almost within reach, to
escape his penetration, did not attempt to repeat the exhi¬
bition, or seek to pursue the project any farther. Several
years afterwards, a similar idea occurred to Mr Cavallo,
who found, however, that bladders, though carefully
scraped, are too heavy, and that China paper is permeable
to the gas. It is rather singular that he did not think of
gold-beater’s skin, which had for like purposes been re¬
commended two centuries before by the grammarian
Joseph Scaliger and some other writers. But in 1782
this ingenious person succeeded with the pretty experi¬
ment of elevating soap-bubbles, by inflating them with
hydrogen gas.
To construct an aeronautic machine, it is only required, Power nf
therefore, to provide a thin bag, of sufficient capacity, andascension-
to fill it with hydrogen gas, or with air which is kept in a
rarefied state. The form and strength of the material are
not so essential as in Lana’s project, since it here suffers
an equal pressure on both its outer and its inner side.
Nor is it an absolute condition that the substance of the
bag should be quite impervious to the gas or confined air;
though such a defect, by allowing the partial escape of the
buoyant fluid, must inevitably diminish the vigour and
abridge the duration of the power of the balloon’s ascent.
This power is evidently the excess of the weight of an
equal bulk of atmospheric air above the aggregate weight
of the included gas, joined to that of the bag, and of all
its appendages : in other words, the final power of ascent
is the difference between the weight of the included gas
and of that of an equal volume of external air, further
diminished by the weight of the whole apparatus. But
supposing the form of the balloon to remain the same, this
counteracting load, as it depends on the quantity of sur¬
face contained in the bag, must be proportioned to the
square of the diameter; whereas the difference between
the internal and external volume of fluid, which consti¬
tutes the whole of the buoyant force, increases in a faster
ratio, being proportioned to the capacity of the bag, or the
cube of its diameter. It hence follows, that however small
the excess may be of the specific gravity of the external
air above that of the collected fluid, there must always
exist some corresponding dimension which would enable
a balloon to mount in the atmosphere.
The theory of aeronautics, considered in its detail, in¬
cludes three distinct things : first, the power of a bal¬
loon to rise through the air; second, the velocity of its
ascent; and, third, the stability of its suspension at any
given height in the atmosphere. These points we shall
examine separately.
I. The buoyant force of balloons. Since balloons in Buoyancy
their shape generally approach to the spherical form, it01 kaffoons
will be more convenient to ground our calculations on that
figure. A globe of common air at the level of the sea,
and of the mean density and temperature, is found to
weigh about the 25th part of a pound avoirdupois. Con¬
sequently, if a perfect vacuum could be procured, a bal¬
loon of ten feet diameter must rise with a force of 40
pounds; one of twenty feet diameter, with that of 320
pounds; and a balloon of thirty feet in diameter would
mount in the atmosphere with the power of 1080 pounds :
—thus augmenting always in the ratio of the cube of the
diameters. But air expands by heat about the 450th part
AERONAUTICS.
from hu¬
midity ;
from heat
joined to
moisture.
Smoke bal¬
loons.
Aeronau- of its bulk for each degree on Fahrenheit’s scale. Sup-
ties. posing, therefore, that the air included within the bag
were heated 50 degrees, which is as much perhaps as
could be well supported, it would follow that one ninth
part of this fluid would be driven out by the warmth, and
consequently, that the tendency of the balloon to rise up¬
wards would be equal only to the ninth part of the entire
power of ascension. Were it possible to maintain a heat
of 75 degrees within the balloon, the buoyant force would
yet not exceed the sixth part of the absolute ascensional
power.
The dilatation which the presence of humidity commu¬
nicates to air will, during fine weather in this climate,
amount generally to one eighteenth part, though it may
sometimes reach to more than the double of this quantity.
But, in the tropical regions, such dilatation will commonly
exceed the twentieth part of the volume of fluid. Hence
moist air thrown into a bag, likewise wetted, and suf¬
ficiently large, would cause it to rise in the atmosphere.
To succeed, however, in this way, the balloon construct¬
ed of coarse linen would require enormous dimensions;
not less than three hundred feet in diameter.
_ But it is the union of heat and moisture that gives to
air the greatest expansion. The white smoke with which
the balloons are filled on Montgolfier’s plan, was found, by
computation, to be at least one-third specifically lighter
than the external air. This purer sort of smoke is scarcely
any thing but air itself charged with vapour, being pro¬
duced by the burning of chopped straw or vine twigs in
a brasier, under the orifice of the bag. It would have re¬
quired no fewer than 150 degrees of heat alone to cause
the same extent of rarefaction.
We have therefore sufficient data for calculating the
buoyant force of the common fire, or rather smoke balloons.
This force, being estimated about 12|- pounds avoirdupois
when the diameter of the bag is ten feet, would amount
to 1562| pounds if the diameter were fifty feet, and to
12,500 pounds if it were a hundred feet. The weight of
the linen case may be reckoned at two-fifths of a pound
for a sphere of one foot in diameter. Consequently, a
balloon of ten feet diameter would, without its appen¬
dages, weigh 40 pounds ; one of fifty feet diameter, 1000
pounds ; and one of a hundred feet diameter, 4000 pounds.
Such a balloon of ten feet diameter would need 27|
pounds to make it rise, but one of fifty feet diameter
would ascend with a force of 562| pounds, and one of a
hundred feet diameter would exert an ascending power
of not less than 8500 pounds. There is besides to be de¬
ducted the weight of the cordage, the car, the ballast, and
the passengers. It would require, on these estimates, a
diameter of 33^ feet, to procure merely an equilibrium
between the weight of the canvass and the buoyant force
of the rarefied air.
The hydrogen gas obtained from the action of dilute
sulphuric acid upon iron filings is only six times lighter
than atmospheric air; but the gas evolved during the so¬
lution of zinc in that acid is not less than twelve times
lighter than the standard fluid. The ordinary way of ex¬
amining the specific gravity of the different gases requires
a very delicate operation of weighing with the most ex¬
quisite balance ; a serious difficulty, which long retarded
our knowledge of their comparative densities. In one of
the notes to his Treatise on Heat, Professor Leslie has
pointed out a very simple method, founded on the princi¬
ples of pneumatics, for discovering the relative specific
gravities of the aeriform fluids. This consists in observ¬
ing the time that a given portion of the gas, under a de¬
terminate pressure, takes to escape through a very small
aperture. The density of the gaseous fluid must be in-
171
versely as the square of the interval elapsed. Thus, the Aeronau-
hydrogen gas procured from zinc, but without any depu- tics-
ration, was found, under a pressure of the same column of^^^^
water, to flow thrice as fast as atmospheric air. This ex¬
periment is very striking, and requires no more apparatus
than a cylindrical glass jar, open below, and surmounted
by a cap terminating in a fine tubular orifice.
On a very moderate supposition, therefore, and after Balloons
making every allowance for imperfect operation, we may with hy-
consider the hydrogen gas which fills a balloon as six drogen gas
times lighter than the like bulk of common air. Conse¬
quently, such a balloon must exert five-sixths of the whole
buoyant force corresponding to its capacity, or will have
a tendency to mount in the atmosphere, that is equal to
the thirtieth part of a pound avoirdupois for a globe of
one foot diameter. A spherical balloon of fifteen feet
diameter would hence have a buoyancy of 112^ pounds ;
one of thirty feet, 900 pounds ; and one of sixty feet no
less than 7200 pounds. But thin silk, varnished with
caoutchouc or elastic gum, to render it impervious to air,
is found to weigh only the twentieth part of a pound
when formed into a globe of one foot diameter. A silk
balloon of fifteen feet diameter would hence weigh 11£
pounds; one of thirty feet, 45 pounds ; and one of sixty
feet diameter, 180 pounds. Wherefore, the power of as¬
cension exerted by such balloons would, in pounds avoir¬
dupois, be respectively 101£, 855, and 7020. It follows,
also, that a balloon of a foot and a half in diameter would
barely float in the atmosphere, the weight of its varnished
silk being then exactly balanced by the buoyant effort of
the body of hydrogen gas.
But the calculations now given would in strictness re¬
quire a small modification. The weight of the bag and
of all the appendages must evidently compress the in¬
cluded gas, and thereby render it in some degree denser.
To compute this minute effect, we have only to consider,
that the pressure of a column of atmosphere, at the mean
temperature, and near the level of the sea, is 1632 pounds,
on a circle of a foot diameter. Thus, in the large balloon
of sixty feet diameter, if we suppose the whole load to
have been 6000 pounds, the compression of the bag would
only amount to five-thirds of a pound for each circle of a
foot diameter in the horizontal section, or correspond to
the 979th part of the entire pressure of the atmosphere.
But the weight of the confined gas being 1200 pounds,
its buoyancy must have suffered a diminution of somewhat
more than a pound, or Jj- from the encumbrance opposed
to it. This correction is therefore a mere theoretical
nicety, which may be totally disregarded in practice.
II. 1 he next circumstance to be considered in aero- Celerity of
nautics is, the celerity with which balloons make their ascent. ^le ascent-
It is obvious that the efficient power of ascension, or the °^l,afiuons‘
excess of the whole buoyant force above the absolute
weight of the apparatus, would, by acting constantly, pro¬
duce always an accelerated motion. But this acceleration
is very soon checked, and a uniform progress maintained,
by the increasing resistance which the huge mass must
experience in its passage through the air. The velocity
which a balloon would gain from unobstructed acceleration
must, from the theory of dynamics, be to that which a
falling body acquires in the same time, as the efficient
buoyancy is to the aggregate weight of the apparatus and
of the contained fluid. Thus, if the balloon were to rise
with a force equal to the eighth part of its compound
weight, the celerity resulting from a constant acceleration
would be expressed by multiplying four feet into the
number of seconds elapsed since it was launched into the
air. Its accelerating advance, however, being opposed,
172
AERONAUTICS.
Ammau- the balloon may to all appearance attain, though still af-
tics. fected with partial oscillations, the final velocity in per-
haps little more than double the time required without
1 ermina suc}1 obstruction.
velocity. This final velocityj or the velocity at which the ascent
becomes uniform, the resistance from the air being then
equal to the efficient buoyancy of the balloon, is easily cal¬
culated. The resistance a circle encounters in moving
through any fluid in the direction perpendicular to its
plane, is measured by the weight of a column of that fluid,
having the circle for its base, and an altitude equal to the
height from which a heavy body in falling would acquire
the given celerity. But near the level of the sea, and at
the mean temperature, a column of atmospheric air 17 feet
high, and incumbent on a circle of one foot diameter,
weighs a pound avoirdupois ; which is therefore the resist¬
ance that such a circle would suffer if carried forwards
with the celerity of 33 feet each second. According to
the same theory, however, which we owe to the sagacity
of Newton, the resistance of a sphere is just the half of
that of its generating circle, and consequently a velocity
of 46f feet in a second through the air would, in ordinary
cases, create a resistance of one pound to a ball of one foot
diameter. In other circumstances, the quantity of resist¬
ance must be proportional to the squares of the velocities
and of the diameters. Whence, if the buoyant force
were always the same, the velocity of the ascent of a bal¬
loon would be inversely as its diameter.
Example. Suppose a balloon to have thirty feet in diameter, and
General an ascensional power of 100 pounds. This effort is evi-
formula. (jent]y t]le same as the ninth part of a pound for a globe
of a foot diameter, and wmuld therefore be countervailed
by the resistance corresponding to a velocity of 46f divid¬
ed by 3, the square root of 9, or 15| feet each second.
The balloon would therefore reach the altitude of a mile in
about six minutes. Its accelerating force being only the
sixteenth part of its total weight, it might have acquired
the uniform motion of ascent in twenty seconds, or before
it had attained the height of 200 feet. This example dif¬
fers very little from reality, and the method of computa¬
tion will easily be transferred to other cases.
But the resistance of the air assigned by theory is, from
the circumstances omitted in the simplification of the pro¬
blem, generally somewhat less than the results of obser¬
vation. In low velocities this difference amounts seldom
to the fifth part of the whole effect; but in the high
velocities it increases considerably, exceeding even the
third part in certain extreme cases. From the numerous
and accurate experiments of Dr Charles Hutton, we may,
however, deduce a simple formula for expressing the ter¬
minal velocity of balloons, or the celerity of their uniform
ascent. Let a denote the diameter of the balloon in Eng¬
lish feet, and f its ascensional power, measured in pounds
avoirdupois; then —\// will very nearly represent in feet
a ^
the velocity each second of its regular ascent, or that ve¬
locity which would cause a resistance from the air pre¬
cisely equal to the buoyant force. Or, to express the rule
in words : As the diameter of the balloon in feet is to the
constant number 40, so is the square root of the ascen¬
sional power in pounds to the terminal or uniform velocity
of ascent each second. To illustrate the application of
the formula by an easy example ; suppose the balloon to
have a diameter of 60 feet, with an accelerating power of
144 pounds; the corresponding rate of uniform ascent
becomesor ^ x 12, that is, 8 feet each second,
60 3
or about a mile in eleven minutes.
III. The last point which demands attention in aero Aeronsu-
nautics is, the stability of the suspension of a balloon at any tlcs-
given height in the atmosphere. The circumstances which Stabilitv
might regulate or determine that stability, requiring someof susp;n_
little exercise of thought, have been commonly neglected, s;on.
and very seldom examined with due care. It will be pro¬
per to consider,yzr.tf, the fire or smoke balloons, and, second¬
ly, the balloons filled with hydrogen gas.
1. The warm humified air of the balloon constructed Smoke
after Montgolfier’s plan suffering less external compres- balloons,
sion as it approaches the upper strata of the atmosphere,
must at the same time necessarily expand, and partly
escape by the orifice above the brasier. The weight of the
included fluid, and that of the part expelled, constituting
its buoyant force, will hence be reduced, in proportion to
the diminished density of the medium in which it floats.
The balloon will continue to ascend till its enfeebled buoy¬
ancy is no longer able to support the incumbent load. At
the height of a mile above the surface, the power of ascen¬
sion would be diminished rather more than one fifth part;
but at an altitude of three miles and a half it would be
reduced to one-half. At the ordinary temperature, this
buoyancy would suffer a reduction of the hundredth part
for each ascent of 278 feet. Resuming the data formerly
stated, and supposing the balloon to have a spherical shape,
its actual power of ascension, estimated in pounds avoir-
ap
dupois, will be denoted by —> where a signifies the dia¬
meter in feet, or the cube of the diameter divided by the
constant number 80. If m : n express the ratio of atmo¬
spheric density at the surface and at any given height,
then will — . — denote the diminished buoyant force at
m 80
that altitude.
We shall select, for example, a balloon of 100 feet dia¬
meter, which is one of the largest dimensions ever ac¬
tually constructed. Near the level of the sea, and at the
ordinary temperature, its power of ascension would be
12,500 pounds ; but at the height of8000 feet, or somewhat
more than a mile and a half, when the density is diminished
Q
one-fourth, or — —that power becomes reduced to
m 4
- X 12,500, or 9375 pounds, being a deficiency of 3125
4
pounds. On the supposition that the balloon was at first so
much loaded as to rest just suspended at the ground, a bal¬
last of 3125 pounds must have been thrown out, to make it
rise to the altitude of a mile and a half. Hence also the
rejection of 125 pounds would have been sufficient to give
the balloon an elevation of 278 feet. For the same reason,
10 pounds of ballast heaved out would raise it 22 feet at
the surface, 29 feet at the height of a mile and a half, and
44 feet at that of three miles and a half.
2. The stability of the suspension of balloons filled with Balloons
hydrogen gas must depend on principles which are very charged
different and less marked. In these aeronautic machines, with hy.
after the gas has been once introduced, it is closely shut dragen
up; and therefore, having constantly the same absolute Sas
weight, it should likewise, in all situations, exert the san>e
buoyant force. Hence, if the balloon were capable of inde¬
finite extension, it would still continue its ascent through
unbounded space. The determinate capacity of the bag
alone can oppose limits to its rise in the atmosphere. 1 he
upper strata being rarer than those below, will have less
power to keep any given bulk suspended; and the actual
buoyancy being diminished from that cause, the balloon
will find its station at a corresponding height in the dif¬
fuse medium. But this diminution of the buoyant force,
AERONAUTICS.
Aeronau- and the consequent increase in the density of the hydro-
Sen gas> must necessarily be confined within very mode¬
rate limits, otherwise the thin silk case would be torn to
shreds by the expansive efforts of the imprisoned fluid. A
safety-valve is accordingly placed at the top of the balloon,
calculated to give vent to the gas before the distension has
become such as to endanger the bursting of the case,
should not A balloon should not at first be filled completely with
be com- hydrogen gas, but allowed to begin its ascent in a flac-
fiUed ^ state* As it mounts into the rarer atmosphere, it
wfill gradually swell, till it has attained its full distension,
when the safety valve may come to act. But such dissipa¬
tion of the gas ought, by a previous arrangement, to be as
much as possible avoided. If the balloon were intended to
rise to the height of four miles, it would not be requisite
to fill more than half its capacity with the elastic fluid. To
push the charge any farther in this case, would only oc¬
casion a superfluous waste of materials. By throwing out
part of his ballast, the aeronaut may raise himself higher;
and by opening the valve to permit some of the imprison¬
ed gas to escape, he may descend again: but both those
expedients are attended by a wasteful expenditure of
power.
unstable It is evident that a balloon can have no stability of equi-
when flac- poise, so long as it remains in a loose or flaccid state.
The slightest action would then be sufficient to make it
rise or fall, since, under such circumstances, any change
of its station could not in the smallest degree affect the
measure of its buoyant force. The general elevation to
which the balloon will ascend must be determined by its
quantity of ballast, conjoined with the regulation of the
safety-valve; but the strain of the silk case itself would
be sufficient to confine the ascent within certain limits, and
to procure the stability of the floating mass. Thus, if a
balloon fully distended had yet a slight disposition to rise,
the imprisoned gas, suffering more and more compression
as it gradually ascends, would become proportionally den¬
ser, and therefore lose a corresponding part of its previous
buoyancy. An equilibrium would hence soon obtain,
which must arrest the floating machine at a determinate
height in the atmosphere.
Mode of Suppose a balloon to be capable, without any danger of
adjusting bursting, of sustaining an expansion equal to the hun-
ba oons. (Jre(Jth part of the elasticity of the included fluid; the whole
buoyancy would, by such an alteration, be diminished one
five hundredth part, or this floating machine would sub¬
side 55 feet near the surface, and sink proportionally more
in the upper regions. To produce the effect, it would
only be requisite to throw common air into the bag, with¬
out suffering any portion of the hydrogen gas to escape.
On this principle Meusnier, an ingenious French chemist,
very soon after the first discovery of balloons, proposed to
regulate with nicety their ascent and position of equili¬
brium in the atmosphere. The mode which he suggested
was, to place within the principal balloon a much smaller
one, to be filled occasionally with common air by help of
bellows, or emptied again by opening an exterior valve.
The aeronaut would thus have it in his power, without
expending the charge of hydrogen gas, either to sink
gently through a short space, or to rise again at will, by
inflating the inner balloon, or allowing it to collapse. The
adjustment of the height of a balloon could hence be man¬
aged with great precision.
The command possessed by the aeronaut of raising or
depressing his machine at pleasure, might afford him the
means of influencing the direction of its course. From
the various motions of the several ranges of clouds, we
may infer that different currents exist at the same time in
the atmosphere. The aeronaut has, therefore, in his as-
173
cent, only to seek the current best suited to his purpose, Aeronau.
and, taking his station in that stratum, to commit his Aim- tics-
sy vessel to the guidance of the stream.
Any other attempts to direct or control the flight of a Futility of
balloon are altogether fallacious. Since it is carried along applying
with the swiftness of the wind, no rudders or sails cansailsor
have any action whatever. The aeronaut might fancyru(itiers'
himself to float in a perfect calm, unless he chances to en¬
counter irregular currents. The application of oars may
turn a balloon, but can have no sensible effect in diverting
or impelling its course. How vastly disproportionate is
the force of the human arm to the overwhelming pressure
of the wind against so huge a machine! To adapt ma¬
chinery under these circumstances would be preposterous,
and to look for help from such a quarter is visionary in the
extreme. It must be admitted, however, that after a bal¬
loon has once gained its station of equilibrium, or passively
floats in the air, the vigorous action of broad vanes, down¬
wards or upwards, might serve to raise or depress the
machine through a small space. Thus, a vertical force,
exerted equal to nine pounds, would lift a balloon of thirty
feet in diameter 278 feet higher. The application of bal¬
last is hence infinitely preferable to any such bulky and
unmanageable apparatus.
At the period where we left our narrative, the principles
on which a balloon could be constructed were therefore
pretty generally known to men of science. But to reduce
these principles to complete effect, was still an enterprise
of the most dazzling kind. This experiment seemed un¬
fit for a cabinet or a laboratory, and it could succeed only
on a large scale, exposed to the gaze of the multitude.
Without the toil of investigation, or indeed any exercise
of thought, all the world might witness the result, and
admire the magnificent spectacle which it would present.
This triumph over matter was at length achieved by the The
skill and perseverance of Stephen and Joseph Montgolfier, Montgol-
sons of the proprietor of an extensive and very celebrated fiers at t-
paper manufactory established at Annonay, on the banks ually dis-
of a rivulet w'hich flows into the Rhone, near forty miles cover the
below Lyons. These remarkable persons, though bred in balloon-
a remote provincial town, possessed in a high degree in¬
genuity and the spirit of observation. Without having
the benefit of a liberal education, their active curiosity
had led them to acquire a more extensive and accurate
stock of knowledge than is usually found in the same
condition of life. Stephen was more attached to mathe¬
matics, but Joseph directed his studies chiefly to chemistry
and natural philosophy. They were associated in business
with their father, who passed his quiet days, like a patri¬
arch, amidst a large family, and a numerous body of work¬
men, and reached the very advanced age of 93. Of the
younger brother, who survived the other, and lived to
make the very valuable yet much neglected discovery of
the hydraulic ram, we may venture to speak from personal
acquaintance. He was a man of great modesty and sim¬
plicity of character, yet firm and undaunted, of a calm and
sedate aspect, tall and athletic in his person, and of a
swarthy complexion, not unlike the celebrated Mr Watt,
whom he resembled in some other particulars of his for¬
tune. He was too speculative, perhaps, to succeed in the
details of business; for, after trying various schemes of im¬
provement, he quitted his paper manufactory and repaired
to the capital, where he obtained a situation of trust un¬
der the late imperial government, at the chamber of mo¬
dels, as inspector of patents and internal improvements.
In 1809 he had a stroke of palsy, which induced him to
resort to the waters of Bourbonne; but receiving no be¬
nefit from them, he gladly preferred those of Balaruc,
174 AERONAUTICS.
Aeronau- near his old friends, where he died on the 26th of June in
tics- the following year, at the age of 60.
Their^suc^ ^he two brothers, who were accustomed to form their
cessive ex- plans 'n concert, had long contemplated the floating and
periments. ascent of clouds in the atmosphei-e. It seemed to them,
that a sort of factitious cloud, formed of very thin vapour,
inclosed in a light bag of immense size, would mount to
the higher regions. In pursuit of this idea, they selected
a fluid specifically lighter than atmospheric air; and, ac¬
cordingly, introduced hydrogen gas into large bags of
paper and of thin silk, which rose up, as had been expect¬
ed, to the cieling, but fell down in a few seconds, owing
to the rapid escape of the gas through the cracks and
pores of the case. This great facility with which hydro¬
gen gas makes its way through any substance of a loose
and incompact texture, is partly due to its extreme flui¬
dity, but is chiefly occasioned by its strong and obstinate
attraction for common air. The mode of preventing, or at
least checking that escape, by the application of a proper
varnish, was yet unknown. The prospect of overcoming the
difficulty was so discouraging, that our experimenters had
recourse to another scheme, more analogous to their origi¬
nal ideas, and it rewarded their continued efforts with the
most complete success. In the month of November 1782,
Joseph Montgolfier, happening, in the course of his fre¬
quent excursions, to be then at Avignon, procured a small
silk bag, of the form of a parallelopipedon, open below, like
a lady’s hoop, and having a capacity of about forty-five
cubic feet; under its orifice he burnt some paper, and saw,
with inexpressible transport, the bag quickly swell, and
mount rapidly to the height of seventy-five feet, where it
remained till by cooling it lost its buoyancy. Returning
to Annonay, he communicated the happy result to his
brother, and it was resolved by them to prosecute the ex¬
periment on a large scale. Having provided a large quan¬
tity of coarse linen, they formed it into the shape of a globe,
about thirty feet in diameter, which they lined with paper.
On lighting a fire within its cavity, to warm and expand the
air, they had the delightful satisfaction of seeing the bag
ascend with a force equivalent to 500 pounds.
It was very natural that the brothers should now de¬
sire an occasion for exhibiting this grand experiment in
their native town. They invited the members of the pro¬
vincial meeting of the states of the Vivarais, then assem¬
bled at Annonay, to witness the first public aerial ascent.
First pub- On the 5th June 1783, amidst a very large concourse of
lie ascent spectators, the spherical bag or balloon, consisting of dif-
loon^" ferent pieces of linen, merely buttoned together, was sus¬
pended from cross poles ; two men kindled a fire under it,
and kept feeding the flames with small bundles of chopped
straw ; the loose bag gradually swelled, assuming a grace¬
ful form, and in the space of five minutes it was com¬
pletely distended, and made such an effort to escape, that
eight men were required to hold it down. On a signal
being given, the stays were slipped, and the balloon in¬
stantly rose with an accelerating motion, till it reached
some height, when its velocity continued uniform, and
carried it to an elevation of more than a mile All was
admiration and transport. Amidst the shouts of unbound¬
ed acclamation, the progress of the artificial cloud retiring
from sight arrested every eye. It was hurried along by
the wind; but, its buoyant force being soon spent, it re¬
mained suspended only ten minutes, and fell gently in a
vineyard, at the distance of about a mile and a half from the
place of its ascension. So memorable a feat lighted up
the glow of national vanity, and the two Montgolfiers were
hailed and exalted by the spontaneous impulse of their
fellow-citizens.
Of this splendid experiment a very hasty and imperfect
account was transmitted to Paris, and quickly circulated Aeronau-
over Europe. In those halcyon days, during the transient tics,
calm of political turmoils, and the happy absence of all
military events, the prospect of navigating the atmosphere *.m*
excited a very general ferment, and engrossed the con-madeby it
versation of all ranks. Yet the tale appeared so extraordi-in Europe,
nary as to leave some doubts of its veracity. In many
places, and especially in this country, the more ignorant
class of men, and those who affected superior wisdom,
both agreed in considering the relation of Montgolfier’s
discovery as nothing but an imposition practised on the
public credulity. To dispel the suspicions which infected
the subject, it was necessary to repeat the experiment in
every large capital.
When the intelligence of the first ascent of a balloon
reached St Petersburg, it found the venerable Euler in a
state of great debility, worn out with years and unremit¬
ting intellectual toil. Having lost, in the middle of his
career, the sight of an eye, he had been for several years
visited with total blindness. But in this afflicting situa¬
tion his mind was still entire, and found delightful exer¬
cise in his former habits of calculation. It was in training
a domestic to act as his amanuensis, that this great genius
now condescended to dictate, in the German language, to
his humble pupil, a work of the highest merit, The Ele¬
ments of Algebra. During his last illness, Euler made an
expiring effort, and applied his favourite analysis to de¬
termine the ascending motion of a balloon. He dictated
the preliminary steps of the problem to one of his grand¬
children : but the hand of death was already stretched
over the patriarch;—no farther could he proceed with his
investigation;—and composing himself for nobler scenes,
he calmly expected the moment of dissolution.
The virtuosi at Paris were eager to repeat the experi- imitated
ment of the ascension of a balloon. M. Faujas de St Fond, at Paris,
an active and zealous naturalist, set on foot a subscription
for defraying the expense, which was soon filled up. The
construction of the machine was intrusted to the skill of
two brothers of the name of Robert, under the superin¬
tendence of M. Charles, an ingenious lecturer in natural
philosophy. It had at first been proposed merely to copy
the process of Montgolfier, but Charles preferred the ap¬
plication of hydrogen gas ; a resolution which afterwards
occasioned much difficulty and delay. The balloon con¬
sisted of thin silk or tiffany, varnished with a solution of
elastic gum, disposed into a globular shape, of about thirteen
feet in diameter. The hydrogen gas was procured from
the action of dilute sulphuric acid upon iron-filings, and
was introduced through leaden pipes. But this gas, being
rapidly formed, without having been made to pass through
a body of cold water, entered the cavity of the balloon
excessively hot, and charged with acid fumes, which after¬
wards condensed against the inside of the bag, injuring its
texture, and loading it with superfluous humidity. Not
fewer than 500 pounds of sulphuric acid were used, and
twice this weight of iron-filings; yet several days were
spent in abortive attempts to fill the balloon completely.
At last it rose, and was kept suspended at the height of
100 feet above the ground. In this state it was convey¬
ed with acclamations to the Place des Yictoires, where it
rested, and underwent some repair. About midnight it
was thence transported in silent procession, preceded by
torch-lights, and guarded by a detachment of horse and
foot soldiers, to the Champ de Mars, at the distance of
near two miles. The few passengers found at that still
hour on the streets gazed with astonishment at the float¬
ing mass; and the very coachmen, filled with a sort of awe,
respectfully saluted it as they passed.
Next day, being the 27th of August 1783, an immense
AERONAUTICS.
and Ro¬
bert.
Aeronan- concourse of people covered the Champ de Mars, and in-
• • numerable spectators had planted themselves along the
Balloon of ^anliS °f t^ie Seine and the amphitheatre of Passy. By
Charles tllre1e 0’clock every avenue was filled with carriages, and
all the beauty and fashion of Paris flocked towards the
Ecole Militaire. The preparations being finished, a can¬
non was discharged as the signal of ascent. The balloon,
liberated from its stays, shot upwards with such rapidity
as in two minutes to reach, according to calculation, the
height of 3000 feet, where it seemed lost in a dark cloud.
It re-appeared at a greater elevation, but was soon obscured
again amidst other clouds; and after performing a flight
of about fifteen miles in the space of three quarters of
an hour, it sunk to the ground in a field near Ecouen,
where the peasants secured it, having noticed a rent in
the upper part of the bag, to which its fall might be im¬
puted. The success of the experiment was complete.
The incredulous were sadly mortified; but every minor
reflection was drowned in the tumult of excessive joy and
exultation. It began to rain immediately after the balloon
was launched, yet this unlucky circumstance had no effect
to abate the curiosity of the spectators. Regardless of the
torrents that fell, they were wholly absorbed in following
with eager gaze the progress of the machine through the
air. Even elegant ladies, dressed in their finest attire,
stood exposed, looking intently the whole time, and were
drenched to the skin. This small balloon weighed only
thirty pounds, and had at first a buoyant force of forty
pounds avoirdupois. If we employ the formula before
given, the terminal velocity would be y^O = 19 r6^
feet in a second, or 1168 feet each minute; which appears
to correspond very well with fact.
About this time Joseph Montgolfier visited Paris, and
was invited by the Royal Academy of Sciences to repeat
structs one his exPerin?ent of Annonay on a larger scale. He con-
of his bal- structed> with coarse linen and a paper lining, a balloon
loons at of a pear shape, and about 43 feet wide and 75 feet high.
The smoke of fifty pounds of dry straw, in small bundles,
joined to that of twelve pounds of wool, was found suf¬
ficient to fill it in the space of ten minutes. The bag duly
swelled, and made an effort to rise equivalent to the
weight of 500 pounds ; but being reserved for exhibition
the next day, it was totally destroyed, by its exposure
during the night to incessant and violent rain. It became
necessary, therefore, to prepare another balloon; and such
was the expedition of the artist, that in five days he got
the whole completed. Early on the morning of the 19th
of September, it was placed upon an octagon scaffold, in
front of the palace of Versailles. It had a very showy
appearance, being painted with ornaments in oil colours.
By ten o’clock the road from Paris was crowded with car¬
riages of all descriptions. Every person of any note or
fashion hurried from the metropolis to view the experi¬
ment ; ladies of distinguished rank filled the windows;
and the spacious courts and walks, and even the tops of
the houses, were covered with impatient spectators. The
royal family and their attendants came forth, and examined
the details of the apparatus. About one o’clock the dis¬
charge of a mortar gave notice that the filling of the bal¬
loon was to commence. In eleven minutes another dis¬
charge announced that it was completely inflated; and on
the third discharge of the mortar, the cords were cut, and
the balloon instantly liberated. After balancing at first in
a moment of anxious expectation to the spectators, it rose
majestically, in an oblique direction, under the impulse of
the wind, till it reached the height of 1500 feet, where it
appeared for a while suspended; but in the space of eight
minutes it dropped to the ground, at the distance of two
175
Joseph
Montgol¬
fier con-
Paris.
miles from the point of its ascent. A sheep, a cock, and Ae'ronau-
a duck, which had been put into the basket, the first ani- tics-
mals ever carried up into the air, were found perfectly
safe and unhurt by the journey, and the sheep even feed¬
ing at perfect ease. See Plate II. for a view of this bal¬
loon and the following ones.
This successful experiment encouraged Montgolfier to
prepare, on a more solid construction, another balloon, of a
spheroidal form, 45 feet wide and 75 feet high. While
it was filling with smoke, Pilatre de Rozier, a young na¬
turalist of great promise, and full of ardour and courage,
leaped into the car, and was borne up to the height of 300
feet, where he continued some minutes suspended, the
balloon being held down by long cords till it gently de¬
scended. The dangers of navigating the balloon being
thus brought to a more correct estimate, it was resolved
speedily to attempt the daring but sublime experiment.
The badness of the weather, however, at this late season
of the year, made the project be deferred several days.
At last, on the 21st of November, every thing was ready
for the ascent in the spacious gardens of the chateau of
Muette, belonging to the court of the Dauphin. The sky
had a lowering aspect, being loaded with heavy clouds,
driven about by irregular winds. But the adventurers
were not to be easily discouraged. After a first trial, Makes the
which had nearly proved fatal to them, the balloon was first aerial
again filled; and Rozier, with the marquis d’Arlandes, a voyage-
major of infantry, who had volunteered to accompany him,
took their seats in the car, having a store of ballast, and a
provision of straw to supply the fire. About two o’clock
the machine was launched, and it mounted with a steady
and majestic pace. Wonder, mingled with anxiety, was
depicted in every countenance ; but when, from their lofty
station in the sky, the navigators calmly waved their hats,
and saluted the spectators below, a general shout of accla¬
mation burst forth on all sides. As they rose much higher,
however, they were no longer discernible by the naked eye.
   in the surging smoke
Uplifted spurn the ground; thence many a league,
As in a cloudy chair ascending, ride
Audacious.
This balloon soared to an elevation of more than 3000
feet, and traversed, by a circuitous and irregular course,
the whole extent of Paris, whose gay inhabitants were all
absorbed in admiration and amazement. A curious cir¬
cumstance occurred during the passage of the floating
mass : to the gazers planted on the towers of the metro¬
politan church of Notre Dame, it chanced to intercept the
body of the sun, and thus gave them, for a few seconds,
the spectacle of a total eclipse. It has been alleged, that
when the balloon had reached so high that the objects on
earth were no longer distinguishable, the marquis d’Ar¬
landes began to think that his curiosity and ambition
were sufficiently gratified. He was therefore anxious to
descend, and murmured against his companion, who still
kept feeding the fire. At last, on hearing some cracks
from the top of the balloon, and observing holes burning
in the sides, the major became outrageously alarmed at
his imminent danger, and applying wet sponges to stop the
progress of combustion, he compelled the savant to desist
from his officious operations. As they now descended too
fast, however, M. d’Arlandes was not less anxious and
diligent in throwing fresh straw upon the fire, in order to
gain such an elevation as would clear the different ob¬
stacles. The navigators dexterously avoided the lofty
buildings of Paris, by supplying fuel as occasion required;
and, after a journey of 20 or 25 minutes, they safely
alighted beyond the Boulevards, having described a track
of six miles.
176
AERONAUTICS.
Aeronau¬
tics.
New bal¬
loon of
Charles
and the
Roberts.
Their
ascent.
Such was the prosperous issue of the first aerial navi¬
gation ever achieved by mortals. It was a conquest of
science which all the world could understand; and it
flattered extremely the vanity of that ingenious people,
who hailed its splendid progress, and enjoyed the ho¬
nour of their triumph. The Montgolfiers had the an¬
nual prize of six hundred livres adjudged to them by the
Academy of Sciences; the elder brother was invited to
court, decorated with the badge of St Michael, and
received a patent of nobility; and on Joseph a pension
was bestowed, with the further sum of forty thousand
livres, to enable him to prosecute his experiments with
balloons.
The facility and success, however, of the smoke or fire
balloons appeared to throw into the shade the attempts
made by the application of hydrogen gas. M. Charles,
the promoter of this plan, was keenly reproached by
M. Faujas de St Fond, for departing from the method prac¬
tised by the original inventor; and he was, moreover, with
his associates the Roberts, held up to public derision in
the smaller theatres of Paris. To silence the cavils and
insinuations of his antagonists, he resolved, therefore, on
making some new efforts. A subscription was opened to
defray the expense of a globe twenty-eight feet in dia¬
meter, and formed of tiffany, with elastic varnish. After
repeated accidents and delays, this balloon was planted,
on the 1st of December 1783, at the entrance of the great
alley of the Tuilleries ; and the diffuse fluid was this time
introduced into it from a sort of gasometer. The dilute
sulphuric acid and the iron-filings being put into wooden
casks, disposed round a large cistern, the gas was conveyed
in long leaden pipes, and made to pass through the water
under a glass bell plunged in it. The whole apparatus
cost about L.400 sterling, one-half of which was expend¬
ed on the production of the gas alone. An immense con¬
course of spectators had collected from all parts. The
discharge of a cannon at intervals announced the progress
in filling the balloon. To amuse the populace, and quiet
their impatience, M. Montgolfier was desired to let off a
small fire-balloon, as a mark of his precedence. At last,
the globe being sufficiently inflated, and a quantity of bal¬
last, consisting of small sand bags, lodged in the car,
leaving only 22-£ pounds for the measure of the buoyant
force, MM. Charles and Robert placed themselves in the
appended boat or car, and the machine was immediately
disengaged from its stays. It mounted with a slow and
solemn motion. According to the formula given, the ter¬
minal velocity of ascension must have been only about 400
feet each minute, or at the rate of somewhat less than five
miles in the hour. “ The car, ascending amidst profound
silence and admiration,” to borrow the warm and exag¬
gerated language of the reporter, “ allowed, in its soft and
measured ascent, the bystanders to follow with their eyes
and their hearts two interesting men, who like demigods
soared to the abode of the immortals, to receive the reward
of intellectual progress, and carry the imperishable name
of Montgolfier. After the globe had reached the height
of 2000 feet, it was no longer possible to distinguish the
aerial navigators; but the coloured pennants which they
waved in the air testified their safety and their tranquil
feelings. All fears were now dissipated; enthusiasm suc¬
ceeded to astonishment; and every demonstration was
given of joy and applause.” The balloon, describing a
tortuous course, and rising or sinking according to the
fancy of its conductors, was, after a flight of an hour and
three quarters, made to alight on the meadow of Nesle,
about twenty-five miles from Paris. For the space of an
hour, the buoyancy of the machine had been sensibly
augmented by the sun’s rays striking against the surface
of the bag, and heating up the contained gas to the tern- Aeronau-
perature of 55 degrees by Fahrenheit’s scale.
After this prosperous descent, the globe, though be¬
come rather flaccid and loose by its expenditure, yet still
retained a great buoyant force when relieved from the
weight of the travellers. The sun had just set, and the
night was beginning to close ; but M. Charles formed the Ascent of
resolution of making alone another aerial excursion. HisCharles
courage was rewarded by the spectacle of one of the mostalone‘
novel and enchanting appearances in nature. He shot
upwards with such celerity as to reach the height of near
two miles in ten minutes. The sun rose again to him in
full orb; and, from his lofty station in the heavens, he
contemplated the fading luminary, and watched its part¬
ing beams, till it once more sunk below the remote hori¬
zon. The vapours rising from the ground collected into
clouds, and covered the earth from his sight. The moon
began to shine, and her pale rays scattered gleams of
various hues over the fantastic and changing forms of those
accumulated masses. This scene had all the impressive
solemnity of the true sublime. No wonder that the first
mortal eye that ever contemplated such awful grandeur
could not refrain from shedding tears of joy and admira¬
tion. The region in which M. Charles hovered was now
excessively cold; and as he opened the valve occasionally
during his ascent, to prevent the violent distension of the
balloon, the hydrogen gas, not having time to acquire the
temperature of the exterior air, rushed out like misty va¬
pour, with a whistling noise. But prudence forbade the
voyager to remain long at such an elevation, while dark¬
ness was gathering below. He therefore descended slow¬
ly to the earth, and, after the lapse of 35 minutes, alight¬
ed near the wood of Tour du Lay, having, in that short
interval, travelled about nine miles.
This balloon, with its passengers and ballast, weighed
at first 680 pounds ; but, notwithstanding the care taken
in filling it, the hydrogen gas must have been mixed with
a large proportion of common air, since it was only 54
times lighter than this fluid. The barometer, which stood
at 29-24 English inches at the surface of the ground,
subsided to 20-05 at the greatest elevation to which
M. Charles had reached. This gives by calculation an alti¬
tude of 9770 feet. The thermometer, which was at 41°
by Fahrenheit’s scale at the first ascent, fell to 21° at the
highest flight; giving a difference of one degree for every
488| feet of ascent.
The next voyage through the air was performed in the Ascent of
largest balloon ever yet constructed. The elder Mont- Montgoi-
golfier had been persuaded to open a subscription at ^er at
Lyons for the sum of L.180 sterling, to construct an aero-L-vcr,s‘
nautic machine capable of upholding a great weight, and
of carrying a horse or other quadruped. It had an elon¬
gated shape, 109 feet wide and 134 feet high, and was
formed of two folds of linen, having three layers of paper
laid between them, and quilted over with ribands. It
showed at first enormous buoyant power. A truss of
straw, moistened with spirit of wine, was found, when set
on fire, to yield humid smoke sufficient to inflate the bal¬
loon, and the burning of five pounds weight of alder fag¬
gots kept it in full action. Though loaded with a ballast
of eighteen tons, it yet lifted up six persons from the
ground. Unfortunately, it was very much damaged one
night, in consequence of being exposed to rain, frost, and
snow. However, on the 19th of January 1784, the balloon
was charged in seventeen minutes, by the combustion of
550 pounds of alder. Joseph Montgolfier, accompanied
by the ardent Pilatre de Rozier, and four other persons of
note, with the proper ballast, took their seats in a wicker
gallery, and were launched into the atmosphere. They
AERONAUTICS.
Aeronau- manoeuvred over the city of Lyons, and near the course
of the Rhine, for the space of forty minutes ; but a large
rent having been observed in the upper part of the bal¬
loon, they were compelled to descend abruptly, though
without any further accident.
The difficulties and dangers of aerial navigation being
at length surmounted, the ascents of balloons were now
multiplied in all quarters. It will therefore be sufficient
henceforth to notice very succinctly some of the more dis¬
tinguished attempts of that kind.
Andreani. The Chevalier Paul Andreani of Milan had a spherical
balloon, of 70 feet in diameter, formed after Montgolfier’s
plan, at his own charge, in which, accompanied by two
companions, he ascended from that capital on the 25th of
February 1784. The machine rose to the height of 1300
feet; but after having described, in twenty minutes, a
very circuitous track, it settled upon a large tree, from
which however the voyagers, by applying fresh fuel, ex¬
tricated themselves, and alighted on clear ground, without
receiving any hurt.
Blanchard. On the 2d of March Blanchard, who had been for
some years before occupied with the chimerical project
of flying in the air, and who fancied that the same prin¬
ciples and contrivances might be applied to direct the mo¬
tion of balloons, mounted alone, and with great intrepidity,
at Paris, in a silk balloon 40 feet in diameter, constructed
by subscription, and filled with hydrogen gas. He darted
rapidly to the height of above a mile, and after being
driven about by cross winds for an hour and three quarters,
he descended in the plain of Billancourt.
On the 28th of June in the same year, an ascent was
made at Lyons before the King of Sweden, who then tra¬
velled under the name of Count Haga, with a fire-balloon,
having somewhat of a pear shape, and 75 feet in height.
Fleurant Two passengers, M. Fleurant and a young lady, Madame
andThibffi. Thible, first female that ever adventured on such a
daring voyage, entered the car, and ascended with great
velocity. In four minutes the noise of the multitude was
no longer audible, and in two more the eye could not dis¬
tinguish them. It was inferred, from a trigonometrical cal¬
culation, that they had reached the altitude of 13,500 feet.
Their flag, with its staff of 14 pounds weight, being thrown
down, took seven minutes to fall to the ground. The
thermometer had dropt to 43° on Fahrenheit’s scale ; and
to the sensation of cold which they felt was joined that of
a ringing in the ears. Different currents were found to
occupy distinct strata of the atmosphere; and in passing
from one stratum to another, the balloon was affected by
a sensible undulation. The travellers continued to feed
their fire with the loppings of vines, till this provision
being nearly spent, they safely alighted in a corn-field,
having traversed about six miles in three quarters of an
hour.
Rozierand About a fortnight afterwards, the same prince was gra-
Proust. tified by a more splendid ascent, commanded for his en¬
tertainment by the French monarch. A large fire-balloon,
carrying the naturalists Rozier and Proust, was launched
from the outer court of Versailles. It soared to the height
of 12,520 feet, and might appear to float in a vast con¬
gregation of extended and towering white clouds. The
thermometer stood at 21° of Fahrenheit, and the flakes of
snow fell copiously on the voyagers, while it only rained
below. Descending again from that chaotic abyss, they
were charmed with the lively aspect of a rich and populous
district. They alighted at the entrance of the forest of
Chantilly, about thirty-six miles from Versailles, after a
flight of an hour and five minutes.
We omit the relation of a prosperous ascent performed
YOU. II.
177
at Rhodes on the 6th of August, by the Abbe Carnus Aeronau-
and his companion, with a fire-balloon, of a globular shape, tics,
and 57 feet in diameter.—The longest aerial journey yet'^~v''>~/
made was accomplished at Paris, on the 19th of Septem¬
ber. The duke de Chartres, afterwards Orleans, and the Duke of
noted Egalite, employed Robert to construct for him a Orleans,
silk balloon, which should be filled with hydrogen gas. It
had 56 feet in height and 36 feet diameter, being compos¬
ed of a cylinder terminated by two hemispheres ; a con¬
struction which was rightly supposed to give much ad¬
ditional solidity to the machine. A small bag, on Meus-
nier’s plan, had been introduced within it, and the boat
was, besides, furnished with a helm and four oars. This
balloon, bearing the duke himself, the two artists, and an¬
other companion, and having 500 pounds of ballast, was
allowed to rise very slowly, with a buoyancy of only 27
pounds. At the height of 1400 feet, the voyagers perceiv¬
ed, not without uneasiness, thick dark clouds gathering
along the horizon, and threatening the approach of a thun¬
der-storm. They heard the distant claps, and experienced
something like the agitation of a whirlwind, although they
had not felt the slightest concussion in the air from the dis¬
charge of cannon. The thermometer suddenly dropped
from 77° Fahrenheit to 61° ; and the influence of this cold
caused the balloon to descend within 200 feet of the tops of
the trees near Beauvais. To extricate themselves, they now
threw out more thanforty pounds of ballast, and rose to an
elevation of 6000 feet, where it was found that the confined
gas had so obstinately retained its heat, as to be no less
than 42° warmer than the external air. The duke became
alarmed, and betrayed such impatience to return again to
the earth, that he is said to have pierced the lower part of
the silk bag in holes with his sword. After narrowly
escaping the dangers from wind and thunder, the balloon
at last descended in safety near Bethune, having perform¬
ed a course of 135 miles in the space of five hours.
On the 25th of April in the same year, the celebrated Guyton-
chemist Guyton-Morveau, with the Abbe Bertrand, as-Morveau.
cended from Dijon in a balloon, nearly of a globular shape,
29 feet in diameter, composed of the finest varnish¬
ed tiffany, and filled with hydrogen gas. They did not
start till five o’clock in the evening, the barometer being
at 29-3 inches, and the thermometer at 57° on Fahren¬
heit’s scale ; and, after surmounting some accidents, they
rose to an altitude of 10,465 feet, or very nearly two Eng¬
lish miles, where the barometer had sunk to 19*8 inches,
and the thermometer to 25°. They felt no inconvenience,
however, except from the pinching of their ears with cold.
They saw an ocean of clouds below them, and in this si¬
tuation they witnessed, as the day declined, the beautiful
phenomenon of a parhelion, or mock sun. The real lumi¬
nary was only ten degrees above the horizon, when, all at
once, another sun appeared to plant itself within six de¬
grees of the former. It consisted of numerous prismatic
rings, delicately tinted, on a ground of dazzling whiteness.
At half-past six o’clock, after a voyage of an hour and a
half, they safely alighted near Magny, about fifteen miles
distant from Dijon.
With the same balloon, M. Guyton-Morveau made a fjjs
second ascent on the 12th of June, accompanied by the ascent.
President De Virly. It was launched at seven o’clock in
the morning, the barometer being then at 29*5 inches, the
thermometer at 66°, and Saussure’s hygrometer at 81^°.
It swelled very fast, however, owing to the effect of the
sun’s increasing heat; and the upper valve being at inter¬
vals opened, to give vent to excess of the gas, this escaped
with a noise like the rushing of water. As the voyagers
did not mount to any very great elevation, they enjoyed
an agreeable temperature, and could easily, by observing
178 A E 11 O N
Aeronau- the situation of the different villages scattered below them,
tics. trace out their tortuous route on the surface of the map.
By nine o’clock they had reached the height of 6030 feet,
the barometer now standing at 24*7 inches, the thermome¬
ter at 70°, and the hygrometer at 65£. Three quarters of
an hour afterwards they descended at the village of Ete-
vaux, only twelve miles from Dijon, having described at
least double this distance in the air. The heat had in¬
creased so much since the morning, that, notwithstanding
the loss of elastic fluid, the balloon seemed yet nearly in¬
flated on touching the ground.
Itemarka- An aerial voyage, most remarkable for its duration and
blevoyage its adventures, was performed on the 18th of June 1786,
of Testu. prom Paris, by M. Testu, with a balloon 29 feet in diameter,
constructed by himself, of glazed tiffany, furnished with
auxiliary wings, and filled, as usual, with hydrogen gas.
It had been much injured by wind and rain during the
night before its ascension; but having undergone a slight
repair, it was finally launched, with its conductor, at four
o’clock in the afternoon. The barometer then stood at
29-68 inches, and the thermometer as high as 84°, though
the day was cloudy and threatened rain. The balloon
had at first been filled only five-sixths, but it gradually
swelled as it became drier and warmer, and acquired its
utmost distension at the height of 2800 feet. But, to avoid
the waste of gas or the rupture of the silk, the navigator
endeavoured to descend by the re-action of his wings.
Though this force had little efficacy, yet at half-past five
o'clock he softly alighted on a corn-field in the plain of
Montmorency. Without leaving the car, he began to collect
a few stones for ballast; when he was surrounded by the pro¬
prietor of the field and a troop of peasants, who insisted on
being indemnified for the damage occasioned by his idle
and curious visitors. Anxious now to disengage himself, he
persuaded them that, his wings being broken, he was wholly
at their mercy. They seized the stay of the balloon, which
floated at some height, and dragged their prisoner through
the air in a sort of triumph towards the village. But
M. Testu, finding that the loss of his wings, his cloak, and
some other articles, had considerably lightened the ma¬
chine, suddenly cut the cord, and took an abrupt leave of
the clamorous and mortified peasants. He rose to the re¬
gion of the clouds, where he observed small frozen parti¬
cles floating in the atmosphere. He heard thunder roll¬
ing beneath his feet, and, as the coolness of the evening
advanced, the buoyant force diminished, and, at three
quarters after six o’clock, he approached the ground near
the abbey of Royaumont. There he threw out some bal¬
last, and in the space of twelve minutes rose to a height
of 2400 feet, where the thermometer was only 66 degrees.
He now heard the blast of a horn, and descried huntsmen
below in full chace. Curious to witness the sport, he
pulled the valve, and descended, at eight o’clock, between
Etouen and Varville, when, rejecting his oars, he set him¬
self to gather some ballast. While he was thus occupied,
the hunters galloped up to him. He mounted a third time,
and passed through a dense body of clouds, in which thun¬
der followed lightning in quick succession.
With fresh alacrity and force renew’d,
Springs upward, like a pyramid of fire,
Into the wild expanse, and through the shock
Of fighting elements, on all sides round
Environ’d wins his way.
The thermometer fell to 21°, but afterwards regained its
former point of 66°, when the balloon had reached the al¬
titude of 3000 feet. In this region the voyager sailed till
half-past nine o’clock, at which time he observed from his
“ watch-tower in the sky” the final setting of the sun.
He was now quickly involved in darkness, and enveloped
A U T I C S.
in the thickest mass of thunder-clouds. The lightnings Aeronau.
flashed on all sides, and the loud claps were incessant, ‘^•s^
The thermometer, seen by the help of a phosphoric light
which he struck, pointed at 21°, and snow and sleet fell
copiously around him. In this most tremendous situation
the intrepid adventurer remained the space of three hours,
the time during which the storm lasted. The balloon was
affected by a sort of undulating motion upwards and down¬
wards, owing, he thought, to the electrical action of the
clouds. The lightning appeared excessively vivid, but the
thunder was sharp and loud, preceded by a sort of crack¬
ling noise. A calm at last succeeding, he had the plea¬
sure to see the stars, and embraced this opportunity to
take some necessary refreshment. At half-past two o’clock
the day broke in; but his ballast being nearly gone, and
the balloon again dry and much elevated, he resolved to
descend to the earth, and ascertain to what point he had
been carried. At a quarter before four o’clock, having
already seen the sun rise, he safely alighted near the vil¬
lage of Campremi, about 63 miles from Paris.
At this period, ascents with balloons had been multi- Balloonsin
plied, not only through France, but all over Europe. They England,
were very seldom, however, directed to any other object
than amusement, and had soon degenerated into mere
exhibitions for gain. The first balloon seen in England
was constructed by an ingenious Italian, the Count Zam- Zambec-
beccari. It consisted of oiled silk, in a globular shape, cari.
about ten feet in diameter, and weighed only eleven
pounds. It was entirely gilt, which not only gave it a
beautiful appearance, but rendered it less permeable to
the gas. On the 25th of November 1783 it was filled
about three-fourths, and launched at one o’clock from the
artillery ground, and in the presence of a vast concourse of
spectators. At half-past three in the afternoon it was taken
up at Petworth, in Sussex, about the distance of 48 miles.
It was not till the following year, on the 21st of September,
that a countryman of his, named Lunardi, first mounted Lunardi.
in a balloon at London. He afterwards repeated the ex¬
periment in different parts of England, and during the
following year in Scotland. This active person took an
expeditious but careless method of filling his balloon with
gas. He had two large casks, sunk into the ground for
their better security, in which he deposited 2000 pounds
of the borings of cannon, divided by layers of straw, to
present a larger surface. An equal weight of sulphuric
acid, or common oil of vitriol, diluted with six times as
much water, was poured upon the iron, and the hydrogen
gas now formed, without being cooled or washed, was im¬
mediately introduced into the balloon. To Lunardi suc¬
ceeded Blanchard, who possessed just as little science, BianciW(].
but had greater pretensions, and some share of dexterit}'
and skill. This adventurer is said to have performed not
fewer than thirty-six voyages through the air, and to have
acquired a large sum of money by those bold and attractive
exhibitions. His most remarkable journey was across the
British Channel, in company with Dr Jeffries, an Ameri¬
can physician. On the 7th of January 1785, in a clear
frosty day, the balloon was launched from the cliff of
Dover, and, after a perilous course of two hours and three
quarters, it alighted in safety on the edge of the forest of
Guiennes, not far beyond Calais. By the magistrates of
this town were the two aerial travellers treated with the
utmost kindness and hospitality; and their wondrous ar¬
rival was welcomed as a happy omen, alas! how fallaci¬
ous, of the lasting harmony to subsist between rival na¬
tions, now cemented by the conclusion of the famous
Commercial Treaty.
The original smoke balloon of Montgolfier appears to
AERONAUTICS.
Shocking
fate of
Rozier
Remain.
have gradually fallen into disrepute, and the more elegant
and expensive, but far more powerful construction, which
employs varnished silk to contain hydrogen gas, came to be
generally preferred. With due precaution anti management,
the sailing through the atmosphere is perhaps scarcely more
dangerous now than the navigating of the ocean. Of some
hundred ascents made at different times with balloons, not
above two or three cases are recorded to have had a fatal
termination. The first was rendered memorable by the
shocking death of the accomplished and interesting Rozier,
who perished a martyr to his ardent zeal for the promotion of
science. Being anxious to return the visit which Blanchard
and Jeffries had paid to the French coast, by crossing the
channel again and descending in England, he transported
his balloon, which was of a globular shape, and forty feet
in diameter, to Boulogne; and after various delays, oc¬
casioned chiefly by adverse winds, he mounted on the 15th
June 1785, with his companion M. Remain. From some
vague idea of being better able to regulate the ascent of
the balloon, he had most incautiously suspended below it a
small smoke one of ten feet diameter; a combination to
which may be imputed the disastrous issue. Scarcely a
. . quarter of an hour had elapsed, when the whole apparatus,
Romaiifn at t^le above three thousand feet, was observed
to be on fire; and its scattered fragments, with the unfor¬
tunate voyagers, were precipitated to the ground. They
fell near the sea-shore, about four miles from Boulogne,
and were instantly killed by the tremendous crash, their
bodies being found most dreadfully mangled. The next
fatal accident with balloons happened in Italy, several
years later, when a Venetian nobleman and his lady, after
having performed successfully various ascents, fell from a
vast height, and perished on the spot. A few years ago, the
younger William Sadler, one of our most skilful aeronauts,
who had successfully crossed the Irish channel from Dublin
to Anglesey, was killed by collision with a tall chimney, in
a descent at Liverpool.
The Para- To guard, in some degree, against the risks arising from
ehute. the occurrence of such accidents, the Parachute was after¬
wards introduced; being intended to enable the voyager,
in case of alarm, to desert his balloon in mid-air, and drop,
without sustaining injury, to the ground. The French
language, though not very copious, has yet supplied this
convenient term, signifying a guard for falling, as it has
likewise furnished the words of analogous composition,
parapluie, paravent, and parasol, to denote an umbrella, a
door-screen, and a shade for the sun. The parachute very
much resembles the ordinary umbrella, but has a far
greater extent. The umbrella itself, requiring such
strength to bear it up against a moderate wind, might na¬
turally have suggested the application of the same prin¬
ciple to break the force of a fall. Nothing was required
but to present a surface having dimensions sufficient to
experience from the air a resistance equal to the weight
of descent, in moving through the fluid with a velocity not
exceeding that of the shock which a person can sustain
without any danger. Accordingly, in the East, where the
umbrella, or rather the parasol, has been from the remot¬
est ages in familiar use, this implement appears to be
occasionally employed by vaulters, for enabling them to
jump safely from great heights. Father Loubere, in his
curious account of Siam, relates that a person, famous in
that remote country for his dexterity, was accustomed to
divert exceedingly the king and the royal court by the
prodigious leaps which he took, having two umbrellas
with long slender handles fastened to his girdle. He
generally alighted on the ground, but was sometimes car¬
ried by the wind against trees or houses, and not unfre-
179
quently into the river. Not many years since, the urn- Aeronau-
brella was, at least on one occasion, employed in Europe
with similar views, but directed to a very different purpose.
In the early part of the campaign of 1793, the French
general Bournonville, having been sent by the National
Convention, with four more commissioners, to treat with
the Prince of Saxe-Cobourg, was, contrary to the faith or
courtesy heretofore preserved in the fiercest wars that
have raged among civilized nations, detained a prisoner
with his companions, and sent to the fortress of Olmutz,
where he suffered a rigorous confinement. In this cruel
situation he made a desperate attempt to regain his liber¬
ty. Having provided himself with an umbrella, he jump¬
ed from a window at the height of forty feet; but being
a very large heavy man, this screen proved insufficient to
check his precipitate descent. He struck against the oppo¬
site wall, fell into the ditch, and broke his leg, and was
carried in this condition back again to his dungeon.
Blanchard was the first who constructed parachutes, First used,
and annexed them to balloons, for the object of effecting
his escape in case of accident. During the excursion
which he undertook from Lisle, about the end of August
1785, when this adventurous aeronaut traversed, without
halting, a distance not less than 300 miles, he let down a
dog from a vast height in the basket of a parachute, and
the poor animal, falling gently through the air, reached
the ground unhurt. Since that period the practice and
management of the parachute have been carried much
farther by other aerial travellers, and particularly by
M. Garnerin, who has dared repeatedly to descend from
the region of the clouds with that very slender machine.
This ingenious and spirited Frenchman visited London Garnerin’s
during the short peace of 1802, and made two fine ascents descent,
with his balloon, in the second of which he threw himself
from an amazing elevation with a parachute. This con¬
sisted of thirty-two gores of white canvass formed into a
hemispherical case of twenty-three feet diameter, at the
top of which was a truck or round piece of wood ten inches
broad, and having a hole in its centre, admitting short
pieces of tape to fasten it to the several gores of the can¬
vass. About four feet and a half below the top, a wooden
hoop of eight feet in diameter was attached by a string
from each seam ; so that when the balloon rose, the pa¬
rachute hung like a curtain from this hoop. Below it
was suspended a cylindrical basket covered with canvass,
about four feet high, and two and a quarter wide. In this
basket the aeronaut, dressed in a close jacket and a pair
of trousers, placed himself, and rose majestically from an
inclosure near North Audley Street at six o'clock in the
evening of the 2d of September. After hovering seven or
eight minutes in the upper region of the atmosphere, he
meditated a descent in his parachute. Well might he be
supposed to linger there in dread suspense, and to
 look a while
Pondering his voyage; for no narrow frith
He had to cross 
He views the breadth, and, without longer pause,
Downright into the world’s first region throws
His flight precipitant, and winds with ease,
Through the pure marble air, his oblique way.
He cut the cord by which his parachute was attached
to the net of the balloon; it instantly expanded, and for
some seconds it descended with an accelerating velocity,
till it became tossed extremely, and took such wide oscil¬
lations that the basket or car was at times thrown almost
into a horizontal position. Borne along likewise by the
influence of the wind, the parachute passed over Mary-le-
bone and Somers-town, and almost grazed the houses of
St Pancras. At last it fortunately struck the ground in a
180
AERONAUTICS.
Afronau- neighbouring field; but so violent was the shock as to
lies. throw poor Garnerin on his face, by which accident he
received some cuts, and bled considerably. He seemed
to be much agitated, and trembled exceedingly at the
moment he was released from the car. One of the stays
of the parachute had chanced to give way; which un¬
toward circumstance deranged the apparatus, disturbed
its proper balance, and threatened the adventurer, during
the whole of his descent, with immediate destruction.
The feeling of such extreme peril was too much for human
nature to bear. .
Theory of From the principles before explained, we may easily
the para- determine the descent of a parachute. . \\hen, with its
chute. attached load, it is abandoned in the air, it must, from
the continued action of gravity, proceed at first with an
accelerated motion, till its increasing velocity comes to
oppose a resistance equal to the force of attraction, or to
the combined weight of the whole apparatus. After this
counterpoise has taken place, there existing no longer any
cause of acceleration, the parachute should descend tmi-
formly with its acquired rapidity. This perfect equili¬
brium will not, however, be attained at once. The accu¬
mulation of swiftness produced by the unceasing operation
of gravity, is not immediately restrained by the corre¬
sponding increased resistance of the atmosphere. The
motion of a parachute must hence, for some short time, be
subject to a sort of interior oscillation, alternately accele¬
rating and retarding. It first shoots beyond the terminal
velocity, and then, suffering greater resistance, it relaxes,
and contracts within the just limits. This unequal and
undulating progress which a parachute exhibits subse¬
quently to the commencement of its fall, is calculated to
excite disproportionate alarms of insecurity and danger.
Rate of its The terminal velocity of a parachute, or the uniform
descent. velocity to which its motion tends, would, according to
theory, be equal, if its surface were flat, to the velocity
that a heavy body must acquire in falling through the al¬
titude of a column of air incumbent on that surface, and
having, under the usual circumstances, the same weight
as the whole apparatus. But we have already seen, that
a cylinder of air, one foot in diameter and height, weighs
only, in ordinary cases, the seventeenth part of a pound
avoirdupois. Wherefore, if the square of the diameter of
a parachute be divided by 17, the quotient will give the
number of pounds equivalent to the weight of an atmo¬
spheric column of one foot; and the weight of the appara¬
tus being again divided by this quotient, the result will ex¬
press the entire altitude of an equiponderant column. Of
this altitude, the square root multiplied by 8 will denote
the final velocity, or that with which the parachute must
strike the ground. Suppose, for example, that the dia¬
meter of the parachute were 25 feet: then 25 x 25 =
625; and this, divided by 17, gives 36f|. Consequently,
if the parachute with its load weighed only 36j-^ pounds,
the shock received at the surface of the earth would be
precisely the same as that which is felt in dropping from
an elevation of one foot. Had the weight of the appara¬
tus, therefore, been four times greater, or 147^ pounds,
the shock sustained would be the same as that from a fall
of four feet; which is near the limit, perhaps, of what a
person can bear without suffering injury from the violence
of concussion. The velocity of descent, on this latter
supposition, would be 8 ^/4, or sixteen feet each second.
Correct But the actual resistance of the air is rather greater
formula, than what theory would give; and it is besides augmented
by the concavity of the opposing surface, which occasions
an accumulation of the fluid. Let a denote the diameter
of a parachute, and/the total weight of the apparatus
abandoned to its gravity in the atmospheie ; if we take Dr
Huttons valuable experiments for the basis of the calcula- Aeronau-
tion, the terminal velocity of descent may be expressed in
round numbers, by — -vZ/j eac^ second, and con¬
sequently the length of fall which would occasion the same
shock, is ^)2.e/’or very nearly “fv/* Thus’ if the
parachute had thirty feet in diameter, and weighed, to¬
gether with its appended load, 225 pounds ; then — /y/225
— ^ v 15 — x 15 — 13 feet, or the velocity with
_ 30 15
(13 \ 2
J 225 = 2j|
feet, being the height from which a person dropping freely
would receive the same shock.
Since the resistance which air opposes to the passage of Celerity in
a body is diminished by rarefaction, it is evident, that thetke/’S er
parachute disengaged from a balloon, in the more elevated ^S10118,
regions of the atmosphere, will at first acquire a greater
velocity than it can afterwards maintain as it approaches
the ground. Resuming the notation employed before,
the ratio of the density of the air at the surface, and
at any given height, being expressed by n : m; then
the velocity of counterpoise at that elevation would be
or it would be equal to what is accumulated
in falling freely a height feet. It is the
final velocity, however, that must be chiefly considered in
parachutes, being what determines the shock sustained in
alighting. The violence of the rushing through the air
will seldom be attended with any serious inconvenience.
If we suppose the mean velocity with which a parachute
descends to be twelve feet each second, this will corre¬
spond to the rate of a mile in 7-| minutes ; not more than
that of a very gentle trot. We are not told from what
height Garnerin dropped; but if he took four minutes in
his descent, it was probably about half a mile.
The practice of aeronautics has not realized those ex¬
pectations of benefit to mankind which sanguine projectors
were at first disposed to entertain. It was soon found,
that a balloon, launched into the atmosphere, is abandoned,
without guidance or command, to the mercy of the winds.
To undertake to direct or impel the floating machine by
any exertion of human strength, was evidently a chimei i-
cal attempt. All the influence which the aeronaut really
possesses consists in a very limited power of raising or
depressing it, according to circumstances. He cannot
hope to shape his course, unless by skilfully adapting his
elevation to catch the prevailing currents.
Almost the only purpose to which balloons have hither-Baii00ris
to been applied with success, had for its object that ofused in
military reconnaissance. In the early part of the French war-
revolutionary war, when ingenuity and science were so
eagerly called into active service, a balloon, prepared under
the direction of the Aerostatic Institute in the Polytechnic
School, and intrusted to the command of two or three ex¬
perienced officers, was distributed to each of the republi¬
can armies. The decisive victory which General Jourdan
gained, in June 1794, over the Austrian forces in the
plains of Fleurus, has been ascribed principally to the ac¬
curate information of the enemy’s movements before and
during the battle, communicated by telegraphical signals
from a balloon which was sent up to a moderate height in
the air. The aeronauts, at the head of whom was the cele-
AERONAUTICS.
181
brated Guyton-Morveau, mounted twice in the course of
that day, and continued, about four hours each time,
hovering in the rear of the army at an altitude of 1300 feet.
In the second ascent, the enterprise being discovered by
the enemy, a battery was opened against them ; but they
soon gained an elevation above the reach of the cannon.
Another balloon, constructed by the same skilful artist,
M. Conte, was attached to the army sent on the memorable
expedition to Egypt. What service it rendered the dar¬
ing invader in the wide plains and sandy deserts of Africa,
we are not informed; but, after the capitulation of Cairo,
it was brought back, with the remains of the army, to
France, and employed in the sequel, as we shall find, more
innocently in philosophical research. These balloons, being
calculated for duration, were of a more solid and perfect
ISlethod of construction than usual. Originally they were filled with
hydrogen gas, obtained from the decomposition of water
on a large scale. For this purpose, six iron cylinders had
been fixed by masonry in a simple kind of furnace, each
of their ends projecting, and covered with an iron lid. Two
sets of metal tubes were also inserted, the one for convey¬
ing hot water, and the other for carrying off the gas which
was formed. The cylinders being charged with iron-turn-
ings, and brought to a red heat, the humidity was instantly
converted into steam, and decomposed, the oxygen uniting
with the iron, while the hydrogen gas was discharged, and
made to deposit any carbonic gas that might adhere to it,
by passing through a reservoir filled with caustic lye be¬
fore it entered the balloon. By this method there was
procured, at a very moderate expense, and in the space of
about four hours, a quantity of hydrogen gas sufficient to
inflate a balloon of thirty feet in diameter.
filling
‘ben1.
Scientific
ascent of
Biot and
Gay-Lus¬
sac.
The ascents with balloons should appear to furnish the
readiest means of ascertaining important facts in meteo¬
rology and atmospheric electricity, departments of science
which are still unfortunately in their infancy. Some
aeronauts have asserted that the magnetic needle ceased
to traverse at very great elevations in the atmosphere; a
statement which received some countenance from the ob¬
servations made by Saussure on the lofty summit of the
Col du Geant, where that celebrated naturalist thought
he had found the magnetic virtue to be diminished one
fifth part. It has been pretended by others, that the air
of the higher regions is not of the same composition as at
the surface of the earth, and is, independently altogether
of its rarity, less fitted for the purpose of respiration. To
determine these, and other relative points, was, therefore,
an object interesting to the progress of physical science.
A few years since, two young and ardent French philoso¬
phers, MM. Biot and Gay-Lussac, proposed to undertake
an aerial ascent, in order to examine the magnetic force
at great elevations, and to explore the constitution of the
higher atmosphere and its electrical properties. For such
a philosophical enterprise they were eminently qualified,
having been educated together at the Polytechnic School,
and both of them deeply versed in mathematics ; the for¬
mer indulging in a wide range of study, and the latter con¬
centrating his efforts more on chemistry and its applica¬
tion to the arts. Their offer to government was seconded
by Berthollet and Laplace, and the celebrated chemist
Chaptal, then minister of the interior, gave it his patronage
and warm support. The balloon which had once visited
Egypt was delivered to the custody of Biot and Gay-
Lussac ; and the same artist who constructed it was, at the
public expense, ordered to refit and prepare it under their
direction. Besides the usual provision of barometers, ther¬
mometers, hygrometers, and electrometers, they had two
compasses, and a dipping-needle, with another fine needle,
carefully magnetized, and suspended by a very delicate Aeronau-
silk thread, for ascertaining by its vibrations the force of tlcs-
magnetic attraction. To examine the electricity of the
different strata of the atmosphere, they carried several
metallic wires, from sixty to three hundred feet in length,
and a small electrophorus feebly charged. For galvanic
experiments they had procured a few discs of zinc and
copper, with some frogs; to which they added insects and
birds. It was also intended to bring down a portion of
air from the higher regions, to be subjected to a chemical
analysis; and for this purpose a flask, carefully exhaust¬
ed, and fitted with a stop-cock, had been prepared.
The balloon was placed in the garden of the Conserva¬
toire des Arts, or Repository of Models, formerly the Con¬
vent of St Martin ; and no pains were spared by Conte in
providing whatever might contribute to the greater safety
and convenience of the voyagers. Every thing being now
ready for their ascent, these adventurous philosophers, in
the presence of a few friends, embarked in the car at ten
o’clock in the morning of the 23d of August 1804. The
barometer was then at 30T3 inches, the thermometer at
6F70 on Fahrenheit’s scale, and Saussure’s hygrometer
pointed at 80-8°, or very near the limit of absolute hu¬
midity. They rose with a slow and imposing motion.
Their feelings were at first absorbed in the novelty and
magnificence of the spectacle which opened before them ;
and their ears were saluted with the buzz of distant gra-
tulations, sent up from the admiring spectators. In a few
minutes they entered the region of the clouds, which
seemed like a thin fog, and gave them a slight sensation
of humidity. The balloon had become quite inflated, and
they were obliged to let part of the gas escape, by opening
the upper valve; at the same time, they threw out some
ballast, to gain a greater elevation. They now shot
through the range of clouds, and reached an altitude of
about 6500 English feet. These clouds, viewed from
above, had the ordinary whitish appearance ; they all oc¬
cupied the same height, only their upper surface seemed
marked with gentle swells and undulations, exactly re¬
sembling the aspect of a wide plain covered with snow.
MM. Biot and Gay-Lussac now began their experimen- Their ex-
tal operations. The magnetic needle was attracted, asPerim^nlal
usual, by iron; but they found it impossible at this time 0Perati°ns*
to determine with accuracy its rate of oscillation, owing
to a slow rotatory motion with which the balloon was
affected. In the meanwhile, therefore, they made other
observations. A Voltaic pile, consisting of twenty pairs
of plates, exhibited all its ordinary effects,—gave the
pungent taste, excited the nervous commotion, and occa¬
sioned the decomposition of water. By rejecting some
more ballast, they had attained the altitude of 8940 feet,
but afterwards settled to that of 8600 feet. At this great
elevation, the animals which they carried with them ap¬
peared to suffer from the rarity of the air. They let off
a violet bee, which flew away very swiftly, making* a hum¬
ming noise. The thermometer had fallen to 56*4° by
Fahrenheit, yet they felt no cold, and were, on the con¬
trary, scorched by the sun’s rays, and obliged to lay aside
their gloves. Both of them had their pulses much acce¬
lerated : that of Biot, which generally beat seventy-nine
times in a minute, was raised to one hundred and eleven ;
while the pulse of his friend Gay-Lussac, a man of a less
robust frame, was heightened from sixty to eighty beats in
the minute. Notwithstanding their quickened pulsation,
however, they experienced no sort of uneasiness, nor any
difficulty in breathing.
What perplexed them the most was the difficulty ofMagnetical
observing the oscillations of a delicately suspended mag-observa-
netic needle. But they soon remarked, on looking atten-dons.
182 AERONAUTICS.
.ASronau- tively down upon the surface of the conglomerated clouds,
llcs* that the balloon slowly revolved, first in one direction, and
then returned the contrary way. Between these opposite
motions there intervened short pauses of rest, which it was
necessary for them to seize. Watching, therefore, the
moments of quiescence, they set the needle to vibrate, but
were unable to count more than five, or very rarely ten
oscillations. A number of trials, made between the alti¬
tudes of 9500 and 13,000 feet, gave 7" for the mean
length of an oscillation, while at the surface of the earth
it required 1 perform each oscillation. A difference
so very minute as the hundred and fortieth pai t could be
imputed only to the imperfection of the experiment; and
it was hence fairly concluded, that the force of magnetic
attraction had in no degree diminished at the greatest ele¬
vation which they could reach. The direction of this
force, too, seemed, from concurring circumstances, to have
continued the same ; though they could not depend on
observations made in their vacillating car with so delicate
an instrument as the dipping needle.
Birds libe- At the altitude of 11,000 feet they liberated a green
rated at linnet, which flew away directly; but, soon feeling itself
)vafti abandoned in the midst of an unknown ocean, it returned
•'eights. an(J settieci on the stayS 0f the balloon. Then mustering
fresh courage, it took a second flight, and dashed down¬
wards to the earth, describing a tortuous yet almost perpen¬
dicular track. A pigeon which they let off under similar
circumstances afforded a more curious spectacle. Placed
on the edge of the car, it rested a while, measuring as it
were the breadth of that unexplored sea which it designed
to traverse: now launching into the abyss, it fluttered ir¬
regularly, and seemed at first to try its wings in the thin
element; till, after a few strokes, it gained more confi¬
dence, and, whirling in large circles or spirals, like the
birds of prey, it precipitated itself towards the mass of ex¬
tended clouds, where it was lost from sight.
It was difficult, in those lofty and rather humid regions,
to make electrical observations; and the attention of the
scientific navigators was besides occupied chiefly by their
magnetical experiments. However, they let down from
the car an insulated metallic wire of about 250 feet in
length, and ascertained, by means of the electrophorus,
that the upper end indicated resinous or negative electri¬
city. This experiment was several times repeated; and
it seemed to corroborate fully the previous observations of
Saussure and Volta relative to the increase of electricity
met with in ascending the atmosphere.
Diminu- The diminution of temperature in the higher regions
lion of was found to be less than what is generally experienced
tempera- at ^ same aititude on mountains. Thus, at the eleva¬
tion of 12,800 feet, the thermometer was at 51° by Fah¬
renheit, while it stood as low as 63l° at the observatory;
being only a decrement of one degree for each 1000 feet
of ascent. This fact corresponds with the observations
made by former aeronauts, and must have been produced,
we conceive, by the operation of two distinct causes.
First, the rays from the sun, not being enfeebled by pass¬
ing through the denser portion of the atmosphere, would
act with greater energy on the balloon and its car, and
consequently affect the thermometer placed in their vici¬
nity. Next, the warm current of air, which during the
day rises constantly from the heated surface of the
ground, must augment the temperature of any body which
is exposed to its influence. During the night, on the con¬
trary, the upper strata of the atmosphere would be found
colder, we presume, than the general standard, owing to
the copious descent of chill portions of air from the high-
Hygrome- est regions.
trie obser- hygrometer, or rather hygroscope, of Saussure, ad-
vations. J °
vanced regularly towards dryness, in proportion to the Aeronau-
altitude which they attained. At the elevation of
feet it had changed from 80-8° to 30°. But still the con-
elusion, that the air of the higher strata is drier than that
of the lower, we are inclined to consider as fallacious. In
fact, the indications of the hygroscope depend on the re¬
lative attraction for humidity possessed by the substance
employed, and the medium in which it is immersed. But
air has its disposition to retain moisture always augmented
by rarefaction, and consequently such alteration alone
must materially affect the hygroscope. The only accu¬
rate instrument for ascertaining the condition of air with
respect to dryness is founded on a property of evapora¬
tion. But we shall afterwards have occasion to discuss
this subject at due length.
The ballast now being almost quite expended, it was Their
resolved to descend. The aeronauts therefore pulled the descent,
upper valve, and allowed part of the hydrogen gas to
escape. They dropped gradually, and when they came
to the height of 4000 feet, they met the stratum of
clouds, extending horizontally, but with a surface heaved
into gentle swells. When they reached the ground, no
people were near them to stop the balloon, which dragged
the car to some distance along the fields. From this
awkward and even dangerous situation they could not
extricate themselves without discharging the whole of
their gas, and therefore giving up the plan of sending
M. Gay-Lussac alone to explore the highest regions. It
has been reported that his companion M. Biot, though a
man of activity and not deficient in personal courage, was
so much overpowered by the alarms of their descent, as to
lose for the time the entire possession of himself. The
place where they alighted, at half-past one o clock, after
three hours and a half spent in the midst of the atmo¬
sphere, was near the village of Meriville, in the depart¬
ment of the Loiret, and about fifty miles from Paris.
It was the desire of several philosophers at Paris, that
M. Gay-Lussac should mount a second time, and repeat
the different observations at the greatest elevation he
could attain. Experience had instructed him to reduce
his apparatus, and to adapt it better to the actual circum¬
stances. As he could only count the vibrations of the
magnetic needle during the very short intervals which oc¬
curred between the contrary rotations of the balloon, he
preferred one of not more than six inches in length, which
therefore oscillated quicker. The dipping needle was
magnetized and adjusted by the ingenious M. Coulomb.
To protect the thermometer from the direct action of the
sun, it was inclosed within two concentric cylinders of
pasteboard covered with gilt paper. The hygrometers,
constructed on Richer’s mode, with four hairs, were shel¬
tered nearly in the same way. The two glass flasks in¬
tended to bring down air from the highest regions of the
atmosphere had been exhausted till the mercurial gage
stood at the 25th part of an inch, and their stop-cocks
were so perfectly fitted, that, after the lapse of eight days,
they still preserved the vacuum. These articles, with two
barometers, were the principal instruments which M. Gay-
Lussac took with him. The skill and intelligence of the
artist had been exerted in further precautions for the
safety of the balloon.
At forty minutes after nine o’clock on the morning ofGay-Lus-
the 15th of September, the scientific voyager ascended, as ^.ascend
before, from the garden of the Repository of Models. The
barometer then stood at 30‘66 English inches, the ther¬
mometer at 82° by Fahrenheit, and the hygrometer at
571°. The sky was unclouded, but misty. Scarcely had
the observer reached the height of 3000 feet, when he
observed spread below him, over the whole extent of the
AERONAUTICS.
183
magne¬
tism.
Successive
decre¬
ments of
tempera¬
ture.
Aeronau- atmosphere, a thin vapour, which rendered the distant ob-
tics. jects very indistinct. Having gained an altitude of 9950
feet, he set his needle to vibrate, and found it to perform
twenty oscillations in 83", though it had taken 84-33" to
make the same number at the surface of the earth. At
His obser- the height of 12,680 feet he discovered the variation of
vations m compass to be precisely the same as below ; but with
all the pains he could take, he was unable to determine
with sufficient certainty the dip of the needle. M. Gay-
Lussac continued to prosecute his other experiments with
the same diligence, and with greater success. At the al¬
titude of 14,480 feet he found that a key, held in the
magnetic direction, repelled with its lower end, and at¬
tracted with its upper end, the north pole of the needle of
a small compass. This observation was repeated, and w ith
equal success, at the vast height of 20,150 feet; a clear
proof that the magnetism of the earth exerts its influence
at remote distances. He made not fewer than fifteen
trials at different altitudes, with the oscillations of his
finely suspended needle. It was generally allowed to vi¬
brate twenty or thirty times. The mean result gives
4-22" for each oscillation, while it was 4-216" at the sur¬
face of the earth ; an apparent difference so extremely
small, as to be fairly neglected.
During the whole of his gradual ascent, he noticed, at
short intervals, the state of the barometer, the thermome¬
ter, and the hygrometer. Of these observations, amount¬
ing in all to twenty-one, he has given a tabular view.
We regret, however, that he has neglected to mark the
times at which they were made, since the results appear
to have been very considerably modified by the progress
of the day. It would likewise have been desirable to
have compared them with a register noted every half
hour at the Observatory. From the surface of the earth
to the height of 12,125 feet, the temperature of the at¬
mosphere decreased regularly from 82° to 47-3° by Fah¬
renheit’s scale. But afterwards it increased again, and
reached to 53-6°, at the altitude of 14,000 feet; evidently
owing to the influence of the warm currents of air which,
as the day advanced, rose continually from the heated
ground. From that point the temperature diminished,
with only slight deviations from a perfect regularity. At
the height of 18,636 feet the thermometer subsided to
32-9°, on the verge of congelation; but it sunk to 14-9°
at the enormous altitude of 22,912 feet above Paris, or
23,040 feet above the level of the sea, the utmost limit of
the balloon’s ascent.
From these observations no conclusive inference, we
observ t e think, can be drawn respecting the mean gradation of cold
which is maintained in the higher regions of the atmo¬
sphere ; for, as we have already remarked, the several stra¬
ta are during the day kept considerably above their per¬
manent temperature by the hot currents raised from the
surface through the action of the sun’s rays. If we adopt
the formula given by Professor Leslie at the end of his
Elements of Geometry, which was the result of some ac¬
curate and combined researches, the diminution of tem¬
perature corresponding to the first part of the ascent, or
12,125 feet, ought to be forty degrees of Fahrenheit. It
was actually 34-7°, and would no doubt have approached
to 40°, if the progressive heating of the surface, during
the interval of time, were taken into the account. In the
next portion of the voyage, from the altitude of 14,000 to
that of 18,636 feet, or the breadth of 4636 feet, the de¬
crement of temperature according to the formula should
only have been 16^°, instead of 20-7°, which was really
marked; a proof that the diurnal heat from below had not
yet produced its full effect at such a great height. In the
last portion of the balloon’s ascent, from 18,636 feet to
Compari
tions.
22,912. a range of 4276 feet, the decrease of heat ought Aeronau-
to be 151°, and it was actually 18°; owing most probably tics,
to the same cause, or the feebler influence which warm '
currents of air from the surface exert at those vast eleva¬
tions. Taking the entire range of the ascent, or 22,912
feet, the diminution of temperature according to the same
formula would be for the gradation of temperature in as¬
cending the atmosphere 85-4°. The decrease actually
observed would be 67-1°, which might be raised to 80°,
if we admit the very probable supposition, that the sur¬
face of the earth had become heated from 82° to 94-9°
during the interval between ten o’clock in the morning
and near three in the afternoon, when the balloon floated
at its greatest elevation.
After making the fair allowances, therefore, on account
of the operation of deranging causes, the results obtained
by M. Gay-Lussac, for the gradation of temperature in the
atmosphere, appear, on the whole, to agree very nearly
with those derived from the formula which theory, guided
by delicate experiments, had before assigned. This gra¬
dation is evidently not uniform, as some philosophers have
assumed; but proceeds with augmented rapidity in the
more elevated regions. The same conclusion results from
a careful inspection of the facts which have been stated
by other observers.
The hygrometers, during the ascent of the balloon, held Indica-
a progress not quite so regular, but tending obviously to- tions of
wards dryness. At the height of 9950 feet they had t^ie ^-v"
changed from 57-5° to 62°; from which point they con- Srometer-
tinned afterwards to decline, till they came to mark 27-5°,
at the altitude of 15,190 feet. From this inferior limit
the hygrometers advanced again, yet with some fluctua¬
tions, to 35-1°, which they indicated at the height of
18,460 feet. Above this altitude the variation was slight,
though rather inclining to humidity. There can exist no
doubt, however, that, allowing for the influence of the
prevailing cold, the higher strata of the atmosphere
must be generally drier than the lower, or capable of
retaining, at the same temperature, a larger share of
moisture.
At the altitude of 21,460 feet M. Gay-Lussac opened Project of
one of his exhausted flasks ; and, at that of 21,790 feet, the high-
the other. The air rushed into them through the narrow est atm0‘
aperture, with a whistling noise. He still rose a little sphere‘
higher, but, at eleven minutes past three o’clock, he had
attained the utmost limit of his ascent, and was then
22,912 feet above Paris, or 23,040 feet, being more than
four miles and a quarter, above the level of the sea. The
air was now more than twice as thin as ordinary, the ba¬
rometer having sunk to 12-95 inches. From that stupen¬
dous altitude, sixteen hundred feet above the summit of
the Andes, more elevated than the loftiest pinnacle of our
globe, and far above the heights to which any mortal had
ever soared, the aerial navigator might have indulged the
feelings of triumphant enthusiasm. But the philosopher,
in perfect security, was more intent on calmly pursuing
his observations. During his former ascent, he saw the
fleecy clouds spread out below him, while the canopy of
heaven seemed of the deepest azure, more intense than
Prussian blue. This time, however, he perceived no clouds
gathered near the surface, but remarked a range of them
stretching, at a very considerable height, over his head ;
the atmosphere, too, wanted transparency, and had a dull,
misty appearance. The different aspect of the sky was
probably owing to the direction of the wind, which blew
from the north-north-west in his first voyage, but in his
second from the south-east. Feelings
While occupied with experiments at this enormous ele- of Gay
vation, he began, though warmly clad, to suffer from ex- Lussac,
184
aeronautics.
Aeronau¬
tics.
His de¬
scent.
His ana¬
lysis of'
the air
brought
down.
Remarks
on these
last as¬
cents.
Various
projects
with bal
loons.
cessive cold, and his hands, by continual exposure, grew
benumbed. He felt likewise a difficulty in breathing, and
bis pulse and respiration were much quickened. His
throat became so parched from inhaling the dry attenu¬
ated air, that he could hardly swallow a morsel of bread;
but he experienced no other direct inconvenience from
his situation. He had indeed been affected, through the
whole of the day, with a slight headache, brought on by the
preceding fatigues and want of sleep; but though it conti¬
nued without abatement, it was not increased by his ascent.
The balloon was now completely distended, and not
more than 33 pounds of ballast remained : it began to drop,
and M. Gay-Lussac, therefore, only sought to regulate its
descent. It subsided very gently, at the rate of about a
mile in eight minutes; and after the lapse of thirty-four
minutes, or at three quarters after three o’clock, the an¬
chor touched the ground, and instantly secured the car.
The voyager alighted with great ease near the hamlet of
St Gourgon, about sixteen miles north-west from Rouen.
The inhabitants flocked around him, offering him assist¬
ance, and eager to gratify their curiosity.
As soon as he reached Paris, he hastened to the labo¬
ratory of the Polytechnic School, with his flasks, contain¬
ing air of the higher regions, and proceeded to analyze it
in the presence of Thenard and Gresset. Opened under
water, the liquid rushed into them, and apparently half
filled their capacity. The transported air was found, by a
very delicate analysis, to contain exactly the same propor¬
tions as that collected near the surface of the earth, every
1000 parts holding 215 of oxygen. From concurring ob¬
servations, therefore, we may conclude that the atmo¬
sphere is essentially the same in all situations.
The ascents performed by MM. Biot and Gay-Lussac
are memorable, for being the first ever undertaken solely
for objects of science. It is impossible not to admire the
intrepid coolness with which they conducted those expe¬
riments, operating, while they floated in the highest re¬
gions of the atmosphere, with the same composure and
precision as if they had been quietly seated in their cabi¬
nets at Paris. Their observations on the force of terres¬
trial magnetism show most satisfactorily its deep source
and wide extension. The identity of the constitution of
the atmosphere to a vast altitude was likewise ascer¬
tained. The facts noted by Gay-Lussac, relative to the
state of the thermometer at different heights, appear ge¬
nerally to confirm the law which theory assigns for the
gradation of temperature in the atmosphere : but many
interesting points were left untouched by this philosopher.
We are sorry that he had not carried with him the cyano-
meter, which enabled Saussure to determine the colour of
the sky on the summits of the Swiss mountains. Still
more we regret that he was not provided with an hygro¬
meter and a photometer, of Leslie’s construction. These
delicate instruments could not have failed, in his hands, to
furnish important data for discovering the relative dry¬
ness and transparency of the different strata of air. It
would have been extremely interesting, at such a tremen¬
dous height, to have measured with accuracy the feeble
light reflected from the azure canopy of heaven, and the
intense force of the sun’s direct rays, and hence to have
determined what portion of them is absorbed in their pas¬
sage through the lower and denser atmosphere.
Since that time numerous ascents have been per¬
formed in different countries, generally by adventurers
guided by no philosophical views, nor leading to any
valuable results. It would therefore be superfluous to
recount such repeated attempts.
Balloons have at different times been thought capable
' of useful application. It has been even proposed to em¬
ploy their power of ascension as a mechanical force. This Aeronau-
might be rendered sufficient, it was believed, to raise wa- ti^,
ter from mines, or to transport obelisks, and place them
on great elevations. We can easily imagine situations
where a balloon could be used with advantage ; such as to
raise, without any scaffolding, a cross or a vane to the top
of a high spire. But the power would then be purchased
at a very disproportionate expense. It would require 4^
pounds of iron, or 6 of zinc, with equal quantities of sul¬
phuric acid, to yield hydrogen gas sufficient to raise up
the weight of one pound.
The proposal of employing balloons in the defence and
attack of fortified places appears truly chimerical. They
have rendered important service, however, in reconnoitring
the face of a country, and communicating military sig¬
nals ; and it is rather surprising that a system, which
promised such obvious benefits, has not been carried
much farther.
But to a skilful and judicious application of balloons, we Their ap-
may yet look for a most essential improvement of the in- plication
fant science of meteorology. Confined to the surface ofProPosed
this globe, we have no direct intimation of what passes improvement
the lofty regions of the atmosphere. All the changes ofmete0_
weather, which appear so capricious and perplexing, pro-roiogy.
ceed, no doubt, from the combination of a very few simple
causes. Were the philosopher to penetrate beyond the
seat of the clouds, examine the circumstances of their
formation, and mark the prevailing currents, he would
probably remove in part the veil that conceals those
mighty operations. It would be quite practicable, we
conceive, to reach an elevation of seven miles, where the
air would be four times more attenuated than ordinary.
A silk balloon, of forty feet diameter, if properly con¬
structed, might be sufficient for that enormous ascent,
since its weight would only be 80 pounds, while its buoy¬
ant force, though not more than a quarter filled with hy¬
drogen gas, would amount to 533^, leaving 453^ pounds
for the passenger and the ballast. The balloon could be
safely charged, indeed, to the third part of its capacity, on
account of the contraction which the gas would afterwards
suffer from the intense cold of the upper regions ; and this
gives it an additional buoyancy of 177^ pounds. The
voyager would not, we presume, suffer any serious incon¬
venience from breathing the very thin air. Ihe animal
frame adapts itself with wonderful facility to external cir¬
cumstances. Perhaps the quickened pulse and short re¬
spiration, which some travellers have experienced on the
summits of lofty mountains, should be attributed chiefly
to the suddenness of their transition, and the severity of
the cold. The people of Quito live comfortably 9560 feet
above the level of the sea ; and the shepherds of the ham¬
let of Antisana, the highest inhabited spot in the known
world, who breathe, at an elevation of 13,500 feet, air that
has only three-fifths of the usual density, are nowise de¬
ficient in health or vigour. But the intenseness of the
cold is probably what the resolute observer would have
most to dread, at the height of seven miles. This decrease
of temperature, perhaps equal to 148 degrees, might ex¬
tend below the point at which mercury freezes. Yet se¬
veral circumstances tend to mitigate such extreme cold,
and proper clothing might enable an experimenter for a
short time to resist its effects.
Much could be done, however, without risk or material
expense. Balloons from fifteen to thirty feet in diameter,
and carrying register thermometers and barometers, might
be capable of ascending alone to altitudes between eight
and twelve miles. Dispatched from the centres of the
great continents, they would not only determine the ex¬
treme gradation of cold, but indicate by their flight the
' 2E S
Aerophy- dii’ection of the regular and periodic winds which doubtless
acea obtain in the highest regions of the atmosphere. But we
JEs. not enlarge. In some happier times, such experiments
i . Y-* ^ may performed with the zealous concurrence of different
governments;—when nations shall at last become satisfied
with cultivating the arts of peace ; instead of wasting their
energies in sanguinary, destructive, and fruitless wars.
In Plate II. there is a view of the principal balloons.
The figure in the centre represents the shape of the gores
iE S C
for forming the cloth into a globular shape. AE, the length
of the gore, is equal to the half of the circumference of the
globe; BC, the breadth, is the same proportional part of
the circumference as the number of gores which it requires
to form the sphere. The figures between CB and A de¬
note the breadths of the half-gore, at equal distances from
the centre ; the breadth BD at the centre being taken equal
to 1, and the others in decimals. In this manner it is easy
to construct an exact pattern of the gores, all which, being
united, will form a true sphere.
AEROPHYLACEA, a term used by naturalists for
caverns or reservoirs of air, supposed to exist in the bowels
of the earth.
AEROPHYTES, a designation sometimes applied to pa¬
rasite plants.
AERSCHOT, a once fortified city of Belgium, on the
river Demer, 7 miles from Louvain, and 20 from Antwerp,
containing 4053 inhabitants.
A1RTSEN, Peter, a Dutch historical painter of great
merit, both for drawing and colouring. His master-pieces are
an altar-piece at Delft, representing the Nativity and the
Wise Men’s Offering, and one at Amsterdam of the Death
of the Virgin. He died in 1575, aged 56.
iERUGINOUS, an epithet given to such things as re¬
semble or partake of the nature of the rust of copper.
.rfERUGO, a Latin term which properly signifies the rust
of copper, whether natural or artificial. The former is found
about copper mines, and the latter, called verdigris, is made
by corroding copper plates with acids.
ACRUSCATORES, in Antiquity, a kind of strolling beg¬
gars, not unlike gypsies, who drew money from the credu¬
lous by fortune-telling, &c. It was also a denomination
given to griping exactors, or collectors of the revenue. The
Galli, or priests of Cybele, were called ceruscatores magnce
matris ; and jrqrpayvpTai, from their begging in the streets ;
to which end they had little bells to draw people’s attention,
similar to some orders of mendicants abroad.
AS, commonly translated brass: but the aes of the Ro¬
mans was a bronze, or alloy of copper and tin ; and the cut¬
ting instruments of the ancient Greeks and Egyptians were
also of bronze. The Romans borrowed their arms, as well
as their money, from the Etruscans. Analysis of the bronzes
of these nations shew that they contain from 8 to 12 per
cent, of tin, which gave them hardness and the capability
of receiving a good edge. r
As circumforaneum, money borrowed from the usurers
around the Roman Forum. (Cic. ad. Attic, ii.)
As equestre, As Hordearium, As Militare, an¬
cient terms for the pay of Roman soldiers, previous to the
introduction of the regular stipendium, and furnished, it
would appear, not from the public treasury, but by certain
private persons as decreed by the state. The first, which
amounted to 10,000 asses, was the purchase-money of the
horse of an Eques; the second, amounting to 2000 asses,
was the pay of an Eques, and was furnished by maidens,
widows, and orphans, if possessed of a certain amount of
property, in consideration that they enjoyed protection, and
were not included in the census; and it seems probable that
they were also charged with the payment of the 2Es Equestre :
the third, which Niebuhr reckons at 1000 asses a-year (the
year then containing but 10 months), was the pay of a foot-
soldier, and probably was provided by the tribuni eerarii,
who would appear to have been private persons who received
that title as collectors of the tributum for paying the army.
—See Smith’s Diet, of Greek and Roman Antiquities, 2d.
edition.
VOL. II.
As uxorium, in Antiquity, a sum paid by bachelors, as
a penalty for living single to old age. This tax for not
marrying seems to have been first imposed in the year of
Rome 350, under the censorship of M. Furius Camillus and
M. Posthumus. At the census, or review of the people,
each person was asked, Et tu ex animi sententia uxorem
babes liberorum qvuerendorum causa? He who had no
wife was hereupon fined after a certain rate, called ces
uxorium.
Per JEs et libram was a formula in the Roman law, where¬
by purchases and sales were ratified. Originally the phrase
seems to have been only used in speaking of things sold by
weight, or by the scales; but it afterwards was used on other
occasions. Hence even in adoptions, as there was a kind
of imaginary purchase, the formula thereof expressed, that
the person adopted was bought per ces et libram.
ASCHINES, an Athenian, a Socratic philosopher, the
son of Charinus, a sausage-maker. He was continually with
Socrates ; which occasioned this philosopher to say, that the
sausage-maker’s son was the only person who knew how to
pay a due regard to him. It is said that poverty obliged
him to go to Sicily to Dionysius the tyrant; and that he
met with great contempt from Plato, but was extremely
well received by Aristippus, to whom he showed some of
his dialogues, and received from him a handsome reward.
He would not venture to profess philosophy at Athens, Plato
and Aristippus being in such high esteem; but he opened a
school, in which he taught philosophy to maintain himself.
He afterwards wrote orations for the forum. Phrynicus, in
Photius, ranks him amongst the best orators, and mentions
his orations as the standard of the pure Attic style. Her-
mogenes has also spoken very highly of him. He wrote,
besides, several Dialogues: 1. Concerning virtue, whether
it can be taught. 2. Eryxias, or Erasistratus; concerning
riches, whether they are good. 3. Axiochus; concerning
death, whether it is to be feared,—but those extant on the
several subjects, are not genuine remains. M. le Clerc has
given a Latin translation of them, with notes and several
dissertations, entitled Silvce Philologicce.
Aschines, a celebrated Grecian orator, was born in At¬
tica 389 years before the Christian era. According to his
own account, he was of distinguished birth; according to
that of Demosthenes, he was the son of a courtesan, and a
humble performer in a company of comedians. But what¬
ever was the true history of his birth and early life, his talents,
which were considerable, procured him great applause, and
enabled him to be a formidable rival to Demosthenes him¬
self. The two orators, inspired probably with mutual jealousy
and animosity, became at last the strenuous leaders of op¬
posing parties. Aschines was accused by Demosthenes of
having received money as a bribe, when he was employed
on an embassy to Philip of Macedon. He indirectly re¬
taliated the charge by bringing an accusation against Ctesi-
phon, the friend of Demosthenes, for having moved a decree,
contrary to the laws, to confer on Demosthenes a golden
crown, as a mark of public approbation. A numerous as-
2 A
185
iEs
II
iEschines.
W—'
186 S C
JEschylus. sembly of judges and citizens met to hear and decide the
y—question. Each orator employed all his powers of eloquence;
but Demosthenes, with superior talents, and with justice on
his side, was victorious; and ^Eschines was sent into exile.
The resentment of Demosthenes was now softened into
generous kindness; for when /Eschines was going into
banishment, he requested him to accept of a sum of money ;
which made him exclaim, “ How do I regret leaving a
country where I have found an enemy so generous, that I
must despair of ever meeting with a friend who shall be
like him!”
./Eschines opened a school of eloquence at Rhodes, which
was the place of his exile; and he commenced his lectures
* by reading to his audiooce the two orations which had been
the cause of his banishment. His own oration received great
praise, but that of Demosthenes was heard with boundless
applause. In so trying a moment, when vanity must be
supposed to have been deeply wounded, with a noble gene¬
rosity of sentiment, he said, “ What would you have thought
if you had heard him thunder out the words himself!”—
iEschines afterwards removed to Samos, where he died in
the 75th year of his age. Three only of his orations are
extant. His eloquence is not without energy, but it is dif¬
fuse and ornamented, and more calculated to please than to
move the passions.
dESCHYLUS, the father of the Greek tragic drama, was
born in the year 525 b.c., in the Attic demos of Eleusis. The
period of his youth and manhood coincides, therefore, with
that great uprising of the national spirit of the Greeks, caused
by the successive attempts of Darius, king of Persia, and his
son Xerxes, to enslave their European neighbours on the north
and west shores of the Aegean ; and it was no doubt as much
for the advantage of his poetical faculty as for the develop¬
ment of his manhood, that he took an active part in those
famous military achievements by which the march of the
insolent Asiatic hosts was repelled. The father of Attic
tragedy helped, in the year 490, to drive the captains of Da¬
rius into the marshes of Marathon, and, ten years later, en¬
compassed with ruin the multitudinous armament of Xerxes,
within the narrow strait of Salamis. The glories of this naval
achievement, the bard who had helped to win it with his sword
afterwards lived to celebrate with the lyre, and left to the
world the play of The Persians, as a great national record of
combined poetry and patriotism almost unique in history. Of
his subsequent career at Athens, only a few scanty notices re¬
main, and those chiefly connected with the representation of
his plays. We know that he composed 70 plays, and that
he gained the prize for dramatic excellence 13 times; fur¬
ther, that the Athenians esteemed his works so highly as to
allow some of them to be represented after his death,—a pri¬
vilege, in their dramatic practice, altogether anomalous. We
know, also, that in the course of his life he paid one or two
visits to Sicily, to which country he was attracted, no doubt,
by the same literary influence in the person of its ruler
Hiero, that drew thither Bacchylides, Simonides, and other
notable men of that rich epoch. There can, at the same
time, be little doubt that one cause of his visits to that island
may have been a want of sympathy as to political matters
between him and the Athenian public ; for while the Athe¬
nians, from the time of Cleisthenes (a.c. 510), had been ad¬
vancing by rapid and decided steps to the full expansion of
the democratic principle, it is evident, from some passages
in his plays, especially from the whole tone and tendency of
the Eumenides, that the political leanings of the poet of the
Prometheus were towards aristocracy, and that, in the days
of Pericles, he foresaw, with a sorrowful fear, the ripeness
of those democratic evils which within so short a period led
Xenophon to seek a new fatherland in Sparta, and opened
to the Macedonian a plain path to the sovereignty of Greece.
^ s c
But whatever may have been his motives for retiring from ^Eschylus.
the scene of so many literary triumphs (and the gossipers of
ancient times have of course transmitted to us their pleasant
inventions on this point), it is certain that, in the year A.c.
456, two years after the representation of his great trilogy,
The Orestiad, he died at Gela, in Sicily, in the 69th year
of his age; and the people of Gela, rejoicing in his bones,
as Ravenna does in those of the banished Dante, inscribed
the following memorial on his tomb ;—
“ Here JEschylus lies, from his Athenian home
Remote, ’neath Gela’s wheat-producing loam;
How brave in battle was Euphorion’s son,
The long-haired Mede can tell who fell at Marathon.”
And thus he lives among posterity, celebrated more as a
patriot than as a poet; as if to witness to all times, that the
great world of books, with all its power, is but a small thing
unless it be the reflection of a greater world of action.
Of the seventy plays which an old biographer reports him
to have composed, only seven remain, with a few fragments
of little significance, save to the keen eye of the professed
philologist. These fragments, however, are sufficient to jus¬
tify the high esteem in which he was held by the Athenian
public, and by that greatest of all the great wits of a witty
age and a witty people, Aristophanes. In the grand trilogy
which exhibits, in three consecutive tragedies, the story of
the murder of Agamemnon, and its moral sequences, we have
a perfect specimen of what the Greek tragedy was to the
Greeks, as at once a complex artistic machinery for the ex¬
hibition of national legend, and a grave pulpit for the preach¬
ing of important moral truths; nor could a more worthy
founder than iEschylus of such a “ Sacred Opera” be imagined.
His imagination dwells habitually in the loftiest region of
the stern old religious mythology of primeval Greece; his
moral tone is pure—his character earnest and manly—and
his strictly dramatic power (notwithstanding the very imper¬
fect form of the drama in his day), as exhibited more espe¬
cially in the Agamemnon, in the Eumenides, and in some
parts of the Prometheus, is such as none of his famous suc¬
cessors, least of all Euripides, could surpass. Of his other
plays, the Seven against Thebes is a drama, as Aristophanes
expressed it, “ full of war,” and breathes in every line the
spirit of the age and of the people that saved Europe from
the grasp of Oriental despotism; The Persians, though weak
in some parts, contains some fine choral poetry, and a de¬
scription of the battle of Salamis, that will belong to the
poetry of the world so long as the world lasts; while The
Suppliants presents much in a tasteful translation, that makes
us lament the loss of the missing pieces of the trilogy to
which it belonged, no less than the blundering of the
thoughtless copyists of the middle ages, by whose pen it has
been so egregiously defaced. For in ancient times the
flowing rhetorical Euripides was found a more useful model
for the schools of eloquence, than the lofty, stern, and some¬
times harsh, and occasionally it may be obscure, iEschylus :
therefore, the text of the latter has been comparatively ne¬
glected, and much work was left for the tasteful philologist,
before many parts of his noblest choruses could be ren¬
dered legible. Of the editions of vEsehylus, the most notable
in the earlier times of modern scholarship is that of Stanley;
in more recent times, that of Schiitz, who undertook the work
of restoration with much learning and great boldness. The im¬
pulse given by this scholar was moderated by Wellauer, who,
in his edition, along with some happy emendations, princi¬
pally endeavoured to vindicate the authority of the manu¬
script readings from the large license of conjectural critics;
and now from the remains of the great Hermann, has been
published a text that should present the just medium be¬
tween the timidity of Wellauer, and the rashness of mere
conjectural criticism. Of English poetical translations
^Escula-
pius
II
^Esop.
^ S 0
- there are only two; the old one by Potter, and a recent one
by Blackie. There is also a translation in literal prose by
Buckley. (j. s. b.)
j ^ESCULAPIUS, in the Heathen Mythology, the god of
physic, was the son of Apollo and the nymph Coronis. He
was educated by the centaur Chiron, who taught him physic,
by which means Aesculapius cured the most desperate dis¬
eases. But Jupiter, enraged at his restoring to life Hippo-
lytus, who had been torn in pieces by his own horses, killed
him with a thunderbolt. According to Cicero, there were
three deities of this name ; the first, the son of Apollo, wor¬
shipped in Arcadia, who invented the probe and bandages
for wounds; the second, the brother of Mercury killed by
lightning; and the third, the son of Arsippus and Arsinoe,
who first taught the art of tooth-drawing and purging. At
Epidaurus, /Esculapius’s statue was of gold and ivory, with
a long beard, his head surrounded with rays, holding in
one hand a knotty stick, and the other entwined with a
serpent: he was seated on a throne of the same materials as
his statue, and had a dog lying at his feet. The Romans
crowned him with laurel, to represent his descent from
Apollo; and the Phliasians represented him as beardless.
The cock, the raven, and the goat, were sacred to this deity.
His chief temples were at Pergamus, Smyrna, Tricca, a
city in Thessaly, and the isle of Coos; in all which votive
tablets were hung up, showing the diseases cured by his as¬
sistance. But his most famous shrine was at Epidaurus,
where, every five years, games were instituted to him, nine
days after the Isthmian games at Corinth.
iESOP, the fabulist, was born about the year 620 b.c.,
but the place of his birth is uncertain, that honour being
claimed alike by Samos, Sardis, Mesembria in Thrace, and
Coticeum in Phrygia. He was brought, while young, to
Athens as a slave, and having served several masters, was
eventually enfranchised by ladmon the Samian. He there¬
upon visited Croesus king of Lydia, at whose court he is re¬
presented by Plutarch as reproving Solon for his discour¬
teous manner towards the king. During the usurpation of
Pisistratus, he is said to have visited Athens, and composed
the fable of Jupiter and the Frogs for the instruction of the
citizens (Phaedrus, i. 2). As the ambassador of Croesus at
Delphi, he was charged with the distribution of the large
sum of four minae to each of the citizens; but, in conse¬
quence of some dispute, he returned the money to Croesus.
The Delphians, incensed at his conduct, accused him of sa¬
crilege, and threw him headlong from a precipice, about
564 b.c. A pestilence which ensued being attributed to
this crime, the people declared their willingness to make
compensation for his death; which in default of a nearer
connection was claimed and received by ladmon, the grand¬
son of his old master. {Pint, de sera Num. Vind., p. 556.
Herodot. ii. 134.) None of Aesop’s works are extant. The
popular stories regarding him are derived from a life pre¬
fixed to a book of fables purporting to be his, collected by
Maximus Planudes, a monk of the fourteenth century, in
v/hich he is represented as a monster of ugliness and de¬
formity, a notion utterly without foundation, and doubtless
intended to heighten his wit by the contrast. That this life,
however, was in existence a century before Planudes’s time,
appears by a manuscript of it found at Florence, and pub¬
lished in 1809. In Plutarch’s Convivium, where AEsop is a
guest, though there are many jests on his original servile
condition, there are none on his appearance; and it would
seem that the ancients were not usually restrained by deli¬
cacy in this point, since the personal defects of Socrates, and
his resemblance to old Silenus, afford ample matter for mer¬
riment and raillery in the Symposium of Plato. We are
told, besides, that the Athenians erected, in honour of vEsop,
a noble statue by the famous sculptor Lysippus, a circum-
2E S O
stance which alone were sufficient to confute the absurd
fiction of his deformity: but more to the point is the state¬
ment of Pliny (xxxvi. 12.), that he was the Contubernalis
of Rhodope, his fellow-slave, whose extraordinary beauty
passed into a proverb :
’'A.Trav6‘ opoui, kol 'PoSSttis r/ KaXrj.
The obscurity in which the history of Ail sop is involved,
has induced some to deny his existence altogether; and
Giambattista Vico, in his Scienza Nuova, chooses rather to
consider him as an abstraction,—an excess of scepticism
which is quite unreasonable. Whether Alsop left any written
fables, has been more justly disputed, and Bentley inclines
to the negative. Thus Aristophanes {In Vespis, v. 1259)
represents the old man as learning his fables in conversa¬
tion, and not from a book; and Socrates essayed to versify
such as he remembered (Plat., Phced. p. 61). Others again
are of opinion, that a collection had been made of them be¬
fore the time of Socrates. {Mus. Grit. i. 408.) It is, how¬
ever, certain that fables bearing AEsop’s name were popu¬
lar at Athens during the most brilliant period of its lite¬
rary history; though the discrepancies of authors in quot¬
ing the same fables seem in favour of Bentley’s hypothesis.
(Compare Aristot. De Part. Anim. iii. 2.; and Lucian. Nigr.
32.) The original fables were in prose, and were turned into
verse by several writers; the first, after the example of So¬
crates, being Demetrius Phalereus. Next appeared an edi¬
tion in elegiac verse, often cited by Suidas, but the author’s
name is unknown ; then Babrius, an excellent Greek poet,
turned them into choliambics ; but of ten books, a few fables
only are preserved entire. Of the Latin writers of AEsopean
fables, Phaedrus is the most celebrated.
“ ADsopus auctor quam materiam reperit,
Hanc ego polivi versibus senariis.”
PH.ED.
The fables now extant in prose under Aisop's name are en¬
tirely spurious, as proved by Bentley in his Dissertation on
the Fables of JEsop, and have been assigned an oriental ori¬
gin. The identification of AEsop with the Arabian philoso¬
pher and fabulist Lokman (who is made by some traditions
the contemporary of the psalmist David), has frequently been
attempted; and the Persian accounts of Lokman, which
among other things describe him as an ugly black slave,
appear to have been blended by the author of the Life pub¬
lished by Planudes, with the classical stories respecting
ASsop. The similarity of the fables ascribed to each renders
it probable that they were derived from the same Indo-Per-
sian source, or from the Chinese, who appear to have pos¬
sessed such fables in very remote antiquity. A complete
collection of the iEsopean Fables, 231 in number, was pub¬
lished at Breslau, by J. G. Schneider, in 1810.
AiIsop, a Greek historian, whose life of Alexander the
Great is preserved in a Latin translation by Julius Valerius.
It is a work of no credit, abounding in errors.
A3sop, Clodvus, a celebrated actor, who flourished about
the 670th year of Rome. He and Roscius were contem¬
poraries, and the best performers who ever appeared upon
the Roman stage ; the former excelling in tragedy, the latter
in comedy. Cicero put himself under their direction, to
perfect his action. A£sop lived in a most expensive manner,
and at one entertainment is said to have had a dish which
cost above L.800. This dish, we are told, was filled with
singing and speaking birds, some of which cost near L.50.
1 he delight which AEsop took in this sort of birds proceeded,
as M. Bayle observes, from the expense. He did not make
a dish of them because they could speak, (according to the
refinement of Pliny upon this circumstance,) this motive being
only accidental, but because of their extraordinary price.
Aeth
188
iE S Y
^Esthetics If there had been any birds that could not speak, and yet
II more scarce and dear than these, he would have procured
/Esynx- gucj1 por ^ table. When he was upon the stage, he en-
v ^1Um| i tered into his part to such a degree as sometimes to be seized
^ v with a perfect ecstasy. Plutarch mentions it as reported of
him, that whilst he was representing Atreus deliberating how
he should revenge himself on Thyestes, he was so trans¬
ported beyond himself in the heat of action, that with his
truncheon he smote one of the servants crossing the stage,
and laid him dead on the spot. iEsop’s son was no less
luxurious than his father, for he dissolved pearls for his guests
to swallow. Some speak of this as a common practice of
his; but others mention his falling into this excess only on
1 Sat. iii. a particular day, when he was treating his friends. Horace
lib. ii. 239.speaks only of one pearl of great value, which he dissolved
in vinegar and drank.
./ESTHETICS, a term derived from’ato-^rtKos, “belong¬
ing to sensation,” employed by the followers of the German
metaphysicians to designate philosophical investigations into
the theory of The Beautiful, or Philosophy of the Fine Arts,
which they are disposed to regard as a distinct science. It
was first used in this sense by Wolf, about the middle of last
century; and Winckelmann, in his work on painting and
sculpture, maintains that beauty is a special property of
bodies. Similar views are maintained by Baumgarten and
Schelling, who apply their general principles to poetry, paint¬
ing, sculpture, architecture, and music. /Esthetical specula¬
tions do not appear to have contributed any thing to the
improvement of the fine arts, or to our real knowledge of
mental phenomena.
/ESTIM ATIO Capitis, a term met with in old law-books
for a fine anciently ordained to be paid for offences commit¬
ted against persons of quality, according to their several de¬
grees.
/ESTIVAL, in a general sense, denotes something con¬
nected with, or belonging to summer. Hence aestival sign,
aestival solstice, &c.
/ESTUARY, in Geography, denotes an arm of the sea,
which runs a good way within land. Such is the Bristol
channel, and many of the firths of Scotland.
/Estuary, in ancient baths, a secret passage from the
hypocaustum into the chambers.
/Estuary, among Physicians, a vapour bath, or any other
instrument for conveying heat to the body.
/ESTUI, a people that dwelt on the sea-coast in the N.E.
of Germany, whose manners are minutely described by
Tacitus. In appearance and manners, says that author, they
resemble the Suevi; their language, that of Britain. They
worshipped the mother of the gods, in whose honour they
wore images of the boar, as amulets in war; fighting chiefly
with clubs, as they had little iron. They engaged in hus¬
bandry, and gathered amber for the Roman market. This
substance they called glessicm. Their name is still preserved
in the modern Esthen, the German name of the Esthonians.
See Latham’s Germania of Tacitus, p. 166. Vkert, vol.
iii., pt. i., p. 420.
/ESYMNETES,’Atcruju.u>jT77s, among the Greeks, was, like
the Roman dictator, a person invested by the people with
2E T H
AETH. See Ath.
/ETHALIA, or Ilua, in Ancient Geography, now Elba,
an island on the coast of Etruria, in compass a hundred miles,
abounding in iron. It was so called from aiOaXg, smoke,
which issued from the shops of Vulcan.
/ETHELING, or /Edeling, the Anglo-Saxon title given
to the children of kings and nobles. It is compounded of
cethel, sebel, illustrious, and ling, ling, which, when affixed to
persons, indicates diminution or adolescence.
/ETHELSTAN. See Athelstan.
/ETHER is usually understood of a thin, subtile matter
or medium, much finer and rarer than air, which, commenc¬
ing from the limits of our atmosphere, possesses the whole
heavenly space. The word is Greek, (u6r]p, supposed to be
formed from the verb ai6av, to burn, to flame ; some of the
ancients, particularly Anaxagoras, supposing it to be of the
nature of fire.
The philosophers cannot conceive that the largest part of
the creation should be perfectly void; and therefore they fill it
with a species of matter under the denomination of (ether. But
they vary extremely as to the nature and character of this
aether. Some conceive it as a body sui generis, appointed only
to fill up the vacuities between the heavenly bodies, and there¬
fore confined to the regions above our atmosphere. Others
suppose it of so subtile and penetrating a nature as to per¬
vade the air and other bodies, and to possess the pores and
intervals thereof. Others deny the existence of any such
specific matter, and think the air itself, by that immense
tenuity and expansion it is found capable of, may diffuse it¬
self through the interstellar spaces, and be the only matter
found therein.
In effect, aether being no object of our sense, but the mere
work of imagination, brought only upon the stage for the
sake of hypothesis, or to solve some phenomenon real or
imaginary, authors take the liberty of modifying it as they
please. Some suppose it of an elementary nature, like other
bodies, and only distinguished by its tenuity, and the other
affections consequent thereon ; which is the philosophical
aether. Others will have it of another species, and not ele¬
mentary, but rather a sort of fifth element, of a purer, more
refined, and spiritous nature, than the substances about our
earth, and void of the common affections thereof, as gravity,
&c. The heavenly spaces being the supposed region or
residence of a more exalted class of beings, the medium
must be more exalted in proportion. Such is the ancient
and popular idea of aether, or aethereal matter.
The term (ether being thus embarrassed with a variety
of ideas, and arbitrarily applied to so many different things,
the later and severer philosophers choose to set it aside, and
in lieu thereof substitute other more determinate ones. Thus,
the Cartesians use the term materia subtilis, which is their
aether : and Sir Isaac Newton, sometimes a subtile spirit, as
in the close of his Principia ; and sometimes a subtile or
(ethereal medium, as in his Optics.
Heat, Sir Isaac Newton observes, is communicated through
a vacuum almost as readily as through air ; but such com¬
munication cannot be without some interjacent body, to act
as a medium. And such body may be subtile enough to
Aether.
absolute power for a limited period in great emergencies of penetrate the pores of glass, and may permeate those of all
the State. Such was Pittacus at Mytilene, or Dracon and
Solon at Athens.—Arist. Polit. iii. iv.
/ESYMNIUM, in Antiquity, a monument erected to the
memory of the heroes by /Esymnus the Megarean. On con¬
sulting the oracle in what manner the Megareans might be
most happily governed, he was answered, By holding con¬
sultation with the more numerous. Taking this to signify
the dead, he built the said monument, and a senate-house
that embraced it within its compass, imagining that thus the
dead would assist at their consultations.—Pausanias.
other bodies, and consequently be diffused through all the
parts of space.
The existence of such an aethereal medium being settled,
that author proceeds to its properties; inferring it to be not
only rarer and more fluid than air, but exceedingly more elas¬
tic and active ; in virtue of which properties he shows, that
a great part of the phenomena of nature may be produced by
it. To the weight, e. g. of this medium, he attributes gra¬
vitation, or the weight of all other bodies; and to its elasti¬
city, the elastic force of the air and of nervous fibres, and the
A E T
AiithBr emission, refraction, reflection, and other phenomena of
A'tites. 01QgIlt ’ as also sensation, muscular motion, &c. In fine, this
ir_ y same matter seems the primum mobile, the first source or
spring of physical action in the modern system.
The Cartesian aether is supposed not only to prevade, but
adequately to fill, all the vacuities of bodies; and thus to
make an absolute plenum in the universe.
But Sir Isaar Newton shows that the celestial spaces are
void of all sensible resistance ; and hence it follows, that the
matter contained therein must be immensely rare, in regard
the resistance of bodies is chiefly as their density; so that
if the heavens were thus adequately filled with a medium or
matter, how subtile soever, they would resist the motion of
the planets and comets much more than quicksilver or gold.
But it has been supposed that what Newton has said of
aether is to be considered only as a conjecture, and especially
as no new proofs of its existence have been adduced since
his time.
vEther, a term applied to several particular fluids. See
Chemistry.
.ETHEREAL, something that belongs to, or
partakes of, the nature of Ether. Thus we say, the (ethe¬
real space, (ethereal regions, See. Some of the ancients di¬
vided the universe, with respect to the matter contained
therein, into elementary and aethereal. Under the aethereal
world was included all that space above the uppermost ele¬
ment, viz. fire. This they supposed to be perfectly homo¬
geneous, incorruptible, unchangeable, &c. The Chaldees
placed an aethereal world between the empyreum and the
region of the fixed stars. Besides which, they sometimes
also speak of a second aethereal world, meaning by it the
starry orb; and a third aethereal world, by which is meant
the planetary region.
ETHIOPIA. See Ethiopia.
AETIANS, in Church History, a branch of Arians, who
maintained that the Son and Holy Ghost are in all things
dissimilar to the Father. See Aetius.
ETIOLOGY is that part of pathology which is employed
in exploring the causes of diseases.
AETIONj a celebrated painter, who left an excellent
picture of Roxana and Alexander, which he exhibited at
the Olympic games. It represented a magnificent chamber,
where Roxana is sitting on a bed of a most splendid appear¬
ance, which is rendered still more brilliant by her beauty.
She looks downwards in a kind of confusion, being struck
with the presence of Alexander standing before her. A
number of little Cupids flutter about, some holding up the
curtain, as if to show Roxana to the prince, whilst others are
busied in undressing the lady; some pull Alexander by the
cloak, who appears like a young bashful bridegroom, and
present him to his mistress. He lays his crown at her feet,
being accompanied by Hephaestion who holds a torch in his
hand, and leans upon a youth, who represents Hymen.
Several other little Cupids are represented playing with
his arms: some carry his lance, stooping under so heavy a
weight; others bear along his buckler, upon which one of
them is seated, whom the rest carry in triumph; another
lies in ambush in his armour, waiting to frighten the rest as
they pass by. This picture gained Aetion so much reputa-
tation, that the president of the games gave him his daugh¬
ter in marriage.—-ZMC'/aw.
ETITES, or Eagle-stoKe, in Natural History, a flinty
or crustated stone, hollow inside, and containing a nuclem,
which, on shaking, rattles within. It was formerly in repute
for several extraordinary magical as well as medical powers;
such as preventing abortion, discovering thieves, and other
ridiculous properties. The word is formed from aeros, eagle,
the popular tradition being, that it is found in the eagle’s
nest, whither it is supposed to be carried while the female
A E T igg
sits, to prevent her eggs from becoming rotten. It is found Aetius
in various places. Near Trevoux, in France, one can scarcely II
dig a few feet without finding considerable strata or beds -®tna-
of the coarser or ferruginous kind. They are originally soft, ^
and of the colour of yellow ochre. But the finest and most
valued of all the eagle-stones are accidental states of one or
other of our common pebbles.
AETIUS, one of the most zealous defenders of Arianism,
was born at Antioch in Coele-Syria, and flourished about the
year 336. Being left fatherless, and in poverty, he became
a slave, and was afterwards a goldsmith, and also practised
physic. After being servant to a grammarian, of whom he
learned grammar and logic, he was ordained deacon at An¬
tioch, and at length bishop, by Eudoxius, patriarch of Con¬
stantinople. Aetius was banished into Pisidia on account
of his religious opinions; but was recalled from exile on
the accession of Julian, and was much esteemed by that
emperor. He died, it is supposed, at Constantinople, about
the year 366. St Epiphanius has noticed 70 of his pro¬
positions against the Trinity. His followers were called
Aetians.
Aetius, a famous physician, born at Amida in Meso¬
potamia, and the author of a work entitled Tetrabiblos,
which is a collection from the writings of those physicians
who went before him. He lived, according to Ur Freind,
in the end of the fifth or the beginning of the sixth
century.
Aetius, governor of Gallia Narbonensis in the reign of
Valentinian III., forced the Franks who were passing into
Gaul to repass the Rhine. He defeated the Goths, and
routed Attila, king of the Huns, who invaded Gaul with
an army of 700,000 men. But the emperor, jealous of the
merit of this great man, killed him in 454, with his own
hand, under the pretence that he had permitted the inva¬
sion of the Huns, after Attila’s defeat.
ETNA, (in the Itineraries JEthana, supposed from
aiQoi, to burn; according to Bochart, from athuna, a
furnace, or cetuna, darkness), now Monte Gibello ; a vol¬
cano or burning mountain of Sicily, situated in Long. 15.
E. Lat. 38. N.
This mountain, famous from the remotest antiquity,
both for its bulk and terrible eruptions, stands in the eastern
part of the island, in a very extensive plain, called Val di
Demona, from the notion of its being inhabited by devils,
who torment the spirits of the damned in the bowels of
this volcano.
The base of Etna is well defined by the sea, and by Magni-
the rivers Giaretta and Alcantara; and is about eighty- tude and
seven miles in circumference, with its greatest diameter height of
extending from east to west. The following measure- th.e moun'
ments, taken by Captain Smyth, we have adopted as the tam‘
most accurate hitherto published:
The Summit 10874 feet.
Foot of the Cone   9760
The English House   9592
Philosopher’s Tower 9467
Bishop’s Snow Stoves 7410
Highest part of the Woody Region 6279
The Goats’ Cavern 5362
Angelo the Herdsman’s Cottage 4205
Nicolosi Convent 2449
Lingua-Grossa 1725
Caltabiano Station 371
Catania Station 47
The products and general appearance of this volcano General
have been described by many travellers. The journey appear-
from Catania to its summit has been described by M. ance-
D’Orville, Mr Brydone, Sir William Hamilton, M. Houel,
the abbe Spallanzani, Smyth, &c. They all agree that
190
JE T
jEtna. this single mountain affords an epitome of the different
climates throughout the whole world. Towards the foot
it is extremely hot; farther up, more temperate; and
grows gradually more and more cold the higher we as¬
cend. At the very top it is perpetually covered with
snow : from thence the whole island is supplied with that
article, so necessary in a hot climate, and without which,
the natives say, Sicily could not be inhabited.. So great
is the demand for this commodity, that the bishop s re¬
venues, which are considerable, arise from the sale of
Mount ^Etna’s snow ; and he is said to draw L.1000 a year
from one small portion lying on the north side. of the
mountain. Great quantities of snow and ice are likewise
exported to Mbit a and Italy, making a considerable branch
of commerce. The snow of iEtna, says Captain Smyth,
is not only consumed in vast quantities all over the island,
but forms an extensive article of commerce with Malta
and Italy, to which places it is sent in such profusion as
to be sold from a penny to threepence the pound, a rate
which renders it accessible to the lower orders.
Crater de- In the middle of the snowy region stands the great
scribed. crater, or mouth of /Etna. Sir William Hamilton describes
the crater as a little mountain, about a quarter of a mile
perpendicular, and very steep, situated in the middle of a
gently inclining plain, of about nine miles in circumfer¬
ence. It is entirely formed of stones and ashes; and, as
he was informed by several people of Catania, had been
thrown up about 25 or 30 years before the time (1769) he
visited Mount iEtna. Before this mountain was thrown
up, there was only a prodigiously large chasm or gulf in
the middle of the above-mentioned plain; and it has been
remarked, that about once in 100 years the top of iEtna
falls in ; which undoubtedly must be the case at certain
periods, otherwise the mountain would continually increase
in height. As this little mountain, though emitting smoke
from every pore, appeared solid and firm, Sir William
Hamilton and his companions went up to the very top.
In the middle is a hollow, about two miles and a half in
circumference, according to Sir William Hamilton; three
miles and a half, according to Mr Brydone ; and three or
four, according to M. D’Orville. The inside is crusted
over with salts and sulphur of different colours. It goes
shelving down from the top, like an inverted cone; the
depth, in Sir William Hamilton’s opinion, nearly corre¬
sponding to the height of the little mountain. From many
places of this space issue volumes of sulphurous smoke,
which being much heavier than the circumambient air,
instead of ascending in it, roll down the side of the moun¬
tain, till, coming to a more dense atmosphere, it shoots
off horizontally, and forms a large track in the air, accord¬
ing to the direction of the wind; which, happily for our tra¬
vellers, carried it exactly to the side opposite to that on
which they stood. In the middle of this funnel is the tre¬
mendous and unfathomable gulf, so much celebrated in
all ages, both as the terror of this life and the place of
punishment in the next. From this gulf continually issue
terrible and confused noises, which in eruptions are in¬
creased to such a degree as to be heard at a prodigious
distance. Its diameter is probably very different at dif¬
ferent times; for Sir William Hamilton observed, by the
wind clearing away the smoke from time to time, that the
inverted hollow cone was contracted almost to a point;
while M. D’Orville and Mr Brydone found the opening
very large. Both Mr Brydone and Sir William Hamilton
found the crater too hot to descend into it; but M. D’Or¬
ville was bolder; and accordingly, he and his fellow-tra¬
veller, fastened to ropes which two or three men held at
a distance for fear of accidents, descended as near as pos¬
sible to the brink of the gulf; but the small flames and
N A.
smoke which issued from it on every side, and a greenish -®tna-
sulphur, and pumice stones, quite black, which covered
the margin, would not permit them to come so near as to
have a full view. They only saw distinctly, in the middle,
a mass of matter which rose in the shape of a cone, to the
height of above 60 feet, and which towards the base, as
far as their sight could reach, might be 600 or 800 feet.
While they were observing this substance, some motion
was perceived on the north side, opposite to that whereon
they stood; and immediately the mountain began to send
forth smoke and ashes. This eruption was preceded by a
sensible increase of its internal roarings; which, however,
did not continue, but, after a moment’s dilatation, as if to
give it vent, the volcano resumed its former tranquillity;
but as it was by no means proper to make a long stay in
such a place, our travellers immediately returned to their
attendants.
The top of iEtna being above the common region of View from
vapours, the heavens appear with exceeding great splen-^ sum‘
dour. Mr Brydone and his company observed, as they mi ’
ascended in the night, that the number of stars seemed
to be indefinitely increased, and the light of each of them
appeared brighter than usual; the whiteness of the milky
way was like a pure flame which shot across the heavens;
and with the naked eye they could observe clusters of
stars that were invisible from below. Had Jupiter been
visible, he is of opinion that some of his satellites might
have been discovered with the naked eye, or at least with
a very small pocket-glass. He likewise took notice of
several of those meteors called falling stars, which ap¬
peared as much elevated as when viewed from the plain;
a proof, according to Mr Brydone, that “ these bodies
move in regions much beyond the bounds that some phi¬
losophers have assigned to our atmosphere.”
To have a full and clear prospect from the summit of
Mount iEtna, it is necessary to be there before sunrise,
as the vapours raised by the sun in the daytime will ob¬
scure every object. Accordingly, our travellers took care
to arrive there early enough; and all agree, that the
beauty of the prospect from thence cannot be described.
Here Mr Brydone and Sir William Hamilton had a view
of Calabria in Italy, with the sea beyond it; the Lipari
islands, and Stromboli, a volcano at about 70 miles dis¬
tance, appeared just under their feet: the whole island
of Sicily, with its rivers, towns, harbours, &c. appeared
distinct, as if seen on a map. Massa, a Sicilian author,
affirms, that the African coast, as well as that of Naples,
with many of its islands, has been discovered from the
top of iEtna. The visible horizon here is no less than
800 or 900 miles in diameter. The pyramidal shadow of
the mountain reaches across the whole island, and far into
the sea on the other side, forming a visible track in the
air, which, as the sun rises above the horizon, is shortened,
and at last confined to the neighbourhood of /Etna. The
most beautiful part of the scene, however, in Mr Bry-
done’s opinion, is the mountain itself, the island of Sicily,
and the numerous islands lying round it. These last seem
to be close to the skirts of iEtna, the distances appearing
reduced to nothing.
M. Houel gives the following description of the view
he enjoyed from the summit of the mountain. Here,
being sheltered from the wind, and the day advancing,
they began to enjoy the glorious prospect, which every
moment became more extensive. At the rising of the
sun, the horizon was serene, without a single cloud. “ The
coast of Calabria,” says our author, “ was as yet undis-
tinguishable from the adjoining sea; but in a short time a
fiery radiance began to appear from behind the Italian
hills which bounded the eastern part of the prospect.
M T
./Etna. The fleecy clouds, which generally appear early in the
morning, were tinged with purple; the atmosphere became
strongly illuminated, and, reflecting the rays of the rising
sun, appeared filled with a bright effulgence of flame. The
immense elevation of the summit of ./Etna made it catch
the first rays of the sun’s light, whose vast splendour, while
it dazzled the eyes, diffused a most cherishing and enliven¬
ing heat, reviving the spirits, and diffusing a pleasant sen¬
sation throughout the soul. But though the heavens were
thus enlightened, the sea still retained its dark azure, and
the fields and forests did not yet reflect the rays of the
sun. The gradual rising of this luminary, however, soon
diffused his light over the hills which lie below the peak
of iEtna. This last stood like an island in the midst of
the ocean, with luminous points every moment multiplying
around, and spreading over a wider extent with the greatest
rapidity. It was as if the universe had been observed
suddenly springing from the night of non-existence. The
tall forests, the lofty hills, and extensive plains of iEtna,
now presented themselves to view. Its base, the vast
tracts of level ground which lie adjacent, the cities of Si¬
cily, its parched shores, with the dashing waves and vast
expanse of the ocean, gradually presented themselves;
while some fleeting vapours, which moved swiftly before
the wind, sometimes veiled part of this vast and magnifi¬
cent prospect.” In a short time every thing was display¬
ed so distinctly that they could plainly recognise all those
places with which they were before acquainted. On the
south were seen the hills of Camerata and Trapani; on the
north, the mounts Pelegrino and Thermini, with the cele¬
brated Enna once crowned with the temples of Ceres and
Proserpine. Among these mountains were seen a great
imany rivers running down, and appearing like as many
lines of glittering silver winding through a variety of rich
and fertile fields, washing the walls of 28 cities, while their
banks were otherwise filled with villages, hamlets, &c. ris¬
ing among the ruins of the most illustrious republics of
antiquity. On the south and north were observed the
rivers which bound by their course the vast base of Mount
./Etna, and afford a delightful prospect to the eye; while
at a much greater distance were seen the isles of Lipari,
Alicudi, Felicocide, Parinacia, and Stromboli.
Regions. This mountain is divided into three parts or zones,
which are distinguished by the names of the Regione
Culta, the fertile or cultivated region ; the Regione Syl-
vosa, the woody or temperate region ; and the Regione
Deserta, the frigid or desert zone or region. All these are
plainly distinguished from the summit.
Regione The desert region is a dreary waste of black lava, scoria,
Deserta. an(j ashes, in the centre of which, in a desolate plain, rises
the cone, to the height of eleven hundred feet. Imme¬
diately under the cone is an edifice, erected at the ex¬
pense of the British officers who during the late war
were stationed in Sicily, containing rooms and stabling;
a great convenience to those travellers who resort to
it in the proper season, but during the greater part of
the year a single snow storm is sufficient to overwhelm it.
Not far from this house are the vestiges of a brick build¬
ing, called the Philosophers Tower, from the supposition
of its having been the dwelling of Empedocles. M. Houel,
however, says, “ it seems not to be very ancient, neither
the materials of which it consists, nor the mode of archi¬
tecture, bearing any resemblance to those of the Greeks
or Romans.”
Kegione Immediately below the desert region is the woody
Sjlvosa. region, which is an extensive forest of about six or seven
miles in length, encircling the mountain, and affording
pasturage to the numerous flocks and herds that are
fed there. The woods are irregularly distributed, ac-
N A. i9i
cording to the ravages of the lava, and the senseless de- j£tna.
struction of them by the natives. The neighbourhood of
Maletto is richly clothed with fine oaks, pines, and poplars;
above Nicolosi and Milo are produced stunted oaks, with
fir, beech, cork, hawthorn, and bramble; and in the dis¬
tricts of Mascali and Piraino there are groves of cork, and
luxuriant chesnut trees. The vicinity of Bronte abounds
with pines of great magnitude; but the Carpinetto boasts
that father of the forest, the venerable Castagno di cento
cavalli, or chesnut of the hundred horses, supposed to be
one of the oldest known trees, and, as far as is known, the
largest tree in Europe. Some travellers describe it as a
single tree; others, and with more plausibility, as produced
by the inosculation of several young chesnut trees. It ap¬
pears to consist of five large and two smaller trees. The
largest trunk Captain Smyth found to measure 38 feet in
circumference, and the circuit of the whole five, measured
just above the ground, is 163 feet. It still bears rich fo¬
liage, and much small fruit, though the heart of the trunk
is decayed, and a public road leads through them. Be¬
sides this, there is abundance of other trees in the neigh¬
bourhood, very remarkable for their size. One is men¬
tioned as being upwards of 70 feet in circumference.
Many parts of this region are remarkably picturesque,
and even romantic; and its cool temperature is extreme¬
ly grateful when contrasted with the heat of the lower
region.
“ These majestic forests of ./Etna,” says Houel, “ afford a
singular spectacle, and bear no resemblance to those of
other countries. Their verdure is more lively, and the
trees of which they consist are of a greater height. These
advantages they owe to the soil whereon they grow; for
the soil produced by volcanoes is particularly favourable
to vegetation, and every species of plants grows here with
great luxuriance. In several places, where we can view
their interior parts, the most enchanting prospects are dis¬
played. The hawthorn trees are of an immense size. Our
author saw several of them of a regular form, and which
he was almost tempted to take for large orange trees cut
artificially into the figures they represented. The beeches
appear like as many ramified pillars, and the tufted branch¬
es of the oak like close bushes impenetrable to the rays of
the sun. The appearance of the woods in general is ex¬
ceedingly picturesque, both by reason of the great number
and variety of the trees, and the inequality of the ground,
which makes them rise like the seats in an amphitheatre,
one row above another; disposing them also in groups and
glades, so that their appearance changes to the eye at
every step; and this variety is augmented by accidental
circumstances, as the situation of young trees among
others venerable for their antiquity; the effects of storms,
which have often overturned large trees, while stems
shooting up from their roots, like the Lernaean hydra,
show a number of heads newly sprung to make up that
which was cut off.”
Several extensive caverns occur in this region, among
which, one is well known by the name of the Goats' Ca¬
vern or Grotto, because it is frequented by those animals, •
which take refuge there in bad weather. Formerly tra¬
vellers on their ascent rested here, but since the erection
of the more convenient shelter higher up the mountain,
called the English House, it has been abandoned.
The fertile district or region comprises the delightful Regione
country round the skirts of the mountain, and is veryCuita.
unequal in its dimensions, being in many parts from six
to nine miles broad, and above Catania nearly eleven ;
while on the northern side, where the woods encroach, it
is little more than half a mile broad. The whole is more
or less covered with towns, villages, and monasteries, and
192
iE T N A.
jEtna. is well peopled, notwithstanding the danger of such a situa-
tion. The soil is made up of decomposed lava and tuffa.
It is easily worked and very productive, yielding the finest
corn, oil, wine, fruit, and aromatic shrubs, in Sicily. The
inhabitants, however, of many of these districts, as Smyth
remarks, from the numerous minute particles of volcanic
dust that fly about, severely injuring and disfiguring their
eyes, and soiling their persons, their furniture, and their
houses, have a squalid, slovenly, and dejected appearance.
These circumstances, with the want of water, and the nu¬
merous and arid patches of lava amidst the surrounding
vegetation, leave such a paradise little to be envied. In
addition to these inconveniences, the constant danger of
losing both landed and movable property by an erup¬
tion must be borne in mind; a disaster compared with
which, earthquakes, hurricanes, plagues, and other visita¬
tions are light, as these may be counteracted in a few
years, while the other destroys for ages. The terrible erup¬
tion of 1699 burst forth in this region.
In this region the river Ads, so much celebrated by the
poets, in the fable of Acis and Galatea, takes its rise. It
bursts out of the earth at once in a large stream, runs
with great rapidity, and about a mile from the source throws
itself into the sea.
Season for The most desirable season, according to Smyth, for as-
ascending cending the mountain, is during the full moons that occur
the ir.oun- between the middle of June and the first autumnal rains,
tam. iatter appear in the form of snow on the summit; and
the peasants below attentively observe whether the east or
west side is covered earliest, because in the former case
they expect a wet season, and in the latter a dry one.
After the equinox the weather again becomes settled, and
the journey is practicable and easy until the middle of
October. The ascent from Catania, through Nicolosi, to
the English house, is effected on mules with the greatest
ease, or even in a Lettiga; but from thence to the top of the
cone the journey is very fatiguing. The obstacles are nu¬
merous : the surface, towards the summit, is frequently so
hot as to make even resting inconvenient, and the materials,
being only scoria, puzzolana, and triturated ashes, occasion
the foot to sink and recede more or less at every step.
Geognosti- This mighty mountain, which rises suddenly from the
cal struc- surrounding low country, is mostly composed of porphyri-
tic lavas, which in every instance possess such characters
as show that in all probability they have been ejected above
the surface of the waters, and not under pressure. It rises,
out of a basaltic crater of elevation, hence its lower part
is of a basaltic nature. The products of the eruptions of
this mountain, in point of magnitude, form a striking con¬
trast with those of Vesuvius; for even the greatest bodies
of lava erupted from the Neapolitan mountain almost sink
into insignificance when compared with those of iEtna,
some of the streams or coulees of iEtna being four or five^
miles in breadth, 15 in length, and from 50 to 100 feet in
thickness.
The elevation of iEtna, too, is so great that the lava fre¬
quently finds less resistance in piercing the flanks of the
mountain than in rising to its summit; and has in this man¬
ner formed a number of minor cones, many of which pos¬
sess their respective craters, and have given rise to con¬
siderable streams of lava. The most striking and original
feature in the physiognomy of iEtna, says Dr Daubeny,
is the zone of subordinate volcanic hills with which it is
encompassed, and which look like a court of subaltern
princes waiting upon their sovereign. Of these, some are
covered with vegetation, others are bare and arid, their
relative antiquity being probably denoted by the progress
vegetation has made upon their surface; and the great
difference which exists in this respect seems to indicate,
that the mountain, to which they owe their origin, must
have been in a state of activity, if not at a period ante¬
cedent to the commencement of the present order of things,
at least at a distance of time exceedingly remote. It
must be remarked, however, continues Daubeny, that the
time which it takes to bring a volcanic mountain or stream
of lava into cultivation is very variable ;* and that the
progress is generally more rapid in a cone composed of
finely comminuted cinders, than in a stream of lava, which
consists of a hard glossy substance, that yields but slowly
to the causes of decomposition. There is nothing in the
nature of lava, chemically considered, prejudicial to vege¬
tation; but mechanically, the hard surface is inimical,
as it gives no support to the tender shoots, and from its
vesicularity often carries off all the moisture that falls on its
surface. From these causes, the surface of a stream of
lava must always require a long time to bring it into cul¬
tivation. This being the case, we naturally feel desirous
of verifying an observation reported by Brydone, on the
authority of the canon Recupero, which might render us
doubtful as to the correctness of our received chronologies.
This writer, says Dr Daubeny, after giving an instance of
a lava, the date of which goes back to the time of the
second Punic war, proceeds to state, that at Aci Reale we
see seven such beds superimposed one on the other, each
of which has its surface thoroughly decomposed and con¬
verted into rich vegetable mould. Now, if a single bed of
lava has continued for more than 2000 years without ex¬
periencing any alteration, what a lapse of time must it
have required to reduce seven successive beds of the same
material into a state of such decomposition.
“ Although I have no reason,” says Dr Daubeny, “ to
doubt that Brydone received from Recupero the observa-
iElna.
1 “ This will appear from the following statement of the condition of a few of the lavas of Vesuvius, which I examined with reference
to this question in 1823 :
Lava of 1551—Fossa di Gaetano. Much decomposed; heaths grow upon it, and vines begin to be planted.
1737—-But little decomposed; moss alone grows on it.
1760.^Near the hill of the Camalduli. Still unfit for vegetation; surface, however, whitened and crumbly, owing to
decomposition, which has proceeded farther than in that of 1737-
1771-—Colour grey; moss grows upon it, but no heath.
1785.—Fossa di Sventurato. Lava still quite hard and rough.
1794—Fossa di Cucazzello. Surface much decomposed ; moss grows upon it, and a few heaths, but no trees or shrubs. It
is to be observed, that even the latter are met with on the surface of the crater from which this lava flowed, and
which was formed by heaps of scoriae ejected at the same time ; a proof of what I have asserted in the text with
respect to the more rapid decomposition ofloose ashes than of a bed of lava.
1805.—Fossa del Noce. Colour very white ; no moss appears to grow upon it; but, being covered with the loose scoriae of
later eruptions, it has trees growing upon it in a few parts.
1810—Colour grey; surface rough, though somewhat decomposed ; moss grows upon it, but no heaths or trees are seen,
except in one part where it is covered with cinders.
1822—Colour black; surface very rough and irregular; no moss as yet to be seen.
It will be seen that many of these lavas are in a more forward state than that of Ischia, which flowed in 1302, more than 200 years
before.” (Daubeny’s Volcanoes, p. 204.)
T N A. jg
tion on which he grounds his inferences, I think it most “ But it is useless to multiply proofs of the fallacy of JEtna.
probable that the conclusion itself was his own, though he Mr Brydone’s statement; and the only circumstance that
perhaps thought it would sound more piquant if put into needs surprise us is, that thirty years should have elapsed
the mouth of the Canon, whose scientific knowledge he without any traveller having visited the spot with the view
seems willing to exalt at the expense of his orthodoxy, of ascertaining the correctness of the observation.
In reality, however, this good priest appears to have en- “ Should the high antiquity I have assigned to this
joyed in both respects a reputation which he very little volcano be questioned, I may remark, that there are vallevs
deserved. The reports of Dolomieu and other really scien- on the slope of the mountain which appeared to me too
tific travellers make him out to have been a man of but considerable to be the result of torrents, and that among
slender philosophical attainments, but as one who at least the diluvial matter at its foot, I have found rolled masses
was free from all imputation of scepticism. It is curious, of cellular as well as compact lava ; the presence of the
nevertheless, that another foreigner has stated, as an in- former seeming to prove that the volcano was in activity
stance of the intolerant spirit prevailing in the country in at some period intermediate between the general retreat
which he lived, that the poor Abbe was thrown into pri- of the ocean and the event which formed the valleys, and
son for his religious opinions, although the truth appears reduced the fragments of rock detached to the rounded
to have been, that the reports circulated in his favour by condition in which we observe them.” (Daubeny’s Volca-
Brydone, Borch, and others, induced the Neapolitan go- noes, p. 206.)
vernment to grant him a pension on the score of his scien- We shall close this article with an enumeration of all
tific deserts. Indeed, the only annoyance, it is said, he the different eruptions from Mount iEtna which are found
ever experienced in consequence of his imagined disco- upon record.
very, was the being informed that certain foreigners, to 1. The first is that of which Diodorus Siculus speaks, List of
Avhom he communicated his observation, not content with but without fixing the period at which it happened. That eruptions,
wresting it to a purpose of which he had never dreamt, eruption, says he, obliged the Sicani, who then inhabited
had given him credit for the inferences which they had Sicily, to forsake the eastern and retire to the southern
chosen to deduce from it themselves. part of the island. A long time after that, the Sicilians,
“ TIie fact, nevertheless, reported by Brydone, obtain- a people of Italy, migrated into Sicily, and took up their
ed a currency proportionate to the popularity which his abode in that part of the island which had been left desert
work enjoyed ; and the heterodox conclusion excited at by the Sicani.
the time no slight degree of consternation among divines. 2. The second eruption known to have issued from this
It was generally combated, by remarking the great vari- volcano is the first of the three mentioned by Thucydides;
ableness as to the period which a bed of lava will take to of none of which he fixes the date, mentioning only in
undergo decomposition ; and even Spallanzani, though he general, that from the arrival of the first Greek colonies
visited Sicily, seems to have contented himself with point- that settled in Sicily (which was in the 11th Olympiad,
ingout instances in which newer beds oflava have taken the and corresponds to the 734th year before the Christian
start of older ones in their progress towards cultivation. era), to the 88th Olympiad, or the year 425 before Christ,
. £ ^ was therefore not a little surprised, when, on visit- iEtna at three different times discharged torrents of fire,
mg the celebrated spot of the Abbe’s observation, I found This second eruption happened, according to Eusebius, in
that the beds of vegetable mould, which proved, accord- the days of Phalaris, in the 565th year before the Chris-
mg to Brydone, the degree to which the decomposition of tian era. The assertion of Eusebius is confirmed by a
the lava had extended, were in reality nothing more nor letter from that tyrant to the citizens of Catania, and by the
less than beds of a ferruginous tuffa, formed probably at answer of the Catanians (if, after Bentley’s Dissertations
the very period of the flowing of the lava, and originating against their authenticity, any credit be due to the Epistles
perhaps from a shower of ashes that immediately succeed- of Phalaris). But Diodorus gives both these pieces,
ed its eruption. It is true that the cliff, which exhibits a 3. The third, which is the second of the three mention-
section of these lava beds with interposed tuffa, shows also ed by Thucydides, happened in the 65th Olympiad, in the
the greater facility with which the latter has yielded to 477th year before the Christian era, when Xantippus was
the action of the elements, as the bare and mural preci- archon at Athens. It was in this year that the Athenians
pices presented by the lava are in contrast with the gentler gained their boasted victory over Xerxes’s general Mar-
slope of the beds of tuffa, which afford a soil sufficient for donius near Plataea. Both the eruption of the volcano
the hardy cactus, and in some places even for the vine, and the victory of the Athenians are commemorated
Still there is not the slightest evidence that the decom- in an ancient inscription on a marble table, which still
position exists internally, oi that it had taken place in remains. An ancient medal exhibits a representation
any one instance before the superincumbent bed of lava of an astonishing deed to which that eruption gave oc-
was deposited. casion. Two heroic youths boldly ventured into the midst
“ Even had the tuffa in question been in reality vegetable of the flames to save their parents : their names, which
mould, the validity of Mr Bry done’s conclusion might M^ell deserve to be transmitted to future ages, were Amphi-
very easily be disputed, for I think it cannot be shown nomus and Anapius. The citizens of Catania rewarded so
that any one of the beds, of which the cliff of Aci Reale noble a deed with a temple and divine honours. Seneca,
exposes a section, are of postdiluvial origin. So abrupt Siliusltalicus, Valerius Maximus, and other ancient authors,
and lofty a face of rock would hardly have been cut by mention the heroism of the youths with just applause,
processes now in operation, but may be attributed with 4. The fourth eruption, the third and last of those
more probability to the cause which last reduced our con- mentioned by Thucydides, broke out in the 88th Olympiad,
tinents to their existing form. in the 425th year before the Christian era. It laid waste
“ If we examine, too, the characters of these beds, we the territory of Catania,
shall find them sufficiently distinguished by their greater 5. The fifth is mentioned by Julius Obsequens and Oro-
compactness and stony aspect from modern lavas; whilst sius, who date it in the consulship of Sergius Fulvius
the general correspondence in mineralogical characters Flaccus and Quintus Calpurnius Piso, nearly 133 years
that exists between them all, affords a strong presumption before the Christian era. It was considerable ; but no
of their having been produced about the same period. peculiar facts are related concerning it.
vol. n. 2 B
194 ^ T
jEtna. 6. In the consulship of Lucius TEmilius Lepidus and
Lucius Aurelius Orestes, in the 125th year before the
Christian era, Sicily suffered by a violent earthquake.
Such a deluge of fire streamed from Aitna as to render the
adjoining sea, into which it poured, absolutely hot. Orosius
says, that a prodigious quantity of fishes were destroyed
by it. Julius Obsequens relates, that the inhabitants of
the Isles of Lipari ate such a number of those fishes as to
suffer, in consequence of it, by a distemper which proved
very generally mortal. _ ,
7. Four years after the last mentioned, the city of Ca¬
tania was desolated by another eruption, not less violent.
Orosius relates, that the roofs of the houses were broken
down by the burning ashes which fell upon them. Itw^as
so dreadfully ravaged, that the Romans found it necessary
to grant the inhabitants an exemption from all taxes for
the space of ten years, to enable them to repair it.
8. A short time before the death of Caesar, in the 43d
year before Jesus Christ, there was an eruption from
Mount iEtna. Livy mentions it. Rhegium suffered dur¬
ing this eruption. It was afterwards considered as an
omen of the death of Caesar.
9. Suetonius, in the life of Caligula, mentions an erup¬
tion from Mount ALtna which happened in the 40th year
after the Christian era. The emperor fled on the very
night on which it happened, from Messina, where he at
that time happened to be.
10. Carrera relates, that in the year 253 there w^as an
eruption from Mount fEtna.
11. He speaks of another in the year 420, which is also
mentioned by Photius.
12. In the reign of Charlemagne, in the year 812, there
was an eruption from AEtna. Charlemagne, who witness¬
ed it, was much alarmed.
13. In the year 1169, on the 4th February, about day¬
break, there was an earthquake in Sicily, which was felt
as far as Reggio, on the opposite side of the strait. Ca¬
tania was reduced by it to ruins; and in that city more
than 15,000 souls perished. The bishop, with 44 monks
of the order of St Benedict, was buried under the ruins
of the roof of the church of St Agatha. Many castles in
the territories of Catania and Syracuse were overturned ;
new rivers burst forth, and ancient rivers disappeared.
The ridge of the mountain was observed to sink in on the
side next Taormino. The spring of Arethusa, so famous
for the purity and sweetness of its waters, then became
muddy and brackish. The fountain of Ajo, which rises
from the village of Saraceni, ceased to flow for two hours,
at the end of which the water gushed out more copiously
than before. Its waters assumed a blood colour, and re¬
tained it for about an hour. At Messina, the sea, without
any considerable agitation, retired a good way beyond its
ordinary limits; but soon after returning, it rose beyond
them, advanced to the walls of the city, and entered the
streets through the gates. A number of people who had
fled to the shore for safety were swallowed up by the
waves. Ludovico Aurelio relates, that the vines, corn,
and trees of all sorts were burnt up, and the fields cover¬
ed over with such a quantity of stones as rendered them
unfit for cultivation. At this time a great part of Syria
was wasted by an earthquake.
14. Twelve years after this, in the year 1181, a dread¬
ful eruption issued from AStna, on the east side. Streams
of fire ran down the declivity of the mountain, and en¬
circled the church of St Stephen, but without burning it.
Nicholas Speciale, who relates, though he did not see,
this event, was witness to another conflagration on Aitna
48 years after this, in the year 1329, on the 23d of June,
of which he has given a description.
N A.
15. On that day, says he, about the hour of vespers, AJna.
Aitna was strongly convulsed, and uttered dreadful noises:
not only the inhabitants of the mountain, but all Sicily,
were struck with consternation and alarm. On a sudden,
a terrible blaze of fire issued from the southern summit,
and spread over the rocks of Mazzara, which are always
covered with snow Together with the fire, there appear¬
ed a great deal of smoke. After sunset, the flames, and
the stones that issued out with them, were seen to touch
the clouds. The fire making way for itself with the most
furious impetuosity, burnt up or reduced to ruins all those
structures which the piety of former times had consecrat¬
ed to the Deity. The earth yawning, swallowed up a
great many springs and rivulets. Many of the rocks on
the shore of Mascali were shaken and dashed into the
sea. A succession of these calamities continued till the
15th of July, when the bowels of Aitna were again heard
to rebellow. The conflagration of Mazzara still went on
unextinguished. The earth opened near the church of
St John, called II Paparinecca; on the south side fire
issued from the gap with great violence. To add to the
horrors of the day, the sun was obscured from morning
to evening with clouds of smoke and ashes, as entirely as
in an eclipse. Nicholas Speciale went towards the new
opened crater, to observe the fire and the burning stones
which were issuing from the volcano. The earth rebel¬
lowed and tottered under his feet; and he saw red-hot
stones issue four times successively in a very short space
from the crater with a thundering noise, the like of which,
he says, he had never before heard.
In a few days after this, all the adjacent fields were
burnt up by a shower of fire and sulphurous ashes; and
both birds and quadrupeds, being thus left destitute of
food, died in great numbers. A great quantity of fishes
likewise died in the rivers and the contiguous parts of the
sea. “ I cannot think,” says he, “ that either Babylon or
Sodom was destroyed with such awful severity.”—The
north winds, which blew at the time, carried the ashes as
far as Malta. Many persons of both sexes died of terror.
16. Scarcely had four years elapsed after this terrible
event, when iEtna made a new explosion, and discharged
volleys of stones, causing the neighbouring fields to trem¬
ble. This happened in the year 1333.
17. Forty-eight years after this, on the 25th of August
1381, an eruption from Aitna spread its ravages over the
confines of the territory of Catania, and burnt up the olive
yards in the neighbourhood of that city.
18. In the year 1444, 63 years after the last eruption,
a torrent of lava issued from Altna, and ran towards Ca¬
tania. The mountain shook; and the shocks were so
violent, that several huge masses of rock were broken
from its summit, and hurled into the abyss with a tremen¬
dous noise.
19. After this Aitna was scarcely at rest for 18 months
or two years. On Sunday the 25th of September 1446,
about an hour after sunset, an eruption issued from the
place called La Pietra di Mazzara. This eruption was
soon over.
20. In the following year, 1447, on the 21st of Septem¬
ber, there was another, with a good deal of fire; but this
eruption was likewise of short duration.
21. Aitna now ceased to emit fire, and that for a con¬
siderable time. The neighbouring inhabitants not only
ascended to the summit of the mountain, but even, if we
may credit accounts, went down into the fiery gulf, and
believed the volcanic matter to be now exhausted. But
on the 25th of April 1536, near a century from the slight
eruption in 1447, a strong wind arose from the west, and
a thick cloud, reddish in the middle, appeared over the
iE T N A.
^tna. summit of the mountain. At the very same instant a
large body of fire issued from the abyss, and fell, with the
noise and rapidity of a torrent, along the eastern side of
the mountain, breaking down the rocks, and destroying
the flocks and every other animal that was exposed to its
fury. From the same crater, on the summit of the moun¬
tain, there issued at the same time a stream of fire more
terrible than the other, and held its course towards the
west. It ran over Bronte, Adrans, and Castelli. It con¬
sisted entirely of sulphur and bitumen. On the same day
the church of St Leon, which stood in a wood, was first
demolished by the shocks of the earthquake, and its ruins
after that were consumed by the fire. Many chasms were
opened in the sides of the mountain; and from these
issued fire and burning stones, which darted up into the
air with a noise like that produced by a smart discharge
of artillery. Francis Negro de Piazza, a celebrated phy¬
sician, who lived at Lentini, wishing to have a nearer
view of the eruptions, and to make some observations
which he thought might be of consequence, was carried
off and burnt to ashes by a volley of the burning stones.
This conflagration of iEtna lasted some weeks.
22. In less than a year, on the 17th of April 1537, the
river Simeto swelled so amazingly as to overflow the ad¬
jacent plains, and carry off the country people, and their
cattle and other animals. At the same time, the country
around Paterno, the neighbouring castles, and more than
500 houses, were destroyed by the ravages of the river ;
and most of the wood was torn up by the roots by violent
blasts of wind. These ravages of the elements were fol¬
lowed by AStna, which on the 11th of the following month
was rent in several places, disclosing fiery gulfs, and pour¬
ing out a deluge of fire in more terrible torrents than those
of the preceding year. They directed their course to¬
wards the monastery of St Nicholas d’Arena ; destroyed
the gardens and vineyards ; and proceeding onwards to¬
wards Nicolosi, burnt Montpellier! and Fallica, and de¬
stroyed the vineyards and most of the inhabitants. When
the conflagration ceased, the summit of the mountain sunk
inward with such a noise, that all the people in the island
believed the last day arrived, and prepared for their end
by extreme unction. These dreadful disturbances con¬
tinued throughout the whole year, more especially in the
months of July and August, during which all Sicily was
in mourning. The smoke, the noise, and the shocks of
the earthquake, affected the whole island ; and if Filotes
may be believed, who relates this event, many of the
Sicilians were struck deaf by the noise. Many structures
were demolished; and among others the castle of Cor-
leone, though more than 25 leagues distant from the
volcano.
23. During the succeeding 30 years there was no dis¬
turbance of this nature. At the end of that space, Sicily
was alarmed by a new eruption from the mountain. iEtna
discharged new streams of fire, and covered the adjacent
country with volcanic ashes, which entirely ruined the
hopes of the husbandman.
24. In the year 1579 TEtna renewed its ravages; but
no particular account of the damage which it did upon
this occasion has been transmitted to us.
25. Twenty-five years had elapsed, when ./Etna, in the
month of June 1603, flamed with new fury. Peter Car¬
rera affirms that it continued to emit flames for the space
of 33 years, till 1636, without interruption, but not always
with the same violence. In 1607 the streams of lava
which flowed from it destroyed the v/oods and vineyards
on the west side of the mountain. In 1609 they turned
their course towards Aderno, and destroyed a part of the
forest Del Pino, and a part of the wood called La Sciam-
brita, with many vineyards in the district Costerna. These
torrents of lava continued to flow for three months. In
the year 1614 a new effort of the subterraneous fire open¬
ed another crater, from which fire was discharged on
Randazzo, in the district called 77 Piro. The fire continued
to flame for 10 or 12 years longer.
26. The same Peter Carrera relates, that a dreadful
conflagration happened in the year 1664, of which he
himself was witness. It happened on the 13th of Decem¬
ber, and lasted without interruption, but with different
degrees of violence, till the end of May 1678. But in
1669 the inhabitants of Nicolosi were obliged to forsake
their houses, which tumbled down soon after they left
them. The crater on the summit of TEtna had not at
this time a threatening aspect, and everything there con¬
tinued quiet till the 25th of March: but on the 8th of
that month, an hour before night, the air was observed to
become dark over the village La Pedara and all that neigh¬
bourhood ; and the inhabitants of that country thought
that an almost total eclipse was taking place. Soon after
sunset, frequent shocks of earthquakes began to be felt:
these were at first weak, but continued till day-break to
become more and more terrible. Nicolosi was more af¬
fected than any other tract of country on that side of TEtna.
About noon every house was thrown to the ground; and
the inhabitants fled in consternation, invoking the protec¬
tion of heaven. On the 10th of March a chasm several
miles in length, and five or six feet wide, opened in the
side of the mountain ; from which, about two hours before
day, there arose a bright light, and a very strong sulphur¬
ous exhalation was diffused through the atmosphere.
About 11 in the forenoon of the same day, after dread¬
ful shocks of earthquake, a crater was opened in the hill
called Des Noisettes, from which there issued huge volumes
of smoke, not accompanied with fire, ashes, or stones, but
with loud and frequent claps of thunder, displaying all the
different phenomena with which thunder is at different
times attended. And what was very remarkable, the chasm
was formed on the south side, between the top and the
bottom of the mountain. On the same day another chasm
was formed two miles lower, from which issued a great
deal of smoke, accompanied with a dreadful noise and
earthquake. Towards the evening of the same day, four
other chasms were opened towards the south, in the same
direction, accompanied during their formation with the
same phenomena, and extending all the way to the hill
called La Pusara.
About twelve paces beyond that, another of the same
kind was formed. On the succeeding night, a black smoke,
involving a quantity of stones, issued from this last chasm :
it discharged at the same time flakes of a dark-coloured
spongy matter, which became hard after they fell. There
issued from the same gulf a stream of lava, which held its
course into a lake called La Hardia, six miles from Mont-
pellieri, and on its way thither destroyed many dwelling-
houses and other buildings in the neighbouring villages.
On the next day, March 12th, this stream of fire di¬
rected its course towards the tract of country called Mal-
passo, which is inhabited by 800 people : in the space of
20 hours it was entirely depopulated and laid waste. The
lava then took a new direction, in which it destroyed some
other villages.
1 he mount of Montpellieri was next destroyed, with all
the inhabitants upon it.
On the 23d of the same month, the stream of fire was
in some places two miles broad. It now attacked the
large village of Mazzalucia; and on the same day a vast
gulf was formed, from which were discharged sand or
ashes, which produced a hill with two summits, two miles
195
Altna.
196
jEtnn.
iE T N A.
in circumference, and 150 paces high. It was observed
to consist of yellow, white, black, grey, red, and green
stones. .
The new mount of Nicolosi continued to emit ashes for
the space of three months ; and the quantity discharged
was so great as to cover all the adjoining tract of country
for the space of 15 miles. Some ot these ashes were con¬
veyed by the winds as far as Messina and Calabria; and
a north wind arising, covered all the southern country
about Agosta, Lentini, and even beyond that, in the same
manner.
While at that height on Nicolosi so many extraordinary
appearances were passing, the highest crater on the sum¬
mit of iEtna still preserved its usual tranquillity.
On the 25th of March, about one in the morning, the
whole mountain, even to the most elevated peak, was agi¬
tated by a most violent earthquake. The highest crater
of iEtna, which was one of the loftiest parts of the moun¬
tain, then sunk into the volcanic focus ; and in the place
which it had occupied, there now appeared nothing but a
wide gulf more than a mile in extent, from which there
issued enormous masses of smoke, ashes, and stones. At
that period, according to the historian of this event, the
famous block of lava on Mount Frumento was discharged
from the volcanic focus.
In a short time after, the torrent of fire, which still
continued to flow, directed its course towards Catania with
redoubled noise, and accompanied with a much greater
quantity of ashes and burning stones than before. For
several months many most alarming shocks of earthquakes
were felt, and the city was threatened with destruction
by the torrent of fire. In vain they attempted to turn or
divert its course: the lava rose over the walls, and enter¬
ed by an angle near the Benedictine convent on the 11th
of June following. This awful event is related by Francis
Monaco, Charles Mancius, Vincent Auria, and Thomas
Thedeschi.
A description of the lava issuing from Mount iEtna in
1669 was sent to the court of England by Lord Winchel-
sea, who at that time happened to be at Catania on his
way home from an embassy to Constantinople. Sir W.
Hamilton gives the following extract from it. “ When it
was night, I went upon two towers in divers places ; and
I could plainly see, at ten miles distance, as we judged,
the fire begin to run from the mountain in a direct line,
the flame to ascend as high and as big as one of the great¬
est steeples in your Majesty’s kingdoms, and to throw up
great stones into the air. I could discern the river of fire
to descend the mountain, of a terrible fiery or red colour,
and stones of a paler red to swim thereon, and to be some
as big as an ordinary table. We could see this fire to move
in several other places, and all the country covered with
fire, ascending with great flames in many places, smoking
like a violent furnace of iron melted, making a noise with
the great pieces that fell, especially those that fell into the
sea. A cavalier of Malta, who lives there, and attended
me, told me, that the river was as liquid, where it issues
out of the mountain, as water, and comes out like a tor¬
rent with great violence, and is five or six fathom deep,
and as broad, and that no stones sink therein.”
The account given in the Philosophical Transactions is
to the same purpose. We are there told, that the lava is
“ nothing else than divers kinds of metals and minerals, ren¬
dered liquid by the fierceness of the fire in the bowels of
the earth, boiling up and gushing forth as the water doth
at the head of some great river ; and having run in a full
body for a stone’s cast or more, began to crust or curdle,
becoming, when cold, those hard porous stones which the
people call sciarri. These, though cold in comparison of
jEtna.
what first issues from the mountain, yet retained so much
heat as to resemble huge cakes of sea-coal strongly ignited, — ' ~
and came tumbling over one another, bearing down or
burning whatever was in their way. In this manner the
lava proceeded slowly on till it came to the sea, when a
most extraordinary conflict ensued betwixt the two ad¬
verse elements. The noise was vastly more dreadful than
the loudest thunder, being heard through the whole coun¬
try to an immense distance ; the water seemed to retire
and diminish before the lava, while clouds of vapour dark¬
ened the sun. The whole fish on the coast were destroyed,
the colour of the sea itself was changed, and the trans¬
parency of its waters lost for many months.”
While this lava was issuing in such prodigious quantity,
the merchants, whose account is recorded in the Philoso¬
phical Transactions, attempted to go up to the mouth it¬
self, but durst not come nearer than a furlong, lest they
should have been overwhelmed by a vast pillar of ashes,
which to their apprehension exceeded twice the bigness
of St Paul’s steeple in London, and went up into the air to
a far greater height. At the mouth itself was a continual
noise, like the beating of great waves of the sea against
rocks, or like distant thunder, which was sometimes so
violent as to be heard 60, or even 100 miles off; to which
distance also part of the ashes was carried. Some time
after, having gone up, they found the mouth from whence
this terrible deluge issued to be only a hole about 10 feet
diameter. This is also confirmed by Mr Brydone ; and is
probably the same through which Sir William Hamilton de¬
scended into the subterranean caverns already mentioned.
27. Some years after this conflagration, a new burning
gulf opened, m the month of December 1682, on the sum¬
mit of the mountain, and spread its lava over the hill of
Mazzara.
28. On the 24th of May 1686, about ten in the even¬
ing, a new eruption burst out from the summit of the
mountain, on the side contiguous to the hill Del Bue. Such
a quantity of inflamed matter was thrown out as consum¬
ed woods, vineyards, and crops of grain, for four leagues
round. It stopped its course in a large valley near the
castle of Mascali. Several people from the neighbourhood
had ascended a hill between the wood of Catania and the
confines of Cirrita, to observe the progress of the lava ;
but the hill on a sudden sunk inwards, and they were
buried alive.
29. .ZEtna was now long quiet; for no less a space of
time indeed than one half of the present age. In the year
1755 its eruptions were renewed. During these eruptions,
there issued from the mountain a great torrent of boiling-
hot salt water.
This water took its course down the west side of the Eruption
mountain; and the channel which it cut for itself is still of water in
visible. The eruption of water from burning mountains is l755.
still much less frequent than that of lava or half-vitrified
solid matters, ashes, &c. though that of water, and even
mixed with the shells of marine animals (though we are
not told whether it was salt or not), has sometimes been
observed in other volcanoes, particularly Vesuvius. 4 he
eruption we now speak of happened in the month of Fe¬
bruary 1755. It was preceded by an exceedingly thick
black smoke issuing from the crater, intermixed with
flashes of fire. This smoke gradually became thicker, and
the bursts of flame more frequent. Earthquakes and sub¬
terraneous thunder convulsed the mountain, and struck
the inhabitants of the adjacent parts with the utmost terror.
On Sunday the 2d of March, the mountain was seen to
emit a huge column of smoke, exceedingly dense and
black, with a dreadful noise in the bowels of the earth,
accompanied also with violent flashes of lightning, hrom
JE T
^tna. time to time there were loud cracks, like the explo-
sions of cannon; the mountain appeared to shake from its
foundations ; the air on that side next Mascali became
very dark, and loud peals of thunder were heard. These
seemed to issue from two caverns, considerably below the
summit, on the side of the mountain, and were accom¬
panied with violent blasts of wind like a tempest.
These terrible phenomena continued and increased.
/Etna seemed ready to swallow up at once all those ma¬
terials which it had been for so many years disgorging, or
rather about to sink at once into the bowels of the earth,
from whence it appeared to have been elevated. The
prospect was far beyond any idea that can be given by
description of this tremendous scene. The inhabitants
were alarmed beyond measure; the sight of the flames
driven by the winds against the sides of the mountain, the
shocks of the earthquake, and the fall of rocks, struck the
imagination with a horror not to be conceived. During
this dreadful commotion, an immense torrent of water was
emitted from the highest crater of the mountain. The
whole summit of .(Etna was at that time covered with a
thick coating of snow. Through this the boiling water
directed its course eastward, and in its passage met with
frightful precipices. Over these it dashed with the ut¬
most violence, adding its tremendous roaring to the com¬
plicated horrors of this awful scene. The snow, melting
instantaneously as the boiling torrent advanced, increased
its destructive power by augmenting its quantity; while the
mischievous effects of the heat were scarcely diminished,
by reason of the immense quantity of boiling liquid which
continued to pour from the summit of the mountain.
This boiling torrent having dashed its awful cataracts
from one chain of rocks to another, at length reached the
cultivated plains, which it overflowed for a number of
miles. Here it divided itself into several branches, form¬
ing as many deep and rapid rivers, which, after several
other subdivisions, discharged themselves into the sea.
Though the mountain continued to discharge water in
this manner only for half an hour, the ravages of it were
very terrible. Not only those of common inundations,
such as tearing up trees, hurrying along rocks and large
stones, took place here, but the still more dreadful effects
of boiling water were felt. Every cultivated spot was laid
waste, and every thing touched by it was destroyed. Even
those wrho were placed beyond the reach of the torrent,
beheld with inexpressible horror the destruction occasion¬
ed by it; and though the alarming noises which had so
long issued from the mountain now ceased in a great
measure, the shocks of earthquakes, and the violent smoke
which continued to issue from the mountain, showed that
the danger was not over. Two new openings were now
observed, and two torrents of lava began to make their
way through the snow.
On the 7th of March a dreadful noise was again heard
in the bowels of the mountain, and anew column of very
thick and black smoke began to issue from it. A horrid
explosion of small stones succeeded, some of which were
carried as far as the hills of Mascali, and great quantities
of black sand to Messina, and even quite over the strait to
Reggio in Calabria. On the shifting of the wind to the
northward this sand reached as far as the plains of Agosta.
Two days after, the mountain opened again, and a new
torrent of lava was discharged ; which, however, advanced
very slowly towards the plain, moving only at the rate of
a mile in a day. It continued to flow in this manner for
six days, when every thing appeared so quiet that the
canon Recupero set out to view the changes which had
taken place.
That gentleman’s design was to trace the course of the
N A. 197
dreadful torrent of water above mentioned. This he was Jitna.
very easily enabled to do by the ravages it had made;
and, by following the channel it had cut all the way from ^ourse
the sea to the summit of the volcano, he found that this ^®c^li1Tent
immense quantity of water had issued from the very bowels liecunero.
of the mountain. After issuing from the crater, and in- ’
creasing its stream by passing through and melting the
snow which lay immediately below the summit, it destroy¬
ed in an instant a fine and extensive forest of fir-trees. All
of these were torn up by the violence of the current, though
many were no less than from 24 to 30 inches in diame¬
ter. He observed that the great stream had in its descent
divided itself into four branches ; and these had again sub¬
divided themselves into several smaller ones, easily dis¬
tinguishable by the quantity of sand they had deposited.
Afterwards re-uniting their streams, they formed many
islands, and rivers 900 feet in breadth, and of a depth
which could not easily be determined. Proceeding farther
down, and still forcing its way among the beds of old lava,
the channel of the waters was widened to 1500 feet, until
it was again contracted in the valleys as before. Every
object which stood in the way of this tremendous torrent
was moved from its place. Enormous rocks were not only
hurried down, but several of them moved to more elevated
situations than those they formerly occupied. Whole hills
of lava had been removed and broken to pieces, and their
fragments scattered along the course of the river ; and the
valleys were filled up by vast quantities of sand which the
waters had deposited. Our author observed, that even
at the time he visited the mountain, about ten years after
the eruption, the whole side of it still bore the marks of
this deluge.
30. In the year 1763 there was an eruption, which con¬
tinued three months, but with intervals. /Etna was at
first heard to rebellow. Flames and clouds of smoke were
seen to issue out, sometimes silver-coloured, and at other
times, when the rays of the sun fell upon them, of a pur¬
ple radiance. At length they were carried off by the
winds, and rained, as they were driven before them, a
shower of fire all the way to Catania and beyond it. An
eruption soon burst out: the principal torrent divided into
two branches, one of which ran towards the east, and fell
into a deep and extensive valley.
The flames which issued from this new crater afforded
a noble spectacle. A pyramid of fire was seen to rise to a
prodigious height in the air, like a beautiful artificial fire¬
work, with a constant and formidable battery, which
shook the earth under those who were spectators of the
scene. Torrents of melted matter, running down the sides
of the mountain, diffused a light bright as day through
the darkness of night.
At sunrising the burning lava was observed to have run
round some oaks that were still standing unburnt. Their
leaves were all withered. Some birds had fallen from
their branches, and been burnt to death. Some people
cast wood upon the lava, and it was immediately burnt.
This lava continued hot, and exhaled smoke, for two years.
For five years after this, no snow appeared on the summit
of iEtna.
31. In the year 1764 a new crater was opened at a
great distance from Mount .Etna.
32. In the year 1766 another was opened at the grotto
of Paterno : fire, smoke, and an inconsiderable torrent of
lava, issued out of it.
33. On the 27th of January 1780 a new opening was
formed two miles under the last-mentioned crater. On
the 28th of February and the 14th of March the earth¬
quake was renewed on the north side, and accompanied
with terrible noises.
198 ^ T
j^tna. Between the 6th of April and the 7th of May the con-
vulsions were renewed, accompanied with noise as before.
A quantity of pumice stones and fine sand was dis¬
charged from it.
On the 18th of May the shocks were renewed. On the
23d a new crater was formed on the side of Mount Fru-
mento on the summit of iEtna, and from it a torrent of
lava discharged, which spread through the valley ofLau-
dunza. It was 200 paces in breadth. Two other chinks
were opened in the mountain near Paterno, and very near
one another. The lava issuing from them proceeded, in
the space of seven days, six miles ; on the 25th it had run
nine miles.
A new crater was likewise opened on the 25th, from
which a quantity of red-hot stones continued to issue for
half an hour, and fell at a very great distance. There pro¬
ceeded likewise from it a stream of lava, which in the
same space of time ran over a tract of country two miles
in extent.
Several parts of those streams of lava were observed to
be cold on the surface, and formed into solid masses, but
melted again by a new stream of burning lava, which,
however, did not melt the old lava.
Account 34. In 1787 there was a great eruption. From the 1st
of the to the 10th of July there were signs of its approach. On
eruption Hth, after a little calm, there was a subterraneous
in noise, like the sound of a drum in a close place, and it
was followed by a copious burst of black smoke. It wras
then calm till the 15th, when the same prognostics re¬
curred. On the 17th the subterraneous noise was heard
again: the smoke was more abundant, slight shocks of an
earthquake followed, and the lava flowed from behind one
of the two little mountains which form the double head of
iEtna. On the 18th, while the spectators were in anxious
expectation of a more severe eruption, all was quiet, and
continued so for more than 12 hours. Soon after they per¬
ceived some new shocks, accompanied with much noise ;
and the mountain threw out a thick smoke, which, as the
wind was westerly, soon darkened the eastern horizon.
Two hours afterwards a shower of fine black brilliant sand
descended: on the east side it was a storm of stones, and
at the foot of the mountain a deluge of flashes of fire, of
scoria and lava.
These appearances continued the whole day. At the
setting of the sun the scene changed: a number of
conical flames rose from the volcano ; one on the north,
another on the south, were very conspicuous, and rose and
fell alternately. At three in the morning, the mountain
appeared cleft, and the summit seemed a burning mass.
The cones of light which arose from the crater were of an
immense extent, particularly the two just mentioned. The
two heads seemed to be cut away; and at their separation
was a cone of flame, seemingly composed of many lesser
cones. The flame seemed of the height of the mountain
placed on the mountain, so that it was probably two miles
high, on a base of a mile and a half in diameter. This cone
was still covered with a very thick smoke, in which there
appeared very brilliant flashes of lightning, a phenomenon
which iEtna had not before afforded. At times, sounds
like those from the explosion of a large cannon were heard,
seemingly at a less distance than the mountain. From
the cone, as from a fountain, a jet of many flaming vol¬
canic matters was thrown, which were carried to the dis¬
tance of six or seven miles. From the base of the cone a
thick smoke arose at the time when the rivers of lava
broke out, which for a moment obscured some parts of
the flame. This beautiful appearance continued three
quarters of an hour. It began the next night wnth more
force, but continued only half an hour. In the intervals,
N A.
however, iEtna continued to throw out flames, smoke, ig- AUna.
nited stones, and showers of sand. From the 20th to thev^^v^*^/
22d, the appearances gradually ceased. The stream of
lava was carried towards Bronte and the plain of Lago.
After the eruption, the top of the mountain on the
western side was found covered with hardened lava, scoria,
and stones. The travellers were annoyed by smoke, by
showers of sand, mephitic vapours, and excessive heat.
They saw that the lava which came from the western
point divided into two branches, one of which was direct¬
ed towards Libeccio, the other, as we have already said,
towards the plain of Lago. The lava on the western
head of the mountain had, from its various shapes, been
evidently in a state of fusion ; from one of the spiracula,
the odour was strongly that of liver of sulphur. The
thermometer, in descending, was at 40 degrees of Fahren¬
heit’s scale; while near the lava, in the plain of Lago, it
was 140 degrees. The lava extended two miles; its
width was from 13| to 21 feet, and its depth 13| feet.
35. Eruptions in 1792. Eruptions of greater and less
magnitude from May until the close of the year.
36. A small eruption in June 1798.
37. Smaller eruption in June 1799.
38. Eruption of lava and flood of water in February
1800.
39. Eruption in 1802.
40. Eruption 27th March 1809.
41. Eruption 28th October 1811.
42. Eruption 29th May 1819.
43. Eruption in November 1832.
44. Eruption in August 1852.
The eruption of August 1852 is the most violent which
has occurred for a very long period. After some days of
premonitory symptoms, such as the drying up of springs in
the vicinity, bramidas or subterranean thunderings, three
shocks of an earthquake, and a vast column of white smoke
from the mountain that rose and spread out like a gigantic
pine tree ; on the night between the 20th and 21st of Au¬
gust, two new mouths opened on the east flank of /Etna, in
the Val de Leone, and began to eject clouds of an ash-grey
dust, that completely covered the adjacent country to a great
extent, and was carried by the winds far to sea. Soon after
a vast torrent of molten lava began to issue from those
mouths, which were speedily converted into one by the force
of the imprisoned lava; and vast masses of rock and scoria;
were projected to a great height into the air. The lava di¬
vided into two principal streams ; the first flowing in the di¬
rection of Zaffarana, the second towards Giarra. This river
of liquid fire was two miles wide at its greatest breadth,
though where it issued from the mountain it was only about
60 feet wide; its thickness increasing from seven feet on
the 21st., to 15 feet on the 22d, and to 170 feet on the
30th of August. Its progression was more than usually ra¬
pid where widest, being about 600 feet per hour; but when
it descended the steeps of the mountain it was precipitated
like a torrent, in cascades of fire. After the first week the
violence of the eruption seemed to abate, until the 4th of
September when it burst out with fresh fury, and the lava
took the road to Milo. Eruptions, too, of dust and huge
stones continued through October, but diminished in No¬
vember; when the convulsion appeared to be subsiding.
The country devastated was one of extraordinary fertility,
and produced the finest wines of the island. But the labour
of many years has been destroyed, and the peasantry about
Zaffarana and in the commune of Giarra are utterly ruined,
and the destruction of property of every kind has been im¬
mense. Persons whom curiosity led to behold the terrors of
an eruption more nearly, describe the scene around the aper¬
tures from which the torrent issued as sublimely terrible.
iE T 0
iE T O
AZtna, “ After scrambling with difficulty,” says one observer, “ to
^,11 the summit of a hill composed of irregular blocks of lava, we
° ^ , beheld on our right, at the distance of a quarter of a mile,
ar|h towering far above us, an enormous hill of red hot rock
and half molten lava, from which at our level issued liquid
lava, which descended in a stream of about 60 feet wide into
a chasm far below us, that presented the appearance of a lake
of fire. Opposite to our station was a dark, frowning cliff,
which sent forth clouds of lurid red smoke and steam, round
which forked lightnings terrifically played. At intervals,
vast masses of rocks, some the size of a small house, and
intensely hot, were hurled high into the air, accompanied by
bramidas and peals of thunder, amid clouds of steam and
showers of volcanic dust. Another stream of lava glowed
in a deep chasm on our left, and this aperture also projected
stones with fearful violence. The thunder and lightning
overhead, and the danger from those missiles rendering our
station alarming, we soon retired farther from this terrific
scene ; which was rendered still more impressive by a storm
of wind that obliged us to cling for security to adjacent
rocks, or to throw ourselves to the ground.” (r. j.)
./Etna, the name of an ancient town, built by Hiero, on
the southern declivity of the mountain. Its more ancient
name was Inessum, which was changed to /Etna when the
Catanians took possession of it. In the the time of Cicero
it was still a place of some importance. It is now Centorbi.
/ETOLIA, a country of ancient Greece, bounded on the
north by Epirus and Thessaly; on the east by the pro¬
vince of the Locri Ozolae; on the south by the Gulf of
Corinth ; and separated on the west from Acarnania by the
river Achelous. The part which lay westward of the river
Evenus was called old /Etolia, and that lying to the east,
new or acquired /Etolia.
The /Etolians were a restless and turbulent people, sel¬
dom at peace among themselves, and ever at war with their
neighbours; utter strangers to all sense of friendship or
principles of honour; ready to betray their friends upon the
least prospect of reaping any advantage from their treachery:
in short, they were looked upon by the other states of Greece
no otherwise than as outlaws and public robbers. On the
other hand, they were bold and enterprising in war; inured
to labour and hardships ; undaunted in the greatest dangers;
jealous defenders of their liberties, for which they were on
all occasions willing to venture their lives, and sacrifice all
that was most dear to them. They distinguished themselves
above all the other nations of Greece in opposing the ambi¬
tious designs of the Macedonian princes, who, after having
reduced most of the other states, were forced to grant them
a peace upon very honourable terms. The constitution of
the /Etolian republic was copied from that of the Achseans,
and with a view to form, as it were, a counter-alliance ; for
the /Etolians bore an irreconcilable hatred to the Achaeans,
and had conceived no small jealousy at the growing power
of that state. The Cleomenic war, and that of the allies,
called the social war, were kindled by the /Etolians in the
heart of Peloponnesus, with no other view than to humble
their antagonists the Achaeans. In the latter they held out,
with the assistance only of the Eleans and Lacedemonians,
for the space of three years, against the united forces of
Achaia and Macedon ; but were obliged at last to purchase
a peace, by yielding up to Philip all Acarnania. As they
parted with this province much against their will, they
watched all opportunities of wresting it again out of the Ma¬
cedonian’s hand; for which reason they entered into an al¬
liance with Rome against him, and proved of great service
to the Romans in their war with him; but growing insolent
on account of their services, they made war upon the Ro¬
mans themselves. By that warlike nation they were over¬
come, and granted a peace on the following severe terms:—
L The majesty of the Roman people shall be revered in all
/Etolia. 2. /Etolia shall not suffer the armies of such as are
at war with Rome to pass through her territories, and the
enemies of Rome shall be likewise the enemies of /Etolia.
3. She shall, in the space of 100 days, put into the hands of
the magistrates of Corcyra all the prisoners and deserters
she has, whether of the Romans or their allies, except such
as have been taken twice, or during her alliance with Rome.
4. The /Etolians shall pay down in ready money, to the
Roman general in /Etolia, 200 Euboic talents, of the same
value as the Athenian talents, and engage to pay 50 talents
more within the six years following. 5. They shall put into
the hands of the consul 40 such hostages as he shall choose,
none of whom shall be under 12, or above 40 years of age:
the praetor, the general of the horse, and such as have been
already hostages at Rome, are excepted out of this number.
6. /Etolia shall renounce all pretensions to the cities and
territories which the Romans have conquered, though these
cities and territories had formerly belonged to the /Etolians.
7. The city of Oenis and its district shall be subject to the
Acarnanians.
After the conquest of Macedon by /Emilius Paullus, they
were reduced to a much worse condition; for not only those
among them who had openly declared for Perseus, but such
as were only suspected to have favoured him in their hearts,
were sent to Rome, in order to clear themselves before the
senate. There they were detained, and never afterwards
suffered to return into their native country. Five hundred
and fifty of the chief men of the nation were barbarously
assassinated by the partisans of Rome, for no other crime
than that of being suspected to wish well to Perseus. The
/Etolians appeared before /Emilius Paullus in mourning
habits, and made loud complaints of such inhuman treatment,
but could obtain no redress; nay, ten commissioners, who
had been sent by the senate to settle the affairs of Greece,
enacted a decree, declaring that those who were killed had
suffered justly, since it appeared to them that they had fa¬
voured the Macedonian party. From this time those only
were raised to the chief honours and employments in the
/Etolian republic who were known to prefer the interest of
Rome to that of their country; and as these alone were
countenanced at Rome, all the magistrates of /Etolia were
the creatures and mere tools of the Roman senate. In this
state of servile subjection they continued till the destruction
of Corinth and the dissolution of the Achaean league, when
/Etolia, with the other free states of Greece, was reduced to
a Roman province, commonly called the province of Achaia.
Nevertheless, each state and city was governed by its own
laws, under the superintendency of the praetor whom Rome
sent annually into Achaia. The whole nation paid a certain
tribute, and the rich were forbidden to possess lands any¬
where but in their own country.
In this state, with little alteration, /Etolia continued under
the emperors till the reign of Constantine the Great, who,
in his new partition of the provinces of the empire, divided
the western parts of Greece from the rest, calling them New
Epirus, and subjecting the whole country to the prafectm
prcetorii for Illyricum. Under the successors of Constan¬
tine Greece was parcelled out into several principalities,
especially after the taking of Constantinople by the western
princes. At that time 1 heodorus Angelus, a noble Grecian
of the imperial family, seized on /Etolia and Epirus. The
former he left to Michael his son, who maintained it against
Michael Palaeologus, the first emperor of the Greeks, after
the expulsion of the Latins. Charles, the last prince of this
family, dying in 1430 without lawful issue, bequeathed
/Etolia to his brother’s son, named also Charles ; and Acar¬
nania to his natural sons Memnon, Turnus, and Hercules.
But great disputes arising about this division, Amurath II.,
199
A^tolia.
200 A F F
Afer after the reduetion of Thessalonica, laid hold of so favour-
li able an opportunity, and drove them all out in 1432. 1 ie
Affidavit. Mahometans were afterwards dispossessed of this country
V'—by the famous prince of Epirus, George Castriot, common y
called Scanderbeg, who with a small army opposed t )e
whole power of the Ottoman empire, and defeated these
barbarians in 22 pitched battles. That hero at Ins death
left great part of iEtolia to the Venetians; but they not
being able to make head against such a mighty power, the
whole country was soon reduced by Mahommed II. It is
now included in the kingdom of Hellas.
AFER, Domitius, a famous orator, born at msmes,
flourished under Tiberius, and the three succeeding em¬
perors. Quintilian makes frequent mention of him, and
commends his pleadings. But he disgraced his talents, by
turning informer against some of the most distinguished
personages in Rome. Quintilian, in his youth, cultivated
the friendship of Domitius very assiduously. He tells us
that his pleadings abounded with pleasant stories, and that
there were public collections of his witty sayings, some of
which he quotes. He also mentions two books of his On
Witnesses. Domitius was once in great danger from an
inscription he put upon a statue erected by him in honour
of Caligula, wherein he declared that this prince was a
second time consul at the age of 27. This he intended as
an encomium ; but Caligula taking it as a sarcasm upon his
youth and his infringement of the laws, raised a process
against him, and pleaded himself in person. Domitius, in¬
stead of making a defence, repeated part of the emperor’s
speech with the highest marks of admiration ; after which he
fell upon his knees, and begging pardon, declared that he
dreaded more the eloquence of Caligula than his imperial
power. This piece of flattery succeeded so well, that the
emperor not only pardoned, but also raised him to the con¬
sulship. Afer died in the reign of Nero, a.d. 60.
AFFA, a weight used on the Gold Coast of Guinea,
equal to an ounce: the half of it is called eggeba. Most of the
blacks on the Gold Coast give these names to these weights.
AFFECTION, in a general sense, implies an attribute
inseparable from its subject. Thus magnitude, figure,
weight, &c. are affections of all bodies; and love, fear, hatred,
&c. are affections of the mind.
Affection is a term used by various writers on Moral
Philosophy to denote all those active principles whose di¬
rect and ultimate object is the communication either of en¬
joyment or of suffering to any one of our fellow-creatures.
—Stewart’s Philosophy of the Active Poiuers, vol. i. p. 75.
Affection, among Physicians, is the same as disease.
Thus, hysteric affection is the same as hysteric disease.
AFFERERS, or Afferors, in Law, persons appointed
in courts-leet, courts-baron, &c. to settle, upon oath, the
fines to be imposed upon those who have been guilty of
faults arbitrarily punishable.
AFFETTUOSO, or Con Affetto, in the Italian music,
intimates that the part to which it is added ought to be
played in a tender, moving way, and consequently rather
slow than fast.
AFFIANCE, in Law, denotes the mutual plighting of
troth between a man and woman to marry each other.
AFFIDAVIT means a solemn assurance of a matter of
fact known to the person who states it, and attested as his
statement by some person in authority. It is generally ap¬
plied to a statement so certified by a justice of peace or other
magistrate. Affidavits are sometimes necessary as certifi¬
cates that certain formalities have been duly and legally per¬
formed. They are extensively used in the practice of
bankruptcy, and in the administration of the revenue. Re¬
cently they were invariably taken on oath, hut this prac¬
tice has been much narrowed. Quakers, Moravians, and
A F F
Separatists, are privileged in all cases to make a solemn de-Affiliation
claration or affirmation. An act of 1835 (5th and 6th Will. II
IV. c. 62) authorised the lords of the treasury to substitute
declarations for oaths in transactions connected with the ^ ^ ^ ,
different departments in the revenue and public offices. The
same Act prohibited justices of peace from administering
oaths in any matter in which they had not jurisdiction as
judges, except when an oath was specially authorised by
statute, as in the bankrupt law, and excepting criminal in¬
quiries, parliamentary proceedings, and instances where oaths
are required to give validity to documents abroad. But jus
tices are permitted to take affidavits in any matter by declar¬
ation, and a person taking a false affidavit is liable to punish¬
ment.
AFFILIATION. See Bastard.
AFFINITY, in Imw, as distinguished from consanguinity,
is applied to the relation which each party to a marriage,
the husband and the wife, bears to the kindred of the other.
The marriage by making them one person is presumed to
have given them the same kindred. Thus the wife’s sis¬
ter is the husband’s sister, and the husband’s brother is the
wife’s brother in affinity. But the relation is only with the
married parties themselves, and does not bring those in affi¬
nity with them in affinity with each other: so a wife’s sister
has no affinity to her husband’s brother. 1 he subject is
chiefly important from the matrimonial prohibitions which
the canon law has applied to relations by affinity. Taking
the table of degrees within which marriage is prohibited on
account of consanguinity, the rule has been thus extended
to affinity, and it has been maintained that wherever rela¬
tionship to a man himself would be a bar to marriage, rela¬
tionship to his deceased wife will be the same bar, and vice
versa on the husband’s decease. This rule has been founded
on scriptural interpretations, chiefly of the eighteenth chapter
of Leviticus, which have been subject to much discussion.
Formerly by law in England, marriages within the degrees
of affinity were not absolutely null, but they were liable to
be annulled by ecclesiastical process during the lives of both
parties. By an act passed in 1835 (5th and 6th Will. I\ .,
c. 54), all marriages of this kind not disputed before the pass¬
ing of the Act are declared absolutely valid, while all sub¬
sequent to it are declared null. This renders null in Eng¬
land a marriage with a deceased wife’s sister or niece. The
Act does not extend to Scotland, and it is a matter of doubt
whether marriages within the degrees of affinity correspond¬
ing to the prohibited degrees of consanguinity are there null.
Affinity is also used to denote conformity or agreement.
Thus we say, the affinity of languages, the affinity of words,
the affinity of sounds, &c.
Affinity, in Chemistry, a term employed to express that
peculiar propensity which the particles of matter have to
unite and combine with each other exclusively, or in pre¬
ference to any other connection.—The attractions between
bodies at insensible distances, and which of course are con¬
fined to the particles of matter, have been distinguished by
the name of affinity / while the term attraction has been
more commonly confined to cases of sensible distance.
AFFIRMATION, in Logic, a positive judgment, imply¬
ing the union or junction of the two terms of a proposition.
Affirmation used to be applied to the privilege enjoyed
by Quakers of making an affirmation or declaration where
other persons required to make oath in civil matters. The
form now more commonly called declaration has been ex¬
tended to criminal inquiries, and the privilege of taking it
combines Moravians and Separatists. In other instances,
affirmations or declarations have been substituted for oaths.
See Affidavit. _ .
Affirmation is also used for the ratifying or confirming
of the sentence or decree of some inferior court. Thus we
AFGHANISTAN.
Affirma- say, the house of lords affirmed the decree of the chancellor,
or the decree of the lords of session.
Afghanis- AFFIRMATIVE, in Grammar. Authors distinguish
'tan. affirmative particles, such as yes. The term affirmative is
sometimes also used substantively. Thus we say, the affir¬
mative is the more probable side of the question : there were
so many votes, or voices, for the affirmative.
AFFIX, in Grammar, a particle added at the close of a
word, either to diversify its form or alter its signification.
We meet with affixes in the Saxon, the German, and other
northern languages, but more especially in the Hebrew, and
other oriental tongues. The Hebrew affixes are single
syllables, frequently single letters, subjoined to nouns and
verbs, and contribute not a little to the brevity of that lan¬
guage. The oriental languages are much the same as to
the radicals, and differ chiefly from each other as to affixes
and prefixes.
AFFLATUS literally denotes a blast of wind, breath, or
vapour, striking with force against another body. The word
is Latin, formed from ad, to, and flare, to blow. Natural¬
ists sometimes speak of the afflatus of serpents. Cicero uses
the word figuratively, for a divine inspiration ; in which sense
he ascribes all great and eminent accomplishments to a di¬
vine afflatus. The Pythian priestess being placed on a tripod
or perforated stool, over a holy cave, received the divine af¬
flatus, as a late author expresses it, in her belly; and beino-
thus inspired, fell into agitations, like a phrenetic; during
which she pronounced, in hollow groans and broken sen¬
tences, the will of the Deity. This afflatus is supposed by
some to have been a subterraneous fume or exhalation,
201
wherewith the priestess was literally inspired. Accordingly, Afforesting
it had the effects of a real physical disease, the paroxysm of II
which was so vehement that, as Plutarch observes, it some- AfShanis'
times proved mortal. Van Dale supposes the pretended ^ tan^_ )
enthusiasm of the Pythia to have arisen from the fumes of
aromatics.
AFFORESTING, Afforestatio, the turning of ground
into forest. The Conqueror and his successors continued
afforesting the lands of the subject for many reigns, till the
grievance became so notorious, that the people of all degrees
and denominations were brought to sue for relief; which
was at length obtained, and commissions were granted to
survey and perambulate the forest, and separate all the new-
afforested lands, and reconvert them to the uses of their
proprietors, under the name and quality of purlieu or pour-
alle land.
AFFRAY, or Affratment, in Law, formerly signified
the crime of affrighting other persons, by appearing in un¬
usual armour, brandishing a weapon, &c.; but at present
affray denotes a skirmish or fight between two or more.
AFFRONTEE, in Heraldry, an appellation given to
animals facing one another on an escutcheon; a kind of
bearing which is otherwise called confrontee, and stands op¬
posed to adossee.
AFFUSION, the act of pouring some fluid substance on
another body. Dr Grew gives several experiments of the
luctation arising from the affusion of divers menstruums on
all sorts of bodies. Divines and church historians speak of
baptism by affusion, which amounts to much the same w ith
what we now call sprinkling.
AFGHANISTAN,
AN extensive and powerful kingdom of Asia, which
formed at one time a considerable portion of the
Mogul empire. On the decline of that power, it rose to the
rank of an independent state; and from its population and
extent, and still more from the character of the people, who
are brave, hardy, and enterprising, as well as from its com¬
manding position in the heart of Asia, it soon acquired poli¬
tical importance, and has since acted a principal part in all the
revolutions which have occurred either in Hindostan or in
Persia.
It is only of late years that Europeans have obtained
any authentic account of this interesting country. In 1783,
Mr Foster, in the course of an overland journey from In¬
dia, in which he was exposed to the greatest danger from
the predatory habits and religious prejudices of the people,
succeeded in penetrating into those mountainous regions.
He visited the cities of Cabul and Candahar, respecting
which his information is equally curious and instructive. A
more complete and satisfactory account of Afghanistan is
derived from the work of Mr Elphinstone, by whom it was
visited in 1808. It was supposed that about this time the
French were meditating an invasion of British India; and
Afghanistan being in a manner one of the outworks of Hin¬
dostan through which an invading army must make its ap¬
proaches on the north, it was judged necessary to apprize
the sovereign of his danger, in order to secure his co-ope¬
ration against the common enemy. With this view^a mis¬
sion was sent to him by the British government, at the head
of which was Mr Elphinstone, who, with the other members
of the embassy, determined, with a laudable and enlightened
zeal, to profit by so favourable an opportunity for collecting
information. More recent travellers have contributed largely
to the stock of materials previously existing, and by the aid
of their interesting works, satisfactory and ample details may
now be furnished respecting the geography and productions
von. ii.
of the country, the manners of the people, and their condi¬
tion, character, and habits.
The boundaries of Afghanistan have fluctuated with theI5oun<laries-
vicissitudes of war from the middle of the tenth century,
when the Turkish slave, Alptegin, first founded the dynasty
of Ghuzni, to the date of the recent invasion of the country
by the British. At the latter period the kingdom consisted
of four subdivisions, Cabul, the Huzareh country, Canda¬
har, and Herat. Taken in this extent, Afghanistan is
bounded on the north by Bokhara, Kunduz, and Kaferistan;
on the east by the British province of Peshawur and the
Soliman range of mountains ; on the south by Beloochistan,
and on the west by Persia. Its greatest length from north
to south is about 600 miles ; its breadth measures about the
same distance. The Afghans have no general name for
their country but that of Afghanistan, which, Mr Elphin¬
stone thinks, was probably first employed in Persia. It is
frequently used in books, and is not unknown to the inha¬
bitants. It is sometimes known under the appellation of
the kingdom of Cabul.
Afghanistan to the west of the Soliman Mountains, which AsPect of
form its eastern barrier, may be described generally as a^e c£u"“n
table-land, lying higher than most of the neighbouring Ss^nd'
countries. The Hindoo Khosh Mountains, its north-eastern rivers,
bulwark, overlook the low country of Balk, the ancient Bac-
tria, formerly a province of Persia. On the east it is equally
elevated above the lower plains of the Indus. On the south
it overlooks Seweestan; and on the south-west a deep valley
runs between it and Beloochistan. It slopes gradually to the
west, and loses the appearance of elevation as it approaches
the Paropamisan Mountains. The mountainous chain of
Hindoo Khosh is a continuation of the great Himalaya
ridge, which it rivals in grandeur and elevation. From the
elevated plains of Afghanistan these mountains are seen on
the north in four distinct ranges.. The first and lowest had
2 C
202 AFGHANISTAN.
Afghanis- no snow in February, when it was observed by Mr Elphin-
tan- stone from the plain of Peshawur; but the tops of the second
still had their winter covering, and the third had snow half¬
way down. The fourth and highest range is covered with
snow at all seasons. It is of great elevation, some of its
peaks rising, according to measurement, to the height of
20,493 feet, and is conspicuous from Bactria, from the bor¬
ders of India, and from places in Tartary at the amazing
distance of 250 miles. “ The stupendous heights of these
mountains,” says Elphinstone, “ the magnificence and va¬
riety of their lofty summits, the various nations by whom
they are seen, and who seem to be brought together by this
common object, and the awful and undisturbed solitude
which reigns amid their eternal snows, fill the mind with
an admiration and astonishment which no language can ex¬
press.” The inferior ranges of the Hindoo Khosh Moun¬
tains decrease in height according to their distance from the
principal chain. The title of table-land, which has been
applied to Afghanistan, if it be understood to imply any¬
thing more than that it is raised above the level of the sur¬
rounding regions, will convey a very inaccurate idea of the
nature of the country, which, so far from being a plain, is of
the most diversified surface, being intersected everywhere
with chains of mountains, which diverge in various direc¬
tions from the main ridge of Hindoo Khosh. We will not
enter into any detailed description of this complicated mass
of mountains, which, however accurate, would fail to pre¬
sent any very clear view of the topography of the country.
It may be generally stated, that the ridges branch off south¬
ward, not exactly at right angles from the main ridge, but
in irregular lines, to the distance of 60 or 70 miles, when
they decline to a lower level; and that those ridges are
separated by intervening valleys, each of which- is watered
by a river flowing down the southern declivity of the Hin¬
doo Khosh Mountains into the Cabul, which, after an easterly
course along the base of the mountains of about 350 miles,
joins the great Indus. These valleys or glens all open from
the south into the great valley of Cabul; and the country
is described as being fertile, and of a pleasing appearance.
On the lower hills by which the valleys are closed in, the
snow generally lies for four months in the year; there are
few trees on the tops, but their sides are covered with forests
of pine, oak, and wild olive. Lower down, the country im¬
proves, and is interspersed with many little valleys, watered
by clear and beautiful streams, and enjoying a delicious cli¬
mate, under which European fruits and flowers grow wild
in the utmost variety and perfection; and even the rocks
add to the beauty of the scenery, from the rich verdure of
mosses with which they are covered. The narrow and allu¬
vial plain at the bottom, through which the river runs, is in
general highly productive. The valleys yield two harvests,
and produce most sorts of grain; and on the plains are
numerous mulberry trees .and planes, besides other fruit-
trees improved by culture.
An immense curve or angle projects southward from the
mountain barrier to the north eastern frontier of the country,
when the snowy mountain abruptly descends into the low
and hot plain of Jellalabad. T he range then resumes its
westerly course, when lower hills assume their former ap¬
pearance and character, and form the Cohistan or high lands
of Cabul, a country watered by the river of this name and
its tributary streams, and described as fruitful and of a de¬
lightful aspect. Thirty miles south of Jellalabad the aspect
of the country is varied by the range of the Soliman Moun¬
tains, which, commencing with Suffaid Coh, or the White
Mountain, so called from the snow with which it is covered
at all seasons, extend south-south-west almost parallel to the
course of the Indus. These mountains decline towards the west
by lower ridges, which run nearly in the same direction as the
main ridge ; while other ridges branch off eastward toward Afghan is-
the Indus. The height of these mountains is greatly infe- taD-
rior to that of the Hindoo Khosh; but it is still great, as they
are covered with snow to the end of spring, which, in the
latitude of 31 degrees, gives a considerable altitude. Be¬
yond the Soliman ridges on the west, the country consists for
the most part of high and bleak downs, interspersed with
moderate hills; in some places desert and ill cultivated, bare
and open, better fitted for pasturage than for the plough, and
inhabited by migratory tribes of shepherds. There are ex¬
ceptions, however, to this general description. In the country
which is watered by the Helmund and its tributary streams
are found many fertile and delightful spots, which afford
pleasant retreats to the shepherds, and pasturage to their
flocks. The country round Candahar is fertile and highly
cultivated; but to the south and especially as it recedes
west from the Helmund, it is a complete desert.
Afghanistan has few large rivers for a country of such ex¬
tent, and so interspersed with mountains; and of these there
is not one which is not fordable throughout its course for
the greater part of the year. They partake generally of the
character of mountain torrents, swelling rapidly, and run¬
ning off; or they are sometimes all drained away for the irri¬
gation of the fields. All the rivers of this country which
take their rise in the Hindoo Khosh Mountains are feeders of
the Cabul, which drains the waters falling on the southern
declivity of that range, and conveys them to the Indus. The
most important tributary of the Cabul is the Kooner. Lower
down the country is traversed in an easterly direction by the
Koorum, a tributary of the Indus ; and the only river south
of this which runs into the Indus is the Gomul, which, how¬
ever, unless when swollen by the rains, never reaches its
destination, being generally consumed in the irrigation of
the country. The greatest of the rivers which run through
the rest of Afghanistan is the Helmund. This river is the
drain of that extensive slope which lies between the Soliman
and the Paropamisan Mountains. It has its rise in the latter,
and running a south-west course of 550 miles, terminates in
the Lake Hamoon. The Urghundaub rises 130 miles north¬
east of Candahar, and after passing within a few miles of that
city, joins the Helmund. It is never more than 150 yards
broad. The Kashrood, after a course of 150 miles, falls into
the Lake Hamoon; as does also the Farrahrood, after a
course of about 60 miles. The Turnuk is a tributary of the
Urghundaub, which it joins about 25 miles south-west of
Candahar. It is a rapid torrent and receives the Doree and
other smaller rivers. Noth withstanding these additions, its
stream rather decreases, being consumed in the irrigation of
the country, or in the parched and barren sands through
which it passes. The Lora, which rises in the south of Af¬
ghanistan, has a western course of 80 miles, when it disap¬
pears in the sands of the desert.
The climate of Afghanistan is extremely various, owing Climate,
to the height and inequality of its surface. According to its
latitude, which is between the 28th and 37th degrees, it
should have a decidedly hot temperature ; but the general
law of climate is here modified by the elevation of the ground,
and great diversities of heat and cold are accordingly expe¬
rienced within a very limited space. The mountainous na¬
ture of the country also occasions peculiarities in its climate,
and distinguishes it in some degree from that of the adjacent
regions. In almost all the countries of Asia within the same
latitude as Afghanistan, one important circumstance in their
climate is the season and quantity of the periodical rains.
Throughout the greater part of India the rainy season is
ushered in by the south-west monsoon, which drives the
rolling clouds from the ocean on the land, where they de¬
scend in rains. The monsoon is earlier in the south of
India, and in the vicinity of the ocean, than in the north, and
AFGHANISTAN.
Afghanis- the rains are heavier. In many cases the opposition of
v tan^ j mountains in the interior either arrests entirely the progress
of the clouds, or it varies their direction ; and hence large
tracts of country are exempted from, or only partially expe¬
rience, the influence of the monsoons. Before they make
their way from the Indian Ocean to Afghanistan, these pe¬
riodical tempests are greatly moderated, having to traverse
the whole extent of Bengal in their progress to the Hima¬
laya Mountains, when they are forced by this impassable
barrier out of their original course towards the north-west
by the range of Hindoo Khosh ; and it is from that quarter
that such parts of Afghanistan as are exposed to the mon¬
soon receive the periodical rains. But the clouds are ex¬
hausted as they pass on westward to this country, the rains
gradually become less heavy, and are at last merely suffi¬
cient to water the mountains, without much affecting the
plains below. In some of the valleys to the south, the mon¬
soon appears only in some clouds and showers: it is still less
felt in the valley of the Cabul river, the passing clouds being
opposed by the southern projection of the Hindoo Khosh
Mountains and the Soliman range. Besides the partial in¬
fluence of the south-west monsoons to which the north¬
eastern provinces of Afghanistan are exposed, it has the win¬
ter and the spring rains, which are of great consequence to
agriculture in all those countries between the Indus and the
Hellespont which are not subjected to the full effect of the
south-west monsoon.
The temperature of Afghanistan varies of course with the
difference of level, and also from local causes. It is affected
by the direction of the prevailing winds, some blowing over
snowy mountains, others being heated in summer and ren¬
dered cold in winter by their passage over deserts and arid
tracts of great extent. The heat of summer is refreshed in
some places by the breezes from moister countries, and others
are so environed with hills as to be sheltered from all winds.
Thus, throughout this extensive country, great diversity of
temperature takes place often within very short distances.
In the Hindoo Khosh Mountains perpetual winter reigns, and
among the lower ranges snow frequently lies for four months
in the year. In the plain of Peshawur, which is within view
of these snowy summits, the thermometer in summer rises
as high as in the hottest parts of India. It is mentioned by
Mr Elphinstone, that in a tent artificially cooled, the ther¬
mometer stood for several days of summer at 112° and 113°
in the shade. But the heat is not so uniform, nor does it
last so long, as that of an Indian summer. At intervals in
June and July cold north-west winds set in, which refresh
the air, and render it pleasant. The last half of September
is so cold as to be counted among the winter months, and
the cold continues to increase till February. But the win¬
ter is not severe; and though there is frost in the night, it
is always dispelled during the day by the influence of the
sun. The temperature of the different valleys depending in
this manner on their respective levels, they frequently exhi¬
bit the most remarkable contrasts of heat and cold. The
plain of Jellalabad during summer is intolerably hot, while
to the south, and immediately above it, the mountain of Suf-
faid Coh lifts its snowy summit to the clouds. To the north
the nearest hills are cold; and in the distance the Hindoo
Khosh Mountains are seen skirting the horizon with a bright
outline of perpetual snow, while the table-land of Cabul,
immediately to the west, enjoys the coolness and verdure of
a temperate summer. Among the Soliman Mountains, the
higher countries are exposed to severe cold; but there are
some of the lower valleys on the western plains where the
heat predominates, and they are accordingly deserted in the
summer by the wandering shepherds, for the cool retreat and
grassy valleys of the mountains. At Candahar the heat of
summer is excessive, and is occasionally aggravated by the
203
simoom winds. In proceeding north-east, however, from Afghanis.
Candahar, along the course of the Helmund and its tribu- tan.
tary streams, we reach elevated ground, where the cold is '
excessive, and where winter is experienced in all its seve¬
rity. If we ascend the course of the Turnuk, and thence
proceed onward to Ghuzni, we find the snow lying deep for
some time after the equinox, and so thick a covering of ice
on the rivers as to afford a passage for camels. At Cabul
the winter is more steady and severe than in England, while
the summer heat is greater. The great difference between
the seasons, and the quickness with which they change, are
marked by the changes which take place in the dress of the
inhabitants. In winter they wear woollen garments, and in
some places clothes of felt, and over these a large great-coat
of well-tanned sheep-skin with the long shaggy wool inside.
With the vernal equinox the snow disappears, the country
is covered with young grass, the buds burst forth, and are
soon followed by a profusion of flowers ; and the inhabitants
change their winter dress for a thin one of chintz or cotton,
and frequently sleep at night under trees in the open air!
The prevailing winds throughout Afghanistan are from the
west, and they are generally cold ; while the easterly wind
is hot, and brings clouds. On the whole, the climate of this
extensive country seems little subject to rains, clouds, or
fogs; and judging from the size and strength of the inhabi¬
tants, it must be considered salubrious. Some fatal diseases
are, however, common ; such as fevers and agues, which
prevail in autumn and in spring; and the small-pox still
carries off many persons, though the practice of inoculation
has long been introduced.
Afghanistan abounds in wild animals, which find ample Animals,
range in the extensive forests and large tracts of unfre-
quented deserts which it contains. The lion, however,
though so common in Persia, and though it has been lately
found in such numbers in Guzerat, and in the Hurriana,
north-west of Delhi, is rare. In the hilly country around
Cabul there is a small animal which bears the name with¬
out any of the qualities of the lion. Tigers and leopards are
to be found in most of the woody tracts of the country.
Wolves, hyenas, jackals, foxes, hares, porcupines, and hedge¬
hogs, are to be seen everywhere. The wolves are formi¬
dable during the winter in the cold parts, where they as¬
semble in troops, destroying cattle, and frequently attacking
men. The hyenas sometimes attack a bullock singly, and!
as well as the wolves, they make great havock among the
sheep. Bears of two kinds, the one the black bear of India,
and the other of a dirty white, are quite common in all the
woody mountains ; but they rarely leave their haunts, ex¬
cept when they are tempted by the sugar-cane. There are
also ichneumons, ferrets, and wild dogs. Monkeys are com¬
mon in the north-eastern parts. The wild boars of Persia
and India are seldom seen; and the wild ass is confined to
the south-western districts, on the lower Helmund, and to
the sandy country round Candahar. The mountains abound
with many kinds of deer, including the elk; but the ante¬
lope is rare, and confined to the plains. A species of deer
is seen, which is remarkable for the size of its horns, and
the strong but not disagreeable smell of its body. The chiefs
are in possession of a few elephants; but neither that ani¬
mal nor the rhinoceros is to be found wild in any part of
the country.
Among the domestic animals is the horse, a considerable
number of which are bred in the Afghan dominions; and
those bred near Herat are very fine, uniting the figure of
the Arab horse with superior size. In general, however, the
breed of Afghan horses is not good. There is a very strong
and useful breed of ponies. On the other hand, the mules
and asses are the most wretched that can be conceived. The
camel is the animal most employed in carrying burdens.
204 AFGHANISTAN.
Afghanis- The dromedary, the tall long-legged animal common in In-
tan- dia, is found all over the plains. The Bactrian camel, with
two distinct humps, which is lower than the other by one-
third, but stout, and covered with shaggy black hair, is much
more rare, and is brought from the country beyond the Jax-
artes. Buffaloes are to be found in many parts; and oxen
are universally employed in the plough, and sometimes
camels. They are not reared in the country, but are im¬
ported from the Rajpoot States, where they are the best in
India. The sheep forms the principal stock of the pastoral
tribes: it is remarkable for a tail about a foot in breadth,
and consisting almost entirely of fat; in other respects it re¬
sembles the English sheep. The goat abounds in all the
mountains, and is not scarce in the plains. Some of the
breeds have remarkably long and curiously twisted horns.
The pastoral tribes in the country, who are extremely fond
of hunting, breed great numbers of excellent greyhounds,
and even pointers, resembling those in England both in
shape and quality. There is a breed of long-haired cats in
great esteem, and of which great numbers are exported.
Of the birds, there are three sorts of eagles, and many
kinds of hawks; namely, the gentle falcon, a large grey
short-winged bird; the gos-hawk; the shauheen, which
soars over the falconer’s head, and strikes the quarry as it
rises; and the chirk, which is trained to strike the antelope,
and, by fastening on its head, to retard its flight till the
greyhounds come up. The other birds are, herons, cranes,
storks, wild ducks, geese, swans, partridges, quails, and a
bird known in Europe under the name of the Greek par¬
tridge. There is another smaller bird resembling it, which
is found nowhere except in Afghanistan. Pigeons, doves,
crows, and sparrows, are common in all countries. Cuckoos,
which are rare, and magpies, which are unknown in India,
abound in the colder climate of those northern mountains ;
while peacocks, so commonly found wild in India, are here
seen only in their domesticated state. Parrots make their
appearance in the eastern provinces near the Indus.
The country is not infested with venomous reptiles. The
snakes are mostly harmless. There are no crocodiles, but
there are turtles, as well as tortoises. In Khorassan, great
flights of locusts have sometimes occasioned famine by their
devastations, though this rarely occurs. Musquitoes are less
troublesome than in India, except in the southern district of
Seestan, where they bite as severely as in Bengal.
In most parts of Afghanistan there are two harvests, one
in spring and the other in autumn. The former is the more
important. The produce of the first, which is sown in au¬
tumn and reaped in spring, is wheat, barley, peas, beans, and
other grains; that of the second, sown in the end of spring
and reaped in autumn, is rice, Indian corn, and various kinds
Vegetable of pulse. Cotton is confined to the hot climates, and sugar
products. js cultivated in some of the rich plains. Tobacco is produced
in most parts. There is another distinct harvest, which is
counted of great importance, of musk-melons, water-melons,
the scented melon, and various sorts of cucumbers, pump¬
kins, and gourds, which are grown in the open fields. All
common garden-stuff's are abundant, such as carrots, turnips,
beetroot, lettuce, onions, garlic, spinach, greens of all kinds,
cabbages, cauliflowers, and many of the Indian vegetables.
The castor oil plant is found everywhere. Madder abounds
over all the western provinces, and the assafcetida plant in
the hills. In the west, lucerne and a sort of trefoil are
among the most important products of husbandry. Of the
fruits and trees which abound in tropical countries, none are
to be found; but almost all the European trees and fruits
are indigenous in the congenial climate of those elevated
regions. They are frequently found growing wild in differ¬
ent parts of the country, and are still more common in gar¬
dens and orchards. The most common trees in the moun¬
tains are pines, oaks, cedars, a sort of gigantic cypress, the Afghanis-
walnut and the wild olive tree, the birch, the holly, and the ^ tan‘ y
hazel. In Hindoo Khosh the pistachio tree grows wild ; and
on the plains are the mulberry, the tamarisk, and the willow;
also the plane and the poplar. English flowers, such as roses,
jessamines, poppies, narcissuses, and hyacinths, are found in
the gardens, and often in a wild state.
Of the minerals produced in the country little is known. Minerals.
Gold is said to be washed down the streams that flow from
the Hindoo Khosh Mountains. Small quantities of silver
are found in Kaferistan; also lead, copper, iron, and anti¬
mony, in different parts; sulphur and rock-salt in the salt
range of mountains, and saltpetre everywhere in the soil.
The political institutions of the Afghans present the rude Govern-
and disjointed materials of a free constitution. The form of ment-
the government is patriarchal. The nation is supposed to
derive its origin from four tribes, which are divided and
subdivided into inferior clans, until the last subdivision does
not include more than a few families. The chief of a tribe
is called Khan. The head of one of the inferior divisions
owes his choice to the people. Each inferior division of the
tribe has its respective head; and in cases of emergency
these all meet together and form a general assembly, called
a Jeerga, which, with the khan presiding over it, deliberates
and decides in all matters of public importance. The heads
of the inferior branches of the tribe hold similar assemblies,
which decide on minor matters, and are guided by the same
rules as the greater convention. When wars arise among
the different tribes, it is the business of the assemblies to
provide the means of carrying them on, to concert the plan
of operations, or to settle the terms of peace. They have
the power, along with the khan, to call out all the fighting
men of the tribe, or they may levy taxes for any purpose of
public utility. There is scarcely a petty community through¬
out the nation which does not make its own arrangements
for the support of moollahs, an order of Mahometan priests,
and for the maintenance and reception of strangers into the
tribe, whom it is always reckoned a duty to treat with pecu¬
liar attention.
The Afghan nation consists in this manner of numerous
rude democracies, which were subjected for many years to
one paramount sovereign, who exercised a general superin¬
tendence over the whole kingdom, and could levy troops or
money from each tribe for the common defence. But the
authority of the sovereign was not equally respected by all
the tribes. In the plains around the towns, throughout a
considerable portion of the country, and in all the foreign
provinces, he ruled with full power, and collected a revenue
and maintained an army without the aid of the khans or the
popular assemblies. He employed for this purpose officers
of his own appointment, namely, a haukim, to collect the
revenue and command the militia; a sirdar, who commanded
the regular troops, and whose duty it was to enforce sub¬
mission to the haukim, and to the cauzy, who presided over
the administration of justice. The heads of tribes, and un¬
der them the heads of the divisions of tribes, acted in the
revenue and police departments, under the haukim and the
sirdar. Where the royal authority was strong, the khans had
comparatively little influence ; but, on the other hand, where
weak, it was frequently resisted by the powerful influence of
the khans, who form the aristocracy of the land, as their au¬
thority was also resisted by the inferior assemblies; and it
sometimes happened that those assemblies differed with each
other about the limits of their own powers; and hence the
democratic tribes are often involved in dissension by this
complicated collision of rival authorities. In the concerns of
some of the tribes the king never interfered; he merely le¬
vied supplies of money for the public service, which, not¬
withstanding the presence of one of the royal sirdars, were
AFGHANISTAN. 205
Afghanis- frequently withheld or granted, according to the discretion
v tar‘- of the khan: and in like manner the khan and the cauzy
contended with more or less success, according to the state
of the king’s authority, for the exercise of the judicial power.
Under Nadir Shah, and the earliest of the Douranee em¬
perors, the kingdom of Afghanistan comprehended Cash-
mere, together with the whole extent of territory stretching
westward of the Indus, and its tributaries, to the mountains ;
but during the distraction of the country, the Punjaub and
Scinde, together with the other districts of this tract, aspired
to independence, and the limits of Afghanistan, for several
years past, have been contracted within the boundary of the
Soliman range of mountains.
The government of the Afghans, though it contains in
this manner the elements of freedom, fails entirely in the
great end of securing to the community the blessings of good
order and peace. The people are bold and independent, and
spurn the restraints of law. Among such a variety of inde¬
pendent communities, imperfectly controlled by superior au¬
thority, wars arise, which are waged with great fierceness,
and in which the tumultuary militia of the tribes frequently
come to blows, and waste each other’s territories. Private
revenge, also, though prohibited by the laws, is sanctioned
by manners ; it is accordingly practised by all classes, and
is accounted the unalienable right of every freeman. Hence
family feuds arise, which are not only carried on with bitter¬
ness at the time, but being transmitted from generation to
generation, produce a long-continued course of violence and
bloodshed. Afghanistan, with its bold and turbulent aristo¬
cracy, and the rude independence of its people, presents a
lively picture of the state of society in Europe under the
feudal system, when every potent baron could defy the au¬
thority of the crown, and when, owing to the private feuds
of the nobles, the whole country was frequently one general
scene of rude commotion. But the liberty of the Afghans,
notwithstanding all its disadvantages, is preferable to a state
of despotism. The x’ude and stormy independence which
they enjoy is calculated to give to the national character a
manly and heroic cast, to inspire the Afghan with proud and
elevated sentiments, and to raise him, in point of courage
and intelligence, far above the wretched slaves of Asiatic
despotism. The Afghan himself, far from desiring to ex¬
change his disorderly independence for the peace of tyranny,
glories in the freedom of his institutions ; and it is well ob¬
served by Elphinstone, that a European visiting the country,
however he might lament that the inhabitants were “ trained
by their unhappy situation to fraud and malice, to rapine,
deceit, and revenge, could yet scarce fail to admire their
martial and lofty spirit, their hospitality, and their bold and
simple manners, equally removed from the suppleness of the
citizen, and the awkward rusticity of the clown; and he
would probably before long discover, among so many qua¬
lities that excited his disgust, the rudiments of many vir¬
tues.”
The judicial institutions of the Afghans are rude and im¬
perfect. There are no regular tribunals of justice, nor any
organized systems of police. The popular assemblies of the
tribes, composed of khans, mulliks, or elders, assisted by
moollahs, and even by grave and experienced persons of in¬
ferior rank, discharge the functions of judges in criminal
cases. Petty offences are settled by the elders of the village
in which they occur; and in loosely governed tribes, every
village or subdivision acts for itself. When the members
are assembled, they hear the accusers story; and after ex¬
amining witnesses and other evidence, they proceed to give
judgment. The right of private revenge, which is congenial
to the habits of a barbarous nation, is but feebly restrained
by the judicial tribunals. Among several tribes the adjust¬
ment of disputes is attempted by mediation and persuasion,
to which the chief and the elders lend their influence. But Afghanis-
if, notwithstanding this mediation, the aggressor refuses com- tan-
pensation, and the injured party to forgive, the latter is no
longer restrained from pursuing his revenge. Among some
tribes the obstinate party is compelled to yield obedience to
the award of the court. The general law of the country is
that of Mahomet; but there is the code of Pooshtoon-Wallee,
or the peculiar usages of the Afghans, which has all the force
of law. In towns justice is administered by the cauzy, who
decides both in civil and in criminal cases, aided by the moof-
tees. There is an officer named Ameeni Mehkemeh, who
takes charge of all deposits ; and the Darogha of the Adaw-
lut superintends the whole proceedings. There are also
three officers who superintend the police of the towns. But
in the judicial as well as the police departments the greatest
abuses are said to prevail, and justice is frequently sold to
the highest bidder.
The Afghans are strict Mahometans, and the moollahs or Manners of
priests have great influence over them. They are lookedthe PeoPle-
upon with extraordinary reverence. They frequently gratify
their private enmities by raising a charge of heresy against
obnoxious individuals, and exposing them to persecution. In
the remote districts of the country an insult to any of those
personages would of itself be sufficient to raise a tumult.
Being intrusted with the education of youth, the practice of
the law, and the administration of justice, and in possession
of all the learning and science which are to be found in the
country, they take the lead in popular assemblies, or in ju¬
dicial proceedings, and are frequently of use in moderating
the violence of an ignorant people. In some circumstances
they are enabled, by their superior knowledge and habits of
business, to exercise an almost unlimited influence over in¬
dividuals, and even over bodies of men; to check and con¬
trol the governors and other civil officers ; and sometimes
even to overawe and control the power of the khan himself.
These priests are generally taught to read the Persian classics
and the Arabic grammar, which they study diligently. They
afterwards repair to Bokhara, or Peshav/ur, or some other
seat of Mahometan learning, where they are initiated in logic,
law, theology, and the system of physics known in the East,
as well as in history, poetry, and medicine, which last is a
favourite study. The moollahs are not so intolerant as Ma¬
hometans generally are; and the people, when they are not
instigated by them, are still less disposed to religious perse¬
cution. The Hindoos in Afghanistan are allowed the free
exercise of their religion, though they are prohibited from
all religious processions or public exposure of their idols.
But among so rude a people dissenters from the popular
creed can have little security for their freedom ; and among
the Afghans, accordingly, there are not wanting some cruel
examples of religious tyranny. Yet the Hindoos, though
they are held to be impure, and though no strict man would
consent to eat meat of their dressing, are employed in public
situations of trust and emolument, and appear to enjoy as
much security as the other inhabitants. All the Afghans
are sent in their infancy to a moollah for education, by whom
they are frequently taught nothing more than some prayers
and passages of the Koran, and the ceremonies of their re¬
ligion. A great portion of them remain consequently in a
state of ignorance, and cannot read their own language. The
rich maintain moollahs in their own houses, to teach their
children, some of whom are taught to read the Persian classics
and the Arabic. The Afghans have no literature of their
own beyond a few patriotic songs or tales of love, of which
passion they speak in the most romantic strain. The Maho¬
metan religion exercises, as usual, its injurious influence on
the character and condition of the women, who, especially
among the higher classes, are shrouded in concealment.
Polygamy is allowed, and any woman may be divorced at
206 AFGHANISTAN.
Afghanis- the caprice of her husband. Among the lower classes the
tan- women are more freely exposed, and do all the drudgery of
the house, being forced to bring in water, and, among the
ruder tribes, to do the work of the men out of doors. Slavery
is allowed, as in all Mahometan countries. I he greater
part of the slaves are born at home; but supplies are re¬
ceived of Abyssinians, and negroes from Arabia; and of
Persians from the inhabitants of Beloochistan, who seize
them in their forays. Kaufirs are purchased from their own
nation, or carried off by some of their own border tribes.
These last are generally women, who are in great request
on account of their beauty.
The low state of knowledge among the Afghans is evinced
by some of their favourite studies and amusements. They
are greatly addicted to alchemy and to magic ; they have
implicit faith in ghosts, in dreams, in the arts of divination,
the power of talismans, and in the possibility of controlling
genii and demons. Grown up men play at marbles. Prison¬
ers base, quoits, and a game like hunt the slipper, are also
common; as are wrestling and other trials of strength and
skill. Fighting quails, cocks, dogs, rams, and even camels,
are much admired. Some of their sports are, however,
more manly. The chase is the favourite amusement of all
classes, for which the abundance of game in the country af¬
fords ample scope. Horse-racing is common. An amuse¬
ment of the better classes is to tilt with their lances, or to
shoot at a mark with carbines or matchlocks on horseback;
or with guns or bows and arrows on foot. They also prac¬
tise a complicated sort of dance, which gives them great de-
light.
The Afghan women are described as large compared with
those of India, and very fair and handsome. The men are
all of a robust make, and are generally lean, though bony
and muscular ; and with high noses, high cheek-bones, and
long faces. Their hair is always coarse and strong, and they
wear long and thick beards, which are generally black or
brown, but rarely red. There is an expression of manli¬
ness and deliberation in their countenance, joined to an air
of simplicity, not allied to weakness. The eastern Afghans
have the natural features most strongly marked. Those of
the western tribes are less distinct, and exhibit a greater
variety of countenance, some of their features being the
reverse of sharp, though their high cheek-bones never leave
them. The western Afghans are larger and stouter than
those of the east, some being of surprising strength and
stature ; but in general the Afghans are not so tall as the
English. The eastern Afghans, owing to the heat of their
climate, have generally dark complexions, approaching to
that of the natives of Hindostan; while those of the west are
olive, with a healthy colour and appearance. But among
them, as among the eastern Afghans, are to be found men
of swarthy complexions like the natives of India; and others,
again, as fair as Europeans. In the east, however, it is more
common for the complexion to have a swarthy tinge than in
the west. But the two races, the eastern and the western,
are distinguished by still more striking peculiarities in their
manners than in their complexion. Having derived their
civilisation from the Persians and Indians, they each retain
the usages of the respective nations with whom they have
been connected. The Persian dress, language, and man¬
ners, distinguish the western tribes; and from the supre¬
macy which two of these, particularly that of Dooraunee,
have at times maintained over the whole, they decidedly
prevail in the nation, and are even recognised where the
Indian customs are more in repute. The manners of the
Afghans are frank and open; sometimes rustic, but seldom
fierce or insolent, except among the eastern tribe of the Eu-
sofzyes, who have naturally an arrogant carriage. In the
towns they are more polished than in the country, and are
accustomed to pay respect to their superiors. In all cases Afghan is-
they show a great reverence for old age. They are alto- tan.
gether a superior people to the Hindostanees, being free
from their puerility, and from the apathy which they display
in all matters not bearing on their own interest; nor are
they delighted with the baubles which form the most ac¬
ceptable presents in India. The bulk of the people are
rather remarkable for prudence, observation, and, though
not very enlightened or enlarged in their views, for a ra¬
tional spirit of inquiry. Though they have not the same
regard to truth as the Europeans, they do not indulge in
the practice of gratuitous falsehood, to which the natives of
Hindostan and Persia are universally addicted. From the
nature of their country, which admits of no travelling except
on horseback, they are inured to gold and heat, and to the
exertion of making long journeys, of climbing mountains, and
of swimming across rapid torrents. Old men who seem
hardly able to sit on horseback, will ride at a good pace up
and down the steepest and roughest passes, or along the
edge of precipices, where it is even dangerous to walk.
They are hospitable to strangers under certain circum¬
stances; but they are notorious freebooters, especially the
mountain tribes, and plunder travellers without scruple.
The inhabitants of the towns differ in their origin and
character from the cultivators and peasantry. The greater
part of them in the western country consists of a race called
Taujiks, originally descended from the Arabs and Persians;
and in the east, of Hindikies, who are of Indian origin. No
Afghan ever keeps a shop, or exercises any handicraft trade.
Those employments are chiefly left to the classes mentioned
above, and to the Persians, some of whom have acquired
great wealth. The banking business is chiefly prosecuted
by the Hindoos. They lend money at an enormous interest
by negotiating bills of exchange ; and they occasionally ac¬
commodate government with loans, for which they receive
bills on the revenues of the provinces. Many of them are
rich, and they conceal their wealth. Mr Elphinstone relates,
that one of them, who gave him cash for bills on India, would
only make his payments in the dead of night, when he dug
up the money, and paid it with the utmost secrecy. There
is a very strict police in the towns, which being exercised
by the Mahometan priests, often affords pretexts for extor¬
tion. The food of the common people is leavened bread,
rice, flesh, vegetables, sometimes cheese, and always dried
curds, of which all classes are fond. Provisions are cheap,
and there is a prodigious abundance of fruit.
In an inland country sucb as Afghanistan, mountainous, Trade,
destitute of navigable rivers or of proper roads, commerce
is carried on entirely by beasts of burden. There are no
wheeled carriages, and camels are the animals chiefly em¬
ployed. The merchants travel at the rate of about 8 or 10
miles a day in large caravans, the roads often lying through
close and craggy defiles, and narrow stony valleys, among
bare mountains, or along the beds of torrents, or over waste
plains, where there is neither water nor provisions. The
principal trade is with India, Persia, and Chinese and Inde¬
pendent Tartary. The caravans which set out for Tartary
consist of horses or ponies, which are alone able to traverse
the mountainous roads that lie in one part over the snowy
ridges of Hindoo Khosh. Cabul is the great mart of Inde¬
pendent Tartary, Candahar and Herat that of Persia. The
trade carried on by sea comes to Kurrachee, and thence to
Shikarpoor and Candahar. The exports to Hindostan, which
form by far the most considerable trade carried on by the
Afghans, consist of horses and ponies, which chiefly come
from Balkh on the northern side of the Hindoo Khosh
Mountains, and fruits. The imports are coarse cotton cloths,
which are worn by all the common people of the country;
muslins, silken cloth, brocade, indigo in great quantities,
AFGHANISTAN.
207
AgricuL
ture.
Afghanis- ivory, chalk, bamboos, wax, tin, sandal wood, sugar, musk,
ten. coral, drugs, and spices of all kinds. To Independent Tar-
tary the exports are chiefly white cloth, shawls, Indian tur¬
bans, chintz, and indigo previously imported from India.
The imports are horses, gold, and silver; the latter consist¬
ing of the gold coin of Bokhara, Dutch ducats, Venetian
sequins, and ingots of silver from China; cochineal, cloth,
British hardware, looking glasses, Russian leather from Bok¬
hara, to which place they come from Russia; also a fine
cloth made of camels’ wool. The exports to Persia are
shawls and shawl goods, indigo, carpets of Herat, chintz,
Indian brocades, muslins, and other cotton cloths. The im¬
ports are raw silk, silken stuffs, a coloured cotton manufac¬
ture, and silken manufactures, which are used in large quan¬
tities by all ranks ; embroidered satin, velvet, and Persian
brocade, which are confined to the rich. Indian chintz,
manufactured atMasulipatamon the Coromandel coast, comes
by sea to Busheer in the Persian Gulf, and is thence
brought by land to Afghanistan, where it is much used. The
exports to Chinese Tartary are the same as to Bokhara.
The imports are woollens, Chinese silk and satin, tea in
small boxes of thin lead, china, porcelain, raw silk, cochineal,
crystal, gold dust, and ingots of gold and silver with the
Chinese stamp.
There are five classes of cultivators in Afghanistan: 1.
the proprietors, who cultivate their own lands; 2. tenants,
who pay a rent in money, or in part of the produce; 3. buz-
gurs, who, like the metayers, are supplied with seed, cattle,
the implements of husbandry, and furnish only their labour;
4. hired labourers; and, 5. villains, who are the property of
the landlord. From the influence of various causes, landed
property is more equally divided than in most countries.
The Mahometan law, which divides the father’s property
equally among his children, soon breaks down the largest
landed estates ; and rendering the portions too small for the
support of their proprietors, they are consequently sold to
those who have acquired wealth in public employments, or
by agriculture or commerce. Hence small proprietors, who
cultivate their own lands either with the aid of their families
or labourers, are numerous. The number of tenants is not
great; and many of these sublet it to others, who let it to
metayers. The common term of a lease is one or two years ;
the longest is for five. The rent varies from one-tenth to
two-thirds of the produce, the latter being the rent of the
fertile lands around Cabul. The value of land is from nine
to twelve years’ rent. Labourers in husbandry are paid by
the season.
The Afghan nation is divided into a variety of clans,
which we cannot even enumerate; nor does it appear to be
necessary, since a mere list of names, even if it were given,
would throw no light whatever on the peculiar character and
manners of the different tribes. One important distinction,
however, divides the community into two great classes;
namely, the pastoral tribes, who live in tents, and who mi¬
grate with the seasons in quest of subsistence for their flocks
and herds; and those again who follow agriculture, and have
fixed habitations. The country of Afghanistan which is
near the hills consists of flat and low-lying plains, or of
strongly-marked ranges of mountains. Western Afghanistan
has an entirely opposite character, consisting of extensive
and open plains, inhabited chiefly by pastoral tribes. These
wandering hordes select the grassy valleys among the moun¬
tains for their summer habitation ; but the approach of win¬
ter warns them to go in quest of more genial regions; and
they accordingly migrate, some to the lower valleys at the
foot of the Paropamisan Mountains, some to the low coun¬
tries in the south, and others of the more purely pastoral
tribes, wandering from the mountain valleys of Khorassan,
along the course of the Gomul, and across the Soliman hills,
fix their winter habitations in the plains of Damaun, along Afghanis-
the western shores of the Indus. The Dooraunees form one tan-
of the greatest pastoral tribes. It consists of many subor-
dinate tribes, all of whom are more or less addicted to the
wandering life; though a considerable proportion combine
agriculture with pasturage, and have fixed residences. The
pastoral part of the Dooraunee people are mostly to be found
in the eastern hilly tracts near the frontiers of Persia, be¬
tween Herat and Seestan, and in the waste plains of the
south. To the south-east of Candahar the inhabitants are
shepherds; in other parts of the country the husbandmen
and shepherds are intermixed. North of Candahar, the mi¬
grating tribes seek the plains in winter and the hills in sum¬
mer. Those to the south retire from the summer heat to
the northern hills. The numerous tribes still farther south
beyond the Helmund also quit the plains, which are thus
left with scarcely a single inhabitant before the middle of
spring. There are some tribes, such as the Naussers, who
are purely pastoral in their habits, who live in tents, and
have no fixed dwelling-place, and who regularly wander
with the change of the season from their winter to their
summer habitations. As they approach the populous parts
of the country, they have to make their way through hostile
tribes, who beset them in the mountain passes, and either
attack the main body or cut off the stragglers. Hence they
are compelled to adopt the strictest precautions. Scouts are
planted on all sides, the flanks and rear are protected by
armed bands, and the main body advances with all the cau¬
tion and exact discipline of a regular army. These shep¬
herds are all plunderers; and no single travellers, if they
be rich, are safe in any part of the country. They are fierce
and warlike in their actions, and enterprising in their habits;
yet are they capable of strong attachments, and are keenly
alive to the force of social and domestic ties. In distant
countries they dwell with the fondest enthusiasm on the
valleys of their native land, on the varieties of its scenery, on
the beauties and delights of spring, and on all the pleasing
vicissitudes of their wandering life; and it is seldom that
they quit their own happy abodes for foreign adventures.
Their camps usually consist of from ten to fifty tents. One
hundred is an unusually large number. The tent is formed
of coarse black camlet, and affords excellent shelter from the
weather, the threads of the blanket swelling as soon as they
become wet; so that its texture, naturally close, is rendered
quite impervious to rain. The tents of the common people
are from 20 to 25 feet long, 10 or 12 feet broad, and 8 or
9 feet high. The tents ot the khans are of a superior de¬
scription, being large enough to contain a numerous assem¬
bly, and so high as easily to admit a camel.
Mr Elphinstone estimates the population at 14,000,000, Popula-
to which he supposes that the different natives who inha- tion.
bit the country contribute in the following proportions:
Afghans, 4,300,000; Beloochees, 1,000,000; Tartars of
all descriptions, 1,200,000; Persians, including Taujiks,
1,500,000; Indians, Cashmeres, &c. 5,700,000; miscella¬
neous, 300,000.
It must be borne in mind, however, that this estimate
applies to a period antecedent to the dismemberment of
the kingdom of Cabul, and when Cashmere and Scinde,
with Lahore, Moultan, and other populous provinces, ac¬
knowledged the supremacy of its ruler. Looking to the
boundaries by which Afghanistan is now circumscribed, and
to the character of the country, which is for the most part
rugged and ill cultivated, we shall in all probability be nearer
the truth, by reducing the estimate of its population to five
millions of inhabitants.
The Afghans, like most barbarous nations, derive their
origin from high antiquity. They claim their descent from
Afghan, the son of Irmia or Birkia, son of Saul, king of
•f-
208 AFGHANIST A N.
Afghanis- Israel; but this is a vain tradition, unsupported by the slightest
tan. historical evidence. The first account we have of them is
in the 9th century, when they were established in the north¬
eastern mountains of Afghanistan.
In 997 Afghanistan was conquered by a Tartar officer,
Sebuctaghi, who, marrying the daughter of Alptegin, the
founder of the dynasty of Ghuzni, had been acknowledged
as his successor. His son Mahmood greatly enlarged the
limits of his empire, which extended over the present
kingdom of Cabul, India, Balkh, Badukshan, and a great
part of Khorassan. His dynasty lasted till the year 1159,
from which period the house of Ghor reigned in Afghan¬
istan till the death of Shahabudin in 1206- The country
was afterwards subdued by Ghengis Khan and Tamerlane;
and during their government, and that of their descendants,
the native Afghans appear to have maintained their inde¬
pendence in the mountains. Babei’, the descendant of
Tamerlane, began his career by the conquest of Cabul in
1504, and extending his conquests to India, established the
Mogul empire of Delhi, from the ruins of which all the
existing states in India are now composed. After the death
of Baber, the plains of Afghanistan were divided between
the empires of Hindostan and Persia, while the mountains
as before afforded an asylum to those who rejected a foreign
yoke.
In 1720 the Afghan tribes threw off their allegiance to
Persia, and advancing into the country, took Ispahan. But
in 1728 they were driven back by the celebrated usurper
Nadir Shah, who pui’suing his success, in the year 1737
subdued the whole of Afghanistan. He established his power
over all the countries to the west of the Indus, which con¬
tinued subject to Persia till his assassination in 1747. On
this event an Afghan officer of the Dooraunee tribe, Ahmed
Shah, who had risen to high command in Nadir’s army, took
possession of Candahar, and having united all the Afghans
under his authority, founded the kingdom of Afghanistan.
He was a wise and politic prince, who united courage and
activity with great military talents. He invaded Hindostan
at different times ; and in the memorable battle of Paniput,
fought in 1761, on the 7th January, he gave a decisive
blow to the Mahratta power. He died in 1773, and was
succeeded by his son Timour Shah, whose indolence was as
noted as his father’s activity. He died in 1792, after a des¬
potic reign, leaving his dominions to his two sons, Homayon
and Zemaun Shah. War soon broke out between the two
brothers ; and the elder being defeated, the whole kingdom
acknowledged the authority of Zemaun Shah. In 1796 this
prince invaded Hindostan with a large army, and advanced
to Lahore ; but he was obliged to retreat in consequence of
an insurrection in his o\Vn country. In 1800 Zemaun Shah
was dethroned and deprived of his sight by his brother Mah¬
mood. He was in 1803 expelled by his brother Shuja, but
Mahmood reappearing in-arms against his competitor, the
result was disastrous to Shuja, who ultimately found a re¬
treat in British territory. Meantime Runjeet Singh, the
Sikh chief of Lahore, profiting by the confusion, conquered
Peshawur, the modern capital of Afghanistan. In 1818 Shah
Shuja, impatient of retirement, attempted to regain his for¬
mer dignity, but failed. A later revolution deprived Mah¬
mood of his throne, when the country, with the exception
of Herat, passed to the brothers of Mahmood’s minister ; the
most able of them being Dost Mahomed Khan. Herat con¬
tinued in the possession of Camran the son of the expelled
Mahmood.
About the year 1837 the attention of the British Govern¬
ment in India having been attracted by the conduct of cer¬
tain supposed agents of Russia in the counties to the west of
the Indus, it was considered desirable to establish an alliance
with the rulers of Afghanistan, and overtures were accord¬
ingly made to Dost Mahomed Khan, the chief of Cabul. Afghanis-
These having failed, the British Government sought to esta- tan'
blish a friendly power in Afghanistan by aiding the exiled
Prince Shah Shuja in another attempt to regain his throne.
At that time Dost Mahomed held Cabul with a considerable
tract of adjoining territory, yielding a revenue of L.260,000
a-year. His army was composed of 14,000 men, of whom
6000 were cavalry, and his artillery consisted of 40 field
pieces. The brothers of Dost Mahomed held Candahar, with
the surrounding country, affording a revenue of L.80,000 a-
year, while their military force was estimated at 3000 cavalry,
1000 infantry, and 50 guns. The British force assembled to
support the claims of Shah Shuja, amounted to 28,350 men,
aided by a contingent force of 6000 Sikhs furnished by Run¬
jeet Singh, the ruler of the Punjaub, and by a levy of 4800
troops raised in the name of the Shah’s eldest son. These
formed the invading force designated “ The army of the
Indus.” The British force was furnished partly from Ben¬
gal, and partly from Bombay. Both divisions advanced to
the town of Dadar and thence pursued their march by the
same route through the Bolan and Kojuckpasses to Candahar,
under the chief command of Sir John Keane. The city of
Candahar was occupied without opposition, and there, on the
8th May 1839, Shah Shuja was solemnly enthroned. After
a brief interval, the march was resumed towards Cabul. On
the 21st, the army arrived before Ghuzni, a fortress be¬
lieved by the Afghans to be impregnable. Two days later
the gates of the fort were blown in with gunpowder and the
place taken by storm. Pursuing its march, the army reached
Cabul, and on the 7th August Shah Shuja made his public
entry into his capital. The war was now considered at an
end, and the “ Army of the Indus,” leaving behind them a
detachment of 8000 men, prepared to return home.
During the two succeeding years, Shah Shuja and his
allies remained in possession of Cabul and Candahar. Dost
Mahomed had surrendered himself prisoner, and efforts
were made to reduce the remaining refractory chiefs. These
attempts, however, proved unsuccessful, and indications were
not wanting of the difficulty of maintaining Shah Shuja on
his throne. At length, on the 2d November 1841, a fearful
outbreak occurred in Cabul, in which Sir Alexander Burnes
and several other British officers were massacred. The
position of the British now became critical. In a conference
held between Sir William Macnaughten and Akbar Khan,
son of Dost Mahomed, the British representative and sever¬
al officers were treacherously murdered. Shortly after, the
British entered into a convention to evacuate Afghanistan,
and in January 1842, the remnant of the army began to
move. In addition to the hardships and privations incident
to a winter march in so elevated a region, this miserable
band, destitute and spiritless, were exposed to the continual
attacks of a pursuing enemy, into whose hands several of the
fugitives fell. The remainder pushed on for Jellalabad;
but out of 4500 soldiers who quitted Cabul, with a host of
camp followers, one European (Dr Bryden of the Medical
Service) alone succeeded in reaching that place, and he
arrived but to report the capture or destruction of all his
companions. The Cabul tragedy gave rise to a further dis¬
aster; Ghuzni was surrendered to the enemy by the British
garrison. But General Nott retained possession of Canda¬
har, and Colonel Sale maintained his position in Jellalabad,
against all the efforts of Akbar Khan to dislodge him. Shah
Shuja died by the hands of assassins.
To avenge these disasters, and rescue the prisoners who
had fallen into the hands of the enemy, preparations on a
large scale were made in India. An army of 12,000 men
assembled in the Punjaub under General Pollock, who suc¬
ceeded in forcing his way through the Khyber Pass and
joined the force of Colonel Sale at Jellalabad. General
AFRICA.
Afium Pollock then advanced to Cabul, where he wa= met by Gene-
11 ral Nott from Candahar. Ghuzni had been retaken and
Africa, dismantled by the last named commander, and on the 16th
September 1842, General Pollock, amid the shouts of the
soldiery, and the roar of artillery, planted the British colours
on the towers of Cabul. All idea of retaining a footing in
Afghanistan was abandoned. The rescue of the prisoners
from the hands of Akbar Khan had been effected ; the fort
of Cabul, with several of the principal buildings, demolished;
and the British finally evacuated the country in December
1842. Dost Mahomed was set at liberty, and returned to
Afghanistan. Since that period various changes have taken
place in that turbulent country, with the details of which we
are but little acquainted. (e. t.)
AFIUM, or Appiom, Kara Hissar (or Black Castle of
Opium), a city of Asiatic Turkey, in Anatolia, and the capi¬
tal of Sanjiack. It stands on a declivity, and is defended by a
citadel crowning a high and almost inaccessible rock. The
209
population is estimated at 60,000. Opium in large quantities Afort
is produced in its vicinity, and forms the staple article of ||
its commerce; besides which it has manufactories of black Africa,
felts, carpets, arms, saddlery, &c. Lat. 38. 45. N. Long Vs—
30. 56. E.
AFORT, a hamlet in the department of Seine, France,
about five miles from Paris. It is celebrated for its Veteri¬
nary College, and also for its botanical garden, which is one
of the finest in Europe.
AFRAGOLA, a large manufacturing town in the king¬
dom of Naples, and in the province of Napoli. It has three
parish churches, and contains 12,640 inhabitants, who pro¬
duce, among other goods, 6000 dozen of hats annually.
AFRANIUS, Lucius, a Latin poet, who lived about a
century before Christ. He wrote comedies in imitation of
Menander; and is commended by Cicero and Quintilian for
his acute genius and fluent style. Only some fragments of
his works are now extant.
A F R I
C A.
Ancient rFIHE knowledge of this great continent which ancient
geography X writers have transmitted to posterity, is of very limited
of Africa. ext,ent, owing principally to its physical construction. The
gyp • great desert, which in a broad belt stretches quite across the
continent, forbade every attempt to pass it until the intro¬
duction of the camel by the Arabs. The want of any known
great river, except the Nile, that might conduct into the in¬
terior, contributed to confine the Greek and Roman colo¬
nists to the habitable belt along the northern coast. The
Phoenicians are known to have formed establishments on
the northern coast of Africa at a very early period of history,
probably not less than 3000 years ago ; and the conquest of
Egypt by Cambyses dates as far back as the year b.c. 525.
We may consider, therefore, the coasts of Egypt, of the Red
Sea, and of the Mediterranean, to have been settled and well
known to the ancient Asiatics, who were constantly passing
the narrow isthmus which divided their country from Africa,
and led them immediately from parched deserts into a fer¬
tile valley, watered by a magnificent river. But whether
they were much or little acquainted with the western coast,
which bounds the Atlantic, and the eastern coast washed by
the Indian Ocean, is a question that has exercised the re¬
search and ingenuity of the ablest scholars and geographers,
and has not yet been satisfactorily answered.
Western This question being one of curiosity rather than utility,
coast. we shall only state the case, and the results of the seve¬
ral inquiries, without entering into the merits of the argu¬
ments advanced by the different parties. We are told by
Herodotus, that Necho, king of Egypt, sent out an expedi¬
tion under the command of certain Phoenician seamen, for
the purpose of circumnavigating Africa; and that, on their
return, they asserted that they had accomplished this un¬
dertaking. Few of the ancient writers give credit to the
story; but, among the moderns, the Abbe Paris and Mon¬
tesquieu have contended that this voyage was actually per¬
formed. Isaac Vossius and D’Anville have strong doubts;
and Dr Vincent and M. Gosselin maintain that such an ex¬
pedition, at such a period, exceeds all the means and re¬
sources of navigation, then in its infancy. Last of all comes
Major Rennell, who in his elucidation of the geography of
Herodotus, has done more than all the rest in clearing away
the doubts of history; and he argues the possibility of such
a voyage, from the construction of their ships, with flat bot¬
toms and low masts, enabling them to keep close to the land,
and to discover and enter into all the creeks and harbours
which any part of the coast might present. At all events,
VOL. H.
one thing is evident: if such an expedition ever circumnavi¬
gated the African continent, the fruits of it have nearly, if
not entirely, perished.
About half a century after this supposed expedition, the
account of another voyage, down the western coast, is con¬
tained in the Periplus of Hanno, which has also called forth
many learned and elaborate discussions among modern geo¬
graphers, some of whom would carry Hanno to the Bight
of Benin, others only to Sherbro Sound or the river Nun in
Lat. 28. N.
The extent to which ancient discovery proceeded along Eastern
the eastern coast of Africa, has divided the opinion of the coast,
learned nearly as much as its progress on the western coast.
Delisle, Huet, and Bochart, made the discovery of the coast
to extend as far south as Mozambique and Madagascar.
D’Anville could trace such discovery no farther than to Cape
Delgado ; and M. Gosselin contends that the ancients never
proceeded down the coast beyond Brava. But Dr Vincent,
who has entered more profoundly into the subject than any
of his predecessors, and brought a great fund of learning to
bear on the question, in his Periplus of the Erythrean Sea,
has with great plausibility extended these boundaries to
Mozambique and to the island of Madagascar.
Egypt, under the Ptolemies, the great patrons of science
and promoters of discovery, possessing the advantage of the
only great river which falls from the African continent into
the Mediterranean, made no progress beyond its ancient
boundaries ; and though the Romans, who subsequently pos¬
sessed Egypt, penetrated beyond the limits of their own de¬
pendencies, they extended their discoveries no further than
Fezzan in one direction, and, at a later period, beyond Nu¬
bia as far as Abyssinia, and the regions of the Upper Nile.
We know nothing of the progress made by the Carthagi- The Car¬
mans in the discovery of Interior Africa ; but although it thaginiana
has been asserted that their merchants had reached the banks
of the interior river, which we call the Kawara or Niger,
they have left nothing on record that will warrant such a
supposition. The story told by Herodotus, of some Nasa-
monians crossing the desert, and arriving at a large river,
can only be applicable to some western arm of the Nile.
The people from whom we derive the first information con-T}je Arabs,
cerning the interior of Northern Africa are the Arabs, who,
by means of the camel, were able to penetrate across the
great desert to the very centre of the continent, and along
the two coasts as far as the Senegal and the Gambia on the
west, and to Sofala on the east. On this latter coast, they
2 D
210
AFRICA.
Africa, not only explored to an extent far beyond any supposed limits
of ancient discovery, but planted colonies at Sofala, Mom-
bas, Melinda, and at various other places.
The Portu- The fifteenth century produced a new era in maritime
guese. discovery. The voyages of the Portuguese were the first
to give any thing like an accurate outline ot the two coasts,
and to complete the circumnavigation of Africa. The dis¬
covery of America and the West India islands gave rise to
that horrid traffic in African negroes which has since been
carried on without intermission ", and this traffic has been the
means of acquiring a more extended and accurate knowledge
of that part of the coast which lies between the rivers Sene¬
gal and the Cameroons, as well as of the manners and cha¬
racter of the people who inhabit this extended line of coast.
The En- With the English and French settlements in Africa began
glish and ^ systematic survey of the coast, and portions of the inte-
nor.
Coast sur- Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort thus sums up the surveys
veys. of tiie coasts of Africa, as far as they were made up to 1848.
From the Strait of Gibraltar, the western coast of Africa has
been sufficiently surveyed and published as far as Cape For¬
mosa, in the Bight of Benin ; but as there is much legitimate
traffic in the eastern part of that great Bight, as well as far¬
ther to the southward, both it and many of the ports and an¬
chorages on this side of the Cape of Good Hope require a
more careful and connected examination. The charts of the
whole of the Cape Colony are exceedingly defective, as the
numerous wrecks there amply testify, and from thence to
the Portuguese settlements of Delagoa we know scarcely
anything. From Delagoa to the Red Sea, and the whole
contour of Madagascar, are sufficiently represented on our
charts for the general purposes of navigation, though many
further researches along the former coast might still be pro¬
fitably made. The Red Sea has been well surveyed by
the East India Company. The northern shore of Africa,
with the exception of Egypt, has been surveyed by the Eng¬
lish and French.
The uncertainty and confusion that prevailed in the geo¬
graphy of the interior of Africa induced a few learned and
scientific individuals to form themselves into an association
for promoting the exploration of Inner Africa. This society
was formed in London in 1788, and under its auspices im¬
portant additions were made to the geography of Africa by
Houghton, Mungo Park, Hornemann, and Burckhardt. Re¬
peated failures, however, at length discouraged the associa¬
tion from engaging other missionaries, and it subsequently
merged in the Royal Geographical Society in 1831.
During the last sixty years more has been done to make
discoveries us acquainted with the geography of Africa, than during the
9th whole of the 1700 previous years, since Ptolemy, taken to¬
gether. With Mungo Park, strictly speaking, commences
the era of unceasing endeavours to explore the interior.
Mungo Park proceeded in 1795 from the river Gambia on
the west coast, to the Joliba (commonly called Niger), traced
this river as far as the town of Silla, explored the interven¬
ing countries, determined the southern confines of the Sahara,
and returned in 1797. In 1805 this adventurous traveller
embarked on a second journey in the same regions, for the
purpose of descending down the river Joliba to its mouth.
This journey added little to the discoveries already made,
and cost the traveller his life. He is ascertained to have
passed Timbuktu and to have reached Boussa, where he was
killed by the natives.
Horne- Hornemann, in 1799, penetrated from Cairo to Murzuk,
mann. an(j transmitted from that place valuable information respect¬
ing the countries to the south, especially Bornu. He then
proceeded in that direction, but' it is supposed that he soon
afterwards perished, as no accounts of his further progress
have ever reached Europe. In 181G an expedition was sent
Africa.
African
Associa
tion.
African
century.
Mungo
Park.
out by the English government under the command of Cap¬
tain Tuckey, to the river Congo, which was at that time be-
lieved to be the lower course of the Joliba. This was a Tuckey.
disastrous undertaking, and the geographical additions were
but slight, the river having been ascended a distance of only
280 miles.
In 1819, Lyon and Ritchie penetrated from Tripoli to Lyon and
Murzuk, and a little distance beyond that place. Ritchie.
In 1822, Denham, Clapperton, and Oudney, set forth from Denham,
Tripoli in the same direction, crossed the Great Desert, and Clapper-
reached, on the 4th February 1823, the great Lake Tsad.^“^ ■
The surrounding countries were explored as far as Sakatu •y'
in the west, and Mandara in the south. This journey was
altogether one of the most successful and important into the
interior. Oudney died in Bornu, but Clapperton undertook
a second journey from the coast of Guinea, crossed the
Kawara and arrived at Sakatu, at which place he also died.
His servant Richard Lander returned to England after hav¬
ing explored a part of the adjoining regions.
Major Laing succeeded in reaching Timbuktu from Tri- Laing.
poli, but was murdered on his return, in the desert.
In 1827 and 1828, Caillie set out from the Rio Nunez on Caillie.
the western coast, reached Timbuktu and returned from that
place through the Great Desert to Marocco.
The termination of the Joliba, Kawara or Niger, remained Landers,
in obscurity till 1830, when it was ascertained by Lander and
his brother, who succeeded in tracing the river from Yaouri
down to its mouth. They embarked on a second expedition,
which sailed in 1832, for the purpose of ascending the Ka¬
wara as far as Timbuktu. But only Rabba was reached,
and the general results of the expedition were most disas¬
trous.
The great Niger expedition, similar to the foregoing, con- Niger ex-
sisted of three steam-vessels, and was despatched by the go- pedition.
vernment in 1841, under Captain Trotter. It proved a
failure, and resulted in a melancholy loss of life.
In the region between the Kawara and the coast, Mr Duncan.
Duncan, one of the survivors of the Niger expedition, has
made some additions to our geographical knowledge by his
journey to Adafoodia, in 1845-46. This enterprising travel¬
ler has since met with an untimely death, in a second at¬
tempt in the same region for the purpose of reaching Tim¬
buktu.
The preceding journeys were confined chiefly to the East-Afri-
northern and western portions of the continent. A much travel*
greater number of travellers explored the regions drained by
the Nile, the salubrity of which, particularly of Abyssinia, is
so infinitely greater than that of Western Africa, that among
the many explorers of the former a very small proportion have
died as compared with the immense loss of life in Western
Africa. Among the most distinguished of the East-African
travellers are Bruce, Brown (who reached Darfur), Burck¬
hardt, Cailliaud, Ruppell, Russegger, Beke, and the Egyp¬
tian expeditions up the Nile.
Though the Dutch settlement in South Africa was founded South-
as early as 1650, not much information of the interior of that African
portion of the continent was gained till the end of the 18thTrave lers-
century, when a series of journeys was commenced by Sparr-
mann, and followed up by Vaillant, Barrow, Trotter, Somer¬
ville, Lichtenstein, Burchell, Campbell, Thomson, Smith,
Alexander, and Harris.
Within the last five or six years a number of important Recent ex¬
discoveries have been made in various parts of Inner Africa, P6^1®”8’
and the present time bids fair to outstrip all previous periods ^™°h°are
in lifting the veil that has hitherto enveloped Central AfricastiU in
in impenetrable mystery. _ progress.
The Church Missionary Society established a mission at
Mombas, in about 4 deg. south lat., on the east coast ot Krapf and
Africa, consisting of the zealous missionaries Krapf and Reb-Rebmann.
AFRICA.
211
Africa, mann.
Living¬
ston, Os-
These gentlemen have, ever since 1847, explored
the interior from that direction with untiring perseverance.
At several hundred miles from the coast they have discovered
high mountains covered with perpetual snow, which is the
more interesting from their position being so near the equa¬
tor. The existence of snow on the mountains of Kilimanjaro
and Kenia has been disputed, but with little reason. These
two remarkable peaks, to judge from the description of the
missionaries, seem isolated cones rising out of regions compa¬
ratively little elevated and surrounded by plains in the same
way as Mount Ararat, Mount Hermon, or the Sierra Nevada
de Santa Martha in the equatorial regions of South America.
In South Africa also, missionaries have been the pioneers
of geographical discovery. Kolobeng (in Lat. 24. 40. S.
well, Mur- Ji0ngt 25. 55. E.) is, of all the missionary stations in that
(’em af continent, the furthest inland. It lies on the southern bor¬
ders of the Kalahari Desert, the Sahara of South Africa,
which had frustrated many attempts at proceeding north¬
ward, to reach a large lake reported a long time previously
to exist in that direction. On the 1st of June 1849, Mr
Livingston, the missionary, accompanied by Messrs Oswell
and Murray, set out from Kolobeng. After having travelled
300 miles through the desert of Kalahari, they came to a
fine river, the Zouga, v/hich issues from the lake. They
followed it upwards about 300 miles, when they reached the
eastern extremity of that lake, the chief name of which is
Ngami, at an elevation of 2825 feet above the sea. Some
English traders, who lately reached the lake, succeeded in
walking round it, and ascertained it to be about sixty miles
in length and about fourteen in breadth.
In 1851, Livingston and Oswell again started for the
north, but more in an easterly direction, when they reached
the latitude of 17. 25. S., and discovered the Chobe and
Sesheke, deep and constantly flowing rivers, supposed to be
the feeders of the Zambezi. The Zouga was ascertained to
be absorbed in sands and salt-pans. The country through
which the former rivers flow is level and very fertile.
Captain Vardon explored the region north-east of Kolo¬
beng, tracing the Limpopo river to a considerable distance.
In 1851, Gassiot made an interesting journey from Port
Natal north-west, through the mountains, keeping along
their western slope, and ultimately reaching the Limpopo.
During the same year, Mr Galton explored a part of South
Africa, from Walfisch Bay, on the west coast, extending
from that point as far as 17. 58. S. Lat. in the north, and to
21. E. Long, in the east, and inhabited by the Damara and
Ovampo. No very interesting features were discovered,
but the whole region was accurately determined; and in
this respect this journey is one of the most important yet
accomplished between the equator and the tropic of Capri¬
corn.
In 1852, a journey was made by Mr Plant, of Natal, from
that place to Delagoa Bay, in which he discovered that St
Lucia Bay leads into an extensive inlet, hitherto unknown.
The preceding journeys are all that have recently been per¬
formed south of the equator. In addition to them, may be
mentioned a journey across the whole of the continent, from
the coast of Zanzibar to Benguela, performed by a caravan
of native traders, of which an account has recently been
given by the Portuguese. In this journey they crossed
Nyassa, the great lake of South Africa.
To the north of the equator, the mission to Lake Tsad,
son, Barth, originated by Mr James Richardson, promises to exceed in
Overweg, importance all previous expeditions to Central Africa. That
oge ' gentleman left England in 1849, for the purpose of conclud¬
ing commercial treaties with the chiefs of Northern Africa,
as far as Lake Tsad, by which the legitimate trade with
those countries might be extended, and the system of sla¬
very abolished. Upon the proposal of Mr Petermann, Drs
Gassiot.
Galton.
Plant
Richard-
Barth and Overweg accompanied Mr Richardson, for the Africa,
purpose of making scientific observations. The three gen- 'w-
tlemen started from Tripoli on the 23d of March 1850, after
having minutely surveyed the mountainous region to the
south of that place. During the first year the travellers suc¬
cessfully crossed the whole of the Sahara, in a very circuit¬
ous westerly direction, and thus explored a great portion of
Northern Africa, which had never before been visited by
any European. Their route from Ghat to Kano, in parti¬
cular, leading them through the powerful kingdom of Air or
Asben, was highly interesting. In the second year the tra¬
vellers explored a large portion of Sudan in different direc¬
tions, for which purpose they separated on their arrival at
the northern frontiers of that country, each pursuing a dif¬
ferent route, their plan being ultimately to meet at Kuka,
the capital ot Bornu. Barth and Overweg reached that
place in safety, but Richardson died on the way, within six
days journey of it, in March 1851. The other travellers,
nothing daunted, continued their explorations, Barth pene¬
trating 350 miles to the south, as far as Yola, the capital of
the kingdom of Adamaua; and Overweg navigating Lake
Tsad in a boat, which, with great labour, had been con¬
veyed in pieces, on the backs of camels, from Tripoli across
the burning sands of the Sahara. In September 1851, the
travellers set out together on a journey to Borgu, a moun¬
tainous country lying to the north-east of Lake Tsad, about
midway between it and Egypt. They travelled under the
protection of a large army of the Sheikh of Bornu, which,
however, was attacked at no great distance beyond Lake
Tsad, and put to flight so suddenly, that Barth and Overweg
saved their lives and instruments only by a quick retreat.
Having returned to Kuka, they set out southward with an¬
other and a very considerable ghazzia, consisting of about
10,000 horse, and the same number of foot soldiers, with
innumerable trains of camels and other beasts of burden.
On this occasion they explored the country a considerable
distance beyond Mandara, the farthest point of Denham’s
journey, and found it to be one of great fertility. With the
beginning of the third year of their explorations, Dr Barth
made a journey to MaseSa, the capital of the kingdom of
Baghermi, to the south-east of Lake Tsad; while Dr Over¬
weg travelled in a south-westerly direction, and reached to
within 150 miles of Yacoba, the great town of the Fellatahs.
This, alas, was his last journey. On his return to Kuka he
was seized with fever, and after a short illness and extreme
sufferings, he died, the second victim in that expedition, in
September 1852. Dr Barth was about to start for Tim¬
buktu. A reinforcement, consisting of Dr Yogel and two
sappers and miners, was despatched to his assistance on the
20th of February last.
The origin and meaning of the name of this great con-Origin of
tment has been a fertile subject for conjecture among phi-*’*16 nanie
lologists and antiquaries. By the Greeks it was called Li-of Africa-
bya, Aipvrj, and by the Romans Africa. Varro believed he
had found the etymology of the former in Libs, the Greek
name of the south wind; and Servius, the scholiast on Virgil,
pioposed to derive the other from the Latin word aprica
(sunny), or the Greek word a-phrike (without cold). It is
moie probable that the name Libya was derived bv the
Gieeks from the name of the people whom they found in
possession of the country to the westward of Egypt, and who
are believed to have been those that are called in the He¬
brew' Scriptures Lehabim or Lubim. With respect to the
word Africa, Suidas tells us, that it was the proper name
of that great city which the Romans called Carthago, and
the Greeks Karchedon. It is certain, at least, that it was
applied originally to the country in the immediate neigh¬
bourhood of Carthage, that part of the continent first known
to the Romans, and that it was subsequently extended with
212
AFRICA.
Africa.
Position
and extent
Form.
Superficial
extent.
Coast line
and inden
tations.
Physical
configura
tion.
their increasing knowledge, till it came at last to include t e
whole continent. Of the meaning of the name, the language
of Carthage itself supplies a simple and natural explanation;
the word Afrygah, signifying a separate establishment, or in
other words a colony, as Carthage was of 1 yre. bo that
the Phoenicians of old, at home, may have spoken ol their
Afrygah, just as we speak of our colonies. Be that as it may,
the Arabs of the present day still give the name ot Afrygah
or Afrikiyah to the territory of Tunis. It may also be re¬
marked, that the name seems not to have been used by the
Romans till after the time of the first Punic war, when they
became first acquainted with what they afterwards called
Africa Propria.
Africa lies between the latitudes of 38 north and 3o south,
and is of all the continents the most truly tropical. It is,
strictly speaking, an enormous peninsula attached to Asia by
the isthmus of Suez. The most northern point is the Cape,
situated a little to the west of Cabo Blanco, and opposite
Sicily, which lies in Lat. 37. 20.40. N. Long. 9. 41. E. Its
southernmost point is Cabo d’Agulhas, in 34. 49.15. S.; the
distance between these two points being 4330 geographical,
or about 5000 English miles. The westernmost point is
Cabo Verde, in Long. 17.33. W., its easternmost Cape Jerd-
affun, in Long. 51.21. E.Lat. 10.25. N.,the distance between
the two points being about the same as its length. The
western coasts are washed by the Atlantic, the northern by'
the Mediterranean, and the eastern by the Indian Ocean.
The form has been likened to a triangle, or to an oval,
but such a comparison is-scarcely warranted, it being of an
irregular shape, the northern half rounding off, the southern
one contracting and terminating in a point.
The superficial extent of Africa has never been accurately
determined, but may be taken at 8,550,000 geographical
square miles, exclusive of the islands. It is larger than
either Europe or Australia, but smaller than Asia and the
New World.
The coast line of Africa is very regular and unbroken,
presenting few bays and peninsulas. The chief indentation
is formed by the Gulf of Guinea, with its two secondary
divisions, the Bight of Benin and the Bight of Biafra. On
the northern coast, the Gulf of Sidra and the Gulf of Kabes
must be mentioned, and on the eastern coast the Gulf of
Arabia.
The physical configuration may be considered under two
heads, the great plain of Northern Africa, and the great table¬
lands, with their mountain ranges and groups, of Central and
Southern Africa. The great plain comprises the Sahara, the
Lake Tsad region, and the valley of the Lower Nile. The
Sahara is by no means a plain throughout, but for the greater
part it rises into table-lands, interspersed with mountain
groups of 6000 feet elevation, and probably more, and the
term plain can only be applied to it in a general way, to dis¬
tinguish it from the more elevated region to the south.
The Sahara has often been pictured as a monotonous and
immense expanse of sand; but nothing could be more erro¬
neous, as the greatest variety exists in the physical con¬
figuration of its surface, as well as in its geological features.
Our knowledge is as yet too scanty to enable us to trace its
features in every part. On the north, this great desert is
fringed with extensive table-lands, which in some places rise
abruptly from the Mediterranean, as the table-land of Barca,
elevated 1500 feet, and gradually descending towards the
Delta of the Nile. This elevated ground is succeeded to
the south by a depressed region, which extends from the
Great Syrtis or Gulf of Sidra, in a general direction as far as
middle Egypt, and comprises the oases of Augila and Siwah.
So greatly depressed is this region, that the level of the
oasis of Siwah is 100 feet, and in one place (Bahrein) even
167 feet below the level of the sea. This depressed region
is again followed by a table-land of considerable extent and Africa
width, extending from the Gulf of Kabes in a southerly di- V-
rection, along the Tripoline shores, and probably traversing,
in the same direction, the Lybian Desert, and reaching as
far as the Nile, near the first cataract. Its north-western
part, as far as Sokna, consists of the Hamadah, a stony,
dreary, and extensive table-land, of from 1500 to 2000
feet high, “ which seems to be like a broad belt intercepting
the progress of commerce, civilisation, and conquest, from
the shores of the Mediterranean to Central Africa.” Our
knowledge of this table-land is only of a recent date, derived
as it is, from the expedition under Richardson, Barth, and
Overweg, and the journey of Dickson to Ghadamis. Near
Sokna, this plateau breaks up and forms what are called the
Jebel-es-Soudy, or Black Mountains, a most picturesque
group of cliffs; and again, on the route from Murzuk to
Egypt, it also breaks into huge cliffs, and bears the name of
El-Harouj. The edge of this table-land towards the Tri¬
poline shores is formed by what is generally called the
Gharian Mountains; but, strictly speaking, this name applies
only to a small portion of that range, situated due south of
Tripoli, the western part being called the Yofran or Jebel,
the eastern the Tarhonah. This range is not, as is gene¬
rally supposed, connected with the Atlas Mountains, but is
separated from them by a depressed belt, which even sinks
below the level of the sea. This depressed region forms
the north-western boundary of the Sahara, and extends
from the Gulf of Kabes along the southern slope of the
Atlas system to the Wady Draa, bordering on the States of
Marocco, Algeria, and Tunis. The extensive oasis of Tuat
occupies the central portion of that region. From Wady
Draa, this great plain extends along the western shore as far
as the river Senegal, and probably continues as such to the
east towards Timbuktu, and thence to Lake Tsad. To the
south of the Hamadah, the kingdom of Fezzan and the oasis
of Ghadamis are flat and depressed; and between Fezzan
and Lake Tsad, a tract of country intervenes which may also
be considered rather a desert plain than a table-land. Thus
it appears, that the western half of the Sahara is surrounded
by a broad belt of plains and depressions, the central parts
being formed by extensive table-lands and mountainous
regions, comprising the kingdom of Air or Asben, lately
explored by Messrs Richardson, Barth, and Overweg. The
route of Dr Barth in his journey to Agadez, the capital of
that kingdom, was girded by mountain ranges and groups
rising to 3000 and 4000 feet, and Mount Dogem, the cul¬
minating point in that region, is even between 4000 and
5000 feet high.
The eastern portion of the Sahara appears for the greater
part to be a considerably elevated table-land, comprising the
mountainous country of Borgu. The summit of Ercherdat-
Erner is said to be the highest in the whole region, but the
testimony of European eye-witnesses is altogether wanting
in treating of its geographical features.
The narrow valley of the Nile forms the eastern boundary
of the Great Desert.
To the south of the region just described, Africa may be
considered as one connected mass of elevated land, rising
more or less above the level of the sea, and comprising
the most extensive table-lands, as well as high mountain
groups and chains. Some geographers have attempted
to trace a system of terraces, which, they maintained, this
elevated mass presented on all sides. Such is certainly the
case in its southern extremity, where three well-defined ter¬
races are well known to exist, but the same feature cannot
be traced throughout; on the contrary, the plateau either
gradually slopes down into a plain along the sea-shore, or
it rises abruptly almost from out the sea, and presents a deep
edge of from 7000 to 8000 feet elevation, as the northern part
A F R
Africa, of the Abyssinian table-land at Massowah. The edge of the
table-land, however, is generally from 100 to 300 miles dis¬
tant from the sea-shore. Little is known at present beyond
some parts of this outer fringe, and a few routes across the
interior. Commencing at the Cape of Good Hope, and tra¬
versing the three aforementioned terraces, an almost unin¬
terrupted table-land has recently been ascertained to extend
to the north for at least 1000 geographical miles. The
southern portion is formed by the basin of the Orange river,
followed by the desert of Kalihari, which is again succeeded
by the basin of the River Sesheke and Lake Ngami, with
many other rivers, traversing a region which presents a dead
level, its elevation at Lake Ngami being 2825 feet. That
region probably is in connection with the basin of Zambezi.
Farther north the ground ascends to the line of water-parting
with the basins of the Congo river and Lake Nyassa; a region
very little known, and succeeded by a complete terra incog¬
nita, extending to the north of the equator. In this region
are supposed to be the celebrated “ Mountains of the Moon,”
which have played so exciting a part in the history of African
geography, and have given rise to so many curious hypothe¬
ses. Since the time of Ptolemaeus of Alexandria, geographers
have continued to shift these mountains from one latitude to
another, from 10° to the north of the equator to 12° to the
south of it, but all seem to have agreed in one point, namely,
in giving them a direction from west to east. Rennell, one
of the ablest geographers of recent times, argued that a very
high central chain must cross Africa from east to west in
about 10° N. Lat., beginning at Cape Jerdaffun, and ending
at Sierra Leone; and in some of the most recent maps this
direction is still to be seen. When, therefore, the Egyptian
expeditions up the Bahr-el-Abyad, not only advanced as far
as the fourth parallel of north latitude, but actually sailed over
the alleged site of the Mountains of the Moon, without see¬
ing any elevations whatever which could claim the title of
mountains, that favourite hypothesis fell completely to the
ground. Dr Beke was the first who, from his own personal re¬
searches, combined with extensive studies of the geography of
Eastern Africa, propounded the opinion that the Mountains of
the Moon have a direction from north to south, and run paral¬
lel to the eastern coast, and that they form in fact the southern
continuation of the Abyssinian table-land. This direction
also agrees much better with what is known of the basin of
the Nile. It is a remarkable feature that the most elevated
peaks rise on the outer edge of this great table-land, and
even between it and the coast as isolated cones. This
seems to be the case with the Kenia and Kilimanjaro, which
are the only snowy mountains of Africa at present known,
and must have for that reason an altitude of at least 20,000
feet. Abba Yared rises out of the northern edge of the
Abyssinian table-land to the height of 15,000 feet. Men-
dif, south of Lake Tsad, another isolated mountain, is pro¬
bably as high as 10,000 feet; and Alantika, a conspicuous
mountain to the south of Yola (in 8.30. N. Lat. 13. 45. E.
Long.), also an isolated peak, was estimated by Barth to be
10,000 feet high; the highest of the Cameroons is 13,760
feet, and the highest known mountain of southern Africa,
the Spits Kop, or Compass Berg, attains 10,250 feet.
The system of the Atlas mountains is quite distinct from
either of the two divisions described above ; it occupies the
north-western region of Africa, consists of several ranges, and
its highest summits are said to reach an altitude of about
15,000 feet.
Geological Of all the rock formations, those of sandstone and lime-
features. stone are the most frequent and the most widely distributed
in Africa; natron, a rare deposit in other countries, is com¬
paratively abundant; salt is very widely distributed, though
Minerals. in some districts wholly wanting. Metals, although met
with in different quarters, seem nowhere abundant; of all
I C A. 213
the different metals, gold being the most generally distn- Africa,
buted. Precious stones, so frequent in other tropical regions, ^
are here of rare occurrence. The African continent is
nearly exempt from volcanic action.
Africa is emphatically the land of deserts, which are produc- Rivers and
tive of a scarcity of rivers. Many of the smaller rivers and Lakes,
lakes, and not a few of the large ones, present only dry
water-courses during certain periods of the year. Even Lake
Tsad is said at times to become nearly dry; this large ex¬
panse of water has no outlet, and the immense supply of
water received during the rainy season is lost again by eva¬
poration. With the rains, floods are prevalent all over the
country, even in the desert, as the recent observations made
by the expedition under Richardson testify. That tra¬
veller relates that when on the borders of the kingdom of
“ Air, in about latitude 19° north, on the 30th September
1850, there was a cry in the encampment, ‘The wady is
coming.’ Going out to look, I saw a broad white sheet of
foam advancing from the south between the trees of the val¬
ley. In ten minutes after a river of water came pouring along,
and spread all around us, converting the place of our encamp¬
ment into an isle of the valley. The current in its deepest
part was very powerful, capable of carrying away sheep and
cattle, and of uprooting trees. This is one of the most in¬
teresting phenomena I have witnessed during my present
tour in Africa. The scene, indeed, was perfectly African.
Rain had been observed falling in the south ; black clouds
and darkness covered that zone of the heavens ; and an hour
afterwards came pouring down this river of water into the
dry parched-up valley. This instance of Wady Tintag-
hoda explains the Scriptural phrase, “ rivers of waters,” for
here indeed was a river of water, appearing in an instant,
and almost without notice.” The importance of the floods
and inundations of the Nile scarcely requires to be referred
to.
Africa is chiefly drained into the Atlantic Ocean, and its
branch the Mediterranean Sea, the river system of the Indian
Ocean being comparatively inconsiderable.
The Nile is the oldest of historical rivers, and afforded the Nile,
only means of subsistence to the earliest civilised people on
earth. Thus renowned from immemorial ages as the gift
of the Nile, Egypt issues from the womb of primordial
time, with a civilisation already perfected at the very earliest
epoch of her history, hieroglyphed on the monuments of the
third and fourth dynasties, prior to the 35th century be¬
fore the Christian era. But the origin of the river itself re¬
mains an enigma to this day; and when we moderns, in the
quiet of our cabinets, calmly span the chronological interval
of above 5000 years, our vain-glorious boastings of the
patronage vouchsafed by Europe towards African explora¬
tion and discovery, encounter signal reproof from the mute
fact that “ caput Nili queer ere” is a task as arduous now-a-
days, as fifty-three centuries ago it was to the primeval
builders of the Pyramids.
A strange mystery has enshrouded the sources of this
river, one of the mightiest of the globe. Its three principal
tributaries from the east have, each in succession, claimed
the distinction of being the main stream, but that stream
remains still to be discovered. The Atbara, called by the
Abyssinians Takkazie, the last of the tributaries of the Nile
before it disembogues into the sea, was looked upon, in early
Christian ages, as the head of the Nile ; it rises in the Abys¬
sinian provinces of Lasta and Samen, amid mountains attain¬
ing the height of 15,000 feet. From the same lofty re¬
gions issues the Abal, termed formerly the Astapus, which
becomes the Bahr-el-Azrek, or “ Blue River,” at Khartum.
The Abyssinians still look upon the Abax as the Gihon
of the Genesis; as did the Portuguese Jesuits in the six¬
teenth and seventeenth centuries. One hundred and fifty
214 A F R
Africa, years before Bruce, its source in the peninsula of Godjam was
visited and far more accurately described by Pedro Paez.
Above the junction of the Astapus with the Bahr-el-
Abyad, or “ White River,” the ancients seem to have known^
nothing of the course of the Nile, previously to the time of
Ptolemy the geographer, except that it came from the west:
in this vaguely referring to the Keilak. Our present know¬
ledge of the upper course of the Bahr-el-Abyad is derived
from the three expeditions sent up between 1835 and 1841
by the late Mohammed Ali; from which we learn that on
the eastern bank the main stream is joined, in about 9. 20,
N. Lat., by the Sobat, otherwise Telfi, or Bahr-el-Habesh,
which takes its rise in the same Abyssinian high lands
whence issues the Takkazie and the Abai. Of the head
streams of the Sobat, the principal is the Baka, known
higher up its course by the names Uma and Godjeb. This
last, in the country of the Gallas, is joined by the Gibbe, or
Zebee of Father Antonio Fernandez (1613), the Gibbe itself
being formed by the union of three rivers all bearing the
same name. One of the three, the Gibbe of Enarea, has
been singled out by D’Abbadie as the true source of the
Nile, but this theory is contradicted by facts. A little beyond
the confluence of the Sobat, the main stream of the Nile
divides itself into two great arms, the eastern one of which
has been ascended to about 4° north of the equator. At the
point where the expedition turned back, the river was found
still upwards of 1000 feet broad, from which it may be
inferred that the sources are several hundred miles be¬
yond ; indeed Lakono, the king of Bari,—a country compris¬
ing the farthest region reached by the expedition,—stated
that the river came from a distance 30 days farther south, a
direction which was also corroborated by the direction of the
valley. Flence the sources of this river, which is there called
the Tubirih, may be looked for either under the equator or
south of it, and the prevailing opinion at present is that it
forms the true head of the Nile. It is, however, not unlikely
that the great western arm of the Nile, the Keilak, is the
principal branch of the Nile, but the present state of our
knowledge of that river does not justify any thing but a mere
speculation respecting this point. That the basin of the Kei¬
lak extends westward to the basins of Lake Tsad, Kawara,
and the Congo, is, however, now pretty well established by
the researches of Dr Barth.
The length of the Bahr-el-Azrek, or Blue River, is 2830
English miles, that of the Bahr-el-Abyad, or White River,
is:—
From the mouth to Khartum 1780 English miles.
From Khartum to the farthest
point reached by the Egyp¬
tian expeditions . . 1300 „
Thence to the source, probably 300 „
3380
which is second only to that of the Mississippi-Missouri.
The area drained by the Nile is at least 2,000,000 English
square miles.
There are no other rivers, of any consideration, along the
northern shores of Africa. Proceeding to the western coasts,
we first find the Wady Draa, augmented by the Wady Sagis
and el Hamra, which runs into the sea opposite the Canary
Islands, and is spoken of as a considerable river.
Senegal. The River Senegal has a length of upwards of 1100 miles,
and has its sources in the same elevated tract of land as
those of the Kawara.
The Gambia and Rio Grande, south of the River Senegal,
are also considerable rivers.
Kawara The Kawara, commonly but erroneously called Niger, is
and next to the Nile the largest of African rivers. Its sources
Tchadda. are qpg those of the Nile still unknown. It appears to be the
I C A.
Amner, which is said to rise in a high group of mountains Africa,
east of Liberia. As far as Timbuktu the river is called Jo-
liba, and its course is pretty well known, but from that place
to Yaouri it is as yet unexplored. Thence down to its
mouth it was first traced by Lander. It is there called Ka¬
wara in general, although it has several names in the differ¬
ent languages of the tribes which inhabit its shores. Of the
tributaries of the Kawara our knowledge is very scanty. The
Tchadda is the most important of these, and rivals the Ka¬
wara, if it do not actually surpass it in magnitude ; it extends
far into the heart of Inner Africa, and was recently explored
by Dr Barth in its upper course, where it flows through the
kingdom of Adamaua: even there it is half a mile broad, and
ten feet deep, and is called Benue. It is highly probable
that this splendid river will eventually form the natural and
most important line from the west for the spread of com¬
merce and civilisation into the very centre of Africa. The
kingdom of Adamaua, situate in the valley of the upper
Tchadda, with its pastoral and agricultural population, is
spoken of by Dr Barth as the most beautiful country in Cen¬
tral Africa, and as such may probably become the key to the
interior of that continent.
The length of the Kawara is about 3000 miles, and the
area drained by it may amount to 1,500,000 square miles.
In contradiction to the facts observed by Denham and
Clapperton, an hypothesis was started some time ago, that
Lake Tsad was drained into the Kawara by means of the
Yeou and Tchadda, but their observations have recently
been confirmed by Barth and Overweg, who have refuted
this hypothesis.
South of the equator, the west coast receives many large
rivers which are as yet little explored. Such are, the Zaire Zaire,
or Congo, known only for a short distance beyond its mouth; Coanza.
the Coanza, which is better known; the Nourse river orNourse.
Cunene, almost unknown. The Swakop has recently been Swakop.
explored by Mr Galton.
The Orange river is about 1000 miles in length. Its Orange R.
head streams are the Ki Gariep or Vaal river, and the Nu
Gariep, which latter again consists of the Caledon and Cra-
dock rivers. The Orange river drains an area of about
350,000 English square miles.
Rounding the southern extremity of Africa, and proceed¬
ing up its eastern coast, the Limpopo is the first river re-Limpopo,
qulring notice. Its head streams and its middle course are
pretty well known, but whether it disembogues into the sea
at Delagoa Bay or at Inhambane, is a matter of doubt. The
most trustworthy testimony is that it reaches the sea at the
latter place.
The Zambezi is the largest river of the eastern coasts. Zambezi.
Its upper course is also shrouded in mystery. It is most
probable that the Rivers Sesheke and Chobe, recently dis¬
covered by Messrs Livingston and Oswell, form the head
streams of the Zambezi; their magnitude is opposed to the
hypothesis entertained by some that they are lost in the
sands.
Africa possesses several considerable lakes, among which Lakes.
Lake Tsad is probably the largest and most interesting. It Tsad.
was discovered by Denham and Clapperton, who traced its
borders, except on the eastern side; but was first navigated
by Overweg, who recently fell a victim in the cause of African
exploration. This was done in a boat which had been con¬
veyed from Malta across the Sahara to Lake Tsad, as already
mentioned. It was successfully launched on the 18th June
1850; and Dr Overweg embarked in it at Bree, to the
east of Kuka. At a distance of twelve miles from the for¬
mer place he reached the first of the islands, of which there
are about one hundred of large size scattered over the lake.
They are wooded, and inhabited by the Bidduma, a pagan
tribe who have remained independent of the Mahommedan na-
A F R
Africa, tions living around the lake. They have herds of cattle and
goats; the shores are infested by numerous crocodiles and
hippopotami. The dimensions of the lake were found by Dr
Overweg to be considerably smaller than those given by Ma¬
jor Denham; itbeing from west to east only 60 miles in extent,
whereas in Denham’s map it is more than double that size.
This apparent discrepancy, however, may find its explana¬
tion in the remarkable nature of the lake,—it being an
immense body of water which is greatly augmented in the
rainy season, but in the season of drought evaporates so much
that it seems at times to dry up entirely. This was said to
have taken place six years previously to the date of Over-
weg’s visit. The average depth of the lake is from ten to fifteen
feet, and its waters are fresh and clear. Dr Overweg was re¬
ceived with great kindness by the Biddumas on his landing at
several of the islands, and during his visits to many of their
villages. Lake Tsad has no connection with the Kawara or
the Nile, but forms an inland receptacle receiving the waters
of some of the most distant regions of Inner Africa. The
chief feeder is the Shary or Asu, coming from the south, with
its tributary the Loggeme or Serbenel; on the western side
it receives the Yeou; on the north-eastern side a river rising
in the mountainous district of Borgu.
Fittri. Lake Fittri, east of Lake Tsad, forms a distinct hydrogra¬
phical system between it and the Nile, with which it has
no connection. It has never been explored by Europeans.
Tsana. Lake Tsana or Dembea is the chief lake within the basin
of the Nile, as far as known. It is situate on the table¬
land of Abyssinia, at an elevation of 6110 feet, has a length
of about 60 miles, and possesses many islands. The Abai
flows through it. Other lakes on the Abyssinian table-land
are Zuwai, Haik, and Ashangi.
In Inner Africa a number of considerable lakes are re¬
ported to exist, but only two are known south of the equator
with any degree of certainty. They have various names,
but are best known under those of Nyassa and Ngami.
Nyassa. Nyassa, the great lake or sea in 10° south latitude, is as
yet only approximately laid down in the maps, according to
I C A. 215
native information, and whether it be the feeder of a large Africa,
river, or merely a recipient lake, is unknown. It is repre-
sented as stretching in a general direction of south-east to
north-west. Nyassa or Nyassi is the name given to it by
the Yao, nations living on its eastern shores, but it is also
called Ziwa by the Sawahili, and is farther identified with the
Nhanja, and the Murusura, as also with the Maravi and Zam-
beze of early geographers,— Zembere, Zembre, Zambre
being considered corruptions of the latter. Zambeze is pro¬
bably only the name of the river flowing into the Indian Ocean
at Quillimane, a branch of which rises near the south-east ex¬
tremity of the lake, but by no means issues from it.
Another lake in that region has recently been reported
by the natives to Dr Krapf, as being situate west of
Mombas, beyond Kilimanjaro, and in the country of Unia-
mezi.
Lake Ngami was known to exist upwards of twenty years Ngami.
ago, and is alluded to by Philips, Campbell, Harris, and
others, and indicated in maps under the name of Mampoor
or Mampua ; but it was first reached by Europeans in 1849,
when Messrs Livingston, Murray, and Oswell, undertook a
voyage chiefly for the purpose of its discovery. They only
saw its north-eastern extremity, however, which there opened
out, like the Firth of Forth, with an unbounded horizon of
water towards the south-west. As to its extent, nothing
positively could be ascertained from the natives, who said
that it took twenty-five days to travel round it; their canoes
never cross it, but some coast round and along the shores.
It was said to contain hippopotami, alligators, and large fish.
The height above the sea was computed by the thermometer
to be 2825 feet. The river Zouga, which issues from the
lake, is lost in the sands before it reaches the sea.
Lakes Tsad, Nyassa, and Ngami are extensive fresh¬
water formations. There are, however, numerous small salt
and natron lakes in various parts of Africa.
The following table, compiled from Dove, gives the data climate,
for a general view of the distribution of temperature overTempera-
Africa, namely, the monthly and annual mean. ture.
Algiers,
Bona,
Cairo,
Santa Cruz,
Cobbe,
Kuka,
Free-Town,
Christiansborg
The Niger,
St Helena,
Cape-Town,
Lat.
36. 47. N.
36. 40. „
30. 2. „
28. 49. „
14. 11. „
13. 10. „
8. 30. „
5. 24. „
5. 9.,,
15. 55. S.
33. 56. „
Jan.
52-97
52-16
58TO
63-84
67-10
75-74
82'
81-14
86-
63-98
74-37
Feb.
54-82
60-44
56-12
64- 29
67-28
83-12
81-
81-73
86-
65- 87
75-97
Mar.
55-99
62-06
64-58
67-17
80-60
88-88
80-
82-78
86-
66-24
72-75
Apr.
59-05
65-30
77-90
67-32
86-54
May
66-34
75-20
78-26
72-12
87-44
92-30 i 91-04
80- [80-
83-37(82 96
87-98187-98
65-60163-05
67-10I62-13
June
71-51
83-12
83-66
73-89
87-08
89-60
78-
79-
89-06
60-07
57-88
July
75-25
86-18
85-82
77-29
Aug.
76-48
86-18
85-82
78-89
87-80187-08
83-66180-42
78- |77-
77-09| 75-79
80-06(87-89
57-99157-17
57-58160-58
Sep.
73-18
79-88
79-16
77- 43
86-72
83-30
78-
77-95
88-16
57-07
61-90
Oct. Nov.
68-50
79-34
72-32
61- 93
63-32
62- 96
74-66170-43
83-12(78-08
85-28179-70
78-
80-51
89-02
58-23
64-94
80-
81-77
80-06
59-84
70-14
Dec.
55-15
60-80
61-34
66-42
72-68
70-52
SC¬
SI-03
80-06
61-77
72-37
Y ear
64-27
71- 17
72- 17
71-15
! 80-96
183-63
79- 33
80- 42
85-27
61-40!
66-471
Africa lies almost entirely in the torrid zone, and is the
hottest continent of all. The greatest heat, however, is not
found under the equator but to the north of it, in conse¬
quence of the northern portion being of greater extent than
the southern, and of less elevation. The greatest tempera¬
ture is found throughout the Sahara, particularly in its
eastern portions towards the Red Sea. In Upper Egypt
and Nubia eggs may be baked in the hot sands, and the
saying of the Arabs is, “in Nubia the soil is like fire and
the wind like a flame.” The regions along the Mediter¬
ranean and Atlantic coasts are rendered more temperate by
the influence of the sea. To the south of the Great Desert,
where the country becomes more elevated, the temperature
decreases, and it is now fully confirmed that some spots,
quite near the equator, even reach the altitude of permanent
snow. Regular snowfall, however, does not occur even
in the most southern or northern regions. The intensity
of radiation and its influence upon the temperature are very
great in Northern Africa: while in the day time the soil
of the Sahara rapidly absorbs the solar rays, during the night
it cools so rapidly that the formation of ice has often been
known to occur. Africa is not much under the influence Winds,
of the regular winds, except the monsoons of the Indian
Ocean. It will be seen in the next paragraph, that the
monsoons, although they extend only to about a third por¬
tion of the East-African shores, have an extremely impor¬
tant bearing upon the physical economy of the whole Afri¬
can continent. From hurricanes Africa is nearly exempt,
except its south-eastern extremity, to which at times the
Mauritius hurricanes extend. Northern Africa is much
216 A F R
Africa, exposed to the hot winds and storms from the Sahara, which
are called in Egypt Khamsin, in the Mediterranean, Scirocco,
and in the western regions Harmattan. Extreme heat and
dryness are the characteristics of these winds, which raising
the sand, filling the air with dust, and prodigiously favouring
the powers of evaporation, are often fatal to the vegetable
and animal creation in the regions visited by them.
Rain. The supply of rain is, upon the whole, scanty in this con¬
tinent. The Sahara and also the Kalihari of Southern
Africa are almost rainless regions. There seems, however,
no part where rain is entirely wanting, even in the middle
of the desert. A very striking instance, as related by Mr
Richardson, has already been referred to. At sea, between
the tropic of Capricorn and the Cape of Good Hope, on both
sides of the continent, the transparency of the atmosphere
exceeds what is known in any other part of the world; and
European astronomers, on first visiting those latitudes, con¬
template with astonishment the nocturnal splendour of the
heavens, in which the naked eye can perceive stars of con¬
siderably less magnitude than it can discern in the northern
skies. There Jupiter and Venus shine with startling reful¬
gence, and cause opaque bodies to cast well-defined shadows;
the fixed stars Aldebaran, Castor and Pollux, the Corona
Australis, and Orion, appear preternaturally brilliant. The
littoral regions of Western Africa, from the Kawara to the
Senegal, receive copious falls of rain with the south-east trade-
winds, so much so that at Sierra Leone 313 inches of rain
have been known to fall in one year. But the largest supply
of rain appears to be brought to Africa by the summer-mon¬
soon on the east coast. This monsoon, lasting from April
to October, extends over the Indian Ocean in a half-circle
from south-east to north-east by west. From the latitude
of Mozambique to the equator it has a general direction from
south-east, and there, in a corresponding manner the chief
rainy season is found during April, June, and July. Under
the equator the direction of the monsoon changes and be¬
comes south-west. To these winds are to be ascribed the
heavy falls of rain that drench the extensive plains and
ascending grounds of the east horn of Africa. Farther inland
they are broken by the great Abyssinian table-lands, so that
they do not extend beyond the strait of Babelmandeb,
south-east of which a great fell of rain consequently occurs ;
to the north-west, on the other hand, scarcely any rain falls.
No rain occurs in these regions when the monsoon comes from
the opposite direction, namely, from the Asiatic continent.
The south-east monsoon does not stop in the coast regions,
but continues in a more or less modified direction north¬
wards as far as Lake Tsad and Kordofan, and even the lati¬
tude of 22°; in both regions its influences begin to be felt
in May, or one month later than on the coast. This is a
most important fact, as it evidently shows that no connected
equatorial range of high mountains—such as the hypothe¬
tical Mountains of the Moon of early geographers—can
exist in Central Africa, and the assumption is corroborated by
the fact that in the eastern portion, where high mountains are
known to exist, the same rainy wind is interrupted so much
that it reaches the northern portions of Abyssinia one month
later than Lake Tsad and Kordofan. The upper basin of
the Nile, being probably not far from the coast, receives the
undiminished supply of water with the beginning of the
monsoon, and hence, after two months, the Nile begins
to rise in Upper Egypt and continues to do so till Septem¬
ber. Were the head streams of the Nile surrounded by a
high mountain range in the east and south, like the Andes
of South America, the monsoon would probably not have
the same beneficial influence upon its development.
Plants. Although Africa belongs almost entirely to the torrid and
warm zones, its vegetable productions are essentially differ¬
ent in different parts. Thus, in the extreme north, groves
I C A.
of oranges and olives, plains covered with wheat and barley, Africa,
thick woods of evergreen-oaks, cork-trees, and sea-pines, ^
intermixed with cypresses, myrtles, arbutus, and fragrant
tree-heaths form the principal features of the landscape. On
this northern coast the date-palm is first found; but its fruit
does not arrive at perfection, and it is chiefly valued as an
ornamental object in gardens. Various kinds of grain are
cultivated. Beyond this region of the coast and the Atlas
chain, with the borders of the Sahara commences a new
scene. It is in this region, extending to the borders of Su¬
dan, that the date-tree forms the characteristic feature, it
being peculiarly adapted to excessive dryness and high tem¬
perature, where few other plants can maintain an existence.
Were it not for the fruit of the invaluable date-tree, the in¬
habitants of the desert would almost entirely depend on the
products of other regions for their subsistence. With the
southern boundary of the Sahara, the date-tree disappears,
the baobab or monkey bread-tree takes its place, and, under
the influence of the tropical rains, a new, rich, and highly-
developed flora presents itself. These trees, together with
huge cotton-trees, oil-palms, sago-palms, and others of the
same majestic tribe, determine the aspect of the landscape.
The laburnum expands its branches of golden flower, and
replaces the senna of the northern regions, and the swamps
are often covered with immense quantities of the papyrus
plant. Instead of waving fields of corn, the cassava, yam,
pigeon-pea, and the ground-nut, form the farinaceous plants.
The papaw, the tamarind, the Senegal custard-apple, and
others, replace the vine and the fig. In Southern Africa,
again, the tropical forms disappear, and in the inland desert¬
like plains, the fleshy, leafless, contorted, singular, tribes of
kapsias, of mesembryanthemums, euphorbias, crassulas, aloes,
and other succulent plants, make their appearance. End¬
less species of heaths are there found in great beauty, and
the hills and rocks are scattered over with a remarkable
tribe of plants called cycadacece. Plants of the protea tribe
also add to the extraordinary variety in the vegetable phy¬
siognomy of that region.
Of the characteristic African plants, the date-tree is one Date-
of the most important, as it is likewise among the nearly palm,
one thousand different species of palms. It furnishes, as it
were, the bread of the desert, beyond which it occurs only
in Western Asia, wherever a similar dry and hot climate
prevails. This tree requires a sandy soil, and springs must
not be absent. The dates furnish food not only for man, but
for the camel and the horse. For the latter purpose the
stones are used in many parts, and are said to be more nour¬
ishing than the fruit itself. The Arabs make a great variety
of dishes of which dates form the chief part. Of the sap of
the tree palm-wine is prepared, and the young leaves are
eaten like cabbage.
In Southern Africa are the extensive miniature woods of Heaths,
heaths, as characteristic as the groves of date-palms in the
north. No less than five hundred species have already
been discovered. These plants, of which some reach the
height of 12 to 15 feet (Erica urceolaris), are covered
throughout the greater part of the year with innumerable
flowers of beautiful colours, the red being prevalent.
The papyrus is an aquatic plant, having a stem from 3 Papyrus,
to 6 feet high. It inhabits both stagnant waters and running
streams, and is common in the countries of the Nile, parti¬
cularly Egypt and Abyssinia. Its soft, smooth, flower-
stem afforded the most ancient material from which paper
was prepared, and for this reason it is one of the notice¬
able African plants. It has, however, also been used for
other purposes ; its flowering stems and leaves are twisted
into ropes; and the roots, which are sweet, are used as
food.
Africa is distinguished from other continents by the scar- Animals,
Africa.
Quadru¬
peds.
AFRICA.
city of forests : it has consequently very few of the animals
which inhabit forests. Deer are almost entirely wanting ;
in their place we find antelopes, which occur in greater
numbers than in any other country. Peculiar to Africa are
the zebras and other striped mammalia of the equine and
asinine tribes ; the giraffe, and their constant companion the
ostrich. The extraordinary swiftness of these animals, which
enables them to seek for their food at great distances, is pe¬
culiarly adapted to the immense plains of the country. The
scarcity of forests further corresponds with that of squirrels,
the few that are found being mostly ground-squirrels. Mice
Orders.
Simiae 
Carnivora 
Marsupialia 
Rodentia 
Edentata 
Pachydermata..
Ruminantia 
Cetacea 
Total.
If. Africa,incl.
Barbary & the
countries bor
dering on the
Mediterranean
1
23
15
1
4
3
47
S. Africa.
5
67
46
2
9
27
11
W. Africa.
30
34
20
3
4
21
2
167
114
Egypt,
Nubia.
7
67
36
2
3
13
2
Abyssinia.
6
25
18
5
11
130
65
Mada¬
gascar.
18
21
3
1
2
45
All Africa.
63 ( 62)
174 (151)
104 ( 94)
6 ( 6)
18 ( 17)
65 ( 62)
16 ( 7)
446 (399)
217
are numerous, as are also hares, which prefer steppe-like Africa,
countries to woodland. The immense quantity of game ■v/~—
affords food for plenty of carnivorous animals. Upon the
whole, the mammalian fauna of Africa approaches in resem¬
blance much nearer to that of Southern Asia than that of
South America. The following table affords a general view
of the distribution of mammalia in the different parts of
Africa,—the figures denoting the number of species found in
each of the divisions, those in parentheses being the number
peculiar to Africa.
Simise. The order Simice is well represented, more particularly
within the tropics, whence they decrease northwards and
southwards. In Barbary and Lower Egypt only one ape is
found (Inuus ecaudatus'), and in the southern extremity
only two species. In Madagascar, the place of the true
monkeys is supplied by the peculiar tribe of the makis.
Many species are similar to those of Asia ; thus the orang¬
outang of Borneo is represented in Africa by the chim¬
panzee. The gibbons and solemn doucs (Hylobates and
Semnopithecus) are entirely wanting.
Carnivora. Bats are numerous in Africa, but few are peculiar to it:
the hedgehog is represented by the tenrecs of Madagascar:
the shrew peculiar to this continent is the elephant-shrew
of the Cape : our mole is represented by the chryso-chlore,
with iridescent hair, and eyes not perceptible. Of the
larger carnivora the bear is almost entirely wanting, and
occurs only sparely in Barbary and Abyssinia. The true
martens are unknown ; but otters occur ; and the civets are
characteristic types. Of the Cards family the shakal (jackal)
is characteristic: it differs from the Asiatic species by a paler
skin, which approaches the colour of the prevailing deserts.
Hyaenas are true African tenants. Africa is the chief home
of the lion, who there remains undisturbed as king over the
animal creation, while in Asia his power is divided with the
tiger; he is found all over the continent, except in the north¬
eastern portions, in the greater part of the Sahara, and where
European civilization has taken root. The panther, the
leopard, and once, are the other principal representatives of
the cat-tribe.
Marsupi- The Marsupialia are entirely wanting,
alia. Of Rodentia the burrowing kinds prevail, both of squir-
Hodentia. reis ancj 0f mice. Hares are unknown in Western Africa,
but porcupines extend from the Cape to Barbary.
Edentata. Of Edentata the six species known to occur in Africa, are
also peculiar to it. The aardwark (Orycteropus capensis)
is essentially burrowing in its habits; and the burrows
formed by these animals are the source of frequent danger
to the waggons and horses of the Cape colonists.
Pachyder- Of wild horses the asinine group is peculiar to Asia, and
mata. the hippotigrine group to Africa. The different species are
VOL. H.
found in large herds. The zebra ranges from Southern
Africa northwards to about 10° north latitude. Africa has
three peculiar species of rhinoceros, one elephant; and that
remarkable animal, the hippopotamus, is one of its most cha¬
racteristic types, extending from the Orange River to the
Nile, Lake Tsad, and the Senegal. In the genus sm, the
wart-hogs (Phascochcerus) belong exclusively to Africa, and
the Hyrax (wabber, daman, dassie, of the colonists) is also
its peculiar inhabitant.
Antelopes occur in all parts, and in great varieties and Ruminan-
numbers. Dense herds sometimes extend over the far-tia-
stretching plains as far as the eye can reach, and, when in the
dry season they are forced to approach the colonies, and pay
visits to the farmers, they become as destructive as locusts.
The most valuable of the African animals is the camel or
dromedary, which is believed to have been introduced by the
Arabs. It ranges over the Sahara and all Northern Africa,
as faras Lake Tsad, and is everywhere domesticated. Lastly,
the giraffe, one of the most celebrated and characteristic of
African quadrupeds, ranges from the Cape Colony as far as
the Sahara and Nubia.
The ornithology of Africa presents a close analogy in Birds,
many of its species to those of Europe and South Asia. Thus,
on its northern coasts, there is scarcely a single species to
be found which does not also occur in the other countries
bordering on the Mediterranean. The ornithology of the
region of the Nile and the northern coasts is identified with
that of Arabia, Persia, and Spain. The deserts are inhabited
by species adapted to its solitudes; while Southern Africa
presents different species.
The ostrich, the hugest of birds, which has been de¬
scribed as the feathered camel, or the giraffe among birds,
is found in almost every part of Africa. But its chief home
is the desert and the open plains; mountainous districts
it avoids unless pressed by hunger. The beautiful white
feathers, so highly prized by the ladies of Europe, are found
in the tail only of the male bird. The chase is not without
its difficulties, and it requires the greatest care to get within
musket-shot of the bird, owing to its constant vigilance and
the great distance to which it can see. The fleetest horse,
218 A F R
Africa, too, will not overtake it, unless stratagem be adopted to tire
it out. If followed up too eagerly, the chase of the ostrich
is not destitute of danger ; for the huntsman has sometimes
had his thigh-bone broken by a single stroke from the leg
of a wounded bird.
The large messenger or secretary-bird, which preys upon
serpents and other reptiles, is one of the most remarkable
African birds. It is common near the Cape, and is not
seldom domesticated. Of gallinaceous fowls, adapted to the
poultry-yard, Africa possesses but a single genus, the guinea-
hens, which, however, are found in no other part of the
world. These birds, of which there are three or four dis¬
tinct species, go in large flocks of 400 or 500, and are most
frequently found among underwood in the vicinity of ponds
and rivers. There are, besides, many species of partridges
and quails in different parts of Africa. Water fowl of various
species are also abundant on the lakes and rivers, as are
likewise various species of owls, falcons, and vultures, the
latter of which are highly useful in consuming the offal and
carrion, which might otherwise taint the air and produce
disease.
Among the smaller birds of Africa are many species re¬
markable for the gaudiness and brilliancy of their plumage,
or the singularity of their manners and economy. Of the
former kind may be mentioned the sunbirds, the lamprotor-
nis, the bee-eaters, the rollers, the plantain-eaters, the par¬
rots, the halcyons, and numerous smaller birds that swarm
in the forests. Of the latter kind, it will be sufficient to
mention the honey-cuckoo {Cuculus indicator).
Reptiles. Though Africa is not exempt from the scourge of veno¬
mous or dangerous reptiles, still it has comparatively fewer
than other tropical countries, owing to the dryness of the
climate. Many of its rivers disappear in the hot season,
and forests are scarce, and seldom extensive and large. The
reptiles harboured by the desert regions consist chiefly
of harmless lizards and serpents of a small size, though
often venomous. The frog and tortoise tribes are repre¬
sented in but few species and numbers.
The most important among the reptiles is the crocodile,
which inhabits nearly all the large rivers and lakes within
the tropics, and is still abundant in the Nile below the first
cataract.
The chameleon is common in Africa. Among the veno¬
mous species of snakes are the purple naja, the cerastes
or horned viper, the ringed naja, and the darting viper.
Fishes. The edible fish are found almost everywhere in great
variety and quantity. The fresh waters of Egypt produce
the gigantic bishir, the cofffes, and numerous species of the
pimelodes. The greater number of the fish of the Red Sea
resemble the saxatiles of the warm seas of Asia. On the
west coasts are found the fish belonging to equatorial lati¬
tudes, while the shores of the Mediterranean produce those
of Franee and Spain. The seas of the southern extremity
possess the species common to the latitudes of the antarctic,
south of the three great capes. The fish of the east coast
are the same as those of the Indian Sea.
Insects. Of the insect tribes, Africa also contains many thousand
different kinds. The locust has been, from time immemo¬
rial, the proverbial scourge of the whole continent; scor¬
pions, scarcely less to be dreaded than the noxious serpents,
are everywhere abundant; and the zebub, or fly, one of
the instruments employed by the Almighty to punish the
Egyptians of old, is still the plague of the low and cultivated
districts. In the interior of Africa, a venomous fly has re¬
cently been discovered, which is fatal to nearly all domestic
animals. It is called tsetse (Glossina rnorsitans), and its
size is almost that of the common blue fly which settles on
meat; but the wings are larger. On the existence of this
insect greatly depended the success of recent explorers in
I C A.
that quarter, as, where it occurred, their cattle infallibly fell Africa,
victims to its bite. There are large tribes which cannot
keep either cattle or sheep, because the tsetse abounds in
their country. Its bite is not, however, dangerous to man;
wild animals, likewise, are undisturbed by it. The termites
or white ants are likewise a scourge to the country where
they occur in great numbers. This destructive creature de¬
vours everything in the shape of wood, leather, cloth, &c.
that falls in its way ; and they march together in such
swarms, that the devastation they commit is almost incre¬
dible.
Of the class of zoophytes, the brilliant polypi of every Zoophytes,
variety, and madrepores, abound on the coasts of Africa.
The shores of the Mediterranean produce the finest coral,
and those of the Red Sea bristle with extensive reefs of the
same mollusca.
From the shores of the Mediterranean to about the lati-Man.
tude of 20° north, the population of Africa consists largely
of tribes not originally native to the soil, but of Arabs and
Turks, planted by conquest, with a considerable number of
Jews, the children of dispersion; and the recently intro¬
duced French. The Berbers of the Atlas region, the Tuaricks
and Tibbus of the Sahara, and the Copts of Egypt, may be
viewed as the descendants of the primitive stock, while those
to whom the general name of Moors is applied, are perhaps
of mixed descent, native and foreign. From the latitude
stated, to the Cape colony, tribes commonly classed together
under the title of the Ethiopic or negro family are found,
though many depart very widely from the peculiar physi¬
ognomy of the negro, which is most apparent in the natives
of the Guinea coast. In the Cape Colony, and on its bor¬
ders, the Hottentots form a distinct variety in the population
of Africa, most closely resembling the Mongolian races of
Asia.
The Copts, or as they are correctly pronounced either
Ckoobt or Ckibt, are considered to be the descendants of
the ancient Egyptians. They do not now compose more
than one-sixteenth part of the population of Egypt, their
number not exceeding 150,000, about 10,000 of whom re¬
side at Cairo. Conversions to the Mahometan faith, and
intermarriages with the Moslems, have occasioned this de¬
crease in their numbers; to which may be added the per¬
secutions which they endured from their Arabic invaders
and subsequent rulers. They were forced to adopt distinc¬
tions of dress, and they still wear a turban of a black or blue,
or a grayish or light brown colour, in contradistinction to
the red or white turban. In some parts of Upper Egypt,
there are villages exclusively inhabited by the Copts.
Their complexion is somewhat darker than that of the Arabs,
their foreheads flat, and their hair of a soft and woolly cha¬
racter ; their noses short, but not flat; mouths wide, and
lips thick; the eyes large, and bent upwards in an angle like
those of the Mongols; their cheek-bones high, and their
beards thin. They are not an unmixed race, their ancestors
in the earlier ages of Christianity having intermarried with
Greeks, Nubians, and Abyssinians. With the exception of
a small proportion, the Copts are Christians of the sect called
Jacobites, Eutychians, Monophysites, and Monothelites,
whose creed was condemned by the council of Chalcedon,
A.p. 451. They are extremely bigoted, and bear a bitter
hatred to all other Christians; they are of a sullen temper,
extremely avaricious, great dissemblers, ignorant, and faith¬
less. They frequently indulge in excessive drinking; but in
their meals, their mode of eating, and the manner in which
they pass their hours of leisure, which is chiefly in smoking
their pipes and drinking coffee, they resemble the other in¬
habitants of the country. Most of the Copts in Cairo are
employed as secretaries and accountants, or tradesmen; they
are chiefly engaged in the government offices; and as mer-
AFRICA.
Africa
N ubians.
Tibbus.
chants, goldsmiths, silversmiths, jewellers, architects, builders,
^ and carpenters, they are generally considered more skilful
than the Moslems. The Coptic language is now understood
by few persons, and the Arabic being employed in its stead,
it may be considered as a dead language.
The countries above Egpyt are inhabited by two tribes
of people resembling each other in physical characters, but
of distinct language and origin. One is, perhaps, the abori¬
ginal or native, the other a foreign tribe. Dr Prichard terms
them Eastern Nubians, or Nubians of the Red Sea, and Nu¬
bians of the Nile, or Berberines. All these tribes are people
of a red-brown complexion, their colour in some instances
approaching to black, but still different from the ebony hue
of the Eastern negroes. Their hair is often frizzled and
thick, and is described to be even woolly; yet it is not pre¬
cisely similar to the hair of the negroes of Guinea. The
Eastern Nubians are tribes of roving people who inhabit the
country between the Nile and the Red Sea; the northern
division of this race are the Ababdeh, who reach northward
in the eastern desert as far as Kosseir, and towards the paral¬
lel of Deir border on the Bishari. The Bishari reach thence
towards the confines of Abyssinia. The latter are extremely
savage and inhospitable; they are said to drink the warm
blood of living animals : they are for the most part nomadic,
and live on flesh and milk. They are described as a hand¬
some people, with beautiful features, fine expressive eyes,
of slender and elegant forms; their complexion is said to be
a dark brown, or a dark chocolate colour. The Barabra or
Berberines are a people well known in Egypt, whither they
resort as labourers from the higher country of the Nile.
They inhabit the valley of that name from the southern
limit of Egypt to Sennaar. They are a people distinct from
the Arabs and all the surrounding nations. They live on
the banks of the Nile ; and wherever there is any soil, they
plant date-trees, set up wheels for irrigation, and sow durra
and some leguminous plants. At Cairo, whither many of
this race resort, they are esteemed for their honesty. They
profess Islam. The Barabra are divided into three sections
by their dialects, which are those of the Nuba, the Kenous,
and the Dongolawi. According to Dr Prichard, it is probable
that the Berberines may be an offset from the original stock
which first peopled Egypt and Nubia.
The country of the Nubians is limited on the west by
that of the Tibbus, who are spread over the eastern portions
of the Sahara, as far as Fezzan and Lake Tsad. Dr La¬
tham considers it probable that their language belongs to
the Nubian class. They inhabit the locality of the ancient
Libyans or Libyes. Their colour is not uniform. In some
it is quite black, but many have copper-coloured faces.
They are slim and well made, have high cheek-bones, the
nose sometimes flat like that of the negro, and sometimes
aquiline. Their mouth is, in general, large, but their teeth
fine. Their lips are frequently formed like those of Euro¬
peans, their eyes are expressive, and their hair, though
curled, not woolly. The females are especially distinguished
by a light and elegant form, and in their walk and erect
manner of carrying themselves are very striking. Their
feet and ankles are delicately formed, and not loaded with a
mass of brass or iron, as is the practice in other countries of
Northern Africa, but have merely a light anklet of polished
silver or copper, sufficient to show their jetty skin to more
advantage; and they also wear neat red slippers. The
Tibbus are chiefly a pastoral people. They keep horses,
cattle, sheep, and goats, but camels constitute their princi¬
pal riches. The villages of the Tibbus are very regularly
built in a square, with a space left on the north and south
faces of the quadrangle for the use of the cattle. The huts
are entirely of mats, which exclude the sun, yet admit both
the light and the air. The interior of these habitations is
219
singularly neat: clean wooden bowls for the preservation of Africa,
milk, each with a cover of basket-work, are hung against ^ ^
their walls. They are greatly exposed to the predatory in¬
cursions into their country by the enemies who surround
them. They carry on a considerable traffic in slaves be¬
tween Sudan, Fezzan, and Tripoli.
“ All that is not Arabic in the kingdom of Marocco,” The Ber-
says Dr Latham, “all that is not Arabic in the Frenchber grouP-
provinces of Algeria, and all that is not Arabic in Tunis,
Tripoli, and Fezzan, is Berber. The language, also, of the
ancient Cyrenaica, indeed the whole country bordering the
Mediterranean, between Tripoli and Egypt, is Berber. The
extinct language of the Canary Isles was Berber; and,
finally, the language of the Sahara is Berber. The Berber
languages, in their present geographical localities, are essen¬
tially inland languages. As a general rule, the Arabic is
the language for the whole of the sea-coast, from the Delta
of the Nile to the Straits of Gibraltar, and from the Straits
of Gibraltar to the mouth of the Senegal.” The Berber
nation is one of great antiquity, and, from the times of the
earliest history, has been spread over the same extent of
country as at present: the ancient Numidian and Mauri¬
tanian names of Sallust, and other writers, have a meaning
in the Modern Berber. It has affinities with the Semitic
languages. In the northern parts of Atlas, these people are
called Berbers ; in the southern tracts, they are the Shuluh,
or Shelhas. In the hilly country belonging to Tunis, the
Kabyles, in Mount Auress, the Showiah, and in the Desert
the Tuarick,—all belong to the same group. The moun¬
tains of Atlas are said to be inhabited by more than twenty
different tribes, carrying on perpetual warfare against each
other. They are very poor, and make plundering excur¬
sions in quest of the means of supporting life. They are de¬
scribed as an athletic, strong-featured people, accustomed
to hardships and fatigue. Their only covering is a woollen
garment without sleeves, fastened round the waste by a belt.
The Shuluh, who are the mountaineers of the Northern
Atlas, live in villages of houses made of stone and mud, with
slate roofs, occasionally in tents, and even in caves. They
are chiefly huntsmen, but cultivate the ground and rear
bees. They are described as lively, intelligent, well-formed
athletic men, not tall, without marked features, and with
light complexions. The Kabyles, or Kabaily, of the Alge¬
rian and Tunisian territories, are the most industrious in¬
habitants of the Barbary States, and, besides tillage, work
the mines contained in their mountains, and obtain lead,
iron, and copper. They live in huts made of the branches
of trees, and covered with clay, which resemble the magalia
of the old Numidians, spread in little groups over the sides
of the mountains, and preserve the grain, the legumes, and
other fruits, which are the produce of their husbandry, in
mattoures, or conical excavations in the ground. They are
of middle stature; their complexion is brown, and some¬
times nearly black.
The Tuarick are a people spread in various tribes through
the greater portion of the Sahara. The expedition under
Richardson, Barth, and Overweg, who traversed and ex¬
plored a great portion of the Tuarick territories, has
greatly added to our knowledge of these people. The fol¬
lowing are the names and localities of the principal tribes :—
L Fanelkum, located in Fezzan.
) Ouraghen, family of Shafou, ( , , A .
2. Azghers, >- Emanghasatan, „ of Hateetah, ■< 0^,t. a
) Amana, „ of Jabour, (_
3. Aheethanaran, the tribe of Janet.
4. Hagar (Ahagar), pure Hagars and Maghatah. They
occupy the tract between Ghat, Tuat, and Timbuktu.
5. Sagamaram, located on the route from Aisou to
Tuat.
220 A F R
Africa. 6, Kailouees, including the Kailouees proper, the Kalta-
dak, and the Kalfadai.
7. Kilgris, including the Kilgris proper, the Iteesan, and
the Ashraf. These and the tribes under the preceding head
inhabit the kingdom of Ahir.
8. Oulimad, tribes surrounding Timbuktu in great num¬
bers. This, probably identical with the Sorghou, is the
largest and most powerful tribe, while the Tanelkums are
the smallest and weakest.
The various tribes are very different in their characters,
but they are all fine men, tall, straight, and handsome. They
exact a tribute from all the caravans traversing their country,
which chiefly furnishes them with the means of subsistence.
They are most abstemious, their food consisting principally
of coarse brown bread, dates, olives, and water. Even on the
heated desert, where the thermometer generally is from 90°
to 120°, they are clothed from head to foot, and cover the
face up to the eyes with a black or coloured handkerchief.
Moors. The Moors who inhabit large portions of the empire of
Marocco, and are spread all along the Mediterranean coast,
are a mixed race, grafted upon the ancient Mauritanian
stock ; whence their name. After the conquest of Africa
by the Arabs, they became mixed with Arabs; and having
conquered Spain in their turn, they intermarried with the
natives of that country, whence, after a possession of seven
centuries, they were driven back to Mauritania. They are a
handsome race, having much more resemblance to Euro¬
peans and western Asiatics, than to Arabs or Berbers;
although their language is Arabic, that is, the Mogrebin
dialect, which differs considerably from the Arabic in Ara¬
bia, and even in Egypt. They are an intellectual people,
and not altogether unlettered; but they are cruel, revenge¬
ful, and blood-thirsty, exhibiting but very few traces of that
nobility of mind and delicacy of feeling and taste which
graced their ancestors in Spain. The history of the throne
of Marocco, of the dynastic revolutions at Algiers, Tunis,
and Tripoli, is written with blood; and among the pirates
who infested the Mediterranean they were the worst. Their
religion is the Mahometan. They are temperate in their
diet, and simple in their dress, except the richer classes
in the principal towns, where the ladies literally cover
themselves with silk, gold, and jewels, while the men indulge
to excess their love of fine horses and splendid arms. They
generally lead a settled life as merchants, mechanics, or
agriculturists, but there are also many wandering tribes.
They exhibit considerable skill and taste in dyeing, and in
the manufacture of swords, saddlery, leathern-ware, gold and
silver ornaments. At the Great Exhibition in London in
1851, the Moorish department contained several articles
which were greatly admired. The Moors, along the coast
of Marocco, still carry on piracy by means of armed boats.
Arabs. At two different periods, separated from each other by
perhaps a thousand years, Africa was invaded by Arabic
tribes which took a lasting possession of the districts they
conquered, and whose descendants form no inconsiderable
portion of the population of North and Central Africa, while
their language has superseded all others as that of civi¬
lisation and religion. Of the first invasion, more has been
said under the head Abyssinians. The second was that
effected by the first successors of Mahomet, who conquered
Egypt, and subsequently the whole north of Africa as
far as the shores of the Atlantic, in the course of the first
century of the Hegira, or the seventh of the Christian era.
As regards language, Egypt is now an entirely Arabic
country, although in many other respects the Fellahs are
totally different from the peasants in Arabia. But there
are also several tribes of true Arabic descent scattered
about from the highlands of Abyssinia down over Nubia and
Egypt, and westward over the central provinces of Kordofan,
I C A.
Darfur, Waday, and Bornu. Others wander in the Libyan Africa,
deserts and the Great Sahara, as well as in the states of ^
Tripoli, Tunis, and Algiers, leading a similar life with the
Kabyles, but constituting a totally distinct race. Others, again,
dwell in the empire of Marocco, among whom those along
the shores of the Atlantic are notorious for their predatory
habits and ferocious character. In many places Arabic ad¬
venturers have succeeded in subduing native tribes of every
nationality, over which they rule as sovereign lords; and
on the coast of Zanzibar resides an Arabic royal dynasty.
Many of the smaller islands to the north of Madagascar are
inhabited by Arabs, and traces of them have been discovered
in Madagascar itself. The African Arabs are not all alike
in features and colour of skin, the differences being at¬
tributable to some of them having intermarried with natives,
while others preserved the purity of their blood.
The early settlements of the Jews in Egypt are facts Jews,
universally known. Under the Ptolemies, large numbers
of them settled at Alexandria and in Cyrenaica, and after
the destruction of Jerusalem they rapidly spread over the
whole of the Roman possessions in Africa; many also took
refuge in Abyssinia. King Philip II. having driven them
out of Spain, many thousands of families took refuge
on the opposite coast of Africa. They are now numerous
in all the larger towns in the north, where they carry on the
occupation of merchants, brokers, &c., the trade with Europe
being mostly in their hands. They live in a state of great
degradation, except in Algiers, where the French restored
them to freedom and independence. They have acquired
much wealth, and, although compelled to hide their riches
from the cupidity of their rulers, they lose no opportunity of
showing them whenever they can do so without risk of being
plundered, fear and vanity being characteristic features of
their character. The Jewesses in Marocco and Algiers are
of remarkable beauty.
Ever since the conquest of Egypt by Sultan Selim, and Turks,
the establishment of Turkish pashalics in Tripoli, Tunis,
and Algiers, Turks have settled in the north of Africa; and
as they were the rulers of the country, whose numbers were
always on the increase, on account of the incessant arrivals
of Turkish soldiers and officials, the Turkish became, and
still is, the language of the different governments. Pro¬
perly speaking, however, they are not settled, but only en¬
camped in Africa, and hardly deserve a place among the
African nations.
Not all the inhabitants of the country called Abyssinia Abys-
are Abyssinians in ethnology ; nor are the real Abyssinians sinians.
all of the same origin, being a mixed race, to the formation of
which several distinct nations have contributed. The primi¬
tive stock is of Ethiopian origin, but, as their language clearly
shows, was at an early period mixed with a tribe of the
Himyarites from the opposite coast of Arabia, who, in their
turn, were ethnologically much more closely connected with
the Hebrews than with the Joctanides, or the Arabs pro¬
perly speaking. In the age of the Egyptian Ptolemies, and
after the destruction of Jerusalem, Jews settled in Abyssinia
in such numbers, that not only their religion spread among
the inhabitants, but the Hebrew language became mixed
with the Abyssinian as it then was. Hence the surprising
analogy between the principal Abyssinian languages, viz.,
the Gheez in Tigre, and the Amharic in Amhara, with the
Hebrew. The uninterrupted intercourse with Arabia, and
the immigration of several Arabic tribes, also contributed
towards the apparently Semitic aspect of the present Abys¬
sinian language. A large portion of Abyssinia having been
occupied by Galla and other tribes, we shall here only dwell
on the original Abyssinians. They inhabit a large tract
extending from the upper course of the Blue River, north as
far as the Red Sea, and some isolated districts in the south
A F R
Africa, and south-east. To the west of them are the Agau Abys-
sinians, a different tribe, whose idiom, however, is the com¬
mon language of the lower classes in Tigre and Amhara
also. Abyssinia was once a large and powerful kingdom,
but the Galla having conquered the whole south of it, it
gradually declined until the king or emperor became a mere
shadow, in whose name several vassal princes exercise an
unlimited power each in his own territory. Owing to their
jealousy and mutual fears, war seldom ceases among the
inhabitants. The Christian religion was introduced into
Abyssinia in the first centuries after Christ; but whatever
its condition might have been in former times, it now pre¬
sents a degraded mixture of Christian dogmas and rites,
Jewish observances, and heathenish superstition. Yet of
Judaism, which was once so powerful, but feeble traces are
extant, while the Mahometan religion is visibly on the
increase. European missionaries have been and still are
very active among them, but their efforts have been crowned
only with partial success. The Abyssinians, the Gallas
being excluded from that denomination, are a fine strong
race, of a copper hue more or less dark, and altogether differ¬
ent from the Negroes, with whom, however, they have fre¬
quently been confounded because they were called a black
people. Their noses are nearly straight, their eyes beauti¬
fully clear, yet languishing, and their hair is black and crisp,
but not woolly. They are on the whole a barbarous people,
addicted to the grossest sensual pleasures; and their priests,
among whom marriage is customary, are little better than the
common herd of the people. They live in huts, a large as¬
semblage of which forms a so-called town, and although they
possess some solid constructions .of stone, such as churches
and bridges, it appears that they were built by the Portu¬
guese, the ruins at Axum and other places belonging to a
much earlier period, when the country undoubtedly enjoyed
a higher civilisation than at present. Owing to influence
exercised upon them during the last thirty years by Euro¬
pean missionaries and travellers, their conduct towards
strangers is less rude than it used to be at the time of Bruce.
It is a remarkable fact that, notwithstanding the low state of
their religion, the Christians in Abyssinia are not allowed
to keep slaves, although they may purchase them for the
purpose of selling them again.
The Ethi- This extensive race comprehends by far the greater num-
opic race. })er Gf African nations, extending over the whole of Middle
and South Africa, except its southernmost projection to¬
wards the Cape of Good Hope. A line drawn from the
mouth of the Senegal in the west to Cape Jerdaffun in the
east, forms its northern limits almost with geometrical ac¬
curacy, few Ethiopic tribes being found to the north of it.
All the members of this race, however, are not Negroes.
The latter are only one of its numerous offshoots, but be¬
tween the receding forehead, the projecting cheek-bones, the
thick lips of the Negro of Guinea, and the more straight
configuration of the head of a Galla in Abyssinia, there are
still many striking analogies ; and modern philology having
traced still greater analogies, denoting a common origin,
among the only apparently disconnected languages of so
many thousands of tribes, whose colour presents all the hues
between the deepest black and the yellow brown, it is no
longer doubtful that the Negro, the Galla, the Somali and
the Kaffre, all belong to the same ethnological stock. Owing
to our most imperfect knowledge of the central parts inha¬
bited by that race, a classification of all its numerous members
must always remain imperfect, a circumstance which cannot
fail to give interest to the following scientific classification
of the Negro tribes according to their various languages.1
I C A. 221
J. North-west Atlantic Languages. 1st Group.—Fulup, Africa.
Eilham. 2d.—Bola, Sarar, Pepel. 3d.—Biafada, Padsade. v . v
4th.—Baga, Timne, Bulom, Mampua, Kisi.
II. North-ivest High Sudan or Mandengo Languages.
1st.—Mande or Mandengo dialects. 2d.—Bambara. 3d.
Kono. 4th.—Yei. 5th.—Soso. 6th.—Tene. 7th.—
Gbandi. 8th.—Landoro. 9th.—Mande. 10th.—Gbese.
11th.—Toma. 12th.—Mano. 13th.—Gio.
III. Upper Guinea Languages. A. Liberian or Kru
(Kroo). 1st.—DewoiorDe. 2d.—Basa. 3.—KraorKru.
4th.—Krebo. 5th.—Gbe.
B. Dahomean or Slave Coast. 1st.—Adampe. 2d.—
Anfue. 3d.—Hwida. 4th.—Dahome. 5th.—Mahi.
C. Aku-Igalu. 1st Group.—Aku proper, Ota, Egba,
Idsesa, Yoruba, Yagba, Ki or Eki, Dsumu, Oworo, Dsebu,
Ife, Ondo or Doko, Dsekiri. 2d.—Igala dialects.
IV. North-east High Sudan Languages. 1st Group.—
Mose or Gurmaka or Bembe, Dselana, Guren, Gurma. 2d.
—Legba, Kaure, Kiamba or Dsamba or Tern. 3d.—
Koama, Bagbalan. 4th.—Kasem, Yula.
V. Niger-Delta Languages. 1st Group or Ibo dialects.
—Isoama, Isiele, Abadsa, Aro, Mbofia. 2d.—Sobo, Egbele,
Bini, Ihewe or Isewe, Oloma. 3d.—Okuloma, Udso.
VI. Niger-Chadda or Nupe Languages. Nupe, Kupa,
Esitako, Musu, Goali, Basa, Ebe, Opanda, Egbira Hima.
VII. Central African Languages. 1st Group of Lan¬
guages.—Buduma, Bornu dialects. 2d.—Pika, Karekare.
3d.—Bode dialects.
South African Languages—distinguished by an initial
inflection.
VIII. Atam Languages. 1st Group. — Ekamtulufu,
Udom, Mbofon, Eafen. 2d.—Basa, Kamuku.
IX. Moko Languages. 1st.—Isuwu, Diwala, Orungu,
Bayon, Kum or Bakum, Bagba, Balu, Mom or Bamom,
Ngoala, Momenya or Bamenya, Papiah, Param. 2d.—
Ngotan, Melon, Nhalemoe, Seke.
X. Kongo-Ngola Languages (in Kongo, Angola, and fur¬
ther inland). 1st Group. Kabenda, Mimboma, Ntere or
Nteke or Betera, Mutsaya, Musentandu or Besentandu,
Mbamba, Kanyika. 2d.—Babuma, Bumbete, Kasands,
Nyombe, Sunde. 3d.—Ngola (Angola), Pangela (Ben-
guela), Lubalo, Ruunda or Luonda or Muola, Songo, Kisama.
XI. South-east Languages. Muntu or Adsawa, Kiriman,
Marawi, Meto, Matatan, Nyamban.
XII. Unclassified and isolated Languages. A.InNorth-
ivestern Sudan. Wolof or Yolof, Gadsaga, Bidsogo, Gura,
all distinguished by final inflection; and Banyun, Nalu, Bu-
landa, Limba and Landoma, distinguished by initial inflec¬
tion.
B. In High Sudan. Asante, Barba, Boko.
C. In Central Africa. Kandin, Timbuktu, Baghermi,
Houssa, Pulo dialects.
D. In the delta of the Niger. Yala.
E. In South Africa. Anan, Dsuka, Dsarawa, Koro, Ham,
Akurakura, Okam, Yasgua, Nki, Kambali, Alege, Penin,
Bute, Murundo, Undaza, Ndob, Nkele, Konguan, Mbarike,
Tiwi, Abadsa, Boritsu, Afudu, Mfut, Mbe, Nso.
These divisions, however, are merely linguistic. The
principal Negro nations, as we know them, are the Mandin-
goes, who are numerous, powerful, and not uncivilised, in
Senegambia, and farther inland, around the head waters of
the Kawara, where they have established a great number of
kingdoms and smaller sovereignties. The inland trade is
chiefly in their hands. They are black, with a mixture of
yellow, and their hair is completely woolly. The Wolofs or
Yolofs, whose language is totally different from those of
1 Extracted from a MS. of the Rev. Mr Koelle of the Church Missionary Society, on the Negro Languages, which the author, who has
just returned from his labours at Sierra Leone, kindly allowed the writer to avail himself of for the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
222 A F K
Africa, their neighbours, are the handsomest and blackest of
all Negroes, although they live at a greater distance from
the equator than most of the other black tribes, their prin¬
cipal dwelling-places being between the Senegal and the
Gambia along the coast of the Atlantic. They are a mild
and social people. The Foulahs or Fellatahs occupy the
central parts of Sudan, situated in the crescent formed by
the course of the Kawara, and also large tracts to the south¬
east as far as the equator west to the Senegal, and east till
beyond Lake Tsad. Their colour is black, with a striking
copper hue, some of them being hardly more dark than gip¬
sies. They are one of the most remarkable nations in Africa,
very industrious, live in commodious and clean habitations,
and are mostly Mahometans. A distinction was formerly
made between the Foulahs of Senegambia and the Fellatahs
of Central Africa, but it has since been ascertained that
they belong to the same stock, and speak the same language.
The hair of the Foulahs is much less woolly than that of other
Negroes. Of the principal nations in Guinea, among whom
the true Negro type is particularly distinct, especially around
the Bightof Benin, are the Feloops, near the Casamanca, very
black, yet handsome; and the Ashanti, of the Amina race,
who surpass all their neighbours in civilisation, and the cast
of whose features differs so much from the Negro type that
they are said to be more like Indians than Africans; although
this is perhaps only true of the higher orders. They are
still in possession of a powerful kingdom. The country be¬
hind the Slave Coast is occupied by tribes akin to the Da-
homeh on the coast. In South Guinea we meet three prin¬
cipal races, namely, the Congo, the Abunda, and the Ben-
guela Negroes, who are divided into a variety of smaller
tribes, with whom we are much less acquainted than with
the northern Negroes, although the Portuguese have occu¬
pied this coast for upwards of three centuries. The next
Galla. great branch of the Ethiopic race comprehends the Galla,
who occupy an immense tract in Eastern Africa from Abys¬
sinia as far as the inland portions of the Portuguese pos¬
sessions in Mozambique to the south of the equator. Our
knowledge of them is chiefly confined to those Gallas who
conquered Abyssinia. With regard to their physical con¬
formation, they stand between the Negro of Guinea and the
Arab and Berber. Their countenances are rounder than
those of the Arabs, their noses are almost straight, and their
hair, though strongly frizzled, is not so woolly as that of the
Negro, nor are their lips quite so thick. Their eyes are
small (in which they again differ from the Abyssinians),
deeply set, but very lively. They are a strong, large, al¬
most bulky people, whose colour varies between black and
brownish, some of their women being remarkably fair, con¬
sidering the race they belong to.
Somali. An interesting tribe of them has lately been brought to
the knowledge of Europeans, the Somali, a widely-scattered
nation which leads a pastoral life on the uplands, and also
nearer to the coast of the Indian Ocean from Cape Jerdaffun
southward for a considerable distance. They seem to be of
a mild and peaceful disposition, while on the contrary the
other Galla are a warlike race, which has been pressing upon
its neighbours during the last three hundred years, and are
much feared by all those who are obliged to come near
them.
Kaffres. The Kaffres, who, together with the tribes most akin to
them, occupy the greater portion of South Africa, especially
the eastern portions, have some analogy with Europeans in
their features ; but they are woolly haired, and while some
are almost black, others are comparatively fair, although some
of their tribes might have been mixed with the Eastern
Negroes. They have been very wrongly classed with the
Negroes. They are a strong, muscular, active people, ad¬
dicted to plunder and warfare. The Eastern Kaffres, among
I C A.
whom the Amakosah and Amazulah are best known to us Africa,
on account of their frequent invasions of the Cape Colony, ’s—
are much more savage than the western and northern, or
the Bechuana and Sichuana tribes. All Kaffres are pas¬
toral, keeping large herds of cattle, but the last-named tribes
inhabit large towns, well-built houses, cultivate the ground
carefully, and exhibit every appearance of being capable
of entire civilisation. The word Kaffre or Kafir, as it ought
to be written, is Arabic, and was first applied by the Euro¬
peans to the inhabitants of the coast of Mozambique, be¬
cause they were so called by the Mahometans, in whose
eyes they were Kafirs, that is infidels.
We conclude this sketch with the Hottentot race, which Hottentots,
is entirely different from all the other races of Africa. Where
they originally came from, and how they happened to be
hemmed in and confined entirely to this remote corner of
the earth, is a problem not likely to be ever satisfactorily
solved. The only people to whom the Hottentot has been
thought to bear a resemblance, are the Chinese or Malays,
or their original stock the Mongols. Like these people,
they have the broad forehead, the high cheek-bones, the
oblique eye, the thin beard, and the dull yellow tint of com¬
plexion, resembling the colour of a dried tobacco leaf; but
there is a difference with regard to the hair, which grows in
small tufts, harsh, and rather wiry, covering the scalp some¬
what like the hard pellets of a shoe-brush. The women,
too, have a peculiarity in their physical conformation, which,
though occasionally to be met with in other nations, is not
universal, as among the Hottentots. Their constitutional
“ bustles” sometimes grow to three times the size of those
artificial stuffings, with which our fashionab’e ladies have dis¬
figured themselves. Even the females of the diminutive
Bosjesmen Hottentots, who frequently perish of hunger in
the barren mountains, and are reduced to skeletons, have the
same protuberances as the Hottentots of the plains. It is
not known even whence the name of Hottentot proceeds, as
it is none of their own. It has been conjectured that hot and
tot frequently occurring in their singular language, in which
the monosyllables are enunciated with a palatic clacking with
the tongue, like that of a hen, may have given rise to the
name, and that the early Dutch settlers named them hot-en-
tot. They call themselves qui-quee, pronounced with a clack.
They are a lively, cheerful, good-humoured people, and
by no means wanting in intellect; but they have met with
nothing but harsh treatment since their first connection with
Europeans. Neither Bartholomew Diaz, who first disco¬
vered, nor Vasco de Gama, who first doubled, the Cape of
Good Hope, nor any of the subsequent Portuguese naviga¬
tors, down to 1509, had much communication with the na¬
tives of this southern angle of Africa ; but in the year above
mentioned, Francisco d’Ahneyda, viceroy of India, having
landed on his return, at Saldanha (now Table) Bay, was
killed, with about twenty of his people, in a scuffle with the
natives. To avenge his death, a Portuguese captain, about
three years afterwards, is said to have landed a piece of
ordnance loaded with grape shot, as a pretended present to
the Hottentots. Two ropes were attached to this fatal
engine; the Hottentots poured down in swarms. Men,
women, and children flocked round the deadly machine, as
the Trojans did round the wooden horse, “funemque manu
contingere gaudent.” The brutal Portuguese fired off the
piece, and viewed with savage delight the mangled carcasses
of the deluded people. The Dutch effected their ruin by
gratifying their propensity for brandy and tobacco, at the
expense of their herds of cattle, on which they subsisted.
Under the British sway they have received protection, and
shown themselves not unworthy of it. They now possess
property, and enjoy it in security. One of the most beau¬
tiful villages, and the neatest and best-cultivated gardens,
AFRICA.
Bushmen.
Malays.
Africa, belong to a large community of Hottentots, under the in-
struction and guidance of a few Moravian missionaries.
These forlorn people are of Hottentot origin. Of them
also several tribes have been discovered much farther north,
and intelligence has lately reached Europe, that between
the Portuguese possessions, in the very centre of South
Africa, there is a nation of dwarfish appearance who possess
large herds, and who seem to belong to the original Bush¬
men stock.
The island of Madagascar is inhabited by a race of Malay
origin, exhibiting traces of Negro and Arabic mixture.
Population The total population of Africa is vaguely estimated, ac¬
cording to the most recent researches, at 100,000,000.
Occupation Strictly nomadic habits are not extensively prevalent.
The great majority of the native tribes are distributed in
towns or villages, occupy permanent dwellings and cling to
their rude habitations with home attachment; while even
the wild tenants of the desert, who roam far and wide in
search of plunder, have selected oases, or watered valleys,
as the sites of permanent abode. Except in the immediate
neighbourhood of the Mediterranean, and of European set¬
tlements, society has remained in a barbarian state.
Agriculture is conducted with little art. The natural
fertility of the soil in the well-watered districts supersedes
the need of skill, while the production of the simplest manu¬
factures is alone requisite, where the range of personal wants
embraces few objects, and those of the humblest class.
Wars, cruel and incessant, waged not for the sake of ter-
ritory, but for the capture of slaves, form one of the most
marked and deplorable features in the social condition of
the African races. This practice, though not of foreign in¬
troduction, has been largely promoted by the cupidity of the
Europeans and transatlantic nations; and, unhappily, the
efforts of private philanthropy, and the political arrangements
of various governments, have not availed to terminate the
hideous traffic in mankind, or abate the suffering entailed
upon its victims.
Religion. In Religion, Christianity is professed in Abyssinia, and
in Egypt by the Copts, but its doctrines and precepts are
little understood and obeyed. Mahometanism prevails in
all the northern countries ; but the native mind, generally,
is surrendered to superstitions of indefinite number and cha¬
racter. The labours of Christian missionaries have, however,
done much, especially in South Africa, towards turning the
benighted Africans from idols to the living God.
Political In describing the political divisions of Africa, we shall
Divisions. procee(l from north to south.
The country included under the general name of Bar¬
bary extends from the borders of Egypt on the east, to the
Atlantic on the west, and is bounded by the Mediterranean
on the north, and by the Sahara on the south. It com¬
prises the states of Marocco, Algeria, Tunis, and Tripoli.
Marocco, the most westerly state of Barbary, is thus named
by the Europeans, but by the Arabs themselves Mogr’-eb-el-
Aksa, or “ the extreme west.” The eastern boundary was
determined in the treaty with the French of 18th March
1845, by a line which, in the south, commences east of the
oasis Figueg, intersecting the desert of Angad, and reach¬
ing the Mediterranean at a point about 30 miles west of the
Franch port Nemours. It comprehends an area of about
170,000 geographical square miles, and a population of
8,500,000. But for some time the power of the government
of Marocco has been diminishing, and at present the greater
portion of the empire may be said to be independent, particu¬
larly that to the south of the Atlas chain. See Marocco.
Algeria extends from Marocco in the west, to Tunis in
the east, and closely answers in its limits to the ancient king¬
dom of Numidia. The eastern and southern boundaries are
not very definite, falling, as they do, within the boundless
223
Northern
Africa;
Barbary.
Marocco.
plains of the desert. The area is estimated at 100,000 Africa,
square miles, the population at 3,000,000. See Algiers.
Tunis is the smallest of the Barbary states. The area may Tunis,
be estimated at 40,000 square miles, and the population be¬
tween 2,000,000 and 3,000,000.
The configuration of the surface is similar to that of Al¬
geria, the northern part being mountainous, the southern
and eastern consisting of lowlands and plains. The highest
peaks range between 4000 and 5000 feet. The southern
plains comprise the land of dates (Belad-el-Jerid), and seve¬
ral extensive salt lakes. Tunis possesses but few rivers and
streams, and springs are plentiful only in the mountainous
regions.
The climate is, upon the whole, salubrious, and is not of
the same excessive character as that of Algeria; regular
sea-breezes exercise an ameliorating influence both in sum¬
mer and winter; frost is almost unknown, and snow never
falls. During summer occasional winds from the south ren¬
der the atmosphere exceedingly dry and hot.
The natural productions of the country are somewhat simi¬
lar to those of the other Barbary states, but dates of the
finest quality are more largely produced. The horses and
camels are of excellent breed, and the former are eagerly
sought for the French army in Algeria. Bees are reared in
great quantity, and coral fisheries are carried on, especially
at Tabarka. Of minerals, lead, salt, and saltpetre, are the
most noticeable.
The population consists chiefly of Moors and Arabs : the
former have attained a higher degree of industry and civilisa¬
tion than their brethren elsewhere; those of the latter who in¬
habit thecentral mountainous regionsare nearly independent.
The government is vested in a hereditary bey, and has
been conducted in peace and security for a number of years.
The present ruler, Bey Mushir Pasha, abolished the slave
trade in 1842, and has otherwise endeavoured to govern the
country on an enlightened system.
The commerce of Tunis is considerable, but agriculture
is in a backward state. The exports consist chiefly of wool,
olive-oil, wax, honey, hides, dates, grain, coral, &c.
The principal town is Tunis, situated on a shallow lake on
the north coast. It is the most important commercial place
on the southern shores of the Mediterranean after Alexan¬
dria, and has a population of about 100,000. The site of
the ancient Carthage is thirteen miles from Tunis in the
direction of Cape Bon.
Tripoli, a Turkish province, extends from Tunis to Egypt, Tripoli,
along the shores of the Mediterranean. Politically, it in¬
cludes the pashalics of Fezzan and Ghadamis, countries
which, in a physical point of view, are included in the Sahara.
The area is estimated at 200,000 square miles, and the po¬
pulation at 1,500,000.
Tripoli is the least favoured by nature of the Barbary
states, possessing a great extent of sterile surface. Mr Rich¬
ardson graphically describes the physiognomy of the country
between the towns of Tripoli and Murzuk in eight zones:
1, the plain along the sea-shore, with the date-palm planta¬
tions and the sandhills; 2, the Gharian mountains, with
their olive and fig plantations, more favoured with rains than
the other regions ; 3, the limestone hills and broad valleys
between the town of Kalubah and Ghareeah, gradually as¬
suming the aridity of the Sahara as you proceed southward;
4, the Hamadah, an immense desert plateau, separating Tri¬
poli from Fezzan ; 5, the sandy valleys and limestone rocks
between El-Hessi and Es-Shaty, where herbage and trees
are found; 6, the sand between Shiaty and El-Wady, piled
in masses or heaps, and extending in undulating plains ; 7,
the sandy valleys of El-Wady, covered with forests of date-
palms ; 8, the plateau of Murzuk, consisting of shallow val¬
leys, ridges of low sandstone hills, and naked plains. These
224
AFRICA.
Africa, zones extend parallel with the Mediterranean shores through
V'—the greater portion of the country. Mount I ekut, almost
due south of Tripoli, 2800 feet high, is supposed to be the
culminating point of the regency. Rivers exist only perio¬
dically, and springs are exceedingly scarce.
The climate is somewhat more excessive than that of
Tunis, especially in the interior, where extreme heat is fol¬
lowed by a considerable degree of cold. As far south as
Sokna, snow occasionally falls. The climate ol Murzuk is
very unhealthy, and frequently fatal to Europeans.
The natural products are very much like those of Tunis.
Oxen and horses are small, but of good quality; the mules are
of excellent breed. Locusts and scorpions are among the most
noxious animals. Salt and sulphur are the chief minerals.
The population is very thin. Arabs are the prominent
race, besides which are Turks, Berbers, Jews, Tibbus, and
Negroes. The country is governed by a pasha, subject to
the Ottoman empire. The military force by which the
Turks hold possession of this vast but thinly-peopled terri¬
tory amounts only to 632 men.
The commerce is not inconsiderable, and the inhabitants
of Tripoli trade with almost every part of the Sahara, as well
as the Sudan. At Murzuk there is a large annual market,
which lasts from October to January. The exports of Tri¬
poli are gum-arabic, wool, senna, hides, and dates.
Tripoli is the capital of the regency, and the largest town;
it lies on the Mediterranean, surrounded by a fertile plain ;
the number of inhabitants is from 15,000 to 20,000. Ben-
gazi is the second important town on the coast, and has
about 10,000 inhabitants. Murzuk, the capital of Fezzan,
has a mixed population of only 2000 souls, that of the whole
pashalic being 26,000. The town of Ghadamis has about
1000 inhabitants.
North- Egypt occupies the north-eastern corner of Africa, and
western or comprises about 100,000 square miles with 2,000,000 in-
Nilotic habitants. It is remarkable for its ancient and sacred asso-
countrxes; cjatjonSj anq wonderful monuments of human art.
^ ' Egypt is a vast desert, the cultivable and fertile portions
being confined to the Delta of the Nile and its narrow7 val¬
ley, a region celebrated in the most ancient historic docu¬
ments for its singular fertility, and still pouring an annual
surplus of grain into the markets of Europe. By the annual
inundation of the Nile this region is laid under water, and
upon its retirement the grain crops are sown in the layer of
mud left behind it. Barren ranges of hills and elevated
tracts occupy the land on both sides of the Nile, which is
the only river of the country. The amount of its rise is a
matter of extreme solicitude to the people, for should it pass
its customary bounds a few feet, cattle are drowned, houses
are swept away, and immense injury ensues; a falling short
of the ordinary height, on the other hand, causes dearth and
famine, according to its extent. The water of the Nile is
renowned for its agreeable taste and wholesome quality. In
connection with the Nile is the Birket-el-Kerun, a salt lake.
The climate is very hot and dry. Rain falls but seldom
along the coasts, but the dews are very copious. The hot
and oppressive winds called khamsin and simooms are a fre¬
quent scourge to the country ; but the climate is, upon the
whole, more salubrious than that of many other tropical
countries.
The natural products are not of great variety. The wild
plants are but few and scanty, while those cultivated include
all the more important kinds adapted to tropical countries:
rice, wheat, sugar, cotton, indigo, are cultivated for export;
dates, figs, pomegranates, lemons, and olives, are likewise
grown. The doum-palm, which appears in Upper Egypt, is
characteristic, as also the papyrus. The fauna is characterised
by an immense number of waterfowl, flamingoes, pelicans,
&c. The hippopotamus and crocodile, the two primeval in¬
habitants of the Nile, seem to be banished from the Delta, Africa,
the latter being still sometimes seen in Upper Egypt. The y—
cattle are of excellent breed. Large beasts of prey are want¬
ing ; but the ichneumon of the ancients still exists. Bees,
silkworms, and corals are noticeable. Minerals are scarce,
natron, salt, and sulphur being the principal.
Since the last century the inhabitants, then amounting to
four millions, have considerably diminished in number. In
1840 their total number was calculated at 2,895,500. The
native Egyptians of Arab descent amounted to 2,600,000
souls, composing the great bulk of the people. Next in num¬
ber, though comparatively few (150,000) are the Copts, de¬
scended from the old inhabitants of the country, the ancient
Egyptians, but far from being an unmixed race. ^ The Ara¬
bic Bedouin tribes were calculated in 1840 at 70,000, the
Negroes at 20,000, the European Christians at 9500, the
Jews at 7000, and the dominant Turks at only 12,000.
Egypt is formally a Turkish pashalic, but the hereditary
pasha, by whom the government is conducted, and whose
authority is absolute, is practically an independent prince.
The government of Nubia and Kordofan is also conducted
by the Pasha of Egypt.
The agriculture of Egypt has always been considerable ;
there being three harvests in the year. The industry is
limited: one peculiar branch is the artificial hatching of eggs
in ovens heated to the requisite temperature, a process which
has been handed down from antiquity, and is now chiefly
carried on by the Copts. Floating bee-hives are also pecu¬
liar to the Nile. The commerce is extensive and important:
the exports to Europe consist chiefly of cotton, flax, indigo,
gum-arabic, ostrich-feathers, ivory, senna, and gold.
Egypt is divided into three sub-pashalics ; Bahari or
Lower Egypt, Vostani or Middle Egypt, and Said or Upper
Egypt. Cairo, on the east bank of the Nile, is the capital
of Egypt, and is the largest town of Africa, containing about
300,000 inhabitants in 30,000 houses: it has 400 mosques,
and upwards of 130 minarets, some of them of rich and grace¬
ful architecture, presenting at a distance an appearance sin¬
gularly imposing. Alexandria, on the coast, is the emporium
of the commerce with Europe, and has 60,000 inhabitants,
among whom are 12,000 Europeans. Suez, on the northern
extremity of the Red Sea, is a small, ill-built town, but has
assumed importance as a good port since the establishment
of the overland route to India.
Nubia extends along the Red Sea, from Egypt to Abys-Nubia,
sinia, comprising the middle course of the Nile. The total
population amounts to 1,000,000 at the least.
The natural features of this country are varied; the north¬
ern portion consisting of a burning sterile wilderness, while
the southern, lying within the range of the tropical rains,
and watered by the Abyssinian affluents of the Nile, ex¬
hibits vegetation in its tropical glory, forests of arborescent
grasses, timber-trees, and parasitical plants largely clothing
the country. This latter territory, which may be. called
Upper Nubia, includes the region of ancient Meroe, situated
in the peninsula formed by the Nile proper, the Blue River,
and the Atbara, and comprises, further south, the recently
extinguished modern kingdom of Sennaar.
Nubia forms the link between the plain of Egypt and the
high table-lands of Abyssinia; its general physical character
is that of a slightly ascending region. The lowest parts in
Upper Nubia scarcely exceed an altitude of 1500 feet; Khar¬
tum, at the confluence of tlje Blue and W hite Rivers, being
1525 feet above the level of the sea. A chain ot moun¬
tains and elevated land rises abruptly along the shores of the
Red Sea, gradually sloping down to the valley of the Nile,
the intermediate region being intersected by smaller ranges,
groups of hills, and numerous wadies filled with sand. Jebel
Olba, a prominent summit of that range, is upwards of /000
AFRICA.
225
Africa, feet high. The spurs of the Abyssinian table-land, extend-
^ ing within the southern confines of Nubia, reach a height
of 3000 feet; Mount Akaro, in Tasokl, being 3300 feet high.
Besides the Nile, the country is watered by two other large
rivers, its tributaries, the Bahr-el-Azrek, or Blue River, and
the Atbara or Takkazie, both being much alike in magni¬
tude, and having their head-streams on the Abyssinian table¬
land.
The climate of Nubia is tropical throughout, and the heat
in the deserts of its central portions is not exceeded by that
of any other part of the globe. The southern half of the
country is within the influence of the tropical rains, the
northern partakes the character of the almost rainless Sahara;
and while the latter is generally very salubrious, the former
is a land of dangerous fevers, particularly in the plains sub¬
ject to inundations. Such is the Kolia, a marshy and swampy
region of great extent, situated along the foot of the Abys¬
sinian Mountains, between the Blue River and the Takkazie,
The northern region is poor in natural productions, but
in the south the vegetation is most luxuriant; palms form
a prominent feature, and the monkey bread-tree attains its
most colossal dimensions. The date-tree, dourra, cotton,
and indigo, are cultivated. The date-palm does not extend
beyond the south of Abou-Egli, in Lat. 18. 36.
The elephant is native to this region, and is seen in
herds of several hundreds; also the rhinoceros, lion, and
giraffe. The waters are inhabited by crocodiles more fero¬
cious than those of Egypt, and by huge hippopotami. The
young hippopotamus brought to the zoological gardens, Re¬
gent’s Park, in 1850, was captured in Nubia, in an island of
the Nile, about 1800 miles above Cairo: no living specimen
had been seen in Europe since the period when they were
exhibited by the third Gordian in the Colosseum at Rome.
Monkeys and antelopes are found in great numbers. The
camel does not extend beyond the twelfth degree of latitude
to the south. Ostriches roam over the deserts; and among
the reptiles, besides the crocodile, are large serpents of the
python species, and tortoises. Of the numerous insects,
the most remarkable is the scarabaeus of the ancient Egyp¬
tians, still found in Sennaar. Of minerals. Nubia possesses
gold, silver, copper, iron, salt.
In the inhabitants two principal varieties are recognised,
the pure original population, and their descendants mixed with
other nations. The Berberines, amounting to upwards of
100,000, inhabit the northern part, and the Bisharis, to about
200,000, the desert regions; the latter are the genuine
Nubians, finely moulded and dark complexioned, supposed
by some to agree more closely with the ancient Egyptians
than the Copts, usually deemed their representatives. In
the south-eastern part, the true negro element appears.
Nubia, now a province under the pashalic of Egypt, con¬
sisted formerly of a number of small and independent king¬
doms. The Turkish conquest lasted from 1813 to 1822:
in the latter years it was invaded and mercilessly ravaged
by the army of Mahomet Ali, under his second son Ismayl,
whose dreadful atrocities entailed a fearful fate upon himself,
having been surprised when attending a nocturnal banquet
at some distance from his camp, and burned to death.
The country is favourable for agriculture, which, how¬
ever, is only carried on to a limited extent, by the women.
Cattle are abundant, and the camels of the Bisharin and
Ababde are famous for their enduring powers. Commerce
has diminished through the oppressive policy of Mahomet
Ali. Salt is largely exported from the shores of the Red
Sea to India, and ivory, with other products of tropical
Africa, forms a principal article of trade.
Khartum, the capital of Nubia, the headquarters of the
Egyptian government, and the chief seat of commerce, con¬
tains 20,000 inhabitants. It is a newly-created town, having
vol. n.
been founded in 1821, and lies in a dry, flat, and unhealthy Africa,
country. v'—
Kordofan, on the western side of Nubia, lies between the Kordofan.
parallels of 12° and 16°, and between the meridians 29° and
32°, containing about 30,000 square miles. It is a flat coun¬
try interspersed with a few hills, presenting in the dry sea¬
son a desert with little appearance of vegetation, and in the
rainy season a prairie, covered with luxuriant grass and other
plants. The general elevation of the country is 2000 feet,
and some of the hills attain a height of 3000. The altitude
of El Obeid is 2150 feet. There are no permanent rivers in
the country, and the natural products are similar to those of
the adjoining regions of Nubia.
The population consists of Negroes. This country was,
simultaneously with Nubia, made tributary to Egypt. The
commerce consists of gum-arabic, ivory, and gold, and is not
inconsiderable. El Obeid, the chief town, is composed of
several villages of mud-built houses thatched with straw,
containing about 20,000 inhabitants.
The boundaries of Abyssinia are somewhat uncertain; but, Abyssinia,
confining it to the provinces actually under the government
of Christian or Mahometan princes, it may be described
as extending from about 9° to 16° north Latitude, and from
35° to 41° east Longitude, and as having a superficial area of
about 150,000 square miles. The population has been esti¬
mated at from 4,000,000 to 5,000,000, which is probably
too high. See Abyssinia.
The Saharan countries extend from the Atlantic in the Saharan
west, to the Nilotic countries in the east, from the Barbary countries.
States in the north, to the basins of the Rivers Senegal and
Kawara, and Lake Tsad in the south. The area of this large
space amounts to at least 2,000,000 square miles, or upwards
of one-half of that of the whole of Europe. It is very scantily-
populated, but from our present defective knowledge of that
region, the number of its inhabitants cannot even be esti¬
mated.
The physical configuration of the Sahara has already been
indicated in the general introductory remarks of this article.
Notwithstanding the proverbial heat, which is almost insup¬
portable by day, there is often great cold at night, owing to
the excessive radiation, promoted by the purity of the sky.
Rain is nearly, though not entirely absent, in this desolate
region. It appears that when nature has poured her bounty
over the adjoining regions in the south, and has little more
left to bestow, she sends a few smart showers of rain to the
desert, parched by the long prevalence of the perpendicular
rays of the sun. The prevailing winds blow during three
months from the west, and nine months from the east. When
the wind increases into a storm, it frequently raises the loose
sand in such quantities that a layer of nearly equal portions
of sand and air, and rising about 20 feet above the surface
of the ground, divides the purer atmosphere from the solid
earth. This sand, when agitated by whirlwinds, sometimes
overwhelms caravans with destruction, and, even when not
fatal, involves them in the greatest confusion and danger.
The natural products correspond with the physical features
of the country. Vegetation and animal life exist only
sparingly in the oases or valleys where springs occur, and
where the soil is not utterly unfit to nourish certain plants.
Amongst the few trees, the most important is the date-
palm, which is peculiarly suited to the dryness of the cli¬
mate. This useful tree flourishes best in the eastern part
of the desert, inhabited by the Tibbus. The doum-palm
is likewise a native of the same part, and seems entirely
absent in the western Sahara: its northernmost limit is
on the southern borders of Fezzan and Tegerry, in Lat.
24. 4. N. Acacias are found in the extreme west towards
Senegambia, furnishing the so-called gum-arabic. In many
parts of the desert, a thorny evergreen plant occurs, about
/
226
AFRICA.
Africa.
18 inches high. It is eagerly eaten by the camels, and
is almost the only plant which supplies them with food
while thus traversing the desert. The cultivation of grains
to a small extent is limited to the western oases of Tuat
and others, a little barley, rice, beans, and gussub, being
there grown. In the kingdom of Air, there are some fields
of maize and other grains ; but upon the whole, the popula¬
tion depend for these products on Sudan and other regions.
There are but a few specimens of wild animals in these wil¬
dernesses ; lions and panthers are found only on its borders.
Gazelles and antelopes are abundant, hares and foxes but
scarce. Ostriches are very numerous, and vultures and
ravens are also met with. In approaching Sudan, animal
and vegetable life becomes more varied and abundant. Of
reptiles only the smaller kinds are found, mostly harmless
lizards and a few species of snakes. Of domestic animals,
the most important is the camel, but horses and goats are
not wanting, and in the country of the Tuaricks an excel¬
lent breed of sheep is found, while in that of the Tibbus a
large and fine variety of the ass is valuable to the inha¬
bitants. Of minerals, salt is the chief production, which
occurs chiefly near Bilma.
The habitable portions of the Sahara are possessed by three
different nations. In the extreme western portion are Moors
and Arabs. They live in tents, which they remove from one
place to another; and their residences consist of similar en¬
campments, formed of from twenty to a hundred of such
tents, where they are governed by a sheik of their own body ;
each encampment constituting, as it were, a particular tribe.
They are a daring set of people, and not restrained by any
scruple in plundering, ill-treating, and even killing persons
who are not of their own faith; but to such as are, they
are hospitable and benevolent. The boldest of these chil¬
dren of the desert are the Tuaricks, who occupy the middle
of the wilderness, where it is widest. The form of their
bodies, and their language, prove that they belong to the
aboriginal inhabitants of Northern Africa, who are known
by the name of Berbers. They are a fine race of men, tall,
straight, and handsome, with an air of independence which is
very imposing. They live chiefly upon the tribute they ex¬
act from all caravans traversing their country. They ren¬
der themselves formidable to all their neighbours, with whom
they are nearly always in a state of enmity, making preda¬
tory incursions into the neighbouring countries. The third
division of Saharan people are the Tibbus, who inhabit the
eastern portion, comprising one of the best parts of the de¬
sert. In some of their features they resemble the Negroes.
They are an agricultural and pastoral nation, live mostly in
fixed abodes, and are in this respect greatly different from
their western neighbours. Their country is as yet little ex¬
plored by Europeans. The Tibbus are in part Pagans,
while the other inhabitants of the Sahara are Mahomet¬
ans.
The commerce of the Sahara consists chiefly of gold,
slaves, ivory, iron, and salt.
Western Western Africa comprehends the west coast of Africa,
Africa. from the borders of the Sahara, in about Lat. 17. north to
Nourse River, in about the same latitude south, with a con¬
siderable space of inland territory, varying in its extent from
the shores, and, in fact, completely undefined in its interior
limits.
Senegam- Senegambia, the country of the Senegal and Gambia, ex-
kia- tends from the Sahara in the north to Lat. 10. in the
south, and may be considered as extending inland to the
sources of the waters which flow through it to the Atlantic.
The western portion is very flat, and its contiguity to the
great desert is frequently evidenced by dry hot winds, an
atmosphere loaded with fine sand, and clouds of locusts.
The eastern portion is occupied with hills and elevated land.
Under the 10th parallel the hills approach quite close to the Africa,
coast. There the Sangari Mountains attain an elevation
of from 4000 to 5000 feet. The country possesses a great
number of rivers, among which the Senegal, Gambia, and
Rio Grande are the most important. Senegambia ranges,
in point of heat, with the Sahara and Nubia. The atmo¬
sphere is most oppressive in the rainy season, which lasts from
June to November, when an enormous amount of rain
drenches the country. The prevailing winds in that period
are southwest, whereas in the dry season they are from the
east. The climate is, upon the whole, most unhealthy, and
too generally proves fatal to Europeans.
The vegetation is most luxuriant and vigorous. The bao¬
bab (monkey bread-tree), the most enormous tree on the
face of the globe, is eminently characteristic of Senegambia.
It attains to no great height, but the circumference of the
trunk is frequently 60 to 75 feet, and has been found to
measure 112 feet; its fruit, the monkey-bread, is a princi¬
pal article of food with the natives. Bombaceae (cotton-trees)
are likewise numerous, and they are among the loftiest in
the world. Acacias, which furnish the gum-arabic, are most
abundant, while the shores are lined with mangrove trees.
The vegetation is similar to that of Nubia, as also the ani¬
mal world. Gold and iron are the chief metals.
The inhabitants consist of various Negro nations, the
chief of which are the Wolof.
The gum trade is the most important traffic on the Sene¬
gal ; bees-wax, ivory, bark, and hides, forming the chief ex¬
ports from the Gambia.
Of European settlements are : The French possessions
on the Senegal; the capital of which is St Louis, built about
the year 1626, on an island at the mouth of the river. The
total population of the settlement amounted, in 1846, to
17,976 coloured people, and 1170 Europeans.
The British settlement is on the Gambia, and has 4851
inhabitants. Bathurst is the chief town.
The Portuguese settlement consists of small factories south
of the Gambia, at Bissao, Cacheo, and some other points.
The West coast of Africa, from Senegambia to the Nourse The Guinea
River, is commonly comprised by the general denomination coast.
Guinea Coast, a term of Portuguese origin.
The coast is mostly so very low, as to be visible to navi¬
gators only within a very short distance, the trees being their
only sailing marks. North of the equator, in the Bight of
Benin, the coast forms an exception, being high and bold,
with the Cameroon Mountains behind; as also at Sierra
Leone, which has received its name (Lion Mountain) in con¬
sequence. The coast presents a dead level often for thirty
to fifty miles inland. It has numerous rivers, some of which
extend to the furthest recesses of Inner Africa.
The climate, notoriously fatal to European life, is ren¬
dered pestilential by the muddy creeks and inlets, the putrid
swamps, and the mangrove jungles that cover the banks of
the rivers. There are two seasons in the year, the rainy and
the dry season. The former commences in the southern
portion in March, but at Sierra Leone and other northern
parts, a month later.
Vegetation is exceedingly luxuriant and varied. One of
the most important trees is the Elais guineensis, a species
of palm, from the covering of whose seed or nut is extracted
the palm oil, so well known to English commerce and manu¬
facture : several thousand tons are annually brought into the
ports of Liverpool, London, and Bristol. The palm-oil tree
is indigenous and abundant from the river Gambia to the
Congo ; but the oil is manufactured in large quantities chiefly
in the country of the Gold and Slave Coasts. The former
comprises nearly all the more remarkable of African animals:
particularly abundant are elephants, hippopotami, monkeys,
lions, leopards, crocodiles, serpents, parrots. The domestic
AFRICA.
Africa.
Sierra
Leone.
Grain
coast.
Liberia.
Ivory
coast.
Gold, coast
Slave coast
Loango.
Congo.
Angola and
Benguela.
animals are mostly of an inferior quality. The principal
^ minerals are gold and iron. The population consists, besides
a few European colonists, of a vast variety of Negro nations,
similar in their physical qualities and prevailing customs, but
differing considerably in their dispositions and morals.
1 he chief articles of commerce are palm-oil, ivory, gold,
wax, various kinds of timber, spices, gums, and rice.
Ihe divisions of Northern or Upper Guinea, are mostly
founded on the productions characteristic of the different
parts, and are still popularly retained.
1 he British colony of Sierra Leone extends from Rokelle
River in the north, to Kater River in the south, and about
twenty miles inland. The population, consisting chiefly of
liberated slaves, amounted in 1847 to 41,735. Freetown,
the capital, has 10,580 inhabitants, and is, after St Louis, the
most considerable European town on the western coast of
Africa.
The Malaghetta or Grain Coast extends from Sierra
Leone to Cape Palmas. Malaghetta is a species of pepper
yielded by a parasitical plant of this region. It is sometimes
styled the Windy or Windward Coast, from the frequency
of short but furious tornadoes, throughout the year. The
republic of Liberia, a settlement of the American Coloniza¬
tion Society, founded in 1822, for the purpose of removing
free people of colour from the United States, occupies a
considerable extent of the coast, and has for its capital Mon¬
rovia, a town named after the president, Mr Monro. The
population amounts to from 10,000 to 15,000 native inha¬
bitants, and 3200 liberated Negroes from America.
^ The Ivory Coast extends from Cape Palmas to Cape
Three Points, and obtained its name from the quantity of
the article supplied by its numerous elephants.
The Gold Coast stretches from Cape Three Points to the
River Volta, and has been long frequented for gold-dust
and other products. The Dutch have several trading ports,
of which Elmina, a town of 12,000 inhabitants, is the prin¬
cipal and oldest of the European stations, founded by the
Portuguese in 1411. The British possess Cape Coast Castle,
a spacious fortress, and James’ Fort, near Accra. The
Danish settlements of Christiansburg and Friedensburg
were ceded to the English in 1849.
The Slave Coast extends from the River Volta to the Ca¬
labar River, and is, as its name implies, the chief scene of
the most disgraceful traffic that blots the history of man¬
kind. Eko, or Lagos, one of the chief towns of the coast,
was destroyed in 1852.
The kingdoms of Ashanti, Dahomey, Yoruba and others,
occupy the interior country of the Guinea coast.
The coast from the Old Calabar River to the Portuguese
possessions is inhabited by various tribes. Duke’s Town, on
the former river, is a large town of 30,000 to 40,000 inhabi¬
tants, with considerable trade in palm-oil, ivory, and timber.
On the Gabun river, close to the equator, are a French
settlement and American missionary stations. At the equa¬
tor, Southern or Lower Guinea begins, where the only
European settlements are those of the Portuguese.
Loango is reckoned from the equator to the Zaire or
Congo river. Its chief town is Boally, called Loango by
the Europeans.
Congo extends south of the Zaire, comprising a very fer¬
tile region, with veins of copper and iron. Banza Congo
or St Salvador is the capital.
Angola comprises the two districts of Angola proper and
Benguela. In these regions the Portuguese settlements
extend farther inland than in the two preceding districts,
namely, about 200 miles. The population of the settlements
is about 400,000, comprising only 1830 Europeans. The
capital St Paolo de Loando, contains 1600 Europeans and
4000 native inhabitants, and has a fine harbour. St Felipe
227
de Benguela is situated in a picturesque but very marshy Africa,
and most unhealthy spot. *
The coast from Benguela to the Cape Colony may, in a South
general arrangement like this, be included either within West Africa.
Africa or South Africa. The whole coast is little visited or
known, being of a most barren and desolate description, and
possessing few harbours. From Walfich Bay, as has been
already stated, Mr Galton recently penetrated nearly 400
miles into the interior towards Lake Ngami, and explored
the country inhabited by the Ovaherero or Damaras, and
other tribes.
Under South Africa the Cape Colony only is generally Cape
comprised. It takes its name from the Cape of Good Hope, Colony,
and extends from thence to the Orange River in the north,
and to the Tugela River in the east. A large proportion
of the territory included within these limits, especially in
the north, is either unoccupied, or, excepting missionary
stations, entirely in the hands of the aborigines.
Apart from the shores, the country consists of high lands,
forming parallel mountainous ridges, with elevated plains or
terraces of varying extent between. The loftiest range, styled
in different parts of its course Sneuw-bergen, Winter-ber-
gen, Nieuveld-bergen, and Roggenveld-bergen, names ori¬
ginated by the Dutch, is the third and last encountered on
proceeding into the interior from the south coast. The
most elevated summit, Spitzkop or Compass-berg, in the
district of Graafreynet, attains the height of 10,250 feet.
This and the other chains are deeply cut by the transverse
valleys called kloofs, which serve as passes across them, and
appear as if produced by some sudden convulsion of nature,
subsequently widened by the action of the atmosphere and
running water.
The high plains or terraces are remarkable for their ex¬
traordinary change of aspect in the succession of the seasons.
During the summer heats they are perfect deserts, answer¬
ing to the term applied to them, karroos, signifying, in the
Hottentot language, “ dry” or “ arid.” But the sandy soil
being pervaded with the roots and fibres of various plants,
is spontaneously clothed with the richest verdure after the
rains, and becomes transformed for a time into a vast garden
of gorgeous flowers, yielding the most fragrant odours.
Adapted thus to the support of graminivorous animals, the
karroos are the resort of antelopes, zebras, quaggas, and
gnus in countless herds, and of the carnivorous beasts that
prey upon them, the lion, hyaena, leopard, and panther. These
quadrupeds, however, with the elephant, rhinoceros, hippo¬
potamus, giraffe, buffalo, and ostrich, have been largely
banished from their old haunts by the advanced footsteps of
civilised man, and are only found in the more secluded parts
of the interior. The country has a singular and superb flora,
but it comprises few native plants useful to man : many such
have been now introduced. Heaths of varied species and
great beauty abound ; and geraniums are treated as com¬
mon weeds. Many highly productive districts occur; corn,
wines, and fruit, being the chief objects of cultivation in the
neighbourhood of the Cape, while the more inland settle¬
ments are grazing farms. Some fine natural forests clothe
the sides of the mountains; but in general the colony is de¬
ficient in timber-trees, as well as in navigable streams, peren¬
nial springs, and regular rain. A great deposit of rich copper
ore occurs near the mouth of the Gariep; and salt is obtain¬
ed for consumption and sale from salt lakes.
The climate is exceedingly fine and salubrious. There
are two seasons, characterised by the prevalence of certain
winds. During the summer, which lasts from September to
April, the winds blow from southeast, cold and dry; during
the winter, namely from May to September, northwest winds
prevail. In the most elevated regions the winters are occa¬
sionally severe, and snow and ice occur.
228 A F R
Africa. The population of Cape Colony amounted in 1847 to
178,300 souls. The chief native tribes within the British
territory are the Kafffes, Hottentots, and Bechuanas. No
manufacture is conducted at the Cape except the making
of wine, of which 8000 pipes are annually exported to Eng¬
land. Various articles of provision are supplied to ships sail¬
ing between Europe and the East Indies.
Cape Town is the capital of the colony, and contains
22,600 inhabitants. Its commerce is considerable, and the
port is frequented by 500 to 600 vessels every year.
The Orange River sovereignty, added to the British terri¬
tories in 1849, extends north of the Orange River as far as
the Ky Gariep or Vaal River.
Natal. Natal, or Victoria, a district on the east coast, and sepa¬
rated from the Cape Colony by Kafffaria, is a recently formed
British settlement, containing an area of about 18,000 square
miles. It is highly favoured in those respects in which the
Cape is most deficient, having abundance of wood and water,
with coal and various metallic ores, a fine alluvial soil, and a
climate adapted to the cultivation of the products for which
the home demand is large and constant—cotton, silk, and
indigo. Pietermaritzburg, the capital of the settlement, lies
50 miles from the coast. Port Natal, now D’Urban, seated
on a fine lake-like bay, is the only harbour.
East East Africa extends from Natal northwards to the Red
Africa. Sea, comprising Sofala, Mozambique, Zanzibar, and the
Somali country. But little is known of that region beyond
Sofala. the shores. The Sofala coast, extending from Delagoa
Bay to the Zambezi River, is flat, sandy, and marshy, gra¬
dually ascending towards the interior. It abounds with rivers,
which cause yearly inundations. The soil is very fertile, and
produces chiefly rice. In the interior, gold and other metals,
as well as precious stones, are found. The Portuguese have
settlements at Sofala, in an unhealthy spot, abounding with
salt-marshes; it consists of only eighteen huts, a church,
and a fort in ruins. Inhambane, near the Tropic of Cap¬
ricorn, has an excellent harbour.
Mozam- Mozambique extends from the Zambezi to Cape Delgado,
tuque. and is similar, in its natural features, to the Sofala coast. The
country is inhabited by the large and powerful tribe of the
Macuas. The principal river is the Zambezi. The principal
settlement of the Portuguese is at Quillimane, which is situ¬
ated in a very unhealthy position, surrounded with mangrove
trees. It has 130 free inhabitants, comprising only 12 Por¬
tuguese, and 5000 or 6000 slaves.
Zanzibar. The Zanzibar or Sawahili coast extends from Cape Del¬
gado to the River Jub, near the Equator. The coast is ge¬
nerally low, and has but few bays or harbours : its northern
portion is rendered dangerous by a line of coral reefs extend¬
ing along it. The region possesses a great number of rivers,
but none of them attain a first-rate magnitude. The prin¬
cipal are the Livuma, Lufigi, Ruvu, Pangani, and Dana; the
two latter rising in the snowy mountains of Kilimanjaro and
Kenia. The climate is similar to that of other tropical
coasts of Africa, hot and unhealthy in general: in some por¬
tions, however, the elevated ground, and with it a more
temperate and healthy climate, approaches the shores to
within a short distance. The vegetation is luxuriant, and
cocoa-nut, palms, maize, rice, and olives, are the chief articles
of cultivation. The fauna comprises all the more charac¬
teristic African species.
The chief inhabitants are the Sawahili, but the coasts are
under the Arab dominion of the Imaum of Muscat, by whose
efforts commerce with the nations of the interior has greatly
increased.
The island of Zanzibar (Unguja of the Sawahili) is the
residence of the Imaum of Muscat, and the seat of extensive
commerce. Mombas, on a small island close to the main
shore, possesses the finest harbour on that coast, and has
I C A.
recently become famous as the seat of an important mission- Africa,
ary station.
The Somali country comprises the eastern horn of Africa, Somali
from the equator northward to the Bay of Tadjurra, near the country,
entrance into the Red Sea. The coast is generally bold and
rocky, in some places covered with sand; and the extensive
region it encloses, presents a slightly ascending plain, tra¬
versed by large valleys of great fertility, among which the
Wady Nogal is prominent. Along the Arabian Gulf the
coast is very abrupt, and girded with a range of mountains,
the highest summit of which, Jebel Ahl, reaches an eleva¬
tion of 6500 feet. This country is not so well watered as
the region to the south, and some of its rivers are periodical.
The Somali country is famous for its aromatic produc¬
tions and gums of various kinds; and it is supposed that
the spices and incense consumed in such large quantities by
the ancient people of Egypt, Greece, Syria, and Rome, were
derived from this part of Africa, and not from Arabia.
The Somali, the inhabitants of this region, belong to the
Galla tribe. The commerce is considerable, and is partly
in the hands of the Arabs. Zeila and Berbera, on the
northern coast, are the chief trading ports: the permanent
population of the former is about 750, while the latter may
be said to exist only during the winter, when no less than
20,000 strangers, at an average, arrive to pitch their tents,
and thus create a great market place. Hurrur is the chief
place in the interior, with 17,000 inhabitants, who are Ma¬
hometans.
Central Africa comprises the regions which extend from Central
the southern borders of the Sahara in the north to Cape Africa.
Colony in the south, and from Senegambia in the west to
the territory of the Egyptian pashalic on the east. It com¬
prehends the central basins of Lake Tsad, Nyassa, and others,
and the greater part of the basins of the Kawara, Zaire,
Nile, and Zambezi. Even the Sahara may well be included
in this general denomination. So little is yet known of this
vast region that the general features of some portions only
can be indicated. The greater portion seems to be densely
peopled with numerous tribes, and to possess inexhaustible
natural resources. The portion north of the equator, under
the name Sudan or Nigritia, comprises a great number of
states, among which the principal areBambarra, Timbuktu,
and Houssa in the west; Bornu, Baghermi, and Waday,
around Lake Tsad; Darfur in the east; and Adamaua in
the south. The inhabitants are Negro races, with many
Arabs, Moors, and Berbers.
Bambarra occupies part of the basin of the Joliba, orBambarra.
upper source of the Kawara. The dominant inhabitants
are the Mandingoes and Foulahs, who have embraced Islam-
ism, and are much more advanced in civilisation than the
other negro tribes. The country comprises extensive and
excellent pastures, with abundance of domestic animals, as
horned cattle, sheep, goats, and horses of a fine breed.
Among the vegetable products the most remarkable is the
butter-tree, which furnishes an important article of agricul¬
tural industry and trade.
Sego, the capital, is situated on the Joliba, and contains
30,000 inhabitants. It was here that Mungo Park first
caught sight of the long-sought river.
Timbuktu, or Jennie, comprises the basin of the Joliba Timbuktu,
below Bambarra, and lies partly within the Great Sahara.
Timbuktu, a few miles from the banks of the Joliba, and
situated amid sands and deserts, is a celebrated centre of the
North African caravan trade. It contains from 12,000 to
15,000 inhabitants.
Houssa is an extensive country extending to the Sahara in Houssa.
the north, to the Joliba or Kawara on the west,to Bornu on
the east, and to about 10. north Eat. on the south. The do¬
minant race are the Foulahs, but the mass of the popula-
Africa.
Bornu.
Baghermi.
Waday.
Darfur.
Adamaua.
AFRICA. 229
tion are Negroes. It is a very fertile and beautiful country,
but the climate is insalubrious, and in many parts fatal to
Europeans. The inhabitants are engaged in pastoral, as
well as in agricultural and commercial pursuits.
The capital, Sakatu, is one of the largest cities in Negro-
land ; it is situated in a fertile but marshy plain. Kano, an¬
other large town, containing 30,000 to 40,000 inhabitants, is
the great emporium of trade in Houssa: there the English
merchandise coming from the north through the Sahara,
meets with American goods coming from theBight of Benin.
The manufactures of Kano consist chiefly of cloth, for the
dyeing of which that town is famed all over Central Africa.
Bornu is one of the most powerful states of Negroland;
extending on the west to the 10th degree of Long., on the
east to Lake Tsad and the kingdom of Baghermi, and on
the south as far as Mandara and Adamaua, in about 11.
north Eat. Kanem, on the northern side of Lake Tsad, has
recently been conquered and brought under Bornuese sove¬
reignty.
The general character of Bornu is that of a plain, subject
to inundations, particularly near Lake Tsad. It is very fer¬
tile, and cotton and indigo attain a high degree of excel¬
lence. The original Bornuese are an agricultural people.
Kuka, the capital and residence of the Sheik of Bornu,
has only 8000 inhabitants, while Angornu, south of it, has
30,000.“
Baghermi, another powerful kingdom, is situated east of
Bornu. The boundaries, according to Dr Barth, who first
visited this country and penetrated as far as Masena, the
capital, are on the west the river Loggeme, a tributary of
the Shary or Asu, by which it is divided from Bornu and
Adamaua; on the north its limits are in about 12^° north Lat.,
and on the east in 19J° east Long., both lines dividing it
from Waday : the southern boundary is in about 8^° north
Lat. Baghermi is an extensive plain or valley formed by the
river Shary or Asu and its tributaries. The inhabitants are
very warlike, and frequently engage in slave marauding ex¬
peditions into the neighbouring states to the south.
Masena, the capital, lies in 11.40. north Lat., and 17. 20.
east Long.
Waday, or Dar Saley, lies east of Baghermi, and reaches
as far as Darfur. It comprises an extensive region, stretch¬
ing as far as the basin of the Nile. Lake Fittri, situated
in the western portion, forms a basin, unconnected with that
of Lake Tsad, and by which the country as far as Darfur
is drained. It has never been explored by Europeans. The
population comprises a great variety of tribes and different
languages.
Wara, the capital, is placed by Dr Barth in 14° north
Lat., and 22° east Long.
Darfur, east of Waday, extends as far as Kordofan. The
country rises towards the west into a range of hills called
Jebel Marrah. It is drained into the Nile. A great portion
of the country is Saharan in its character, while others are
fertile and diversified. Browne, in 1793, estimated the whole
population at 200,000. It has an extensive trade with Egypt.
Cobbe'ih, the capital, is a merchant town, and contains
about 6000 inhabitants.
Fumbina or Adamaua is an extensive country south of
Houssa and Bornu, under Foulah dominion. It consists of
a large, fertile, and highly-cultivated valley, formed by the
River Benue, which is the upper course of the Tchadda.
Near Yola, the capital, the Benue receives the Faro, a large
tributary coming from the south-west in the direction of
the Cameroon Mountains. The waters in the rainy season,
namely, from June to September, rise 40 to 50 feet. This
country was first visited by Dr Barth in 1851.
Yola, the capital, lies in 8. 50. north Lat., and 13.30. east
Longitude.
To Africa belong a considerable number of islands. Africa.
The Madeiras, belonging to Portugal, lie off the north-
west coast of Africa, at a distance of about 360 miles. Ma- Islands of
deira, the chief island, is about 100 miles in circuit, and has Africa in
long been famed for its picturesque beauty, rich fruits, andthe Atlan-
fine climate, which renders it a favourite resort of invalids.tlc 0cean-
Wine is the staple produce. Funchal, the chief town, with
nearly 30,000 inhabitants, is a regular station for the West
India mail steam-packets from Southampton, and the Bra¬
zilian sailing-packets from Falmouth.
The Canaries, belonging to Spain, the supposed Fortu¬
nate Islands of the ancients, are situated about 300 miles
south of Madeira. They are 13 in number, all of volcanic
origin, Teneriffe being the largest. The latter is remark¬
able for its peak, which rises as a vast pyramidal mass to the
height of 12,172 feet.
The Cape Verde Islands, subject to Portugal, are a nu¬
merous group about 80 miles from Cape Verde. They ob¬
tained their name from the profusion of sea-weed found by
the discoverers in the neighbouring ocean, giving it the ap¬
pearance of a green meadow. They are also of volcanic
origin.
Fernando Po, a very mountainous island, is in the Bight
of Biafra. Formerly a British settlement, it was abandoned
owing to its unhealthiness, and is now only inhabited by a
few negroes and mulattoes.
St Thomas, immediately under the equator, is a Portu¬
guese settlement; as also Prince’s Island, 2° north of the line.
Annobom, in 2. south Lat., belongs to the Spaniards.
Ascension, a small, arid, volcanic islet, was made a British
port on the arrival of Napoleon Bonaparte at St Helena,
and since retained as a station, at which ships may touch for
stores. Green Hill, the summit of the island, rises to the
height of 2840 feet.
St Helena is a huge dark mass of rock, rising abruptly
from the ocean to the height of 2692 feet. James’ Town
is the only town and port, containing 5300 inhabitants.
Madagascar, the largest island of Africa, and one of the Islands of
largest in the world, is separated from the Mozambique Africa in
coast by a channel of that name, about 250 miles wide. The j^cee*°dian
area exceeds that of France, comprising 225,000 square
miles, and the population is estimated at 4,000,000.
It has an atmosphere so pestilential, in particular locali¬
ties, that to breathe it for a short duration is generally, and
very quickly fatal. But other parts are not insalubrious.
The lemurs, an interesting tribe of animals, are peculiar to
Madagascar and the Comoro Archipelago.
The inhabitants are diverse races of Negro, Arab, and
Malay origin. The Ovahs, a people of the central provinces,
are now dominant. The principal town, Tananarivu, has
8000 inhabitants.
The Comoro isles, four in number, are in the north part
of the Mozambique Channel, and inhabited by Arab tribes.
Bourbon, 400 miles east of Madagascar, is a colony of
France, producing for export, coffee, sugar, cocoa, spices, and
timber.
Mauritius, ceded to the British by the French in 1814,
is 90 miles north-east of Bourbon. The sugar-cane is chiefly
cultivated. Port Louis, the capital, beautifully situated, has
26,000 inhabitants. Within the jurisdiction of the Gover¬
nor of the Mauritius, are the islands of Rodriguez, the Sey¬
chelles, and the Amirante islauds.
Socotra, a large island, east of Cape Jerdaffun, with an
Arab population, has been known from early times ; it is
now a British possession. This island was long celebrated
as producing the finest aloetic drug: a few years ago this
was denied; but now it is found still to produce a fine kind
of aloe, though much of what passed as Socotrine aloes
really came from India.
230 A G A
Africanus AFRICANUS, John Leo. See Leo.
II Africanus, Sex. Julius, of Emmaus in Palestine, a
Agamem- ]earne(j Christian historian of the third century, who wrote
^ non' , a chronicle extending from the date of the creation to A. d.
^ 221, of which copious extracts exist in the Chronicon of
Eusebius, besides many fragments in Syncellus, Cedrenus,
and the Paschale Chronicon. Eusebius has also given some
extracts of his letter to Aristides reconciling the apparent
discrepancy of St Matthew and St Luke in the genealogy
of Christ. His letter to Origen, impugning the authority of
the book of Susanna, and Origen’s answer, are both extant.
To Africanus is also ascribed a work entitled Kccttoi, treat¬
ing of medicine, agriculture, natural history, the military
art, &c., of which extracts have been published, and some
of the books are said to exist still in MS.
AFRIQUE, St, a French town in the department of
Aveyron, in Lat. 43. 57. N. Long. 2. 51. E. with a popula¬
tion of 6000 persons.
AFSLAGERS, persons appointed by the burgomasters
of Amsterdam to preside over the public sales made in that
city. They must always have a clerk of the secretary’s
office with them, to take an account of the sale. They cor¬
respond to our brokers, or auctioneers.
AFT, in the sea language, the same with Abaft.
AFTER-GUARD, in the navy, the men stationed on the
poop to work the aftersails, &c.
AFTERMATH, in Husbandry, signifies the grass which
springs or grows up after mowing.
AFWESTAD, or Ayestad, a market-town of Sweden,
in the district of Fahlun, on the Dal-Elf. Pop. 900. It has
iron and copper works, and the copper coin of the country
was formerly struck here.
AGA, in the Turkish language, signifies a great lord or
commander. Hence the aga of the janizaries is the com¬
mander-in-chief of that corps; as the general of horse is
denominated spachiclar aga. The aga of the janizaries is
an officer of great importance. He is the only person who
is allowed to appear before the grand signior without his
arms across his breast in the posture of a slave. Eunuchs
at Constantinople are in possession of most of the principal
posts of the seraglio: the title aga is given to them all,
whether in or out of employment. This title is also given
to all rich men without employ, and especially to wealthy
landholders.
We find also agas in other countries. The chief officers
under the khan of Tartary are called by this name; and
among the Algerines we read of agas chosen from among
the boluk bashis (the first rank of military officers), and sent
to govern in the chief towns and garrisons of that state.
The aga of Algiers is the president of the divan or senate.
For some years the aga was the supreme officer, and governed
the state in place of the bashaw, whose power dwindled to
a shadow. But the soldiery rising against the boluk bashis
or agas, massacred most of them, and transferred the sove¬
reign power to the caliph with the title ot'Dey or King.
AGADIR, or Santa Cruz, a seaport on the western
coast of Marocco, in Lat. 30. 26. 35. N. Long. 9. 35. 56. W.
It was, when possessed by the Portuguese, a strong fortress;
but it was captured by the Moors in 1536, and since that
time has decayed, and its former trade has been transferred
to Mogadore.
AGALMATA, in Antiquity, a term originally used to
signify any kind of ornaments in a temple, but afterwards
applied only to the statues, which were most conspicuous.
AGAMEMNON, the son of Plisthenes and Aerope, and
grandson of Atreus, or according to Homer, the son of
Atreus and grandson of Pelops. He was king of Mycena?
in Argos, and married Clytemnestra daughter of Tyndarus
king of Sparta. On the abduction of Helen the wife of his
AGA
brother Menelaus, by Paris, Agamemnon, as the most Aganippe
powerful prince in Greece, was chosen captain-general of II
the expedition against Troy. While the fleet lay at Aulis, Agapetas.
Agamemnon chanced in hunting to kill a stag sacred to the
goddess Diana, who punished the offence by sending a pes¬
tilence among the troops, and a dead calm, which retarded
the further progress of the expedition. The oracle, on being
consulted, demanded the sacrifice of Agamemnon’s daughter
Iphigenia, as the only expiation of the crime. While the
king was in the act of slaying his child, the goddess inter¬
vened, and carried her away to Tauris. Another victim
was substituted, and the fleet pursued its course to Troy.
Agamemnon’s quarrel with Achilles and its consequences
form the subject of the Iliad. After the taking of Troy, Aga¬
memnon returned home, carrying with him Cassandra daugh¬
ter of Priam, whom he had received as his prize. During
his absence Clytemnestra had formed an unlawful connection
with fEgisthus, who now sat on the throne of Mycenae.
Agamemnon was received into his palace by the adulterers,
and assassinated by their own hands. This horrible tragedy
forms the subject of the Agamemnon of /Eschylus.
AGANIPPE, in Antiquity, a fountain of Bceotia, at
Mount Helicon, on the borders between Phocis and Bceo¬
tia, sacred to the Muses, and running into the river Permes-
sus. Ovid seems to make Aganippe and Hippocrene the
same. Serenus more truly distinguishes them, and ascribes
the blending of them to poetical license. From this foun¬
tain the Muses derived their designation of Aganippides.
AGAPE, in Ecclesiastical History, the love-feast, or
feast of charity, in use among the primitive Christians, when
a liberal contribution was made by the rich to feed the
poor. The word is Greek, and signifies love. St Chrysos¬
tom gives the following account of this feast, which he de¬
rives from the apostolical practice. He says, “ The first
Christians had all things in common, as we read in the Acts
of the Apostles ; but when that equality of possessions
ceased, as it did even in the apostles’ time, the agape or love-
feast was substituted in the room of it. Upon certain days,
after partaking of the Lord’s Supper, they met at a common
feast; the rich bringing provisions, and the poor who had
nothing being invited.” It was always attended with receiv¬
ing the holy sacrament; but there is some difference between
the ancient and modern interpreters as to the circumstance
of time, viz. whether this feast was held before or after the
communion. St Chrysostom is of the latter opinion ; the
learned Dr Cave of the former. These love-feasts, during
the first three centuries, were held in the church without
scandal or offence; but in after times the heathens began
to tax them with impurity. This gave occasion to a refor¬
mation of these agapce. The kiss of charity, with which the
ceremony used to end, was no longer given between differ¬
ent sexes ; and it was expressly forbidden to have any beds
or couches for the conveniency of those who should be dis¬
posed to eat more at their ease. Notwithstanding these
precautions, the abuses committed in them became so no¬
torious, that the holding of them (in churches at least) was
solemnly condemned, at the Council of Carthage, in the
year 307.
AGAPET/E, in Ecclesiastical History, a name given to
certain virgins and widows, who, in the ancient church, as¬
sociated themselves with and attended on ecclesiastics, out
of a motive of piety and charity.
In the primitive days there were women instituted dea¬
conesses, who, devoting themselves to the service of the
church, took up their abode with the ministers, and assisted
them in their functions. In the fervour of the primitive
piety, there was nothing scandalous in these societies; but
they afterwards degenerated into libertinism; insomuch that
St Jerome asks, with indignation, unde agapetarum pestis
Agate.
A G A
Agapetus in ecclesias introiit ? This gave occasion for councils to
suppress them. St Athanasius mentions a priest, named
, Leontius, who, to remove all occasion of suspicion, offered
to mutilate himself, to preserve his beloved companion.
AGAPETUS, deacon of the church at Constantinople,
a. i>. 527, was the author of a work on the Duties of Princes,
which he presented to the emperor Justinian, who had been
his pupil. This work, known as the Charta Regia, caused
him to be ranked among the best writers of his age. It was
translated into English by Thos. Paynell in 1550.
AGARD, Authur, a learned English antiquary, born at
Foston, in Derbyshire, in the year 1540. His fondness for
English antiquities induced him to make many large collec¬
tions ; and his office as deputy-chamberlain of the exche¬
quer, which he held 45 years, gave him great opportunities
of acquiring skill in that study. Similarity of taste brought
him into acquaintance with Sir Robert Cotton and other
learned men, who associated themselves under the name of
The Society of Antiquaries, of which society Mr Agard was
a conspicuous member. He made the Domesday book his
peculiar study, and composed a work purposely to explain
it, under the title of Tractatus de Usu et obscuriorihus Ver¬
bis libri de Domesday. He also compiled a book for the
service of his successors in office, which he deposited with
the officers of the king’s receipt, as a proper index for suc¬
ceeding officers. All the rest of his collections, containing
at least 20 volumes, he bequeathed to Sir Robert Cotton.
He died in 1615.
AGARIC Mineral, a marly earth, resembling the ve¬
getable of that name in colour and texture.
AGARIC US, a genus of mushroom, a cryptogamian
plant. Some of the genus are excellent articles of food, as the
common mushroom, A. campestris, A.pratensis, &c.; others
are poisonous, as A. necator, A. acris, A. semiglobosus, &c.
AGASIAS, son of Dositheus, was a famous sculptor of
Ephesus, whose celebrated work, known under the erroneous
title of the Borghese Gladiator, is now in the Louvre. He
probably lived not earlier than the fourth century.
AGATE, or Achat (among the Greeks and Latins Aya-
-nys and Achates, from a river in Sicily, on the banks of which
it was first found), a name applied by mineralogists to a
siliceous stone of the quartz family, generally occurring in
rounded nodules, or in veins in trap rocks. The number of
agate balls in the rock often give it the character of amyg¬
daloid ; and when such a rock decomposes by the elements,
the agates drop out, and are found in the beds of streams
descending from such mountains ; or they may be obtained
in quarrying. Immense quantities are obtained from Ober-
stein and Idar, in Germany, and many are brought from
India and Brazil. Very large masses of chalcedony, a variety
of agate, are brought from Iceland, Feroe, and Brazil,
which often have a mammillated surface, and are very uni¬
form in colour. A large quantity of agate is found in Scot¬
land ; whence the stone is familiarly known to our lapidaries
as Scotch Pebble. Agate chiefly consists of chalcedony, with
mixtures of common quartz, and occasional patches of jas¬
per and opal. The colour delineations are often in concen¬
tric rings of varying forms and intensity, or in straight paral¬
lel layers or bands. The colours are chiefly gray, white, yel¬
low, or brownish-red. The composition of agate is not
uniform; but it usually contains from 70 to 96 per cent,
of silica, with varying proportions of alumina, coloured by
oxide of iron or manganese. The principal varieties are—
1. Chalcedony. In this the colours are in parallel bands.
Notwithstanding the compact structure of agate, it is now
known to be porous, though the eye cannot detect the ca¬
vities ; and this has given rise to a beautiful and important
process for heightening the natural colours of the stone arti¬
ficially. This has been long secretly practised at Ober-
A G A
stein and Idar, the seats of the great agate manufactories of
Europe, and probably has been long known in India, espe- '
cially for the production of the finely coloured Cornelians
and Mochas of that country. The stones best suited for
this purpose are such as when recently fractured most readily
imbibe moisture from the tongue ; and a rude guess is made
of the value of the specimen, by the quickness with which
the moisture disappears.
The stone is first dried without heat, and is then im¬
mersed in a mixture of a quarter of a pound of honey in a
pint of water; the whole is placed in an oven heated below
the boiling point, where it should remain for two or three
weeks, constantly covered with the liquid. At the end of
this time the stones are washed, dried, and introduced into
an earthenware vessel, containing sufficient sulphuric acid to
cover the stones; this vessel, covered with a lid, is next placed
in the oven, for a space varying from one to twelve hours,
according to the hardness of the stone. The agates are now
removed from the vessel, washed, and thoroughly dried;
after which they are kept in oil for twenty-four hours; the
od is removed by rubbing them with bran. The stones are
now cut and polished. In the best specimens, the gray
streaks are increased in intensity; some exhibit brown streaks
approaching to black, while white impenetrable parts as¬
sume a brighter hue by the contrast. This is the process
employed to convert the veined chalcedony or agate into
onyx, for the purposes of the lapidary, especially in the pro¬
duction of cameos and intaglios, in imitation of the antique
sculptured gems ; of which most admirable specimens have
descended to us, and are found in the cabinets of the curious,
especially in the Florentine Museum. In those minute but
exquisite works, the ancient Greeks especially excelled;
and curious specimens of the art are still found among the
tombs of Egypt, Assyria, and Etruria. Among the moderns
the Romans are the most successful imitators of antiquity;
and the name of Pickier was long mentioned as almost a
rival of the ancient engravers of gems. In such works the
figures, whether in relief or intaglio, appear of a different
colour from the ground.
A beautiful clear yellow is given to agate by digestion in
hydrochloric acid for two or three weeks, at a moderate heat.
The stone is first dried for two days in an oven, and im¬
mersed, when hot, in the acid; the jar is lined with clay,
and placed in an oven for the requisite time. When ex¬
amined, the muddy-brown streaks will be found of a rich
yellow. The change that takes place is probably on the
oxide of iron. Chalcedony has also been coloured, so as to
imitate the Turquoise; but the process is not divulged. It is
perhaps effected by immersing it in a solution of copper,
which is the colouring matter of Turquoise.
2. Carnelian, or red chalcedony, when found, is almost
always brownish or muddy. Both this sort and the yellowish-
brown varieties are converted into a rich red by roasting,
so as to rival the Indian carnelian, which probably also has
its colour heightened artificially. The following process is
employed at Oberstein, when the pale red stone becomes of
a bright full red, and the muddy yellow of a rich full cor¬
nelian hue. Such stones are first kept in an oven for two or
three weeks to dissipate moisture; they are then dipped in
sulphuric acid, and immediately exposed in a covered earth-
enware crucible to a red heat: the whole is allowed to cool
slowlythe stones are removed when cold, and washed. The
hydroxide of iron they naturally contained has lost its water,
and is more highly oxidated, and thus the full colour is pro¬
duced.
3. Mocha stones, originally brought from the East, are
clear grayish chalcedonies, with clouds and dashes of rich
brown of various shades. They probably owe their colour
chiefly to art.
231
Agate.
232
Agate
II
Agathias.
1 Ephem.
German.
dec.i, an. 1
obs. 151.
2 Be Gem.
1. ii. c. 95.
3 Pliny,
1. xxxvii.
e. 3.
A G A
4. Moss-agates are such as contain arborizations, or den¬
drites of oxide of iron : these seem in some instances to be
produced on real vegetable forms, as petrifactions; but some
of them are imitative forms that oxide of iron and man¬
ganese are known to assume. ^ .
5. Jasp-agate and Opal-agate, are mixtures ot agate with
these minerals. . ,
6. Plasma, a substance found in engraved stones in the
ruins of Rome, also on the Schwartzwald near Baden, and
on Mount Olympus, appears to be chalcedony, colouied by
oxide of iron, as it occurs in green-earth,
7. Chrysoprase is now considered as a quartz, or agate,
coloured by oxide of nickel.
Agates have been described with representations ot men,
animals, or inanimate natural objects; but we can now have
no hesitation in considering them as productions of art, or in¬
genious deceptions. Velschius had in his custody a flesh-
coloured agate, on one side of which appeared a half-moon in
oreat perfection, represented by a milky semicircle ; on the
other side, the phases of vesper, or the evening star; whence
he denominated it an aphrodisian agate. An agate is men¬
tioned by Kircher,1 on which was the representation of a
heroine armed; and one in the church of St Mark in Venice
• has the representation of a king’s head adorned with a dia¬
dem. On another, in the museum of the Prince of Gonzaga,
was represented the body of a man with all his clothes, in a
running attitude. A still more curious one is mentioned b\
De Boot,2 wherein appears a circle struck in brown, as ex¬
actly as if done with a pair of compasses, and in the middle
of the circle the exact figure of a bishop with a mitre on ;
but inverting the stone a little, another figure appears ; and
if it is turned yet farther, two others appear, the one of a
man, and the other of a woman. But the most celebrated
agate of this kind was that of Pyrrhus, wherein were repre¬
sented the nine Muses, with their proper attributes, and
Apollo in the middle playing on the harp.3 We have also
seen accounts of an oriental agate, of such size as to be
fashioned into a cup, with a diameter of an ell abating two
inches. In the cavity is found delineated in black specks,
b. xristor. s. xxx. Other agates have also been found,
representing tbe numbers 4191, 191; whence they were
called arithmetical agates, as those representing men or
women have obtained the name of anthropomorphous.
The agate is used for making cups, rings, seals, handles
for knives and forks, hilts for swords and hangers, rosary
beads, and a great variety of trinkets ; being cut or sawed
with no great difficulty. (T* S. t.)
Agate, among Antiquaries, denotes a stone of this kind
engraven by art.
Agate is also the name of an instrument used by gold-
wire drawers; so called from the agate in the middle of it,
which forms its principal part.
AGATHARCHUS, a Greek painter, commemorated by
Vitruvius for having first applied the laws of perspective to
architectural painting, which he successfully used in paint¬
ing scenery for the plays of iEschylus. He flourished about
480 years b.c.
AGATPIARCIDES, a celebrated geographer, who flou¬
rished about 140 years b.c., was born at Cnidos. His works
are lost, except those passges quoted by Diodorus Siculus,
and other authors, for his descriptions especially of the gold
mines of Upper Egypt, and his philosphical explanation of
the inundations of the Nile, which he ascribed to the rains on
the mountains of Ethiopia.—Hudson’s Greek Geographers.
AGATHERMUS, a Greek geographer of the third cen¬
tury, of whose works we only possess brief outlines.—Hud¬
son’s Greek Geographers.
AGATHIAS, or, as he calls himself in his epigrams,
Agathius, distinguished by the title of Scholasticus, a Greek
A Gr E
historian in the sixth century, in the reign of Justinian-
He was born at Myrina, a colony of the ancient yEolians, in
Asia the Less, at the mouth of the river Phythicus. He
was an advocate at Constantinople. Though he had a taste
for poetry, he was yet more famous for his history, which
begins with the 26th year of Justinian’s reign, where Proco¬
pius ends. It was printed in Greek and Latin by Vulcanius,
at Leyden, 1594, in 4to. The best edition is that of Nie¬
buhr, Bonn, 1828. *
AGATHO, the Athenian, a tragic and comic poet, was
the disciple of Prodicus and Socrates, and applauded by
Plato, in his Dialogues, for his virtue and beauty. His first
tragedy obtained the prize ; and he was crowned, in the pre¬
sence of upwards of 30,000 persons, in the fourth year of
the 90th Olympiad. There are no remains of his works,
excepting a few quotations in Aristotle, Athenaeus, and
others.
AGATHOCLES, the famous tyrant of Sicily, was the
son of a potter at Reggio. By his singular vigour and abi¬
lities, he raised himself through various gradations of rank,
till he finally made himself tyrant of Syracuse, and then of
all Sicily. He defeated the armies of the Carthaginians seve¬
ral times, both in Sicily and Africa. But meeting at length
with a reverse, and being in arrears with his soldiers, they
mutinied, forced him to fly his camp, and murdered his sons.
Recovering himself, he relieved Corfu, which was besieged
by Cassander; burnt the Macedonian fleet; and revenged
the death of his children by putting the murderers, with their
wives and families, to the sword. After ravaging the sea-
coast of Italy he took the city of Hipponium. He was at
length poisoned by his grandson Archagathus, in the 72d
year of his age, b.c. 290, having reigned 28 years.
AGATHYRNA or Agathyrnum, Agathyrsa or Aga-
thyrsum, a town of Sicily, now St Marco, as old as the war
of Troy, having been built by Agathyrnus, son of iEolus.
The gentilitious name is Agathyrnceus ; or, according to the
Roman idiom, Agathyrnensis.
AGBARUS. See Abgarus.
AGAVE, a botanical genus, of the natural order of Brom-
eliacece, including the American aloe. The principal species
is A. americana, a plant now naturalised in Spain, where it
forms very secure fences. It sends up a lofty spike of very
rapid growth, bearing a bunch of yellow flowers. I he leaves
are fleshy, long, and strong, carrying a formidable spine at
their extremity. The fermented juice of the stem is the
pulque of the native Mexican tribes. The fibres of the leaf
afford a very good material for cordage.
AGDE, a city of France, in the department of Herault.
It is seated on the river Herault between two and three miles
from its mouth, where it falls into the Gulf of Lyons, and
where there is a fort built to guard its entrarlce. The greater
part of the inhabitants are merchants or seamen. The city
is extended along the river where it forms a little port where¬
in ships of 200 tons may enter. Pop. in 1846, 8321.
AGE, in its most common acceptation, implies the whole
space of time through which anything has existed ; but the
term is frequently used in other senses too vague and figu¬
rative to be included under any general definition.
The age of this habitable globe has been much disputed.
Cuvier, Dolomieu, Deluc, and Greenough, concur in think¬
ing that not more than 5000 or 6000 years have elapsed
since the creation of man—Cuvier’s Theory of the Earth.
Josephus estimates the period that elapsed from the crea¬
tion of man to the deluge at 2256 years. The antediluvian
or obscure age was succeeded by the fabulous or heroic age,
in which the exploits of the gods and heroes of the ancients
were supposed to have been performed, extending down to
the first Olympiad, b.c. 776. To this succeeded the his¬
toric age, terminating with the destruction of Carthage by
Agatho
AGE
e. the Romans in b.c. 146. The period immediately following
has been denominated the Roman age, which extended down
to the fall of the Roman Empire in the West, a.d. 476. The
middle age is defined by some writers as that period extend¬
ing from the time of Constantine in the fourth century to
the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, a.d. 1453 ; but
it is more usually defined as dating from the division of the
empire of Theodosius, a.d. 395, down to the time of the em¬
peror Maximilian I., in the beginning of the sixteenth cen¬
tury, when the Germanic Empire was first divided into circles.
It has also been termed the barbarous age, and is commonly
divided into two periods ; the first extending from the sixth
to the ninth century, when learning was almost extinct in
Europe; the second dating from the ninth century, when
letters again began to flourish.
The term age has been applied metaphorically to sup¬
posed epochs in human civilisation : thus, in the mythology
of the Greek and Roman poets, there were four ages, dis¬
tinguished as the Golden, the Silver, the Brazen, and the
Iron ; the three latter being successively a farther declen¬
sion from the first or pristine state of purity and bliss. In
the first, mankind were supposed to have subsisted on the
spontaneous productions of nature, in a state of innocence
and happiness, without the necessity of laws or civil govern¬
ment. In the second, the earth no longer yielded its fruits
untilled, and the human heart first began to be corrupted.
In the third, emulation and discord arose, men grew more
and more selfish, and laws became necessary to restrain
human depravity. In the fourth, Astraea, the last of the
celestial sojourners on earth, withdrew from the contempla¬
tion of human wickedness, and abandoned the world to
violence, the scourge of wars, and desolation. The pro¬
priety of inverting the order of these four ages has been
urged, on the ground that civilisation has been steadily pro¬
gressive from the earliest times down to the present. How¬
ever this may be, the universal tradition of a golden age, or
primeval state of bliss, seems to favour the opinion that the
light of revealed religion was never wholly extinguished, but
may be traced exerting a remote influence on the human
mind, long after the source whence it was derived was lost
to the heathen world.
The term age is often used to denote any period that has
been distinguished by the occurrence of remarkable events,
or by the appearance of eminent persons; e. g. the age of
the crusades, of chivalry, of the reformation; or, the age of
Pericles, of Alexander, of Augustus, of Trajan, of Alfred,
of Chaucer, the Elizabethan age,—the age of Shakspeare,
of Newton, &c. The reign of Queen Anne has sometimes
been styled the Augustan age of English literature, from
its supposed resemblance to that illustrious period in the
literary history of Rome.
The several ages at which, with us, individuals become
legally qualified for certain ends, may be stated shortly as
follows, commencing with the earliest age so cognisable. An
infant under 10^ years of age is not amenable to the laws;
but above that age, the offender, without distinction of sex,
is responsible, if found to be capax doli, or competent to
distinguish between right and wrong: and although 14 is
fixed by the civil law as the age of criminal responsibility,
capital punishment has once been inflicted, for an artfully-
concealed murder (in 1629), at the early age of 8 years.
After 12, the oath of allegiance may be taken. The age of
puberty in either sex is 14, when each may choose guar¬
dians ; and formerly, if their discretion was proved, a male
at 14, and a female at 12, could execute a valid testament
of personal property, though not of lands: but by Viet. 1,
c. 26, it is enacted that no person can execute any valid
will under 21 years of age. The nubile age was fixed by
the Roman law at 14 for males, and 12 for females, which
VOL. II.
AGE 233
are the respective legal ages with us, when either sex may Age.
consent to marriage, with the approval of guardians ; yet it
may be observed, that many minors contract marriages with¬
out such sanction. In France, by the Code-Napoleon, the
nubile age is 18 for males, and 15 for females, under similar
restriction. At 17, a person of either sex may be an exe¬
cutor or executrix. The sovereignty of this realm is as¬
sumed at 18; though the law, according to Blackstone,
recognises no minority in the heir to the throne. The age
of majority, which gives to both sexes the free disposal of
themselves and their property, personal and real, is 21; at
which age a man is capable of enjoying most civil privileges.
In France the age of majority is the same. Among the
Romans, minority did not cease until the completion of the
25th year. A seat in the British Parliament may be taken
at 21: in the American House of Representatives at 25,
and in the Senate at 30. In France, the requisite age for
an elector was 25 : for a seat in the Chamber of Deputies,
30; and in the Chamber of Peers it was 25, though no
member of that Assembly could vote till 30. At Rome,
during the time of the republic, 32 was probably the sena¬
torial age; but it was fixed by Augustus at 25, and so it
continued during the time of the empire. It appears that
previous to the year b.c. 179, a citizen was eligible to most
offices in Rome after the completion of his 27th year: but
at that time it was enacted that the earliest age for the
quaestorship should be 31 ; for the aedileship, 36; for the
praetorship, 40; and for the consulate, 43,—though the law
respecting this last was frequently infringed, especially by
Julius Cassar. The age for admission to the Spartan Gerusia,
or Council of Elders, was 60. In the Church of England,
a candidate for holy orders may become a deacon at 23; be
ordained a priest at 24; and at 30 is eligible to a bishopric.
A licentiate of the Church of Scotland must not be under
21 years of age. The same is the age for admission to the
English or Scottish Bar, and for receiving the degree of
Doctor of Medicine in the University of Edinburgh, and in
most other colleges.
Age of Man.—We learn from the oldest and most au¬
thentic record of our race that the age of man has greatly
diminished from his first creation. The antediluvians at¬
tained an age nearly approaching one thousand years; and
during all the period from the creation of' man to the deluge,
his age did not diminish, seeing that the last of the antedi¬
luvians, Noah, lived 950 years, or twenty years longer than
Adam. From the period of the deluge however, the age
of man was suddenly shortened ; none born after that event
reached the age of 500 years, and even that age was lessened
by a-half, and again gradually shortened during succeeding
generations, till in the days of Moses it had reached that
standard from which it has not since departed. “ The days
of our years are threescore years and ten; and if by reason
of strength they be fourscore years, yet is their strength la¬
bour and sorrow.”
As the most remarkable instance of longevity in modern
times we may notice Petratsch Czartan, a Hungarian pea¬
sant, who was born in 1537, and died in 1722, at the patri¬
archal age of 185 years. See Longevity.
As applied to man the term age is often used to express the
duration of a generation. The ancients in using the term in
this sense intended to express a period of thirty years. Thus
Nestor is said to have lived three ages when he was ninety
years old. It is a remarkable instance of the correct obser¬
vation of the ancients, that the statistics of the countries of
Europe at present show that thirty years is the mean term
of the life of a generation. In our more favourable isle this
mean age or mean duration of a generation is somewhat
higher, being for London about thirty-one years, and ibr
England and Wales thirty-three years;—residence in the
234 AGE
Age. country being more favourable to health and longevity than
residence in towns. As a general rule, when the popula¬
tion is rapidly increasing, as in America, the mean age or
mean duration of a generation is lower than in an old coun¬
try where the population is nearly stationary.
The age of man has been variously divided into four, six,
and seven stages:—The latter being not only the poetical,
but the most correct physiologically. These seven stages
are, 1. Infancy; 2. Childhood; 3. Boy or Girlhood; 4.
Adolescence; 5. Manhood or Womanhood; 6. Age; 7.
Old Age or second childhood. These different periods are
more or less distinctly marked. Infancy is attended with
peculiar dangers, and extends to about the end of the second
year of life, by which time the first dentition is completed.
Childhood extends from this period to about the seventh
year, the termination of this period being marked by the
dropping out of the middle incisors, and the appearance of
the second set of teeth. Boyhood extends from the seventh
to about the fourteenth year, and during this period all the
first or milk set of teeth are replaced by the permanent ones.
Adolescence, youth, or puberty, generally commences some¬
what earlier in the female than in the male ; and extends in
both from about the fourteenth to the twenty-first year of
life. It commences with the evolution of the generative sys¬
tem ; and during this period the body attains its full height.
Womanhood lasts distinctly from the 21st to the 45th or
50th year, most generally to about the latter, at which period
the female ceases to be capable of procreation, and her con¬
stitution undergoes a complete change. Though less atten¬
tion has been paid to the duration of this stage in the male,
it is an unquestionable fact that about the 49th or 50th year
of life the male constitution also undergoes a change, and
fully justifies the notion of the ancients as to climacteric pe¬
riods of life. The period of life we have termed age, extend¬
ing generally from the 49th to the 63d year of life, has been
too commonly, but most erroneously, confounded with the
next stage, viz. old age. During the earlier portion of this
period, the body, instead of tending to decay, tends rather
to obesity. The maturity and strength of intellect too, con¬
tinue for the most part undiminished during all this stage.
In old age, the last stage of all, the body begins to shrink,
the muscles lose their tone, and not being able to sustain the
weight of the body, allow the limbs to bend more or less.
The hair becomes white ; the teeth drop out; all the senses
are blunted ; the intellect is feeble ; the circulation becomes
weaker; and death naturally closes the scene.
Age of Animals.—Comparatively few observations have
been made on the ages of animals. F rom observations founded
on some of the domestic animals, it has been stated that the
duration of the life of an animal is usually seven or eight
times longer than the period it takes to arrive at its full
growth. This rule applies pretty well to horses, oxen, sheep,
dogs, the camel, and even the elephant, but is quite inap¬
plicable to man, to many quadrupeds, birds, reptiles, or fishes.
Even were the rule applicable to animals, it would not enable
us from an examination of the animal to find out its age;
hence other means have been devised for determining the
age with a greater degree of certainty. Thus the age of the
horse may be pretty accurately determined by the examina¬
tion of the incisive teeth or nippers, but even these lose mark
at ten years, and the age of the horse after that period can¬
not be accurately ascertained. (See Horse.) In horned
cattle and deer, the age may, for a certain period of their life,
be pretty accurately guessed at by the appearance of the
horns. All deer shed their horns annually, and, in the males
of many species, each successive year adds one more branch
to the horns, till they attain a certain size, beyond which
they do not increase. Thus the common stag during the
first year of its life has a simple horn, called a pricket. This
AGE
falls off during the second year of its life, and is replaced by
a horn with one branch or antler. This in its turn falls off
during the third year, to be replaced by a horn with two
antlers ; and so on till the eighth year of life, when the horns
cease to acquire additional antlers, so that the future age of
the animal cannot be ascertained. The horns of oxen, sheep,
goats, and antelopes, being permanent, are simple, and grow
in a different manner. As a general rule, for a certain num¬
ber of years, a ring is added annually to the base of the horn,
and by this mark their age may be pretty accurately ascertained.
In sheep and goats the horn which grows the first year of life
is smooth; but every year after this a ring more or less
wrinkled is added to the base of the horn, and indicates their
age. It is probable that the same haw prevails with the ante¬
lopes. In oxen, again, the horn continues smooth for the
first three years of life, but every year thereafter, a wrinkled
ring is added to the base of the horns. By counting the
number of these rings, therefore, and adding three for the
first years when the horns are smooth, the age may be pretty
accurately known.
No sure indications exist by which the ages of birds, rep¬
tiles, or fishes, may be known.
Several curious facts, however, have been collected rela¬
tive to the age attained by various animals. The Indians
believe that the elephant lives three centuries ; and authen¬
tic instances are on record of their having been kept in cap¬
tivity for 130 years, their age being unknown at the period
of their being taken captive. Camels live from 40 to 50
years ; horses from 25 to 30 years, if not overworked ; oxen
about 20 years ; sheep 8 or 9 years ; dogs 12 to 14 years.
The longevity of some birds appears to be very great.
The swan has been known to live 100 years. Birds of prey,
and especially the eagle, have survived a century; and se¬
veral instances are on record of the raven having exceeded
that period. Parrots have been known to live 60 and 80
years. The gallinaceous birds, as domestic poultry and
pheasants, have short lives, rarely exceeding 12 or 15 years.
Of reptiles, so far as known, the tortoise seems to attain
the greatest age. One was placed in the archiepiscopal
garden at Lambeth in the year 1633 during the life of Arch¬
bishop Laud, and it survived till the year 1753, when it
perished from accident rather than old age. The toad is
know to live about 15 years. Nothing, however, is known
relative to the age of the gigantic boas or other serpents.
Of fishes, the carp has been known to attain the age of
200 years. We have seen the common river trout confined
in a well, one 30 years, the other upwards of 50 years, and
both still living. Rzaczynski mentions a pike which lived
in a pond a period of 90 years. Gesner relates that in 1497
an enormous pike was caught in a lake near Haillerun in
Suabia, with a brazen ring attached to it, bearing that it was
put into the lake in the year 1230 ; which ring is still pre¬
served at Mannheim. This pike, therefore, appears to have
reached the patriarchal age of 267 years at least.
Of the ages of the lower animals little is known. That of
insects has received most attention, and it is instructive to
note that, though the first period of life of many of these
animals (the caterpillar or grub) extends through a period
of several months, or even years, the great majority live but
a few days or weeks after they attain their perfect form. The
ephemera does not enjoy the pleasures of its aerial life above
a few hours ; the same day which brings it into perfect being
seeing it die.
It may be observed, as a general law of nature applicable
to all organised beings, that early maturity indicates short¬
ness of life, and that they are usually prolific in the inverse
ratio of their duration.
Age of Plants and Trees.—The great majority of plants
which adorn the face of the earth are annual and biennial—
AGE
Ageda. that is, spring from the seed, blossom, ripen their seeds, and
die, in one or in two years. Most of those, however, which
rise to the stature of shrubs or trees attain considerable age.
Of the palm trees it is very questionable whether any attain
a greater age than 200 years. As this class of plants, after
attaining a certain diameter, shoots up a straight stem which
never increases in diameter, and all the new wood which
every leaf necessarily produces insinuates its fibres into the
centre of the trunk, this trunk or stem necessarily becomes
more and more condensed, so that at last life or vegetation
ceases, from the fibres and vessels being too much com¬
pressed to conduct the sap to the growing top. Exogenous
trees, or those which grow by the addition of an annual
layer of wood superimposed of encircling those already
formed, may continue growing for an indefinite length of
time, and several of the trees which exist on the surface of
the globe may have witnessed the Noachian deluge. Of
this class is the Baobab tree of Senegal, with a girth of nearly
300 feet, reckoned by Adanson to be 5150 years old; the
gigantic Dracoena draco at Orotava, in Teneriffe, which
Humboldt classes with the Baobab as “ the oldest habitants
of our planetthe deciduous cypress at Chapultepec in
Mexico, supposed by the younger De Candolle to be of
equal antiquity with the two former; the chestnut trees on
Mount /Etna, of which one is 180 feet in circumference, an¬
other 70 feet, and another 64 feet; and the oriental plane
tree, in the valley of Bujukdere, near Constantinople,
which measures 150 feet in circumference. Of trees of
known age are the eight olive trees which still exist in the
garden on the Mount of Olives at Jerusalem, and which
historical documents prove to have existed prior to the taking
of that city by the Turks. These trees, consequently, ex¬
ceed 800 years in age. The yew tree is proverbial for the
great age it sometimes attains. The yews at Fountains
Abbey in Yorkshire were considered old trees when the
Abbey was erected in 1132, and are probably more than
1200 years old. The old yew formerly in Fortingal church¬
yard, in Perthshire, was probably double that age, and was
56^ feet in circumference. At Ankerwyke House, near
Staines, is the yew tree known as a tree of note before the
day of Runnymede (5th June 1215); and many other in¬
stances might be adduced. Oaks have frequently been cut
down in the New Forest which presented 300 and 400 con¬
centric rings, each of which indicated a year’s growth. But
many oaks exist of much larger dimensions, and con¬
sequently of much greater age, probably exceeding 1200
years. Thus, an oak was felled at Norburg, as is related
by Dr Plott, of the enormous circumference of 45 feet, and
the Boddington oak, in the vale of Gloucester, was 54 feet
in circumference. Damory’s oak in Dorsetshire was 68
feet in circumference, and, according to the common cal¬
culation, was 2000 years of age. Wallace’s oak at Ellersley,
near Paisley, must be at least 700 years old, but its age is
trifling as compared with the forementioned giants. The
cypress has been known to attain the age of 800 years. A
lime tree in the Orisons, measuring 51 feet in circumference,
is known to be upwards of 580 years old. It is doubtful
whether the elm ever reaches the age of 300 years. One
planted by Henry IV. was standing at the Luxembourg,
at the commencement of the French Revolution. Bacon’s
elms in Gray’s Inn Walks, planted in 1600, decayed
prematurely in 1720; and the elms in the Long Walk at
Windsor, planted in the beginning of the last century, are
evidently past their prime, though still noble trees.
AGEDA, Synod of, an assembly of Jewish doctors in the
year 1650, who met in the plain of this name, about thirty
leagues distant from Buda, for the purpose of debating whe¬
ther the Messiah had appeared. The meeting was attended
by more than 300 rabbis, and many other Jews of different
AGE 235
nations, and the question was decided in the negative. Some Agela
ecclesiastics from Rome were present, but the multitude re- II
fused to hear them. Agenhine.
AGELA, in Antiquity, an assembly of the sons of the
noblest families in Crete, who lived together from their
eighteenth year, and were instructed in manly exercises at
the expense of the state until the time of their nuptials,
which were solemnized simultaneously. The Agela! were
exclusively aristocratic. At Sparta, seven was the age for
entering the BoDat.
AGELADAS, an eminent statuary of Argos, and the
instructor of the three great sculptors, Phidias, Myron, and
Polycletus.
AGELNOTH, Egelxoth, or TEtiielnoth, in Latin
Achelnotus, archbishop of Canterbury in the reign of Canute
the Great, succeeded Livingus in that see in the year 1020.
This prelate, surnamed the Good, was son of Earl Agilmer,
and at the time of his election, dean of Canterbury. After
his promotion he went to Rome, and received his pall from
Pope Benedict VIII. On his way thither, as he passed
through Pavia, he purchased, for a hundred talents of silver
and one of gold, St Augustin’s arm, which was kept there
as a relic, and sent it over to England as a present to Leofric,
earl of Coventry. Upon his return, he is said to have raised
the see of Canterbury to its former dignity. He was much
in favour with King Canute, and employed his interest with
that monarch to good purposes. By his advice the king sent
over large sums of money for the support of the foreign
churches ; and William of Malmesbury observes, that this
prince was prompted to acts of piety, and restrained from ex¬
cesses, by the regard he had for the archbishop. Agelnoth,
after he had sat 17 years in the see of Canterbury, died Oc¬
tober 29, 1038, and was succeeded by Eadsius, King Harold’s
chaplain. He was the author of, LA panegyric on the
blessed Virgin Mary ; 2. A Letter to Earl Leofric concern¬
ing St Augustin; 3. Letters to several persons.
AGEMA, in Macedonian Antiquity, was a body of sol¬
diers, not unlike the Roman legion.
AGEN, an arrondissement in the department of Lot
and Garonne, containing 9 cantons, 72 communes, and
85,149 inhabitants. The chief town of the same name is
situate on the right bank of the Garonne, about 75 miles
south-east of Bordeaux. It has a sail-cloth manufactory, a
college, several literary institutions, and is the seat of a bishop
and a royal court of justice. Here is a fine bridge of 11
arches over the Garonne. In this neighbourhood some me¬
teoric stones fell in July 1790. In 1846 the population was
14,091.
AGENDA, among Philosophers and Divines, signifies the
duties which a man lies under an obligation to perform.
Thus we meet with the agenda of a Christian, or the duties
he ought to perform; in opposition to the credenda, or things
he is to believe.
Agenda, among Merchants, a term sometimes used for
a memorandum-book, in which is set down all the business
to be transacted during the day, either at home or abroad.
Agenda, among Ecclesiastical Writers denotes the ser¬
vice or office of the church. We meet with agenda muta-
tina et vespertina, the morning and evening prayers; agenda
diei, the office of the day, whether feast or fast; agenda
mortuorum, called also simply, agenda, the service of the
dead.
Agenda is also applied to certain church-books, compiled
by public authority, prescribing the order and manner to be
observed by the ministers and people in the principal cere¬
monies and devotions of the church ; in which sense agenda
amounts to the same with what is otherwise called ritual,
liturgy, acolouthia, missal, formulary, directory, fyc.
AGENHINE, in our old writers, signifies a guest that
236 AGE
Agenois has lodged at an inn for three nights, after which time he
II was accounted one of the family ; and if he offended the
Agent. king,g
peace, his host was answerable for him. It is also
written Hogenhine and Hogexhyxe.
AGENOIS, a country of France, in the department of
the Garonne, formerly the province of Guienne. It con¬
tained about one hundred and twenty square leagues, was
fertile and healthful, and, according to Caesar, was inhabited
by the Nitiobriges. It constituted part of the kingdom of
Aquitania: was held by the counts of I oulouse, and suc¬
cessively by the English and French.
AGENT, in a general sense, denotes any active power
or cause. Agents are either natural or moral. Natural
agents are such inanimate powers as act upon other bodies
in a certain and determinate manner: as gravity, fire, &c.
Moral agents, on the contrary, are rational creatures, capa¬
ble of regulating their actions by a certain rule.
Agent, in Diplomacy, Commerce, and Jurisprudence.—
This word applies generally to any person who acts for an¬
other. It has probably been adopted from France, as its
function in modern civil law was otherwise expressed in
Roman jurisprudence. Ducange tells us that in the eastern
empire the important officers who collected the grain in the
provinces for the troops and the household, and afterwards
extended their functions so as to include those of govern¬
ment postmasters, came to be called agentes in rebus, though
their earlier name was frumentarii.
In Diplomacy, a class of semi-ambassadors termed agents
have been employed generally between states of unequal
power. The small community might send an agent to pro¬
pitiate some powerful government, and secure its protection.
A great power would, on the other hand, distribute its agents
among the petty states which it kept in clientage, to see that
no counteracting influence was at work among them. In
this shape our Indian government keep agencies in the pro¬
tected and other neighbouring states. In countries within
the operation of the laws of diplomacy, an agent has the
privilege of personal protection, and sometimes that of ex¬
emption from direct taxes, but he has not the ambassador’s
prerogative of communicating directly with the sovereign.
See Ambassador; Diplomacy.
The law of principal and agent is one of those which have
arisen in common practice regulated by jurisprudential
theory. It involves nice and subtle distinctions, which are
not merely theoretical, but have been found of eminent
practical utility in the affairs of active life, for the service of
which they have been created from time to time, by saga¬
cious jurists. They had their origin in the subtleties of the
law of mandate among the Romans, whence they spread
through the different countries of Europe. It is perhaps for¬
tunate that in England the spirit of the Justinian system
thus pervades this branch, and that it is but little affected
by the conventional peculiarities of the common law. This
renders the law of agency almost alike throughout the
whole British empire, and produces the farther result, that a
branch of the British commercial code, in which it is of great
importance that different nations should understand each
other’s system, differs only slightly from the corresponding
branch of the law throughout the rest of Europe. The main
features of a general view of the law of agency involve the
adjustment of the rights and duties of the principal, the
agent, and the public. The agent should not do what he
has no authority for, yet if he be seen to have authority,
those with whom he deals should not be injured by secret
and unusual conditions. The employer is bound by what
his agent does in his name, but the public are not entitled
to take advantage of obligations which are known to be un¬
authorised and unusual. The agent is entitled to demand
performance by the principal of the obligations undertaken
AGE
by him within the bounds of his commission, but he is not en- Agent,
titled to pledge him with a recklessness which he would cer- v—
tainly avoid in the management of his own affairs. It is in
the regulation of these powers and corresponding checks in
such a manner that the legal principle shall apply to daily
practice, that the niceties of this branch of the law con¬
sist.
Agents are of different kinds, according to their stipulated
or consuetudinary powers. The main restraint in the pos¬
sible powers of an agent is in the old maxim, delegatus non
potest delegare, designed to check the complexity that might
be created by inquiries into repeatedly deputed responsi¬
bility. But in practice this principle is modified. The agent
cannot delegate his commission, or put another in his own
place; but it is often a part of his function that he is
to employ, for the accomplishment of certain objects, per¬
sons who are themselves agents. Thus, there is nothing to
prevent a commercial agent from sending a portion of the
goods entrusted by him to his own agent for disposal. In
the general case, the authority may pass from the principal
to the agent, either verbally or in writing. The English
statute of frauds requires an agent to have authority in
writing for the purposes of its 1st, 2d, and 3d clauses relat¬
ing to leases. “ And it is a general rule, that an agent who
has to execute a deed, or to take or give livery or seisin,
must be appointed by deed for that purpose. Moreover, as
a corporation aggregate can in general act only by deed, its
agent must be so appointed, though it would seem that
some trifling agencies, even for corporations, may be ap¬
pointed without one; and there is one case in which it
was considered that a corporation might, without deed, em¬
power an agent to do acts in the common course of its cor¬
porate business, or to make notes for a banking corpora¬
tion.” (Smith’s Commercial Law, B. I. chap, v.) It is a
general rule, that those obligations which can only be un¬
dertaken by solemn formalities cannot be entered on by a
delegate who has not received his authority in writing.
Agency is, however, often constituted, at the same time
that its extent is defined, by mere appointment to some
mandatory function—as where one is appointed agent for a
banking establishment, factor for a merchant, broker, super¬
cargo, traveller, or attorney. In these cases, usage defines
pretty strictly the powers granted to the agent; and the em¬
ployer will not readily be subjected to obligations going
beyond the usual functions of the office; nor will the pub¬
lic dealing with the agent be bound by private instructions
inconsistent with its usual character. While, however, the
public, ignorant of such secret limitations, are not bound
to respect them, the agent himself is liable for the conse¬
quences of transgressing them. There is another method
by which agency may either be created or enlarged—im¬
plication. What the agent has done with his principal’s
consent, the public are justified in believing him authorised
to continue doing. Thus, as a familiar instance, the servant
who has continued to purchase goods for his master at a
particular shop on credit, is presumed to retain authority
and trust, and pledges his master’s credit in farther pur¬
chases, though he should apply the articles to his own uses.
The law is ever jealous in admitting as accessories of a ge¬
neral appointment to any particular agency the power to
borrow money in the principal’s name, to give his name to
bill transactions, and to pledge him to guaranties; but all
these acts may be authorised by implication, or by being
the continuation of a series of transactions, to the prece¬
dents of which the principal has given his sanction. Thus
an employer may, by the previous sanction of such opera¬
tions, be liable for the bills or notes drawn, indorsed, and
accepted by his clerk, or other mandatory; nay, may be
responsible for the obligations thus incurred after the man-
AGE
Agent, datory’s dismissal, if the party dealing with him knew that
he was countenanced in such transactions, and had no rea¬
son to suppose that he was dismissed. The unpleasant re¬
sponsibilities thus created have often suggested the pro¬
priety of some system of publishing the cessation of agency,
after the manner in which dissolutions of partnerships are
gazetted. It is true that every principal has the means of
specially warning the public not to confide in the agent he
has ceased to employ, but the merely occasional use of pre¬
caution makes it invidious, and sometimes cruel.
The law of principal and agent, though of a purely con¬
suetudinary character, has, by the sound foresight of great
lawyers, been so well adjusted on the whole to the exigen¬
cies of society, that pariiament has only found it necessary
to interfere in one department of it. The law applicable to
a mercantile agent’s power to pledge, or otherwise dispose
of the goods entrusted to him being in an unsatisfactory
state, a statutory remedy was applied to it by an act of
1825 (6th Geo. IV. c. 94), which required amendment in
1842 (5th and 6th Viet. c. 39). It is to be regretted that these
statutes, intended to regulate merchants in the transaction
of their business, should have been framed with all the
worst technicalities and elaborate complexities, which are
never necessary, but would be less mischievous in acts for
the guidance of professional or official men.
The general object of these measures is, to make trans¬
actions with an agent in possessions of goods as safe as deal¬
ing with the owner, to all who treat with him as purchasers
or otherwise, in good faith, and in ignorance of his want of
ownership. Thus, when an agent ships goods in his
own name, the consignee is entitled to a lien on them
for any advances to the agent, or liabilities on bills or
notes. The presumption in such cases is ownership; and
the burden of disproving it, as well as of showing that the
consignee was aware of the mere agency, falls on the person
questioning the validity. By the statutes, the person in
possession of a bill of lading, dock warrant, warehouse¬
keeper’s certificate, wharfinger’s certificate, or other de¬
livery warrant, is held the owner of the goods it represents,
so as to render valid any transaction for their sale or other
disposal to parties ignorant of the limited ownership. Be¬
sides their effect in rendering valid, in this more compre¬
hensive manner, operations conducted under the appearance
and supposition of absolute ownership, the acts have sepa¬
rate provisions for the security of those who deal with agents
knowing them to be such. Any purchase from the agent, or
payment of price to him, is declared to be effective against
the principal, “provided such contract and payment be
made in the usual and ordinary course of business,” and
that the party, when he made the purchase, or paid the
price, was not specially warned, that the agent had no autho¬
rity to sell or receive money for his principal. By the ear¬
lier act, the extent to which an impledgment by an agent
was made effective, was only to the extent of covering the
amount of his own claims against the principal. The act
of Victoria, in the preamble, that advances on goods and de¬
livery orders are part of the usual and ordinary course of
business, enlarges the freedom of disposal, and provides that
the agent is to be held as owner, to the effect of affording
validity “ to any contract or agreement by way of pledge,
lien, or security, bona fide made by any person with such
agentalthough it be knowm that he is merely an agent,
provided it be not also known that he is acting fraudulently,
and without authority. The interest of the principal is for¬
tified by severe penal provisions against agents acting fraud¬
ulently ; but it is provided that no agent is to be held
fraudulent, who pledges merely for the amount due to him
by his principal, or for which he has rendered himself liable
by acceptances.
AGE 237
This necessarily very brief outline applies to the consti- Ager
tution of agency, which, as involving those questions where II
not only the two parties to the contract but the rest of the Agesilaus-
public, are concerned, is by far the most important branch
of the subject. The others, which may be more briefly no¬
ticed, comprehend the mutual and reciprocal rights and obli¬
gations of the principal and agent. These can always be
regulated by agreement. The obligations on the principal
are, to pay the agent’s remuneration, and honour the obli¬
gations lawfully undertaken for him. The responsibilities
of the agent involve greater niceties. He is responsible for
the possession of the proper skill and means for carrying out
the functions which he undertakes. He must devote to the
interests of his employer such care and attention as a man
of ordinary prudence bestows on his own—a duty capable
of no more certain definition, the application of it as a fixed
rule being the function of a jury. In some instances the
law interposes to remove him from temptation to sacrifice
his employer’s interests to his own: Thus, when he is em¬
ployed to buy, he must not be the seller; and when em¬
ployed to sell, he must not be the purchaser. He ought
only to deal with persons in good credit, but he is not re¬
sponsible for their absolute solvency unless he guarantee
them. A mercantile agent guaranteeing the payments he
treats for is said to hold a del credere commission. Doubt¬
ful questions often arise as to the extent to which an agent
may save expense to his employer, and take credit for the
amount. Thus, it used to be said that an agent cannot take
credit for home customs or excise dues which he has evaded,
but that he may for foreign; but, at the present day, cer¬
tainly neither claim could be supported.
In Scotland, the procurators or solicitors who act in the
preparation of cases in the various law-courts, and all who
take out the attorney-license are called agents. See At¬
torney.
In France, the Agents de Change were formerly the class
generally licensed for conducting all negotiations, as they
were termed, whether in commerce or the money market. Of
late the term has been practically limited to those who con¬
duct, like our stockbrokers, transactions in public stock ; and
it is understood that it is rather as speculators than as agents
that the majority of them adopt the profession. The laws
and regulations as to courtiers, or those whose functions
were more distinctly confined to transactions in merchandise,
have been mixed up with those applicable to agents de change.
Down to the year 1572, both functions were free; but at
that period, partly for financial reasons, a system of licensing
was adopted at the suggestion of the Chancellor I’Hopital.
Among the other revolutionary measures of the year 1791,
the professions of agent and courtier were again opened to
the public. Many of the financial convulsions of the ensu¬
ing years, which were due to more serious causes, were at¬
tributed to this indiscriminate removal of restrictions, and
they were re-imposed in 1801. From that period regula¬
tions have been made from time to time as to the qualifica¬
tions of agents, the security to be found by them, and the
like. (j. h. b.)
AGER, in Homan Antiquity, a certain portion of land
allowed to each citizen.
AGER Picenus, or Picenum, in Ancient Geography, a
territory of Italy, to the south-east of Umbria, reaching from
the Apennines to the Adriatic. The people are called
Picentes (Cicero, Livy), distinct from the Picentini on the
Tuscan Sea, though called by Greek writers UtKevrivot.
This name is said to be derived from the bird pious, under
whose conduct they removed from the Sabines, of whom
they were a colony.
AGESILAUS II., king of the Lacedemonians, son of
Archidamus II., was raised to the throne in opposition to the
238 A G G
Agger superior claim of his nephew Leotychides. Immediately on
II his accession, he advised the Lacedemonians to anticipate
Aggerhuus the king of Persia, who was making great preparations for
war, and to attack him in his own dominions. He was him¬
self chosen for this expedition, and gained so many advan¬
tages over the enemy, that if the league which the Athe¬
nians and the Thebans formed against the Lacedemonians
had not obliged him to return home, he would have carried
his victorious arms into the very heart of the Persian em¬
pire. He gave up, however, all these triumphs readily, to
come to the succour of his country, which he happily re¬
lieved by his victory over the allies in Bceotia. He ob¬
tained another near Corinth ; but, to his great mortification,
the Thebans afterwards gained several over the Lacedemo¬
nians. These misfortunes at first raised a clamour against
him. He had been sick during the first advantages which
the enemy gained; but as soon as he was able to act in
person, his valour and prudence prevented the Thebans
from reaping the advantages of their victories; so that it
was generally believed, had he been in health at the begin¬
ning, the Lacedemonians would have sustained no losses,
and that without him all would have been lost. It cannot
be denied, however, that his fondness for war occasioned
many losses to his countrymen, and led them into enter¬
prises which in the end contributed much to weaken their
power. He died in the third year of the 103d Olympiad,
being the 84th year of his age and 38th of his reign, and was
succeeded by his son Archidamus. Agesilaus would never
suffer any picture or sculpture to be made of him, and prohi¬
bited it also by his will. This he is supposed to have done
from a consciousness of his own deformity; for he was of
short stature, and lame of one foot, so that strangers used
to despise him at the first sight. Agesilaus was extremely
fond of his children, and would often amuse himself by join¬
ing in their diversions. One day when he was surprised
riding upon a stick with them, he said to a person who had
seen him in this posture, “Forbear talking of it till you are
a father.”
AGGER, in the Ancient Military Art, a work of fortifica¬
tion, used both for the defence and the attack of towns,
camps, &c.; in which sense it is the same with what was
otherwise called vallum, and in later times aggestum ; and,
among the moderns, lines, sometimes cavaliers, terrasses,
&c. The agger was usually a bank or elevation of earth or
other matter, bound and supported with timber; having
sometimes turrets on the top, wherein the workmen, en¬
gineers, and soldiery were placed. It was also accompanied
with a ditch, which served as its chief defence.
The height of the agger was frequently equal to that of
the wall of the place. Caesar tells us of one he made which
was 30 feet high and 330 feet broad. Besides the use of
aggers before towns, the generals used to fortify their camps
with such works.
Agger, in Ancient Writers, likewise denotes the middle
part of a military road, raised into a ridge, with a gentle
slope on either side, to make a drain for the water, and keep
the way dry.—The term is also used for the whole road or
military way. Where highways were to be made in low
grounds, as between two hills, the Romans used to raise
them above the adjacent land, so as to make them on a level
with the hills. These banks they called aggeres. Bergier
mentions several in Gallia Belgica, which were thus raised,
ten, fifteen, or twenty feet above ground.
AGGERHUUS, one of the provinces or dioceses into
which the kingdom of Norway is divided. It extends over
31,050 square miles, with a population, in December 1845,
of 519,890 inhabitants. It is a very mountainous and most
romantic district, abounding in woods, rivers, cascades, and
lakes, with some moderately fruitful spots in the narrow
A G I
valleys. The climate is raw and cold, and the frosts usually Aggerhuus
continue till May. The corn is scarcely sufficient for the . II
consumption, though fish and potatoes are extensively used Mdncourt-
as food. The chief trade is in deals, pitch, and tar, with '"
some iron, butter, tallow, and hides. The inhabitants all
speak the peculiar language of Norway, a dialect of the
Teutonic mixed with the Celtic. They are all of the Lu¬
theran confession, and have 307 parish churches and chapels.
Aggerhuus, a bailiwick in the see of the same name, in
Norway. It is in the middle of the see, near the lake of
Christiania, and comprehends 2 cities, 5 market towns, 22
parishes, and 109,432 inhabitants.
AGGLUTINANTS, in Pharmacy, a general name for
all medicines of a glutinous or viscid nature ; which, by ad¬
hering to the solids, were supposed to contribute to repair
their loss.
AGGREGATION, in Physics, a species of union,
whereby several things which have no natural dependence
or connection with one another are collected together, so
as in some sense to constitute one. Thus, a heap of sand,
or a mass of ruins, is a body by aggregation.
AGHORI, a fraternity that infests almost every town in
the upper provinces of Hindostan, especially Behar. Their
religion teaches them to act in almost every thing contrary
to the rules of caste, which they altogether despise; and,
going to the opposite extreme, they eat all kinds of food,
such even as those who do not respect caste abhor.
AGHRIM, or Aughrim, in Galway, a small village, about
95 miles from Dublin, and rendered memorable by a deci¬
sive battle fought there and at Kilcommodon-hill on the
12th of July 1691, between General Ginkell and Monsieur
St Ruth, who commanded respectively under King William
III. and James II. St Ruth was slain, with 7000 of his
men: the loss of the English was only 700. The victory
was the more brilliant, as the English army consisted of no
more than 18,000 men, whereas the Irish were computed
at 20,000 foot and 5000 horse and dragoons. They lost
likewise nine pieces of brass cannon; all their ammunition,
tents, and baggage; and most of their small-arms, which
they threw away to expedite their flight; with 11 standards,
and 32 pair of colours.
AGINGOURT, a French village in the department of
the Pas de Calais, situate in N. Lat. 50. 35. E. Long. 2. 10.
famous on account of the victory obtained there by Henry
V. of England over the French.
On the morning of Friday the memorable 25 th of October,
a.h. 1415, the day of Crispin and Crispianus, the English
and French armies were ranged in order of battle, each in
three lines, with bodies of cavalry on each wing. The Con¬
stable d’Albert, who commanded the French army, fell into
the snare that was laid for him, by drawing up his army in
the narrow plain between the two woods. This deprived
him, in a great measure, of the advantage he should have
derived from the prodigious superiority of his numbers;
obliged him to make his lines unnecessarily deep, about
thirty men in file; to crowd his troops, particularly his ca¬
valry, so close together, that they could hardly move or use
their arms; and, in a word, was the chief cause of all the
disasters that followed. The French, it is said, had a con¬
siderable number of cannon of different sizes in the field;
but we do not hear that they did any execution, probably
for want of room. The numbers of the French are differ¬
ently stated, the estimates varying from 50,000 to 150,000
men. The first line was commanded by the Constable
d’Albert, the Dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, and many
other nobles; the Dukes of Alenqon, Brabant, and Bar,
&c. conducted the second line; and the Earls of Marie,
Damartine, Fauconberg, &c. were at the head of the third
line. The King of England employed various arts to supply
A G I
A G I
239
Agio, his defect of numbers. He placed 200 of his best archers
^ in ambush, in a low meadow, on the flank of the first line of
the French. His own first line consisted wholly of archers,
four in file, each of whom, besides his bow and arrows, had
a battle-axe, a sword, and a stake pointed with iron at both
ends, which he fixed before him in the ground, the point
inclining outwards, to protect him from cavalry. This was
a new invention, and had a happy effect. That he might
not be encumbered, he dismissed all his prisoners on their
word of honour to surrender themselves at Calais if he ob¬
tained the victory, and lodged all his baggage near the vil¬
lage of Maisoncelle, in his rear, under a slender guard. The
main body of the English army, consisting of men-at-arms,
was commanded by Henry in person; the vanguard, com¬
mitted to Edward Duke of York, at his particular request,
was posted as a wing to the right; and the rearguard, com¬
manded by Lord Camois, as a wing on the left. The archers
were placed between the wings, in the form of a wedge.
The lines being formed, the king, in shining armour, with
a crown of gold adorned with precious stones on his helmet,
mounted on a fine white horse, rode along them, and ad¬
dressed each corps with a cheerful countenance and ani¬
mating speeches. To inflame their resentment against their
enemies, he told them that the French had determined to
cut off three fingers of the right hand of every prisoner;
and to rouse their love of honour, he declared, that every
soldier in that army who behaved well should from hence¬
forth be deemed a gentleman, and entitled to bear coat
armour.
When the two armies were drawn up in this manner, they
stood a considerable time gazing at one another in solemn
silence. But the king, dreading that the French would
discover the danger of their situation, and decline a battle,
commanded the charge to be sounded, about ten o’clock in
the forenoon. At that instant the first line of the English
kneeled down and kissed the ground; and then starting up,
discharged a flight of arrows, which did great execution
among the crowded ranks of the French. Immediately
after, upon a signal being given, the archers in ambush arose,
and discharged their arrows on the flank of the French line,
and threw it into some disorder. The battle now became
general, and raged with uncommon fury. The English
archers, having expended all their arrows, threw away their
bows, and rushing forward, made dreadful havock with their
swords and battle-axes. The first line of the enemy was
by these means defeated, its leaders being either killed or
taken prisoners. The second line, commanded by the Duke
d’Alenqon (who had made a vow either to kill or take the
King of England, or to perish in the attempt), now advanced
to the charge, and was encountered by the second line of
the English, conducted by the King. This conflict was more
close and furious than the former. The Duke of Gloucester,
wounded and unhorsed, was protected by his royal brother
till he was carried off the field. The Duke d’Alenqon
forced his way to the king, and assaulted him with great
fury; but that prince brought him to the ground, where he
was instantly despatched. Discouraged by this disaster, the
second line made no more resistance, and the third fled with¬
out striking a blow; yielding a complete and glorious victory
to the English, after a violent struggle of three hours’ dura¬
tion.—Henry’s Britain ; and Battle of Agincourt, by Sir H.
Nicolas.
AGIO, a term used in Commerce, to denote the differ¬
ence between the real and the nominal value of money. In
some states the coinage is so debased, that the real is greatly
reduced below the nominal value. Sometimes this is owing
to abrasion, and the wear of circulation. Where this reduc¬
tion amounts, e. g. to 5 per cent., if 100 sovereigns were
offered as payment of a debt in England, while such sove¬
reigns were current at their nominal value, they would be
received as just payment; but if they were offered as pay¬
ment of the same amount of debt in a foreign state, they
would be received only at their intrinsic value of L.95, the
additional L.5 constituting the Agio. The same principle
is applied to the paper currency of a country, when reduced
below the bullion value which it professes to represent. Ac¬
cording to the respective demand for gold or paper money
for the purposes of commerce, it becomes necessary, in order
to procure the one or other, as the case may require, to pay
a premium for it, which is called the Agio.
AGIOSYMANDRUM, a wooden instrument used by
the Greek and other churches, under the dominion of the
Turks, to call together assemblies of the people. The agio-
symandrum was introduced in the place of bells, which the
Turks prohibited their Christian subjects the use of, lest
they should make them subservient to sedition.
AGIS. Four kings of this name reigned at different pe¬
riods in Sparta. The first of the name was the son of Eu-
rysthenes, and is supposed to have reigned about 1032 b.c.
The designation of Helots, is said to have had its rise in his
time, from the unsuccessful revolt and final enthralment of
the inhabitants of Helos by the Spartans.
Agis II. succeeded his father Archidamus, and reigned
from 427 to 399 b.c. He was an able and successfid gene¬
ral, and headed the Spartans at the great and decisive bat¬
tle of Mantineia.
Agis II. succeeded his father Archidamus VI. b.c. 338.
He took an active part in the league of the Grecian states
against Alexander the Great, and at the head of their forces
defeated a Macedonian army under Corragus. He was slain
about 331 b.c., in a battle with Antipater, under the walls
of Megalopolis.
Agis IV., son of Eudamidas II., and lineally descended
from Agesilaus II., succeeded his father b.c. 244, and reigned
four years. The degenerate state of the Spartan common¬
wealth moved him to attempt a reformation by restoring the
institutions of Lycurgus, and, in the spirit of a true refor¬
mer, he set the example in his own person and household.
His excellent intentions were seconded by all the younger
and poorer portion of the community; but the rich and luxu¬
rious were vehemently opposed to measures which threat¬
ened to interfere so seriously with their influence and plea¬
sures. His colleague, Leonidas, headed the opposition, and
busily propagated the suspicion that Agis aspired to tyranny,
by levelling the just distinctions of society, and increasing
the power of the multitude. Agis was supported by the in¬
fluence of his uncle Agesilaus, who, being deeply in debt,
was highly favourable to the proposed changes. Lysander
and Mandroclides, two of the ephori, were also strenuous
promoters of the reform. When the time came for Agis to
propose in the senate a general discharge of debts, and a
new division of lands, the measure was lost by a minority of
one. The triumph of Leonidas, however, was short. Being
accused by Lysander of having violated the laws, he took
refuge in the temple of Minerva, and refusing to appear in
his own defence, was degraded from his dignity, and banished
to Tegaea. His son-in-law, Cleombrotus, was elected in
his stead. The next election of ephori proved unfavourable
to the party of Agis. Lysander and Mandroclides were
tried for innovation, but succeeded in persuading the two
kings to eject the new magistrates out of office, which was
effected in the midst of much tumult. The reformation
might now have been established, but for the intrigues of
Agesilaus, whose selfish schemes counteracted the good in¬
tentions of the two kings. At this time the Achaians sent
to Sparta for assistance in the war with the /Etolians, which
was granted. Agis received the command of the troops,
and conducted the campaign with much reputation. On his
Agiosy-
mandrum
240 A G I
A<ris return, he found that the misconduct of Agesilaus had re-
I! suited in a revolution, and the recal of Leonidas. He took
Agitation. refUge }n the temple of Minerva, Cleombrotus in that of Nep-
tune. Leonidas contented himself with banishing his son-in-
law\ but resolved on the ruin of Agis. The unfortunate king
was accordingly seized and cast into prison, whence he w?as
brought to trial and sentenced to be strangled. His mother
and grandmother in vain entreated to gain him a public hear-
ring : they were insidiously permitted to visit him in prison,
where they immediately after shared his fate.
Agis, a Greek poet of Argos, who accompanied Alexander
the Great to Asia, and celebrated the praises of his patron in
verses of the most contemptible quality. Q. Curtius, viii. 5.
AGISTMENT, Agistage, or Agistation, in Law, the
taking in of other people’s cattle to graze at so much per
week. The term is peculiarly used for the taking of cattle
to feed in the king’s forests, as well as for the profits arising
from that practice. It is also used, in a metaphorical sense,
for any tax, burden, or charge; thus, the tax levied for
repairing the banks of Romney Marsh was called agista-
mentum.
Tithe of Agistment, or the tithe of cattle and other pro¬
duce of grass lands, is a small tithe in England paid to the
vicar or rector by the occupier of the land, and not by the
person who may put his cattle there to graze at a certain
rate per head. This tithe was abolished in Ireland by the
act of Union; but for a long time previously it had been
very irregularly paid. After the Reformation, while the
lands were chiefly in the possession of Catholics, the clergy
received thankfully whatever they could get; but subse¬
quently to the capitulation of Limerick, when almost all the
benefices fell into the hands of Protestant rectors, they gra¬
dually began to reassume their constitutional rights. Accord¬
ingly, about the year 1720, they formally demanded payment
of the tithe of agistment, to which their right was as indis¬
putable as to the tithe of tillage lands; but it was vehemently
resisted by the landlords. The clergy appealed to the Court
of Exchequer; but although they obtained a decision in their
favour, the question was not set at rest: for soon afterwards
(on the 18th March 1735), the Irish House of Commons
resolved, “ that any lawyer assisting in a prosecution for
tithes of agistment, should be considered as an enemy to his
country.” The tendency of this arbitrary and unjust pro¬
cedure was to deprive the incumbents of the greater part of
their income, and, at a time when the cultivated land in Ire¬
land was but a mere fraction of what it now is, to throw the
whole burden of their maintenance on the cultivators of til¬
lage lands, thus relieving the extensive landowners at the
expense of the small proprietors and tenants. In this posi¬
tion the matter stood at the period of the Union, when Sir
John Macartney, aware that the extraordinary resolution of
1735 was not law, attempted to frustrate the Union, by
moving that the abolition of the tithe of agistment should
be embodied in the act. The measure, however, contrary
to expectation, was suffered quietly to pass, and became law
by a formal act of the imperial parliament. See Wakefields
Account of Ireland, vol. ii. p. 485.
AGISTOR, or Agistator, an officer belonging to for¬
ests, who has the care of cattle taken in to be grazed, and
levies the moneys due on that account. They are generally
called quest-takers or gift-takers, and are created by letters-
patent. Each royal forest has four agistors.
AGITATION, the act of shaking a body, or tossing it
backwards and forwards.
Agitation, in Politics, is the art of keeping the object to
be obtained perpetually under discussion, so as to make a
deep impression on the public mind. For this purpose a
large number of co-operators is not at first absolutely requi¬
site : the desired sensation may be produced by the well-di-
A G N
rected efforts of a few, and it is not even necessary to sue- Agitator
cess that the obiect of pursuit be important to the great mass , I'1
of the people, or practically useful. The great agitator v ° '
Daniel O’Connell was able to stir up the mass of the Irish
nation, and keep them for years in a state of intense excite¬
ment, in the hopeless struggle for the attainment of his pan¬
acea for all their evils—a repeal of the Union. We have
an instance of the beneficial effect of this principle, when
wisely directed to a legitimate object, in the judicious and
constitutional agitation which paved the way to the repeal
of the corn-laws.
The effect of political agitation has long been recognised,
and prompted the answer of the Marquis of Anglesey w*hen
lord-lieutenant of Ireland, to a deputation that waited on
him with a petition. “ If you really expect success, agitate,
agitate, agitate.” How heartily this advice has been followed,
in that country especially, is too well known to all.
The ordinary course pursued by agitators is to hold public
meetings, pass resolutions, get up petitions, employ popular
lecturers, and procure frequent discussions in the newspa¬
pers on the subject; and though at first the public at large
may take very little interest in the object proposed, yet, hy
the loud and constant agitation kept up, it may assume an
aspect of the utmost importance. Thus, not only measures
of great value have often been obtained, but, on the other
hand, by the same means, objects of little or very doubtful
advantage have too often acquired public favour. Agita¬
tion is a two-edged weapon that requires to be cautiously
and prudently used ; but when so employed in a good cause,
it rarely fails to make an impression on the legislature, in
countries blessed with a representative government. Under
a despotism agitation cannot exist, but it is an invariable
feature of free governments.
AGITATOR, in Antiquity, a term sometimes used for
a charioteer, especially those who drove in the circus at the
curule games.
Agitators (a corruption of Adjutators), in English His¬
tory, certain officers appointed by the army in 1647, to take
care of its interests during the revolutionary struggle.
AGLAIA, the name of the youngest of the three Graces,
espoused to Vulcan.—Hesiod.
AGLAPHON, a Greek painter, best known as the fa¬
ther of Polygnotus. He was of Thasos, and flourished about
500 years b.c. He had also a son of his own name.
AGLAR. See Aquileja.
AG LIE, or Aglia, a town of Piedmont, nine miles south-
w'est of Ivrea. It has a population of4300. Near it is a royal
palace, with an extensive park, fine gardens, and a collection
of antiquities from Tusculum.
AGLIONBY, John, an English divine, chaplain in or¬
dinary to King James I., was born in Cumberland, and ad¬
mitted a student at Oxford in 1583. He was a man of uni¬
versal learning, and took a very considerable part in the
translation of the New Testament appointed by King James
I. in 1604. He died in 1609.
AG MEN, in Antiquity, properly denotes a Roman army
in march ; in which sense it stands contradistinguished from
acies, which denoted the army in battle array; though, on
some occasions, we find the two words used indifferently
for each other. The Roman armies in their marches were
divided into primum agmen, answering to our vanguard;
medium agmen, our mainguard; and postremum agmen, the
rearguard.
AGNANO, Lago d’, a small circular lake, near Naples,
about tw'o miles in circumference, and evidently the crater
of a volcano, now filled with water. On its banks are the
strife, or natural vapour-baths of San Germane, and on its
opposite shore is the famous Grotta del Cane, from the floor
of which carbonic acid is continually evolved, in such quan-
Agnate
A G N
tity as to kill dogs that enter it, while a man, on account of
II . his erect posture, escapes wholly the effect of the gas. (See
‘ ^neS1', Spallanzanis Travels.) This grotto is a small artificial
excavation 12 feet long by 4 or 5 wide, and 6 feet high,
seemingly made for obtaining puzzolano, or earthy volcanic
tufa. The story of birds not frequenting the lake is erroneous,
for it abounds in teal ducks and other birds, and in frogs.
AGNATE (from the Roman Agnatus), in Law, any male
relation by the father’s side.
AGNEL, an ancient French gold coin, first struck under
the reign of St Louis, worth about twelve sols six deniers.
The agnel is also called sometimes mouton dor, and agnel
dor. The denomination is supposed to have arisen from
the figure of a lamb {agnus) struck on one side.
AGNES, St, a large mining village in the county of
Cornwall, 263 miles from London, and eight from Truro. It
is built on a small rocky harbour, only accessible to fishing
boats, on the British Channel. Pop. in 1851, 6674.
Agnes, St, one of the Scilly Islands, on the coast of
Cornwall. The soil is fertile, and tolerably cultivated; but
there is a great deficiency of water. A lighthouse on the
island, about 50 feet in height, built on one of the loftiest
hills, is an important object to seamen. Its exact position,
as ascertained by the great trigonometrical survey, is in Long.
6. 19. 23. W. and Lat. 49. 53. 38. N. from Greenwich. The
light is composed of Argand lamps, with reflectors, moving
in a circular revolution, and presenting a bright and con¬
spicuous light in every direction once a minute. Westward
of St Agnes is the Gillstone rock, on which Sir Cloudesley
Shovel was lost in the Association ship of war in 1707.
AGNESI, Maria Gaetana, an Italian lady, who may be
justly pronounced one of the greatest wonders and ornaments
of her sex, was born at Milan, on the 16th of May 1718.
At nine years of age she not only spoke the Latin language
with precision, but even composed and delivered an oration
in that language, intended to prove that the cultivation of
letters is not incompatible with the female character. This
singular piece was published at Milan the same year in which
it was spoken, with the following title: Oratio, qua osten-
ditur artium liberalium stadia a fcemineo sexu neutiquam
abhorrere, habita a Maria de Agnesiis, rhetoricie operam
dante, anno cetatis suce nono nondum exacto, die 18 Augusti
1727.
At eleven years of age she spoke Greek with all the
fluency of her native tongue. When yet very young, she
had also acquired some of the languages of the East; and,
in a word, her acquisitions as a linguist were such as to pro¬
cure for her the appellation of a Walking Polyglot. But
her aptitude for acquiring languages, however great, was by
no means the only, or the most striking feature of her intel¬
lectual character. We have seen how early she essayed the
discussion of a general question affecting the mental capa¬
cities of her sex; and the vigour and acuteness displayed
in this aspiring essay were, ere long, exerted with ardour
and success in scientific inquiries. Having gone through
the elementary branches of mathematics, she proceeded with
alacrity to the study of natural philosophy; and she seems
also to have carried her researches into the obscurer regions
of metaphysical speculation.
About the time when she reached her fifteenth year, her
father formed a select assembly of the learned of Milan ; and
at these meetings, which were held in his house at stated
times, for several years, Agnesi maintained a succession of
Theses on various points of speculation and philosophy. The
ability which she displayed on these occasions seems to have
been altogether surprising; and the effect was not the less,
that her person was agreeable, and her whole deportment
gentle and prepossessing. We are indebted to the learned
president De Brasses for the following account of one of
YOL. n.
A G N 241
these conferences at which he assisted, during his travels in Agnesi.
Italy, through the introduction of Count Belloni. “ I had
conceived,” says he, “ when I went to this conversazione,
that it was only to talk with this young lady in the usual
way, though on learned subjects; but to my surprise Bel¬
loni addressed her in a fine Latin harangue, with all the for¬
mality of an academic oration. She replied in the same
language with promptness and ability; and they proceeded,
still in Latin, to discuss the origin of fountains, and the
causes of the ebbings and flowings observed in some of them.
She spoke like an angel on this subject, and I never heard it
treated so much to my satisfaction. We then discoursed
with her concerning the manner in which the soul receives
impressions from outward objects, and their conveyance to
the general sensorium, the brain; and afterwards upon the
propagation of light, and the prismatic colours. The con¬
versation afterwards became general, every one speaking to
her in the language of his own country, and she answering in
the same.” (Lettres sur iItalic, tom. i. p. 243.) But Agnesi
seems to have taken but little delight in the glory which
she acquired as a philosophical disputant. Her temper was
retired and devout, and she appears to have acted this part
more to gratify her father than herself. About her twen¬
tieth year she accordingly withdrew from these assemblies,
and for a long period devoted the greater part of her time to
mathematical studies. The Theses which she had main¬
tained with so much applause were published in a quarto
volume, under the following title: Propositiones Philoso¬
phic^, quas crebris disputationibus domi habitis coram cla-
rissimis viris explicabat extempore, et ab objectis vindicabat,
Maria Gaetana de Agnesiis, Mediolanensis. Med. 1738.
The first fruit of her mathematical studies was a Commen¬
tary on the Conic Sections of the Marquis de I’Hopital; but
this piece she would never consent to publish, though Maz-
zuchelli says that it was greatly praised by many who had
perused the manuscript. In the course of a few years, how¬
ever, she gave to the world a mathematical work, which
must ever secure her a high rank among the most distin¬
guished cultivators of abstract science. This work, entit¬
led Instituzioni Analitiche ad uso della Gioventu Italiana,
was published at Milan in 1748, in two volumes quarto.
The first volume treats of the analysis of finite quantities;
the second, of the analysis of infinitesimals. These two vo¬
lumes contain a full and satisfactory view of this branch of
mathematical science in the state at which it had then ar¬
rived ; and though improvements have since that time been
introduced, the treatise of Agnesi, according to a very com¬
petent authority, may still be regarded as perhaps the best
introduction that is to be found to the works of Euler and
the other mathematicians of the Continent. (Edinb. Re¬
view, vol. iii. p. 408.) An English translation of this work
was long ago executed by the late Professor Colson of Cam¬
bridge ; but the manuscript lay buried in obscurity for many
years, and was only published in 1801, through the care and
at the expense of Baron Maseres.
Besides other literary honours which followed the publi¬
cation of the Analytical Institutions, Agnesi was, in 1750,
appointed professor of mathematics and natural philosophy
in the university of Bologna. The appointment of a young
female, of thirty-two years of age, to such a charge, must
appear to many as not a little singular; but the truth is, that
female professors were by no means uncommon in Italy;
and Lalande mentions several as having been eminent in
the same university, one of whom was professor of anatomy.
{Voyage en Italic, tom. ii.) Our scanty information does
not enable us to state whether Agnesi ever entered upon
the active duties of the mathematical chair. Though her
life was long, we can add but little in regard to her after¬
history. She died, according to the meagre notice contained
242 AGO
Agnoetae in (he Biographic Universelle, in the year 1799. Her rnis-
II taken notions of religious duty rendered the greater part of
Agobard. jier existence but a blank to the world. She had early ex-
pressed a wish to retire into a convent, and seems to have
carried this design into effect not long after the period when
her great work procured for her the honours to which we
have just alluded. We afterwards hear of her only as a de¬
voted sister of the austere order of Blue Nuns, repelling the
approaches of those of the learned who still desired to con¬
verse with her, and thus exhibiting, like Pascal, another me¬
lancholy instance of the inconsistencies of our nature, and
the darkening power of superstition over the brightest minds.
But she lived long enough for the world to vindicate the in¬
tellectual capacities of her sex,—to show that the female
mind is not only fitted for the lighter exercises of literature,
but capable also of fathoming the depths and unravelling the
intricacies of abstract science. If there are any, therefore,
whose speculations may have led them to more depreciating
conclusions, let them, to use the words of the eloquent writer
already quoted in this article, “ peruse the long series of de¬
monstrations which the author of the Analytical Institutions
has contrived with so much skill, and explained with such
elegance and perspicuity: if they are able to do so, they will
probably retract their former opinions; if unable, they will
not of course see the reasons for admiring her genius that
others do; but they may at least learn to think modestly of
their own.”—Edinb. Review, vol. hi. p. 410. (m. n.)
AGNOET7E (from ayvoew, to be ignorant of), in Church
History, a sect of ancient heretics, who maintained that
Christ’s human nature did not become omniscient by its
union with his divinity.—See Reid’s edition of Mosheim,
p, 238, note.
AGNOMEN, in Roman Antiquity, a kind of fourth or
honoi’ary name, given to a person on account of some extra¬
ordinary action, virtue, or accomplishment. Thus the ag¬
nomen Africanus was bestowed upon Publius Cornelius
Scipio on account of his great achievements in Africa. The
order in which the names of a Roman citizen followed each
other was thus: 1. Prcenomen, denoting the individual;
2. Nomen gentilitium, indicating the gens to which he be¬
longed; 3. Cognomen, which every citizen had or might
have, marked his familia; 4. Agnomen, given as a mark
of distinction, usually honorary, but sometimes the reverse.
AGNONE, a city at the foot of Monte Capraro, in the
province of Molise, in the kingdom of Naples, with 7000
inhabitants, chiefly employed in the manufacture of copper
wares.
AGNUS Dei, in the Church of Rome, a cake of wax
stamped with the figure of a lamb supporting the banner of
the cross. These being consecrated by the pope with great
solemnity, and distributed among the people, are supposed
to have great virtues ; as, to preserve those who carry them
worthily, and with faith, from all manner of accidents ; to
expel evil spirits, &c. It was sometimes made of gold.
Agnus Dei is also a popular name for that part of the mass
wherein the priest, striking his breast three times, rehearses,
with a loud voice, a prayer beginning with the words Agnus
Dei. ‘ It is said to have been first introduced into the missal
by Pope Sergius I.
AGOBARD, Archbishop of Lyons from 816 to 840, was
one of the most enlightened and distinguished men of his
age, the champion of truth, and the successful opposer of
every form of superstition. Of his writings, which were
rescued from destruction in a shop at Lyons in 1605, the
principal are—a Treatise against Felix 11 Ur gel; Treatise
against the Jews ; Against Trial by Combat; On the Pri¬
vileges and Rights of the Priesthood; Against Sorcery; and
the celebrated treatise Against the Worship of Images. 2
vols. 8vc, Paris, 1666.
AGO
AGON, a small seaport town of Prance, in the depart- Agon
ment of La Manche, with 1561 inhabitants. I'
Agon, among the Ancients, implied any dispute or contest,
whether it had regard to bodily exercises or the accomplish- v
ments of the mind ; and therefore poets, musicians, painters, ' ~
See., had their agones, as well as the athletae. Games of this
kind were celebrated at most of the heathen festivals with
great solemnity, either annually or at certain periods of years.
Among the latter were celebrated at Athens, the agon gym-
nicus, the agon Nemeus instituted by the Argives in the 53d
Olympiad, and the agon Olympius instituted by Hercules
430 years before the first Olympiad.—The Romans also, in
imitation of the Greeks, instituted contests of this kind. The
emperor Aurelian established one under the name of agon
solis, the contest of the sun; Diocletian another, which he
called agon capitolinus, which was celebrated every fourth
year, after the manner of the Olympic games. Hence the
years, instead of lustra, are sometimes numbered by agones.
Agon also signified one of the ministers employed in the
heathen sacrifices, and whose business it was to strike the
victim. The name is supposed to have been derived from
hence, that standing ready to give the stroke, he asked
Agori ? or Agone? Shall I strike? Ovid. Fast. 1. 1.
AGONALIA, in Roman Antiquity, festivals celebrated
in honour of Janus or the god Agonius, whom the Romans
invoked before undertaking any affair of importance.
AGONALIS Circus, now La Piazza Navona, a long,
wide, and beautiful street in the centre of Rome, adorned
with fountains, and with the obelisk of Caracalla. The rea¬
son of the name Agonalis is either unknown or doubtful.
Ovid derives it from the agones, or solemn games, there
celebrated, supposed to have been the Ludi Apollinares,
or Actiaci, instituted by Augustus; whence the circus was
called Apollinaris; also Alexandrinus, from the emperor
Alexander Severus, who either inclosed or repaired it.
AGONISMA, in Antiquity, denotes the prize given to
the victor in any combat or dispute.
AGONISTARCHA (aycov, and ap^os), in Antiquity,
seems to have been much the same with agonotheta;
though some suggest a difference, making it the office of
the former to preside at and direct the private exercises of
the athletae, which they went through by way of practice,
before they made their appearance on the public theatres.
AGONISTICI, in Church History, a name given by
Donatus to such of his disciples as he sent to fairs, markets,
and other public places, to propagate his doctrine; for
which reason they were also called Circutores, Circelliones,
Catropitee, and at Rome Montenses. They were called
Agonistici, from the Greek aywv, combat, being sent as it
were to fight and subdue the people to their opinions.
AGONIUM, in Roman Antiquity, was used for the day
on which the rex sacrorum sacrificed a victim, as well as
for the place where the games were celebrated, otherwise
called agon.—Rest. p. 9.
AGONOTHETA, or Agonothetes (aywv and TiOrj/xi),
in Grecian Antiquity, was the president or superintendent
of the sacred games; who not only defrayed the expense
attending them, but inspected the manners and discipline
of the athletae, and adjudged the prizes to the victors. But
in the great public games, such as the Olympic, Pythian,
&c., these presidents were the representatives of different
states, or were chosen from the people in whose country
the games were celebrated. They received the seve¬
ral titles of alavyvrjTaL, (SpafievraL, d'ywvdpxcu, dyowodiKai,
dywvoOeTou, dOXoBirai; but Favorinus makes the distinction,
that the term dOXoOeraL was peculiar to gymnastic exercises,
whereas that of dyowoBNu might refer equally to musical
contentions. They were also called pa/38ovxoL or po.flliovdp.oL,
from the rod or sceptre emblematic of their authority.
A G R
A pony- AGONYCLITiE (a, priv. yow and kAivco), in Church
clitas History, a sect of Christians, in the seventh century, who
Agra Prayed always standing, thinking it unlawful to kneel.
^ t AGORA (ayeipco, I congregate), in Grecian Antiquity,
denoted both the public assembly of the people and the
place in which they met. In the latter sense the term cor¬
responds to the Roman Forum. The open space of the
Agora was surrounded by the various buildings connected
with the public administration. It was also in general the
market place, and formed, as may be supposed, the centre
of public resort and business of all kinds.
AGORACRITUS, a famous Greek statuary and sculp¬
tor, and the favourite pupil of Phidias, who is said by Pliny
to have inscribed even some of his own works with the
name of his disciple.
AGORAIUS, in Heathen Antiquity, an appellation given
to such deities as had statues in the market-places; par¬
ticularly Mercury, whose statue was to be seen in almost
every public place.
AGORANOMI (ayopa and ve/xu)), in Grecian Antiquity,
public functionaries, who had the regulation of weights and
measures, the prices of provisions, &c.—The agoranomi, at
Athens, were ten in number, five belonging to the city, and
as many to the Piraeus, one from each tribe being chosen
by lot. To these a certain toll or tribute was paid by foreign¬
ers or aliens who brought any thing to sell in the market.
AGORDO, a market town in the Austrian dominions,
in Italy, with 2600 inhabitants. It is in the government of
Venice, and in the delegation of Belluno, on the river Cor-
devolo. In its vicinity are mines of copper, lead, sulphur,
and vitriol, the preparation of which is the chief occupation
of the people.
AGOSTINI, Lionardo, an eminent antiquary of the
seventeenth century, author of a great work on Sicilian me¬
dals, and another upon ancient gems.
AGOSTINO, and Angelo, Da Siena (1296-1338),
two brothers, sculptors and architects, who greatly distin¬
guished themselves in the infancy of Italian art. Their
native Siena is adorned by many of their works. See
Lanzi, i.
Agostino, Paolo, of Valerano, an eminent musician,
master of the chapel of St Peter’s at Rome, and celebrated
for his scientific compositions in every branch of his art. He
died in the prime of life, a.d. 1629.
AGRA Provinces. In 1833 the British Parliament au¬
thorised the division of the territories of Bengal into two
distinct presidencies; the one retaining the title of the Presi¬
dency of Bengal, and the other to be styled the Presidency
of Agra. Subsequently the sanction of the legislature was
obtained for the suspension of the contemplated division, and
for the appointment, during the interim, of a lieutenant-
governor of the districts which were intended to constitute
the separate presidency of Agra. The seat of the new
government has been fixed in the city of Agra, and from
this circumstance the officer charged with the administration
is usually styled the Lieutenant-Governor of Agra. The
extensive territory subject to his jurisdiction is bounded on
the north and north-east by the tract known as the Cis Sutlej
territory, and by the native state of Nepaul; on the east and
south-east by the kingdom of Oude and by some of the lower
provinces of Bengal; on the south by the dominions of the
Rajah of Nagpore and those of the Nizam, and on the west
by the native states of Central India. It is 720 miles in
length from north-west to south-east, and 310 in breadth
in the direction of the opposite angle ; and extends from
Lat. 21.17. to Lat. 31.6., and from Long. 73. 2. to Long. 84.
40. It has an area of 101,241 square miles, and a popula¬
tion of upwards of twenty-five millions. The geographical
divisions of this vast tract comprise, 1st, The thirty-one
A G R 243
north-western provinces of India, usually denominated the Agra.
“ Regulation Provinces,” most of them larger than English
counties, and in all of which the general code of laws passed
by the British government in India since 1793 is in full
operation ; 2d, The province of Kumaon, the Deyrah Boon,
the Saugur and Nerbudda territories, and other large dis¬
tricts, wherein, though justice is administered in the spirit
of the code, considerable discretion rests with the superin¬
tending functionaries to dispense with the letter of the law,
when the claims of equity may appear to require such a
course ; ‘3d, Sundry petty native states whose defence from
external aggression has devolved upon the British govern¬
ment, but in regard to which that government has pledged
itself to abstain from all interference in the internal adminis¬
tration. Statistical and geographical particulars in respect
to these states and the non-regulation provinces will be found
detailed under their respective names in the alphabetical
arrangement. The Regulation Provinces before mentioned
occupy the valleys of the Jumna and the Ganges. Here
the country is flat and open; little chequered by the inter¬
change of hill and dale ; and for the most part bare of trees ;
but to the south of the river Chumbul, and also towards
the western frontier, it rises into hills, and is jnterspersed
with jungle. Owing to the elevation of the ground, the
climate for the greater part of the year is temperate, and in
the winter months, especially during the night, it becomes
actually cold. The general character of these districts af¬
fords great facilities for purposes of irrigation. They are
intersected throughout their entire length by two great
rivers, the Ganges and the Jumna, which derive their sources
from the Himalayas, and the drainage of these mountains
has been made extensively available by the construction of
canals which traverse the land in various directions. Sugar
and rice are less largely cultivated than in the lower pro¬
vinces of Bengal, but cotton is a valuable article of produce,
and the export of opium and indigo is annually increasing.
The mineral productions are not remarkable: nor do the
animals differ in any respect from those found in other parts
of Hindostan. A coarse description of cotton cloth is the
principal article of manufacture, but no great quantity is
exported. The natives are a robust and handsome race of
people, and consist of a mixture of Hindoos and Mahometans.
The experiment of a separate administration for these pro¬
vinces has been eminently successful. Such a result might
indeed have been reasonably anticipated. None but ser¬
vants of the East India Company are eligible for the office
of lieutenant-governor; and as the local authorities must ob¬
viously be the best judges of the character and qualifications
of their respective functionaries, the choice of the indivi¬
dual to discharge its arduous duties was wisely committed to
the government of India. Opportunity is thereby afforded
for promoting the ablest public servant without reference to
the ordinary principle of seniority. That the right of selec¬
tion has been discreetly exercised may be inferred from the
fact, that Agra is popularly denominated “ the Model Go¬
vernment” of India; and a passing notice of one or two of
the series of comprehensive measures which of late years
have been adopted for the improvement of the condition
and the elevation of the character of the people, may suf¬
fice to show that the title has not been conferred unwor¬
thily. We will first advert to the new land revenue settle¬
ment. In this part of India, the land is held in the most
minute subdivision by the agricultural classes, and the entire
breadth of the Regulation Provinces has recently come under
government survey. Every separate holding was then mea¬
sured, and an official record compiled, in which are detailed
the boundaries and extent of the farm, the quality of the
soil, the name both of landlord and tenant, the government
revenue at which the former is assessed, and the amount of
244 A G R
Agra, rent payable by the latter. The actual condition of the
landed property of the country, together with the relations
of landlord and tenant, and the rights and obligation^ or
both parties, having been ascertained and defined, ample
means are now possessed for the adjustment of all disputes
affecting real property ; and as the land in India is the great
source of litigation, these records have rendered the admi¬
nistration of justice both simple and effective. The govern¬
ment assessment is levied with equity and moderation,—a
part only being taken of the surplus constituting the lent.
The remainder furnishes an income to the landholder, who
has thus the means of effecting improvements, while, more¬
over, his property acquires a marketable value. Another
great work to which it may be proper to draw attention, is
the o-overnment plan of education. The system of registra¬
tion which has been sketched was devised for the protection
of the rights of the community. The registers are open to
public inspection; but owing to the prevailing ignorance
of the first elements of learning, these records proved, in
the first instance, but a sealed book to the great bulk of
the community. The majority of the population, it was dis¬
covered, were unacquainted with the simplest rules of aiith-
metic and land measurement, and unable, for the most part,
to read or write. The people knew that they were in pos¬
session of valuable rights, and they felt that these rights
were liable to be defeated solely because they were unable
to define them. A desire for knowledge was suddenly mani¬
fested, from the conviction of its necessity to the general
weal, and the lieutenant-governor was not slow in availing
himself of so favourable an opening for educating the com¬
munity. A scheme of instruction, admirably adapted to
the exigencies of the agricultural classes, came into ope¬
ration in the year 1848. Its design is to aid the efforts of
the people in acquiring so much knowledge as is sufficient
for the ordinary purposes of life : it contemplates the fulfil¬
ment of this object by the means of indigenous schools scat¬
tered over the surface of the country. Where a school is
wanted, the villagers are assisted in building one ; where
the superintendence is defective, the government provides
a competent instructor ; where books are needed, they are
supplied from the stock of vernacular literature prepaied
and printed by the government. The agency for carrying
out the plan consists of a series of government model-schools,
with two grades of school-visitors, superintended by a visi¬
tor-general. The course of education comprises reading,
writing, arithmetic, and land measurement; and when prac¬
ticable, geography, history, and other subjects, are super-
added.
These measures, worthy of a paternal government and an
enlightened age, clearly mark the difference of character
between British and native rule. Under the Hindu dy¬
nasties the social fabric was upheld through the power and
influence of privileged classes. The Mahometans, who suc¬
ceeded, ruled for their own advantage, with little regard to
the interests of their conquered subjects, and class legisla¬
tion prevailed. It is only under British administration that
the wants and interests of the masses have been permitted
to occupy any share of the attention of the state, and to
the government of Agra must be awarded the honour of
having been foremost in recognising their paramount im¬
portance. (e. t.)
AGRA City, the seat of the government of the north¬
western provinces of Bengal, is situate on the south-west or
right bank of the river Jumna, which is here a navigable
stream. The extent of the city is about four miles in length,
and three in breadth: it sweeps along the banks of the river
in a semicircle, and suggests, on a distant view, an idea of
grandeur ; which, however, is not realised on nearer inspec¬
tion. A well-constructed strand road leads from the Taj
AGE
Mehal to the custom-house, a distance of two miles; but the Agra
principal thoroughfare is a fine broad street, running almost ^
north and south, and nearly bisecting the city. In this lo- v J
cality, the houses, chiefly built of the red stone found in the
neighbouring hills, are from three to four stories high. In
other quarters of the town the streets, though cleanly, are
narrow and irregular, and the houses, for the most part, of
mean character. The fort of Agra is, as to appearance, one
of the most imposing in India. It is surrounded by high walls
and towers of red stone, which command some noble views
of the city, its neighbourhood, and the windings of the Jumna.
It has a ditch of great depth, and a double rampart, the inner
one being of an enormous height, with bastions at regular
distances. The fort was invested in 1803 by the army of
Lord Lake, and surrendered after a brief resistance. The
defences were subsequently improved, but it is still reported
to be a place of no great strength.
Agra is famed for some beautiful edifices, the most re¬
markable of which is the Taj Mehal, a mausoleum erected
by the Emperor Shah Jehan to commemorate the virtues of
his favourite consort. The name of this distinguished per¬
sonage was Arjammed Banoo, which, according to oriental
usage, was changed on her elevation to that of Mumtazee
Zumanee, signifying the paragon of the age. The Taj Mehal,
of white marble, with four tall minarets of the same material
rising at each of its angles, is placed on an elevated terrace,
also of white and yellow marble. The interior, containing
a central hall, in which are the tombs of the emperor and
his queen, is remarkable for its exquisite finish, the pave¬
ment being laid with alternate squares of marble, and the
walls, screens, and tombs, crowned with flowers, and inscrip¬
tions executed in beautiful mosaic of carnelian, lapis lazuli,
and jasper, the whole appearing as fresh and almost as per¬
fect as when first completed. Bishop Heber mentions that
after all he had heard of this far-famed mausoleum, its beauty
rather exceeded than fell short of his expectations. The Taj
is surrounded by a lofty wall of red stone, with cupolas and
pillars of marble.
Within the walls of the fort are the palace of Shah Jehan,
and the Motee Musjid or Pearl Sanctuary, a celebrated
mosque of white marble. Outside the walls is another mosque,.
termed the Jumna Musjid, and in the adjoining suburbs of
Secundra is the mausoleum of the Emperor Akbar. An
English church has been erected in Agra, which is described
as a handsome building, and calculated to hold 1000 persons.
The population of the city was computed in 1846 at 66,000.
Lat. 27. 10. Long. 78. 5. (e. t.)
AGRAM, or Zagrab, a palatinate in the Austrian pro¬
vince of Croatia. Its extent is 768 square miles, or 491,520
English acres. Pop. in 1829, 392,190; all of the Catholic
religion. It is subdivided into two circles, that of Agram
and of St John; the latter of which comprehends no town.
In the whole palatinate there are one city, two market
towns, and 279 villages. The country is undulating, but
with a range of hills towards the Warasdin frontier. It fr
watered by the Save and its tributary streams. The chief
productions are corn, tobacco, wine, potashes, and cattle.
It contains much wood and pasture land. Agram or Zag¬
rab, the capital of Croatia, on the palatinate of the same
name, is situate on a hill near the banks of the Save, in
Lat. 45.49. N. Long. 16.1. E., 170 miles south of Vienna. It
is the seat of the governor of Sclavonia and Croatia, of a
bishop, and of the courts of justice. Agram contains 20,000
inhabitants, and is divided into three parts, called the upper
and lower town, and the town of the bishop. It has a
lyceum, library, museum, gymnasium, an ancient cathedral
with forty altars, and a large library. Some silk and por¬
celain are manufactured, and a brisk trade is carried on in
grain, potash, and tobacco.
A G R
Agrarian. AGRARIAN Laws {Leges Agrarice), when used in
the most extended signification of the term, are laws for the
distribution and regulation of property in land. The his¬
tory of these enactments is not only important as explana¬
tory of the constitution of the ancient republics, but is ren-
dered highly interesting by the conflicting opinions which
have been entertained respecting their object and operation.
It seems to have been a notion generally entertained in the
ancient world, that every citizen of a country should be a
landholder; and that the territory of a state, so far as it was
not left uninclosed or reserved for public purposes, should be
divided in equal portions among the citizens. Such a dis¬
tribution of public land seems to have been acted upon as
a recognised principle from the earliest period to which ex¬
isting historical records extend. Hence we find the Al¬
mighty giving express instructions to Moses as to the man¬
ner in which the land of Canaan was to be portioned out
among the Hebrews {Num. xxxiii. 54), and naming the per¬
sons to whom the division was to be entrusted {Num.
xxxiv. 16-18). A division of the land was accordingly
made, and the portion assigned to each man became his in¬
alienable property, and descended in perpetuity to his heirs
and successors. By the law of Jubilee, all lands were re-
* stored free from encumbrances on the recurrence of the
“ year of releaseso that, though a man’s estate might, in
the interval, have been repeatedly sold or alienated, yet, on
the return of the fiftieth year, it reverted to the heirs of the
original possessor {Levit. xxv. 10). In the republics of an¬
cient Greece, and also in the Grecian colonies, a similar
principle of division of land prevailed {Thuc. v. 4., Herod.
iv. 159). Lycurgus is represented by Plutarch {Lycur.), as
re-dividing the whole territory of Laconia into 39,000 par¬
cels, of which 9000 were assigned, in equal lots, to as many
Spartan families, and 30,000, also in equal lots, to their free
subjects ; and although this statement is not borne out by any
of the early Greek historians, and is even inconsistent with
the assertion of Aristotle {Polit. ii. 4), yet it is valuable as
recognising the principle of the division of the public lands.
(See Thirlwall’s Hist, of Greece, chap, viii., and Grote’s Hist,
of Greece, part ii. chap, vi., with the authorities there quoted.)
It was long a prevalent and undisputed opinion that the
territories of the Hebrews, and of the republics of ancient
Greece were divided into equal portions, and that the ob¬
ject of such a distribution was to maintain a state of equality
among all the members of the community. This, however,
does not appear to be consistent with the distinctions of rank
which we find admitted in Scripture {Josh. ix. 15 ; xxii. 14;
1 Sam. ix. 21, &c., &c.); and from a remark of Thucydides
(i. 6), taken in connection with the statement of Aristotle
{Polit. ii. 9), it may be legitimately inferred that property
did not continue to be equally distributed at Lacedaemon.
Distinctions of rank are clearly recognised in the legislation
of Solon. Aristotle, in the Second Book of his Politics
(chap, vi., &c.), explains the constitutions of several of the
ancient republics, and endeavours to show how the popula¬
tion is to be accommodated to this equal division of land;
but it would be foreign to our object to review his argu¬
ments. It may be sufficient to remark, that such an attempt
to arrest the progress of enterprise is altogether inconsistent
with the spirit of liberty which gave life and energy to the
ancient republics ; and that though it might have been car¬
ried into effect under the despotism of Persia, or the pre¬
dominant rule of the kings of Macedonia, it was entirely at
variance with the freedom of opinion which prevailed in
Greece, and the stubborn resistance to control which ani¬
mated the Romans after the expulsion of the kings. But,
granting that such a policy had been practicable, it would
have been highly inexpedient. The ignorant Hindoo might
remain satisfied with the class which nature had transmit-
A G R
245
ted to him through successive generations, because his pro- Agrarian,
genitors had been prevented from emerging from their ob- ^ -
scurity; but the citizens of Greece and Italy, being them¬
selves constituent members of the body politic, and not igno¬
rant of the power thereby conferred on them, could not have
been kept in check by the same principle of fear. Such an
attempt, moreover, to prevent the acquisition of property,
would have obstructed the advancement of the arts of civil¬
ised life, would have extinguished those feelings of patriot¬
ism which led the Greeks so often to hazard their lives in
defence of their country, and, by engendering discontent
and exciting internal commotions, would have made them an
easy prey to their enemies.
The expression Agrarian Laws, however, is more com¬
monly applied to the enactments among the Romans for the
management of the public domains {ager publicus) ; and
to an account of these the remainder of our space must be
devoted. It is a singular fact that, while almost every other
subject connected with the Roman constitution had been
successfully investigated and explained, the object and in¬
tention of the agrarian laws were entirely misunderstood
by scholars for many centuries after the revival of letters.
They were invariably represented as intended to prohibit
Roman citizens from holding property in land above a cer¬
tain fixed amount; and as authorising the division among
the poorer citizens of the estates of private individuals, when
these exceeded the prescribed limit; thus legalising a sys¬
tem of plunder which would have been subversive of all
social order. No such doctrine had, indeed, been admit¬
ted in any well-regulated state, ancient or modern ; nor did
anything analogous to it appear in the principles or practice
of the Roman constitution : yet the expressions used by
the ancient authors in reference to these enactments, and
the disturbances to which they invariably gave rise, seemed
to justify an unfavourable interpretation ; and the opinion,
when once propounded, was unconditionally received by
successive generations of learned men, notwithstanding the
many embarrassments and contradictions to which it led.
Romulus is represented as dividing his small territory
among the members of his infant community at the rate of
two jug era (each extending to two-thirds of an English acre)
a-piece, as inheritable property. The whole district, how¬
ever, was not thus assigned; one portion was set apart for
the service of the gods, and for the royal domains; and
another was reserved as common land for pasture. The
stock kept on the common land served to eke out a main¬
tenance which two jugera could not otherwise have furnished
to a family, and an agistment was paid to the common¬
wealth for the pasturage. It is probable that the same prin¬
ciple prevailed under the regal government, and that suc¬
cessive adjustments of the territory were made. Such a
law existed among those of Servius Tullius. The equality
of property thus established seems to have been considered
as a fundamental principle of the Roman constitution; and
the agrarian laws were regarded as the necessary means
of wresting from the large proprietors the possessions which
they had illegally acquired. Machiavelli and Montesquieu
both participate in this mistake, and are far from condemn¬
ing the agrarian laws, even when taken in the common
meaning. The former alleges that the interest of every re¬
public requires that the state should be rich and the citizens
poor, and thus justifies the assumed spoliation; while Montes¬
quieu receives it as an historical fact that Romulus adopted
the principle of equality in his original distribution of the
territory of Rome, as the future ground of her strength ;
and that the tribunitian contests were but attempts to re¬
store the original constitution. Adam Smith {Wealth of
Nations, B. iv. chap. vii. part i.) assents to the same inter¬
pretation, without, however, any expression of approval.
The correct interpretation of the agrarian laws must
thus be considered as of modern date. Amidst the violence
of the French Revolution, a scheme for the equal division
of the national property was advocated amidst great popular
favour, by some of the frantic leaders, who sought a sanc¬
tion for their extravagancies in precedents drawn from the
ancient republics, and particularly from the agrarian laws
of the Romans. The subject was thus invested with a new
interest, and engaged the attention of Professor Heyne of
Gottingen, who, in 1793 (Opus. Acad. iv. 350—373), ad¬
dressed to the members of his university a paper in which
he successfully combated the opinions which, up till that
time, had been entertained respecting them ; and showed
that their object had been entirely misunderstood. Other
writers, as Heeren and Hegewisch, embraced and illustra¬
ted his views; but it was reserved for the acuteness and
learning of Niebuhr fully to develop the theory which had
been suggested, and to demonstrate the fact “that the
agrarian laws of the Romans were in no case intended to
interfere with or affect private property in land, but related
exclusively to the public domain.” The theory of Niebuhr
was too startling to meet with universal approval. It has
accordingly been assailed by Rudorff, Dureau de la Malle
(Econ. Polit. des Romames), Puchta, and others, who have
ingeniously and plausibly supported the opinions formerly
maintained; but their arguments fail to produce conviction
(Class. Mus., vol. ii.) The language of Livy passim, when
referring to the agrarian laws, is inexplicable unless the in¬
terpretation of Niebuhr be adopted. “ If^” says Dr Arnold,
“ amongst Niebuhr’s countless services to Roman history,
any single one may claim our gratitude beyond the rest, it
is his explanation of the true nature and character of the
agrarian laws. Twenty-four years have not yet elapsed
since he first published it, but it has already overthrown the
deeply-rooted false impressions which prevailed universally
on the subject; and its truth, like Newton’s discoveries in
natural science, is not now to be proved, but to be taken as
the very corner-stone of all our researches into the internal
state of the Roman people.”—Hist, of Rome, vol. ii.
In almost all countries, the legal property of the land has
been originally vested in the sovereign, whether we are to
understand under that name a single chief, a particular por¬
tion of the nation, or the people at large. In the same man¬
ner, the property of all the land in a conquered country was
held to be transferred to the sovereign power in the con¬
quering state ; and was assumed with more or less rigour
as circumstances seemed to require. From the earliest
times a portion of the Roman territory was thus regarded
as the property of the state, and the profits arising from it
were applied to the public service. The public domain
(ager publicus) was at first small, but was gradually ex¬
tended by the right of conquest, till it embraced a large por¬
tion of the whole peninsula. In this process of extension,
the subjugated communities were frequently mulcted of a
proportion of their lands, varying according to the alleged
offence, or the resistance which they had offered to the arms
of the conquerors. Thus the Boii were deprived of one-
half of their territory; the Hernici forfeited two-thirds, and
the whole of the ager Campanus, the richest district in Italy,
was taken from the inhabitants of Capua, on the capture of
their city after its revolt to Hannibal.
The lands thus acquired were disposed of in various ways.
A portion of them was frequently sold by auction, to meet
the immediate necessities of the state, and was thus con¬
veyed in perpetuity to the purchasers. The disposal of the
remainder depended on the nature and condition of the land,
and its position in reference to the bulk of the community.
If in good condition, and at no great distance from the city,
it was frequently assigned, in small allotments of seven
jugera (between 4 and 5 acres) to those of the poorer citi- Ag
zens, whose services in war gave them a claim upon the
state; while in hostile districts, and on exposed frontiers,
military colonies were planted, each colonist receiving a fixed
quantity of land. In both of these cases the land so assigned
ceased to form part of the public domain, and became the
property of the recipients. In some cases the land, after
having been assumed as public property, was allowed to re¬
main in the hands of the former owners, who became the
tenants of the state for a fixed period, and paid a certain
rent to the Roman exchequer.
The preceding remarks refer only to arable or meadow-
land, vineyards, or olive-gardens, which could be turned to
immediate advantage. It is obvious, however, that in a
country, the greater part of which was acquired by conquest,
large districts must have been laid waste, the inhabitants
with their houses destroyed, and neither cultivators nor the
means of cultivation left. Arrangements of a different de¬
scription were therefore necessary for lands in this position.
Wide ranges of country, fit only for pasture, had to be dis¬
posed of, and were available to those alone who were able
to stock them with flocks and herds, and to provide slaves
to attend to and protect their property. Hence it was usual
for the state to invite persons possessed of the necessary
means to enter upon the occupation of such lands on advan¬
tageous terms; an invitation with which the patricians, as
being the wealthy class, could alone comply. The ordinary
conditions were, that after the land was again brought into
cultivation, the occupants should pay as rent one-tenth of
the produce of the corn-lands, and one-fifth of the vines and
fruit-trees, with a moderate rate per head for sheep and
cattle grazing on the public pastures. The lands were not
assigned for any definite period; the occupants were merely
tenants at will, liable to extrusion whenever the state found
it necessary to employ the land for any other purpose. It
was a fundamental principle of Roman law that prescription
could not be pleaded against the state; and consequently,
though the right of occupancy might not only be trans¬
mitted from heir to heir, but might also be sold, no length
of time could alter the precarious nature of the tenure by
which the lands were held. The state always reserved to
itself the power of resuming possession when it thought fit;
and though such resumption might in many cases be at¬
tended by individual hardship, it was nevertheless justified
by the original contract.
Much of the obscurity connected with the Roman agrarian
laws has arisen from a misapprehension of the meaning of
the words possidere, possessor, and possessio. These terms,
when used in a strictly legal sense, denote merely occupancy
by a tenant, and never imply an absolute right of property.
The act of occupancy was termed usm, and the benefit de¬
rived by the state fructus.
“ The ager publicus,” says Professor Ramsay, “ having
been acquired and occupied as explained above, numerous
abuses arose in process of time, especially among the tenants
belonging to the second class. These being, as we have
said, in the earlier ages, exclusively patricians, who at the
same time, monopolized the administration of public affairs,
they were in the habit of defrauding the state, either by ne¬
glecting altogether to pay the stipulated proportion of the
produce, or by paying less than was due ; or, finally, by
claiming, what was in reality ager publicus, as their own
private property ; it being easy, of course, in the absence of
all strict superintendence, and of scientific surveys, to shift
the land-marks which separated public from private property.
Meanwhile the deficiencies in the public treasury were made
up by heavier taxes ; and the plebeians complained that they
were impoverished by new imposts, while the lands belong¬
ing to the community, which they had acquired by their blood,
A G R
Agrarian, if fairly managed, would yield a sufficient return to meet all
demands upon the exchequer; or, if portioned out in
allotments among themselves, afford them the means of sup¬
porting the increased burdens. These complaints, unques¬
tionably founded injustice, were soon vehemently expressed,
and were revived from time to time more or less loudly, and
enforced more or less earnestly, according to the state of
public feeling, and the energy of the popular champions. It
is true, that the wealthier plebeians soon became tenants ot
the agerpublicus as well as the patricians ; but, although this
circumstance materially strengthened the hands of the occu¬
piers, it did not improve the condition of the poor, or make
them less keenly alive to the injustice of the system against
which they protested.”—Manual of Rom. Antiq. p. 228.
Assuming, then, that the agrarian laws had for their sole
object the distribution and management of the public lands
{agerpublicus), their effect must have been felt in two ways :
—(1.) In enforcing the regular payment of rent from the occu¬
pants, preventing them from exceeding the limits assigned to
them, and compelling the surrender of portions for division
among the poorer citizens ;—and, (2.) In insisting upon the
immediate application of newly acquired territories to the esta¬
blishment of colonies, or its assignment to individuals. It is
obvious that the laws first referred to, as involving long-esta¬
blished interests, would necessarily lead to violent contests.
The first agrarian law, properly so called, was proposed
and passed by Sp. Cassius Viscellinus, when Consul, b.c.
486 (Liv. ii. 41, Dionys. viii. 76), respecting the provisions
of which we have no precise information. Cassius was him¬
self a patrician, and we may, therefore, infer that the law
did not encroach upon the just rights of the dominant class
to which he belonged. It is not the object of this article to
trace in detail the various measures which were proposed,
and the agitations with which they were severally attended.
Three such are recorded during the fourth century b.c.
{Liv. iv. 36, 47, 48) ; but by far the most important mea¬
sure of this class, and that which served as the model of
nearly all subsequent agrarian laws, was that carried by C.
Licinius Stolo, when tribune of the people, in B.c. 367 {Liv.
vi. 42). The provisions of this law were : (1.) that no one
should occupy more than 500 jugera (about 333 acres) of
the public land; (2.) nor have more than 100 large, and
500 small cattle, grazing on the public pastures; and, (3.)
that every occupant of the public lands should employ a
certain proportion of free labourers in cultivating it. Nie¬
buhr (vol. iii. p. 11, &c. Eng. Transl.) has endeavoured to
supply the other details; but these can be received merely as
ingenious, and, it may be, successful conjectures. For an
able controversy as to this law, see Class. Museum, vol. ii.
After the excitement occasioned by the passing of the
Licinian law had subsided, two centuries were allowed to
pass with only a single interference (Valer. Max. v. 4, 5 ;
Polyb. ii. 21) with the occupants of the public lands ; and
during that time large additions had been made to the posses¬
sions of the state by the confiscations consequent upon the
second Punic war. In the meantime the wealthier families
had extended their possessions greatly beyond the limits
prescribed by the Licinian law; while the small proprietors
had disappeared, and the poor continued to increase. In
B.c. 133, Tiberius Gracchus proposed and carried a modifi¬
cation of the Licinian law {Liv. Epit., Iviii.; Appian., i. 9),
which his premature death prevented from being carried
into effect; and a similar result attended the enactment of
his brother {Liv. Epit., lx.) Both were set aside or eluded
after the death of Caius. During the period which preceded
the subversion of the republic, various other law's were
passed for the distribution of the public lands; but these it
is not necessary to enumerate. It may be mentioned, in
conclusion, as a significant fact, that the prominent advocates
A G R
247
of the Agrarian laws, Cassius, Licinius, and the Gracchi, all Agreda
belonged to the class which would have been injured by their II
operation, had they led to an undue interference with pri- Agric0,a'
vate property. (g. f.)
AGREDA, a very mountainous district of the province
of Soria, in Spain, containing 11 towns, 23 villages, and 63
hamlets. Pop. 23,618.
Agreda, the Gracchuris of the Homans, the chief town
of the above district, built on the skirts of the Sierra Mon-
cayo, and divided by the River Queiles into two parts, com¬
municating by a fine stone bridge of one arch. It has
six churches and four monasteries. Population 3847. Its
trade suffered severely from a three days’ occupation by a
French army of 25,000 men, in the Peninsular war. The
chief manufactures are cloth, hats, linen, pottery, and oil.
AGR1A, called by the Germans Eger, is a strong town
in Upper Hungary, situate on a river of the same name,
and has a citadel called Erlau. See Erlau.
AGRICOLA, CxAius Julius, was born at Forum Julii,
now Frejus, in Provence, a.d. 37, and was in Vespasian’s
time made lieutenant to Vettius Bolanus in Britain. Upon
his return he was ranked by that emperor among the patri¬
cians, and made governor of Aquitania. This post he held
for three years: he then was recalled to Rome, and chosen
consul; and was appointed governor of Britain, where he
greatly distinguished himself. He reformed many abuses
occasioned by the avarice or negligence of former governors,
put a stop to extortion, and caused justice to be impartially
administered. Vespasian dying about this time, his son
Titus, knowing the great merit of Agricola, continued him
in the government. In the spring he marched towards the
north, where he made new conquests, and ordered forts to
be built for the Romans to winter in. He spent the follow¬
ing winter in concerting schemes to bring the Britons to
conform to the Roman customs. He thought the best way
of diverting them from their warlike propensities was to
soften their rough manners by proposing to them new kinds
of pleasure, ami inspiring them with a desire of imitating
the Roman manners. He encouraged the erection of mag¬
nificent temples, porticoes, baths, and other fine buildings.
The British nobles at length had their sons educated in
learning; and they who before had the utmost aversion to
the Roman language, now began to study it with great assi¬
duity. They wore likewise the Roman habit; and, as Tacitus
observes, they were brought to consider those things as marks
of politeness, which were only so many badges of slavery.
Agricola, in his third campaign, advanced as far as the
Tweed; and in his fourth he subdued the nations betwixt
the Tweed and the firths of Forth and Clyde, into which
the rivers Bodotria and Glotta discharged themselves ; and
here he built fortresses to shut up the nations yet uncon¬
quered. In his fifth he marched beyond the firths, where
he made some new acquisitions, and fixed garrisons along
the western coasts, over against Ireland. In his sixth cam¬
paign he passed the river Bodotria; ordering his fleet, the
first which the Romans ever had in those parts, to row along
the coasts, and take a view of the northern parts. In the
following spring, the Britons raised an army of 30,000 men,
under the command of Galgacus, to oppose the invaders.
In the engagement that ensued the Romans gained the vic¬
tory, and 10,000 of the Britons are said to have been killed.
This happened in the reign of the Emperor Domitian, who,
growing jealous of the glory of Agricola, recalled him, under
pretence of making him governor of Syria. Agricola was
in Britain fully seven years, from a.d. 78 to 85; and he died
on the 23d August, a.d. 93, when he had attained the age
of 55. The great historian Tacitus, who was married to the
daughter of Agricola, has written his life, one of the most
beautiful specimens of biography ever composed.
248 A G R
Agricola Agricola [properly Landmanri], George, a German
II physician, famous for his skill in metals. He was born at
Agricul- Giauchaj in Misnia, March 24th, 1494. His discoveries in
;ui" j the mountains of Bohemia gave him so great a desire of
v~"*’ examining accurately into every thing relating to metals,
that though he had engaged in the practice of physic at
Joachimstal by advice of his friends, he still prosecuted his
study of fossils with great assiduity, and at length removed
to Chemnitz, where he entirely devoted himself to this study.
He spent in pursuit of it the pension he had from Maurice
Duke of Saxony, and part of his own estate; so that he
reaped more reputation than profit from his labours. His
great work De Re Metallica contains much curious informa¬
tion. He died at Chemnitz on the 21st November 1555.
Agricola, John, a Saxon divine, born at Eisleben in
1492. He went as chaplain to Count Mansfield, when that
nobleman attended the Elector of Saxony to the diet at
Spires in 1529, and that of Augsburg in 1530. He was of
a restless, ambitious temper, rivalled and wrote against Me-
lancthon, and gave Count Mansfield occasion to reproach
him severely. He obtained a professorship at Wittemberg,
AGE
where he taught peculiar doctrines, and became founder of Agricola
the sect of Antinomians; which occasioned warm disputes lj
between him and Luther, who had before been his attached * ?nciu~
friend. But though he was never able to recover the favour ^
either of the Elector of Saxony or of Luther, he received
some consolation from the fame he acquired at Berlin, where
he became preacher at court; and was chosen, in 1548, in
conjunction with Julius Phlug and Michael Heldingus, to
compose the famous Interim. He died at Berlin in 1566.
His real name was Schnitter or Schneider.
Agricola, Rodolphus, one of the most eminent scholars
of the fifteenth century. He was born near Groningen
in Friesland, in 1443, and died at Heidelberg in 1485. He
was educated at Louvain; and travelling into Italy, became
the pupil of Theodore Gaza in Greek, at Ferrara, for about
two years; and at the same time gave instructions on the
language and literature of ancient Rome. He was not only
a profound scholar, but had much skill in painting and music.
In his treatise De Inventione Dialectica, he clearly saw and
tried to remedy the defects of the then prevalent scholastic
philosophy. His real name was Rolef Huysmann.
A G BIC IT L T U R E.
CHAPTER I.
Historical
Summary.
Babylon¬
ians and
Egyptians.
IT would be interesting to know how the nations of anti¬
quity tilled, and sowed, and reaped; what crops they cul¬
tivated, and by what methods they converted them into food
and raiment. But it is to be regretted, that the records which
have come down to us are all but silent upon these homely
topics.
In Mr Hoskyn’s admirable treatise,1 we have an excellent
specimen of what may yet be done to recover and construct
an authentic history of the Agriculture of the ancients, from
the casual allusions and accidental notices of rural affairs
which lie thinly scattered through the body of general lite¬
rature ; and, more especially, from those mysterious records
of the past, which are now being rescued from their long
burial under the ruins of some of the most famous cities of
antiquity. Although comparatively little has been found in
such records bearing directly upon the subject; we must not
despair of the learned industry, and masterly skill, of an ad¬
vancing and searching criticism, gathering together these
gleams of light, and making them happily converge upon the
darkness which has hitherto interposed between us and a cir¬
cumstantial knowledge of the methods and details of ancient
husbandry.
Every reader of the Bible is familiar with its frequent re¬
ferences to Egypt as a land so rich in corn, that it not only
produced abundance for its own dense population, but yielded
supplies for exportation to neighbouring countries. Profane
history corroborates these statements. Diodorus Siculus
bears explicit testimony to the skill of the farmers of ancient
Egypt. He informs us that they were acquainted with the
benefits of a rotation of crops, and were skilful in adapting
these to the soil and to the seasons. The ordinary annual
supply of corn furnished to Rome has been estimated at
20,000,000 of bushels. From the same author, we also
learn, that they fed their cattle with hay during the annual
inundation, and at other times tethered them in the meadows
on green clover. Their flocks were shorn twice annually,
(a practice common in several Asiatic countries), and their
ewes yeaned twice a-year. For religious as well as econo¬
mical reasons, they were great rearers of poultry, and prac¬
tised artificial hatching, as at the present day. The abun¬
dance or scarcity of the harvests in Egypt depended chiefly Historical
upon the height of the annual inundation. If too low, much Summary,
of the land could not be sown, and scarcity or famine ensued.
On the other hand, great calamities befell the country when
the river rose much above the average level. Cattle were
drowned, villages destroyed, and the crops necessarily much
diminished; as in such cases, many of the fields were still
under water at the proper seed-time. In 1818, a calamity
of this kind took place, when the river rapidly attained a
height of three-and-a-half feet above the proper level.
It is from the paintings and inscriptions with which the
ancient Egyptians decorated their tombs, that we get the
fullest insight into the state of agriculture amongst this re¬
markable people. Many of these paintings, after the lapse
of two or three thousand years, retain the distinctness of out¬
line and brilliancy of colour of recent productions. The ac¬
quaintance which these give us with their occupations, at¬
tainments, and habits, is truly marvellous, and fills the reader
of such works as “ Wilkinson’s Egypt” with perfect amaze¬
ment. Every fresh detail seems to give confirmation to that
ancient saying, “ There is nothing new under the sun.” Those
which refer to rural affairs disclose a state of matters at that
early date of the world’s history, which may well remind us
to speak modestly of our own attainments. An Egyptian
villa comprised all the conveniences of a European one of
the present day. Besides a mansion with numerous apart¬
ments, there were gardens, orchards, fish-ponds, and pre¬
serves for game. Attached to it was a farm-yard, with sheds
for cattle and stables for carriage horses. A steward directed
the tillage operations, superintended the labourers, and kept
account of the produce and expenditure. The grain was
stored in vaulted chambers furnished with an opening at the
top, reached by steps, into which it was emptied from sacks,
and with an aperture below for removing it when required.
Hand-querns, similar to our own, were used for grinding
corn ; but they had also a larger kind worked by oxen. In
one painting in which the sowing of the grain is represented,
a plough drawn by a pair of oxen goes first; next comes the
sower scattering the seed from a basket, he is followed by
another plough, whilst a roller, drawn by two horses yoked
1 Short Enquiry into the History of Agriculture, by Chandos Wren Hoskyn, Esq.
AGRICULTURE.
Historical a})reast? completes the operation. The steward stands by
SummarySUperintending the whole. Nothing, however, conveys to
us so full an impression of the advanced state of civilisation
amongst the ancient Egyptians as the value which they at¬
tached to land, and the formalities which they observed in
the transfer of it. In the time of the Ptolemies, their written
deeds of conveyance began with the mention of the reign in
w hich they were executed, the name of the president of the
court, and of the clerk who drew them. The name of the
seller, with a description of his personal appearance, his
parentage, profession, and residence, was engrossed. The
nature of the land, its extent, situation, and boundaries ; the
name and appearance of the purchaser were also included.
A clause of warrandice and an explicit acceptance by the
purchaser followed, and finally the deed was attested by nu¬
merous witnesses (so many as sixteen occur to a trifling
bargain), and by the president of the court.
Patriarchal The Nomades of the patriarchal ages, like the Tartar, and
age- perhaps some of the Moorish tribes of our own, whilst mainly
dependent upon their flocks and herds, practised also agri¬
culture proper. The vast tracts over which they roamed
were in ordinary circumstances common to all shepherds
alike. During summer they frequented the mountainous
districts and retired to the valleys to winter. Vast flocks of
sheep and of goats constituted the chief wealth of the No¬
mades, although they also possessed animals of the ox kind.
When these last were possessed in abundance, it seems to be
an indication that tillage was practised. We learn that Job,
whose time is by the best authorities fixed as about contem¬
poraneous with that of Abraham, besides immense possessions
in flocks and herds, had 500 yoke of oxen, which he em¬
ployed in ploughing, and a “ very great husbandry.” Isaac,
too, conjoined tillage with pastoral husbandry, and that with
success, for we read that he sowed in the land Gerar, and
reaped an hundred fold—a return w hich, it would appear, in
some favoured regions, occasionally rewarded the labour of
the husbandman. In the Parable of the Sower, our Lord
(grafting his instructions upon the habits, scenery, and pro¬
ductions of Palestine), mentions an increase of thirty, sixty,
and an hundred fold. Such increase, although far above
the average rate, was sometimes even greatly exceeded, if
we take the authority of Herodotus, Strabo, and Pliny.
Israelites. Along with the Babylonians, Egyptians, and Romans, the
Israelites are classed as one of the great agricultural nations
of antiquity. The sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt trained
them for the more purely agricultural life that awaited them
upon their return to Canaan, to take possession ot it as their
own. Nearly the whole population were virtually husband¬
men, and personally engaged in its pursuits. Upon their
entrance into Canaan, they found the country occupied by
a dense population, possessed of walled cities and innume¬
rable villages, masters of great accumulated wealth, and sub¬
sisting on the produce of their highly cultivated soil, which
abounded with vineyards and oliveyards. It was so rich in
grain, that the invading army, numbering 601,730 able-
bodied men, with their wives and children, and a mixed
multitude of camp-followers, found “ old corn” in the land
sufficient to maintain them from the day that they passed
Jordan. The Mosaic Institute contained an Agrarian
law, based upon an equal division of the soil amongst the
adult males, a census of which w'as taken just before their
entrance into Canaan. Provision was thus made for six
hundred thousand yeomen, assigning (according to different
calculations) from sixteen to twenty-five acres ot land to
each. This land, held in direct tenure from Jehovah, their
sovereign, was strictly inalienable. The accumulation of debt
upon it was prevented by the prohibition of interest, the re¬
lease of debts every seventh year, and the reversion of the
land to the proprietor, or his heirs, a,t each return of the year
VOL. II,
249
of jubilee. The owners of these small farms cultivated them Historical
with much care, and rendered them highly productive. They Summary,
were favoured with a soil extremely fertile, and which their
skill and diligence kept in good condition. The stones were
carefully cleared from the fields, which were also watered
from canals and conduits, communicating with the brooks
and streams with which the country “was well watered
everywhere,” and enriched by the application of manures.
The seventh year’s fallow prevented the exhaustion of the
soil, which was further enriched by the burning of the weeds
and spontaneous growth of the Sabbatical year. The crops
chiefly cultivated were wheat, millet, barley, beans, and len-
tiles; to which it is supposed, on grounds not improbable,
may be added rice and cotton. The ox and the ass were
used for labour. The word “ oxen,” which occurs in our
version of the Scriptures, as well as in the Septuagint and
Vulgate, denotes the species, rather than the sex. As the
Hebrews did not mutilate any of their animals, bulls were
in common use. The quantity of land ploughed by a yoke
of oxen in one day, was called a yoke or acre. Towards the
end of October, with which month the rainy season begins,
seedtime commenced, and of course does so still. The seed¬
time, begun in October, extends, for wheat and some other
white crops, through November and December ; and barley
continues to be sown until about the middle of February.
The seed appears to have been sometimes ploughed in, and
at other times to have been covered by harrowing. The
cold winds which prevail in January and February, frequently
injured the crops in the more exposed and higher districts.
The rainy season extends from October to April, during
which time, refreshing showers fall, chiefly during the night,
and generally at intervals of a few days. The harvest was
earlier or later as the rains towards the end of the season were
more or less copious. It, however, generally commenced
in April, and continued through May for the different crops
in succession. In the south, and in the plains, the harvest,
as might be expected, commenced some weeks earlier than
in the northern and mountainous districts. The slopes of
the hills were carefully terraced and irrigated wherever
practicable; and on these slopes, the vine and olive were
cultivated with great success. At the same time, the hill
districts and neighbouring deserts afforded pasturage for nu¬
merous flocks and herds, and thus admitted of the benefits
of a mixed husbandry. With such political and social arrange¬
ments, and under the peculiarly felicitous climate of Judea,
the country, as a whole, and at the more prosperous periods
of the commonwealth, must have exhibited such an example
of high cultivation, rich and varied produce, and wide-spread
plenty and contentment as the world has never yet else¬
where produced on an equally extensive scale. Not by a
figure of speech but literally, every Israelite sat under the
shadqw of his own vine and fig-tree ; whilst the country as
a whole, is described (2 Kings xviii. 32) as “ a land of corn
and wine, a land of bread and vineyards, a land of oil-olive and
of honey.” An interesting illustration of the advanced state
of agriculture in these ancient times is afforded by the fact,
that, making allowance for climatic differences, the numerous
allusions to it with which the Scriptures abound, seem na¬
tural and appropriate to the British farmer of the present
daY-
The unrivalled literature of Greece affords us little infor-Ancient
mation regarding the practical details of her husbandry. The Greeks,
people who, by what remains to us of their poetry, philoso¬
phy, history, and fine arts, still exert such an influence in
guiding our intellectual efforts, in regulating taste, and in
moulding our institutions, were originally the invaders ami
conquerors of the territory which they have rendered so fa¬
mous. Having reduced the aboriginal tribes to bondage, they
imposed upon them the labour of cultivating the soil, and
250 A G R I C U
Historical hence both the occupation, and those engaged in it, were re-
Summary. garded contemptuously by the dominant race, who addicted
themselves to what they regarded as nobler pursuits. W ith
the exception of certain districts, such as Bceotia,the country
was naturally unfavourable to agriculture. When we find,
however, that valleys were freed from lakes and morasses by
drainage, that rocky surfaces were sometimes covered wdth
transported soil, and that they possessed excellent breeds of
the domesticated animals, which were reared in vast num¬
bers, w-e infer that agriculture was better understood, and
more carefully practised, than the allusions to it in their lite¬
rature would seem to warrant.
Ancient, Amongst the ancient Romans, agriculture was highly es-
Komans. teemed, and pursued with earnest love and devoted atten¬
tion. “ In all their foreign enterprises, even in earliest times,”
as Schlegel remarks, “they were exceedingly covetous of
gain, or rather of land; for it was in land, and in the produce
of the soil, that their principal and almost only wealth con¬
sisted. They were a thoroughly agricultural people, and it
was only at a later period that commerce, trades, and arts,
were introduced among them, and even then they occupied
but a subordinate place.”1 Their passion for agriculture
survived very long; and when at length their boundless con¬
quests introduced an unheard-of luxury, and corruption of
morals, the noblest minds amongst them were strongly at¬
tracted towards the ancient virtue of the purer and simpler
agricultural times. Several facts in their history afford con¬
vincing proof, if it were required, of the devotion of this an¬
cient people to agriculture, in their best and happiest times.
Whilst their arts and sciences, and general literature, were
borrowed from the Greeks, they created an original litera¬
ture of their own, of which rural affairs formed the substance
and inspiration. Schlegel and Mr Hoskyn notice also the
striking fact, that whilst among the Greeks the names of
their illustrious families are borrowed from the heroes and
gods of their mythology, the most famous houses amongst
the ancient Romans, such as the Pisones, Fabii, Lentuli,
&c., have taken their names from their favourite crops and
vegetables. Perhaps it is not too much to assert, that many
of those qualities which fitted them for conquering the world,
and perfecting their so celebrated jurisprudence, were ac¬
quired, or at all events nourished and matured, by the skill,
foresight, and persevering industry, so needful for the intel¬
ligent and successful cultivation of the soil. The words
which Cicero puts into the mouth of Cato give a fine pic¬
ture of the ancient Roman enthusiasm in agriculture. “ I
come now to the pleasures of husbandry, in which I vastly
delight. They are not interrupted by old age, and they seem
to me to be pursuits in which a wise man’s life should be
spent. The earth does not rebel against authority ; it never
gives back but with usury what it receives. The gains of hus¬
bandry are not what exclusively commend it. I am chqrmed
with the nature and productive virtues of the soil. Can those
old men be called unhappy who delight in the cultivation of
the soil ? In my opinion, there can be no happier life, not
only because the tillage of the earth is salutary to all, but
from the pleasure it yields. The whole establishment of a
good and assiduous husbandman is stored with wealth; it
abounds in pigs, in kids, in lambs, in poultry, in milk, in
cheese, in honey. Nothing can be more profitable, nothing
more beautiful, than a well-cultivated farm.”
In ancient Rome, each citizen received, at first, an allot¬
ment of about two English acres. After the expulsion of
the kings this allotment was increased to about six acres.
These small inheritances must of course have been culti-
L T U R E.
vated by hard labour. On the increase of the Roman ter- Historical
ritory, the allotment was increased to fifty, and afterwards Summary,
even to five hundred acres. Many glimpses into their me-
thods of cultivation are found in those works of Roman au¬
thors which have survived the ravages of time. Cato speaks
of irrigation, frequent tillage, and manuring, as means of fer¬
tilizing the soil. Mr Hoskyn, from whose valuable contri¬
bution to the History of Agriculture we have drawn freely
in this historic summary, quotes the following interesting
passage from Pliny, commenting on Virgil:2—“ Our poet is
of opinion that alternate fallows should be made, and that the
land should rest entirely every second year. And this is,
indeed, both true and profitable, provided a man have land
enough to give the soil this repose. But how, if his extent
be not sufficient ? Let him, in that case, help himself thus.
Let him sow next year’s wheat-crop on the field where he
has just gathered his beans, vetches, or lupines, or such other
crop as enriches the ground. For, indeed, it is worth notice
that some crops are sown for no other purpose but as food
for others, a poor practice, in my estimation.” In another
place, he tells us, “ Wheat, the later it is reaped, the better
it casts; but the sooner it is reaped, the fairer the sample.
The best rule is to cut it down before the grain is got hard,
when the ear begins to have a reddish-brown appearance.
‘ Better two days too soon than as many too late,’ is a good
old maxim, and might pass for an oracle.” The following
quotation from the same author is excellent: “ Cato would
have this point especially to be considered, that the soil of a
farm be good and fertile ; also, that near it there be plenty
of labourers, and that it be not far from a large town : more¬
over, that it have sufficient means for transporting its pro¬
duce, either by water or land. Also, that the house be well
built, and the land about it as well managed. But I observe
a great error and self-deception which many men commit,
who hold opinion that the negligence and ill-husbandry of
the former owner is good for his successor or after-purchaser.
Now, I say, there is nothing more dangerous and disadvan¬
tageous to the buyer than land so left waste and out of heart;
and therefore Cato counsels well to purchase land of one who
has managed it well, and not rashly and hand-over-head to
despise and make light of the skill and knowledge of another.
He says, too, that as well land as men, which are of great
charge and expense, how gainful soever they may seem to
be, yield little profit in the end, when all reckonings are
made. The same Cato being asked, what was the most as¬
sured profit rising out of land? made this answer,—‘ To feed
stock well.’ Being asked again, £ What was the next?’ he
answered, 1 To feed ivith moderation! By which answer he
would seem to conclude that the most certain and sure reve¬
nue was a low cost of production. To the same point is to
be referred another speech of his, ‘ That a good husbandman
ought to be a seller rather than a buyer ; ’ also, ‘ that a man
should stock his ground early and well, but take long time
and leisure before he be a builderfor it is the best thing
in the world, according to the proverb, ‘ to make use, and
derive profit, from other men’s follies.’ Still, when there is
a good and convenient house on the farm, the master will be
the closer occupier, and take the more pleasure in it; and
truly it is a good saying, that ‘ the master’s eye is better
than his heel.’ ”
“ It is curious (says Mr Hoskyn) to read such passages as
these, and to find the very same subjects still handled, week
after week, in fresh and eager controversy in the agricul¬
tural writings and periodicals of the present day, eighteen
centuries after those opinions were written.”
1 The Philosophy of History, by Frederick Von Schlegel. London, 1846; p. 253.
2 Short Enquiry into the History of Agriculture, pp. 49-51, by Chandos Wren Hoskyn, Esq.
AGRICULTURE.
251
Historical In the later ages of the empire agriculture was neglected,
Summary, and those engaged in it regarded with contempt. Many fair
regions, once carefully cultivated, and highly productive,
were abandoned to nature, and became a scene of desola¬
tion ; the supplies of overgrown Rome being drawn from
Egypt, Sicily, and other provinces, which became notable
as the granaries of the empire.
.Agricul- Under the Goths, Vandals, and other barbarian conquerors,
ture during agriculture in Europe, during the middle ages, seems to have
the middle sunk into the lowest condition of neglect and contempt. We
ages. owe its revival, like that of other arts and sciences, to the
Saracens Saracens of Spain, who devoted themselves to the cultiva-
and Moors tion of that conquered territory, with hereditary love for the
of Spain, occupation, and with the skilful application of the experience
which they had gathered in other lands in which they had
established their power. By them, and their successors, the
Moors, agriculture was carried in Spain to a height which
perhaps has not yet been surpassed in Europe. It is said,
that so early as the tenth century, the revenue of Saracenic
Spain alone amounted to £6,000,000 sterling,—probably as
much as that of all the rest of Europe at that time. The
ruins of their noble works for the irrigation of the soil, still
attest their skill and industry, and put to shame the igno¬
rance and indolence of their successors. The same remark
applies to the Spanish dominions in South America. In the
ancient empire of Peru, agriculture seems to have reached
a high degree of perfection. The ruins of basins and canals,
frequently carried through tunnels, prove their industry and
skill in irrigation. One of their aqueducts is said by Mr
Prescott1 to have been traced by its ruins for nearly 500
miles. They cultivated the sides of mountains, by means
of terraces, which retained forced soil, and were skilled in
the application of manure. That on which they chiefly de¬
pended was guano, and their Incas protected the penguins,
by which it was deposited, by strict laws, which made it
highly penal to kill one of these birds, or to set foot on
the islands at breeding time. The Spaniards thus obtained
possession of two good patrimonies, and have wasted them
both.
The influence of the crusades upon the agriculture of this
period is not to be overlooked. The dreadful oppression of
the feudal system received at that time a shock most favour¬
able to the liberties of man, and, with increasing liberty, more
enlightened ideas began to be entertained, and greater atten¬
tion to be paid to the cultivation of the soil.
But, during this long interval, the population of Europe
was divided into two great classes, of which by far the larger
one was composed of bondmen, without property, or the
power of acquiring it, and small tenants, very little superior to
bondmen ; and the other class, consisting chiefly of the great
barons and their retainers, was more frequently employed in
laying waste the fields of their rivals, than in improving their
own. The superstition of the times, which destined a large
portion of the country to the support of the church, and which,
in some measure, secured it from predatory incursions, was
the principal source of what little skill and industry were then
displayed in the cultivation of the soil. “ If we consider the
ancient state of Europe,” says Mr Hume,2 “ we shall find,
that the far greater part of society were everywhere bereaved
of their personal liberty, and lived entirely at the will of their
masters. Every one that was not noble was a slave ; the pea¬
sants were not in a better condition ; even the gentry them¬
selves were subjected to a long train of subordination under
the greater barons, or chief vassals of the crown, who, though
seemingly placed in a high state of splendour, yet, having but
a slender protection from law, were exposed to every tern- Historical
pest of the state, and, by the precarious condition on which Summary,
they lived, paid dearly for the power of oppressing and tyran-
nizing over their inferiors.”—“ The villains were entirely oc¬
cupied in the cultivation of their master’s land, and paid their
rents either in corn or cattle, and other produce of the farm,
or in servile offices, which they performed about the baron’s
family, and upon farms which he retained in his own posses¬
sion. In proportion as agriculture improved and money in¬
creased, it was found that these services, though extremely
burdensome to the villain, were of little advantage to the
master ; and that the produce of a large estate could be much
more conveniently disposed of by the peasants themselves,
who raised it, than by the landlord or his bailiff, who were
formerly accustomed to receive it. A commutation was there¬
fore made of rents for services, and of money-rents for those
in kind; and as men in a subsequent age discovered that
farms were better cultivated where the farmer enjoyed secu¬
rity in his possession, the practice of granting leases to the
peasant began to prevail, which entirely broke the bonds of
servitude, already much relaxed from the former practices.
The latest laws which we find in England for enforcing or
regulating this species of servitude were enacted in the reign
of Henry VII. And though the ancient statutes on this sub¬
ject remain still unrepealed by Parliament, it appears, that
before the end of Elizabeth, the distinction between villain
and freeman was totally, though insensibly, abolished; and
that no person remained in the state to whom the former laws
could be applied.”
But, long before the fifteenth century, it is certain that Leases du-
there was a class of tenants holding on leases for lives, or for ring the
a term of years, and paying a rent in land produce, in ser-Im<ldle
vices, or in money. Whether they gradually sprung up from a^es'
the class of bondmen, according to Lord Karnes,3 or existed
from the earliest period of the feudal constitution, according
to other writers,4 their number cannot be supposed to have
been considerable during the middle ages. The stock which
these tenants employed in cultivation commonly belonged to
the proprietor, who received a proportion of the produce as
rent; a system which still exists in France and in other parts
of the Continent, where such tenants are called metayers, and
some vestiges of which may yet be traced in the steel-bow of
the law of Scotland. Leases of the thirteenth century still
remain ;5 and both the laws and chartularies6 clearly prove
the existence in Scotland of a class of cultivators distinct from
the serfs or bondmen. Yet the condition of these tenants
seems to have been very different from that of the tenants of
the present day ; and the lease approached nearer in its form
to a feu-charter than to the mutual agreement now in use. It
was of the nature of a beneficiary grant by the proprietor,
under certain conditions, and for a limited period: the con¬
sent of the tenant seems never to have been doubted. In
the common expression, “ granting a lease,” we have retained
an idea of the original character of the deed, even to the pre¬
sent time.
The corn crops cultivated during this period seem to have Crops cul-
been of the same species, though all of them probably much tivated.
inferior in quality to what they are in the present day.
Wheat, the most valuable grain, must have borne a small
proportion, at least in Britain, to that of other crops; the re¬
markable fluctuation of price, its extreme scarcity, indicated
by the extravagant rate at which it was sometimes sold, as
well as the preparatory cultivation required, may convince
us that its consumption was confined to the higher orders,
and that its growth was by no means extensive. Rye and
1 “ History of the Conquest of Mexico.” 2 History of England, chap, xxiii.
3 Karnes’s Law Tracts. 4 Bell’s Treatise on Leases.
6 Sir John Cullum’s History and Antiquities of Hawsted (Suffolk.) 6 Chalmers’s Caledonia, book iv. c. 6.
252 A G R I C U L T U R E.
Historical oats furnished the bread and drink of the great body of the
Summary, people of Europe. Cultivated herbage and roots were then
^ unknown in the agriculture of Britain. It was not till the
end of the reign of Henry VIII. that any salads, carrots, or
other edible roots were produced in England. The little of
these vegetables that was used, was formerly imported from
Holland and Flanders. Queen Catherine, when she wanted
a salad, was obliged to despatch a messenger thither on pur¬
pose.1
The ignorance and insecurity of those ages, which neces¬
sarily confined the cultivation of corn to a comparatively
small portion of country, left all the rest of it in a state of
nature, to be depastured by the inferior animals, then only
occasionally subjected to the care and control of man. Cul¬
tivators were crowded together in miserable hamlets; the
ground contiguous was kept continually under tillage; and
beyond this, wastes and woodlands of a much greater ex¬
tent were appropriated to the maintenance of their flocks
and herds, which pastured indiscriminately, with little atten¬
tion from their owners.
The low price of butcher-meat, though it was then the
food of the common people, when compared with the price
of corn, has been justly noticed by several writers as a de¬
cisive proof of the small progress of civilisation and industry.
Continent According to the reports of a writer who has had access to
of Europe. t}ie best sources of information, in addition to his own obser¬
vations, the present state of the agriculture of the greater
part of the Continent of Europe is not very different from
what it was in Britain during the prevalence of the feudal
system. “The greater part of France,” he says, “a still
much greater portion of Germany, and nearly the whole of
Prussia, Austria, Poland, and Russia, present a wretched uni¬
formity of system. It is called the three-course husbandry,
consisting of, ls£, one year’s clean fallow; 2d, winter corn,
chiefly rye, with a proportion of wheat commensurate to the
manure that can be applied; 3d, summer corn, or barley and
oats. There are occasional and small deviations from this
system. In some few cases potatoes, in others peas, are
grown, in the fellow year ; but they are only minute excep¬
tions to the generally established system. It is not surpris¬
ing that under such a system the produce should not be
much more than four times the quantity of seed, at which
rate it is calculated, as appears to be rightly, by Baron Alex¬
ander Humboldt.”
“ The fields are almost universally uninclosed, and ex¬
posed to the most injurious effects of a changeable and an
intemperate climate. The ancient feudal system of tenure
is still continued, modified indeed, and softened in some few
parts, but not to a degree or an extent that deserves to be
taken into account in the view now under consideration of
the countries as a whole. The peasants, for the most part,
are adstricti glebce ; and where, by recent laws, their con¬
dition has been changed, the practical effect has yet hardly
had time to exhibit any observable improvement in their
state. Labour, whether of men or of cattle, is usually ex¬
changed for the occupancy of land; and hence the labour is
performed in the most negligent and imperfect manner, that
the vigilance of an overseer, who cannot be everywhere pre¬
sent, will allow.
“ The lords of the soil, besides their demesnes, have the
right of pasturage on the fields of their tenants from harvest
to the next seed-time : hence none of those intervening crops
which tend to enrich the soil can be cultivated without in¬
fringing on their rights.
“ Among the cultivators of the land little or no accumu¬
lation of capital has been formed; from the lord to the low¬
est grade of the peasantry, all are alike destitute of disposable Historical
funds. The lords are only rich in land, and sufficiently at Suinniary.
their ease, if that land be unencumbered with mortgages or
annuities. The peasants, whether owners of the live stock
and of the implements, or having the use of them with the
land from its owners, are content to live on, from year to year,
eating their own produce, growing their own wool and flax,
and converting them into garments. They are quite satis¬
fied if they can dispose of as much surplus produce as will
pay the small share of money-rent which becomes due to
their lord.” {Tracts relating to the Corn Trade and Corn
Laics, by William Jacob, Esq., 1828.)
The agriculture of nearly the whole of the continent of
Europe has made very great progress since the remarks now
quoted were penned. In Flanders, the Netherlands, Italy, Flemish
Switzerland, and Germany, there are certain limited districts Agricul-
which, in general management, rival, and in particular points ture‘
excel, our own. In nothing is this more apparent than in
their scrupulous economy of manure, both as regards its pre¬
paration and application. In Flanders, not only the contents
of privies, but soap-suds, scullery-water, and slops of every
kind containing fertilising matters, are carefully preserved in
suitable receptacles, by the town’s-folk and villagers, from
whom they are purchased by regular manure dealers, who
come statedly round with their tub-carts, to collect this
sewage, and who store it in tanks, and in due time retail it
to the farmers. The latter invariably have tanks of their
own, in which the urine of their cattle and similar matters
are collected. This liquid manure is frequently enriched by
the addition of night-soil and rape-dust, and is always stored
for several months before being applied to the land. In
South-West Germany, Switzerland, and Holland, the same
attention is paid to the preparation of liquid manure, by
mingling the dung and urine of the cattle with water, fer¬
menting it in tanks, and then in distributing it over green
crops by means of barrel-carts. The following might stand
for a description of Myre Mill or Tiptree, but for the want
of the steam-engine, force-pump, and underground pipes :
“ The cows often lie on smooth bricks, which are washed
clean twice a-day, for which purpose a pump is an essential
appendage to a cow-house. There is generally a deep gut¬
ter along the wall behind the cows, into which the water and
urine drain, the ground sloping gently towards it. The tank
is either immediately under the stable, well vaulted over, or
it is so near that all the liquid readily runs into it through a
covered drain. The heads of the cows are towards the mid¬
dle of the stable, and their tails over the gutter along the wall.
The width of the building admits of two rows of cows, facing
each other, with a space between them sufficiently wide to
admit a small cart, to bring the food to them. This is uni¬
versally the form of a cow-house in Holland. The liquid in
the tank is allowed to go through the first stages of fermenta¬
tion, during which the caustic portion of the urine is ren¬
dered mild, and the liquid is better fitted to be taken up by
the fibres of the roots. In order that there may be a regu¬
lar succession of liquid in a proper state for use, there are
partitions in the tanks, and by means of small flood-gates in
the drain which leads to it, the fresh accumulation may be
directed to any one of the pits thus formed, while the ripe
liquor may be pumped up into tubs or barrels set on wheels,
to be conveyed to the land. There are means of accelerat¬
ing or retarding the fermentation, according to the time when
the liquor is wanted. Stirring and admitting the air assist
the process, while the addition of earth, peat, or ashes, and
keeping out the air, retard it. The efficacy of the liquid is
much increased by adding rape-cake, and other vegetable
1 Hume’s History of England, chap, xxiii.
AGRICULTURE.
25:?
Historical substances. This is usually done a short time before it is
Summary. pUt on the land, as it would otherwise ferment too much.
The Agriculture of France has been influenced in no ordi-
France. nary degree by the altered tenure and distribution of the soil
consequent upon the great Revolution. A large portion of its
territory is now minutely subdivided amongst small proprie¬
tors, and presents the appearance of one vast cultivated open
field. “ As far as the eye can reach over vast plains bounded
by sloping hills, you see the surface varied by every descrip¬
tion of crop ; none, perhaps above an acre or two in size,—
the larger portion not more than the fourth or eighth of an
acre.” These small proprietors are, for the most part, with¬
out capital, so that the government takes the chief part in
instigating and promoting improvements. For this purpose
it has instituted various establishments, which are either
maintained entirely at its cost, or by grants in aid of local
efforts. These consist of agricultural societies, veterinary
schools, model farms, sheep-farms, and haras or studs. Of
the model farms, Grignon, in the vicinity of Paris, consists
of nearly 1200 English acres of land of various qualities.
Here numbers of young men are instructed in the theory
and practice of agriculture by highly qualified teachers, and
have the opportunity of witnessing the daily operations of
the farm. The sheep-farms are devoted to rearing the best
breeds of sheep ; the rams produced upon them being distri¬
buted over the country by annual sales. The haras or studs
are maintained for improving the breed of horses. Stallions
are sent out from them in great numbers, and are stationed
at suitable places for the accommodation of the respective
neighbourhoods. These institutions have aided consideraoly
in promoting agricultural improvement in France.
s a-n Spain, with its delicious climate and fertile soil, exhibits
pain the most antiquated agriculture in Europe. For want of
means of conveyance, the abundant and choice products of
the interior cannot be brought to its out-ports at a cost that
would remunerate the exporter. Its great proprietors are
indolent, poor, and proud, and everything lags behind for
want of energy and capital. Vast tracts of country, includ¬
ing much fertile soil formerly occupied, are now without an
inhabitant, and bear the significant designation, Despo-
blado” (unpeopled).
Germany The Society of German Landowners and foresters was
established in 1837 for purposes similar to those of our own
National Agricultural Societies, and is supported by the
principal landed proprietors of Germany. Mr Handley, who
was present at its Fifth Annual Meeting held at Doberan
in Mecklenburg, in September 1841, thus speaks of it:
“ Although its objects are the same as ours, the arrange¬
ments and proceedings of the meeting partake moie of the
character of the British Association. Thus, while the ex¬
hibition of stock and implements forms a secondary considera¬
tion, the main business, viz., the discussions of points con¬
nected with the science of agriculture, are carried on in sec¬
tions, under the presidency of some one celebrated foi
his acquirements in that particular department, with an
earnestness which marks the interest with which they pui¬
sne the theories of agriculture, and investigate the results of
practical experiments. The president of the meeting is
named annually by the sovereign or reigning prince of the
state in which it is held. T he sections appointed were,—
on sheep and the management of flocks, on practical agri¬
culture,—on horned cattle,—on the breeding of horses,—on
geology,—on agricultural mechanics,—on pomology—on the
management of woods. The sittings occupied eight days-
The several sections met at half-past six a.m., daily, and con¬
tinued in deliberation till eleven. At noon, they all assem- Historical
bled in the grand saloon, under the presidency of Count Summary.
Sacken, when a resume of their several proceedings was read,
and animated general discussions ensued. That this Society
is on a scale to work very great improvements in the agri¬
culture of Germany, there can be no doubt. If I were to
form an opinion only from what I heard, I should say it^bari
already materially changed the cultivation of the north.
In the northern countries of Europe, improvement in agri- Northern
culture makes steady, and in some of them, even rapid pro- Europe,
gress. In all of them institutions analogous to those of I ranee
(already referred to), and similarly supported, are in opera¬
tion, at which great numbers of the rising generation, both
proprietors and peasants, are made acquainted, theoretically
and practically, with the most approved methods of their own
and other countries. By all our continental neighbours Great
Britain is looked upon as their agricultural model. Speci¬
mens of our best implements, live stock, and crops, are con¬
stantly being introduced in these countries. Y oung men are
frequently sent here by their governments, to acquire a know¬
ledge of our agriculture, and numbers of their landowners
are constantly to be found amongst us on the same errand.
Our best agricultural treatises are also translated into the
principal languages of Europe. In this respect we have, how¬
ever, received payment in kind, particularly in the scientific
department, the names of Liebig, Boussingault, Sprengel,
and others, being now as familiar to us as those of our native
authors. The recent removal by our Legislature of import
duties on farm produce has given a powerful stimulus to agri¬
cultural improvement on the continent of Europe. The qua¬
lity as well as numbers, of the live stock sent to us, is already
observed to improve.
It would have been interesting to have directed our atten¬
tion to the agriculture of those more distant parts of the world
with which our all-pervading commerce now brings us into
constant intercourse. China, with whose skilful and elabo¬
rate husbandry Mr Fortune has recently made us acquainted,
modern Egypt, the United States of America, and our own
vast colonial empire, all possess new interest to us in an agri¬
cultural point of view, seeing that they now send corn and
wool to our markets, in addition to their peculiar products.
Tempting as the subject is, we must, however, refrain, and now
direct our attention to the history of our native agriculture.
Of the early agriculture of England, and of the condition Agricul-
of its cultivators, we may form some conception, by adverting ^
to a few of the enactments, from the Conquest, down to the thgSe^ 0f°
beginning of the reign of Henry VII. in 1485, when the feu- ^ ,5,
dal system, which had been gradually falling into decay, was century,
almost dissolved in that country.
One of the earliest and greatest grievances was the levy¬
ing of Purveyance. This originally comprehended the neces¬
sary provisions, carriages, &c. which the nearest farmers were
obliged to furnish to the king’s armies at the current prices,
and to his houses and castles in time of war. It was called the
great purveyance, and the officers who collected those neces¬
saries were called purveyors. The smaller purveyance in¬
cluded the necessary provisions and carriages for the king’s
household, when living at home, or travelling through the
kingdom, w hich the tenants on the king’s demesne lands were
obliged to furnish gratis; and the practice came to be adopted
by the barons and great men, in every tour which they
thought proper to make in the country These exactions
were so grievous, and levied in so licentious a manner, that
the farmers, when they heard of the court’s approach, often
deserted their houses, as if the country had been invaded
1 “ On the Agriculture of the Netherlands Journal of Royal Agricultural Society of England, vol. ifr p. 57.
2 Account of the Meeting of German Landowners in 1841; Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, vo.. 111.,
pp. 218,230.
AGRICULTURE.
254
Historical by an enemy. “ Purveyance,” says Dirom,1 “ was per-
Summary. haps for many centuries the ehief obstruction to the ag-
riculture and improvement of Great Britain. Many laws
were made for the reformation and regulation of purvey¬
ance, but without effect; and the practice continued down
to so late a period as the reign of James the First.”
The home trade in corn was restrained by acts against
forestallers in 1360, and at several subsequent periods.
For many years after the Conquest, the greater part of
the trade of England was carried on in markets and fairs;
and a very considerable part of the revenue of the crown
arose from the duties payable to the king, upon the goods
brought to them for sale. The barons had also tolls at the
fairs within their respective jurisdictions. When farmers
and merchants were bringing their corn and other neces¬
saries to be sold there, they were sometimes met on the
way by persons who purchased their commodities, in order
to retail them at a higher price. Thus the king and the
lords of the manor lost the several duties payable to them;
and the price, it was thought, was at the same time raised
to the inhabitants. Such were the original forestallers,
who were subjected by several statutes to severe penalties.
This crime of forestalling, and the kindred ones of regrat¬
ing and engrossing, were carefully defined, and the dif¬
ferent degrees of punishment specified, in a new statute
in 1552, to be afterwards noticed. An early law of 1266,
for regulating the assize of bread and ale, furnishes a
clear proof of the little intercourse that must have subsist¬
ed at that time between town and country. “ Brewers
in cities,” says the statute, “ may well afford to sell two
gallons of beer or ale for a penny, and out of cities three
or four gallons for a penny.”
Several laws were made in the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries, permitting the exportation of grain when the
price of wheat did not exceed six shillings and eightpence
a quarter; and in 1463 importation was prohibited when
the price was lower. The last statute, however, was little
attended to, and foreign grain was admitted as before;
while the state of the country, and the restrictions on in¬
ternal commerce, scarcely permitted any advantage to be
derived from the acts allowing exportation.
Husban- In Mr Chalmers’s Caledonia, a great many valuable
dry of notices are collected regarding the husbandry of Scotland
Scotland, during these ages. It is evident from his elaborate re¬
searches, that the progress of cultivation in the 13th cen¬
tury had been greater than we should have expected from
the turbulence of the times, and the comparatively rude
and uncivilized state of society. Purveyance, and other
obstructions to improvement, were nearly the same in
Scotland as in England; the laws regarding the corn
trade appear, in some instances, to have been copied from
those of England ; and in the northern, as in the southern
part of the island, the clergy were by far the most skilful
and industrious husbandmen.
Yet it is difficult to reconcile the idea of any consider¬
able improvement, particularly in so far as regards the
extensive cultivation of wheat (which Mr Chalmers infers
from the authorities he quotes), with an act passed in
1426, which ordained every husbandman tilling with a
plough of eight oxen to sow at least a firlot (little more
than a Winchester bushel) of wheat, and half a firlot of
peas, with a proportion of beans ; or with the state of the
districts only a few years ago, where wheat is said to have
been extensively grown at that early period.
By statute 1449, the tenant was for the first time se¬
cured in possession, during the term of his lease, against
a purchaser of the land; and in 1469 he was protected Historical
from having his property carried off for the landlord’s Summary,
debts, beyond the amount of rent actually due; an en- v--''
actment which proves his miserable condition before that
time.
Soon after the beginning of the 16th century, agri-Writers
culture partook of the general improvement which fol-°n agncul-
lowed the invention of printing, the revival of learning,ture*
and the more settled authority of government; and in¬
stead of the occasional notices of historians, we can now
refer to regular treatises, written by men who engaged
eagerly in this neglected and hitherto degraded occupa¬
tion. We shall therefore give a short account of the prin¬
cipal works, as well as of the laws and general policy of
Britain, in regard to agriculture, from the early part of
the sixteenth century to the Revolution in 1688, when a
new era commenced in the legislation of corn, and soon
after in the practice of the cultivator.2
The first and by far the best of our early works is the Fitzher-
Book of Husbandry, printed in 1534, commonly ascribed bert.
to Fitzherbert, a judge of the common pleas in the reign
of Henry VIII. This was followed, in 1539, by the Book
of Surveying and Improvements, by the same author. In
the former treatise we have a clear and minute descrip¬
tion of the rural practices of that period, and from the
latter may be learned a good deal of the economy of the
feudal system in its decline. The Book of Husbandry
has scarcely been excelled by any later production, in as
far as concerns the subjects of which it treats; for at that
time cultivated herbage and edible roots were still un¬
known in England. The author writes from his own ex¬
perience of more than forty years ; and, with the excep¬
tion of passages denoting his belief in the superstition of
the Roman writers, there is very little of this valuable
work that should be omitted, and not a great deal that
need be added, in so far as regards the culture of corn, in
a manual of husbandry adapted even to the present time.
Fitzherbert touches on almost every department of the
art, and in about a hundred octavo pages has contrived
to condense more practical information than will be found
scattered through as many volumes of later times; and
yet he is minute even to the extreme on points of real
utility. There is no reason to say, with Mr Harte, that
he had revived the husbandry of the Romans ; he merelj-
describes the practices of the age in which he lived;
and from his commentary on the old statute extenta ma-
nerii, in his Book of Surveying, in which he does not al¬
lude to any recent improvements, it is probable that the
management which he details had been long established.
But it may surprise some of the agriculturists of the pre¬
sent day to be told, that, after the lapse of almost three
centuries, Fitzherbert’s practice, in some material branches,
has not been improved upon ; and that in several districts
abuses still exist, which were as clearly pointed out by
him at that early period as by any writer of the present
age.
The Book of Husbandry begins with the plough and
other instruments, which are concisely and yet minutely
described; and then about a third part of it is occupied
with the several operations as they succeed one another
throughout the year. Among other things in this part of
the work, the following deserve notice:—“ Somme (ploughs)
wyll tourn the sheld bredith at every landsende, and
plowe all one way;” the same kind of plough that is now
found so useful on hilly grounds. Of wheel-ploughs he
observes, that “ they be good on even grounde that lyeth
1 Inquiry into the Corn Laws, &c. p. 9.
The account of the Writers on Agriculture taken from Mr Cleghorn’s Treatise in the former edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
AGRICULTURE.
Historical lyghteand on such lands they are still most commonly
Summary, employed. Cart-wheels were sometimes bound with iron,
of which he greatly approves. On the much agitated
question about the employment of horses or oxen in la¬
bour, the most important arguments are distinctly stated.
“ In somme places,” he says, “ a horse plough is better,”
and in others an oxen plough, to which, upon the whole, he
gives the preference; and to this, considering the practices
of that period, they were probably entitled. Beans and
peas seem to have been common crops. He mentions
the different kinds of wheat, barley, and oats; and after
describing the method of harrowing “all maner of comnes,”
we find the roller employed. “ They use to role their
barley grounde after a showr of rayne, to make the grounde
even to mowe.” Under the article “ To falowe,” he ob¬
serves, “ the greater clottes (clods) the better wheate,
for the clottes kepe the wheat warme all wynter; and at
March they will melte and breake and fal in manye small
peces, the whiche is a newe dongynge and refreshynge of
the corne.” This is agreeable to the present practice,
founded on the very same reasons. “ In May, the shepe
folde is to be set outbut Fitzherbert does not much
approve of folding, and points out its disadvantages in a
very judicious manner. “ In the later end of May and
the begynnynge of June, is tyme to wede the corne and
then we have an accurate description of the different
weeds, and the instruments and mode of weeding. Next
comes a second ploughing of the fallow ; and afterwards,
in the latter end of June, the mowing of the meadows
begins. Of this operation, and of the forks and rakes,
and the haymaking, there is a very good account. The
corn harvest naturally follows : rye and wheat were usu¬
ally shorn, and barley and oats cut with the scythe. This
intelligent writer does not approve of the practice, which
still prevails in some places, of cutting wheat high, and
then mowing the stubbles. “ In Somersetshire,” he says,
“ they do shere theyr wheat very lowe; and the wheate
strawe that they purpose to make thacke of, they do not
threshe it, but cut off the ears, and bynd it in sheves, and
call it rede, and therewith they thacke theyr houses.” He
recommends the practice of setting up corn in shocks,
with two sheaves to cover eight, instead of ten sheaves,
as at present; probably owing to the straw being then
shorter. The corn was commonly housed ; but if there be
a want of room, he advises that the ricks be built on a
scaffold, and not upon the ground. Corn-stacks are now
beginning to be built on pillars and frames. The fallow
received a third ploughing in September, and was sown
about Michaelmas. “ Wheat is moost commonlye sowne
under the forowe, that is to say, cast it uppon the falowe,
and then plowe it underand this branch of his subject
is concluded with directions about threshing, winnowing,
and other kinds of barn-work.
Fitzherbert next proceeds to live stock. “ An hous-
bande,” he says, “ can not well thryue by his corne with¬
out he have other cattell, nor by his cattell without corne.
And bycause that shepe, in myne opynyon, is the mooste
profytablest cattell that any man can haue, therefore I
pourpose to speake fyrst of shepe.” His remarks on this
subject are so accurate, that one might imagine they came
from a storemaster of the present day; and the minutiae
which he details are exactly what the writer of this ar¬
ticle has seen practised in the hilly parts of this country.
In some places at present, “ they neuer seuer their
lambes from their dammes “ and the poore of the peeke
(high) countreye, and such other places, where, as they
vse to milke theyr ewes, they vse to wayne theyr lambes
at 12 weekes olde, and to mylke their ewes fiue or syxe
weekes;” but that, he observes, “ is greate hurte to the
255
ewes, and wyll cause them that they wyll not take the Historical
ramme at the tyme of the yere for pouertye, but goo Summary^
barreyne.” “ In June is tyme to shere shepe; and ere
they be shorne, they must be verye well washen, the
which shall be to the owner greate profyte in the sale of
his wool, and also to the clothe-maker.” It appears that
hand washing was then a common practice; and yet in
the west and north of Scot nd, at this day, sheep are
never washed at all. His remarks on horses, cattle, &c.
are not less interesting; and there is a very good account
of the diseases of each species, and some just observations
on the advantage of mixing different kinds on the same
pasture. Swine and bees conclude this branch of the work.
The author then points out the great advantages of
inclosures; recommends “ quycksettynge, dychynge, and
hedgeyng;” and gives particular directions about the settes,
and the method of training a hedge, as well as concerning
the planting and management of trees. We have then a
short information “ for a yonge gentylman that intendeth
to thryue,” and “ a prolouge for the wiues occupation,”
in some instances rather too homely for the present time.
Among other things, she is to “ make her husband and
herself somme clothes;” and “ she maye haue the lockes
of the shepe eyther to make blankettes and courlettes, or
bothe.” This is not so much amiss; but what follows will
bring our learned judge into disrepute even with our most
industrious housewives. “ It is a wyues occupation,” he
says, “ to wynowe all maner of cornes, to make malte, to
washe and wrynge, to make heye, shere corne, and, in
time of nede, to helpe her husbande to fyll the mucke
wayne or dounge carte, dryue the ploughe, to loode heye,
corne, and suche other; and to go or ride to the market
to sel butter, chese, mylke, egges, chekyns, capons, hennes,
pygges, gese, and all maner of cornes.” The rest of the
book contains some useful advices about diligence and
economy; and concludes, after the manner of the age,
with many pious exhortations.
Such is Fitzherbert’s Ztooh of Husbandry, and such was
the state of agriculture in England in the early part of
the sixteenth century, and probably for a long time be¬
fore; for he nowhere speaks of the practices which he
describes or recommends as of recent introduction.
The Booh of Surveying adds considerably to our know¬
ledge of the rural economy of that age. “ Four maner of
commens” are described; several kinds of mills for corn
and other purposes, and also “ quernes that goo with
hand;” different orders of tenants, down to the “ bound-
men,” who “ in some places contynue as yet;” “ and many
tymes, by colour thereof, there be many freemen taken
as boundmen, and their lands and goods is taken from
them.” Lime and marl are mentioned as common ma¬
nures ; and the former was sometimes spread on the sur¬
face to destroy heath. Both draining and irrigation are
noticed, though the latter but slightly. And the work
concludes with an inquiry “ how to make a township that
is worth XX. marke a yere, worth XX. li. a year ;” from
which we shall give a specimen of the author’s manner,
as well as of the economy of the age.
“ It is undoubted, that to every townshyppe that stand-
eth in tyllage in the playne countrey, there be errable
landes to plowe and sowe, and leyse to tye or tedder theyr
horses and mares upon, and common pasture to kepe and
pasture their catell, beestes, and shepe upon; and also
they have medowe grounde to get theyr hey upon. Than
to let it be known how many acres of errable lande euery
man hath in tyllage, and of the same acres in euery felde
to chaunge with his neyghbours, and to leye them toguy-
ther, and to make hym one seuerall close in euery felde
for his errable lands ; and his leyse in euery felde to leye
256 A G R I C U
Historical them togyther in one felde, and to make one seuerall close
Summary. for them all. And also another seuerall close for his por-
tion of his common pasture, and also his porcion of his
medowe in a seuerall close by itselfe, and al kept in seue-
ral both in wynter and somer; and euery cottage shall
haue his portion assigned hym accordynge to his rent, and
than shall nat the ryche man ouerpresse the poore man
with his cattell; and euery man may eate his oun close at
his pleasure. And vndoubted, that hay and strawe that
will find one beest in the house wyll finde two beestes in
the close, and better they shall lyke. For those beestis
in the house have short heare and thynne, and towards
March they will pylle and be bare; and therefore they
may nat abyde in the fylde before the heerdmen in winter
tyme for colde. And those that lye in a close under a
hedge haue longe heare and thyck, and they will neuer
pylle nor be bare; and by this reason the husbande maye
kepe twyse so many catell as he did before.
“ This is the cause of this approwment. Nowe euery
husbande hath sixe seuerall closes, whereof iii. be for
corne, the fourthe for his leyse, the fyfte for his common
pastures, and the sixte for his haye; and in wynter time
there is but one occupied with corne, and than hath the
husbande other fyue to occupy tyll lente come, and that
he hath his falowe felde, his ley felde, and his pasture
felde al sommer. And when he hath mowen his medowe,
than he hath his medowe grounde, soo that if he hath
any weyke catell that wold be amended, or dyvers maner
of catell, he may put them in any close he wyll, the which
is a gi’eat advantage; and if all shulde lye commen, than
wolde the edyche of the corne feldes and the aftermath of
all the medowes be eaten in X. or XII. dayes. And the
rych men that hath moche catell wold have the advantage,
and the poore man can have no helpe nor relefe in wynter
when he hath moste nede; and if an acre of lande be worthe
sixe pens, or it be enclosed, it will be worth VIII. pens
whan it is enclosed, by reason of the compostying and
dongyng of the catell that shall go and lye upon it both day
and nighte ; and if any of his thre closes that he hath for
his corne be worne or ware bare, than he may breke and
plowe up his close that he hadde for his layse, or the close
that he hadde for his commen pasture, or bothe, and sowe
them with corne, and let the other lye for a time, and so
shall he have aiway reist grounde, the which will bear
moche corne with lytel donge; and also he shall have a
great profyte of the wod in the hedges whan it is growen ;
and not only these profytes and advantages beforesaid,
but he shall save moche more than al these, for by reason
of these closes he shall save meate, drinke, and wages of
a shepeherde, the wages of the heerdman, and the wages
of the swine herde, the which may fortune to be as charge¬
able as all his holle rent; and also his corne shall be bet¬
ter saved from eatinge or destroyeng with catel. For
dout ye nat but heerdemen with their catell, shepeherdes
with their shepe, and tieng of horses and mares, destroy-
eth moch corne, the which the hedges wold save. Par-
aduenture some men would say, that this shuld be against
the common weale, bicause the shepeherdes, heerdmen,
and swyneherdes, shuld than be put out of wages. To
that it may be answered, though these occupations be not
used, there be as many newe occupations that were not
used before ; as getting of quickesettes, diching, hedging,
and plashing, the which the same men may use and oc-
cupye.”
Tusser. The next author who writes professedly on agriculture
is Tusser, whose Five Hundred Points of Husbandry,
L T U li E.
published in 1562, was formerly in such high repute as to Historical
be recommended by Lord Molesworth to be taught in Summary.
schools.1 The edition of 1604 is the one we make use of^^^r*^
here, in which the book of husbandry consists of 118
pages; and then follows the Points of Housewifrie, occu¬
pying 42 pages more. It is written in verse. Amidst a
vast heap of rubbish, there are some useful notices con¬
cerning the state of agriculture at the time in different
parts of England. Hops, which had been introduced in
the early part of the sixteenth century, and on the culture
of which a treatise was published in 1574 by Reynolde
Scott, are mentioned as a well-known crop. Buckwheat
was sown after barley. It seems to have been the prac¬
tice then, in some places, to “ geld fillies" as well as colts.
Hemp and flax are mentioned as common crops. Inclo¬
sures must have been numerous in several counties ; and
there is a very good comparison between “ champion (open
fields) country, and several,” which Blythe afterwards
transcribed into his Improver Improved. Carrots, cab¬
bages, turnips, and rape, are mentioned among the herbs
and roots for the kitchen. There is nothing to be found
in Tusser about serfs or bondmen, as in Fitzherbert’s
works. This author’s division of the crop is rather curious,
though probably quite inaccurate, if he means that the
whole rent might be paid by a tenth of the corn.
“ One part cast forth for rent due out of hand.
“ One other part for seed to sow thy land.
“ Another part leave parson for his tith.
“ Another part for harvest, sickle and sith.
“ One part for ploughwrite, cartwrite, knacker, and
smith.
“ One part to uphold thy teemes that draw therewith.
“ Another part for servant and workman’s wages laie.
“ One part likewise for filbellie daie by daie.
“ One part thy wife for needful things doth crave.
“ Thyself and thy child the last part would have.”
The next writer is Harnaby Googe, whose Whole Art Googe.
of Husbandry was printed in 1578, and again by Markham
in 1614. The first edition is merely a translation of a
German work; and very little is said of English hus¬
bandry in the second, though Markham made some trifling
interpolations, in order, as it is alleged, to adapt the Ger¬
man husbandry to the English climate. It is for the most
part made up of gleanings from the ancient writers of
Greece and Rome, whose errors are faithfully retained,
with here and there some description of the practices of
the age, in which there is little of novelty or importance.
Googe mentions a number of English writers who lived
about the time of Fitzherbert, whose works have not been
preserved.
For more than fifty years after this, or till near the mid¬
dle of the seventeenth century, there are no systematic
works on husbandry, though several treatises on particu¬
lar departments of it. From these it is evident, that all
the dilferent operations of the farmer were performed with
more care and correctness than formerly; that the fal¬
lows were better worked, the fields kept freer of weeds,
and much more attention paid to manures of every kind.
A few of the writers of this period deserve to be shortly
noticed.
Sir Hugh Plat, in his Jewel House of Art and Nature, p]aL
printed in 1594 (which Weston in his catalogue errone¬
ously gives to Gabriel Plattes), makes some useful obser¬
vations on manures, but chiefly collected from other wri¬
ters. His censure of the practice of leaving farm dung
lying scattered about is among the most valuable.
1 Some Considerations for the promoting of Agriculture and employing the Poor. Dublin, 1723.
AGRICULTURE.
257
Historical Sir John Norden’s Surveyor s Dialogue, printed in 1607,
Summary. ancj reprinted with additions in 1618, is a work of con-
siderable merit. The first three books of it relate to the
i oiuen. j-jghts 0f ]or(j 0f j-hg manor, and the various tenures
by which landed property was then held, with the obliga¬
tions which they imposed. Among others, we find the
singular custom so humorously described in the Spectator,
of the incontinent widow riding upon a ram. In the fifth
book there are a good many judicious observations on the
“ different natures of grounds, how they may be employ¬
ed, how they may be bettered, reformed, and amended.”
The famous meadows near Salisbury are mentioned; and
when cattle have fed their fill, hogs, it is pretended, “ are
made fat with the remnant; namely, with the knots and
sappe of the grasse.” “ Clouer grasse, or the grasse
honey suckle” (white clover), is directed to be sown with
other hay seeds. “ Carrot rootes” were then raised in
several parts of England, and sometimes by farmers. Lon¬
don street and stable dung was carried to a distance by
water, though it appears from later writers to have been
got for the trouble of removing. And leases of 21 years
are recommended for persons of small capital, as better
than employing it in purchasing land; an opinion that
prevails very generally among our present farmers.
Bees seem to have been great favourites with these
early writers; and among others, there is a treatise by
Butler, a gentleman of Oxford, called the Feminine Mo¬
narchic, or the History of Dees, printed in 1609, full of all
manner of quaintness and pedantry.
Weston. We shall pass over Markham, Mascall, Gabriel Plattes,
and several other authors of this period, the best part of
their writings being preserved by Blythe and Hartlib, of
whom we shall say a little immediately. In Sir Richard
Weston’s Discourse on the Husbandry of Brabant and Flan¬
ders, published by Hartlib in 1645, we may mark the dawn
of the vast improvements which have since been effected in
Britain. This gentleman was ambassador from England
to the elector palatine and king of Bohemia in 1619, and
had the merit of being the first who introduced the great
clover, as it was then called, into English agriculture, about
1645, and probably turnips also. His directions for the
cultivation of clover are better than was to be expected.
It thrives best, he says, when you sow it on the worst
and barrenest ground, such as our worst heath ground is
in England. The ground is to be pared and burnt, and
unslacked lime must be added to the ashes. It is next to
be well ploughed and harrowed; and about ten pounds of
clover seed must be sown on an acre in April or the end
of March. If you intend to preserve seed, then the se¬
cond crop must be let stand till it come to a full and dead
ripeness ; and you shall have at the least five bushels per
acre. Being once sown, it will last five years; and then
being ploughed, it will yield, three or four years together,
rich crops of wheat, and after that a crop of oats, with
which clover seed is to be sown again. It is in itself an
excellent manure, Sir Richard adds; and so it should be,
to enable land to bear this treatment. In less than ten
years after its introduction, that is, before 1655, the cul¬
ture of clover, exactly according to the present method,
seems to have been well known in England, and it had
also made its way to Ireland.
[lly the. A great many works on agriculture appeared during the
time of the commonwealth, of which Blythe’s Improver
Improved, and Hartlib’s Legacy, are the most valuable.
The first edition of the former was published in 1649, and
of the latter in 1650; and both of them were enlarged in
subsequent editions. In the first edition of the Improver
Improved, no mention is made of clover, nor in the second
«f turnips; but in the third, published in 1662, clover is
VOL. II.
treated of at some length, and turnips are recommended Historical
as an excellent cattle crop, the culture of which should Summary,
be extended from the kitchen garden to the field. Sir^p"-^,
Richard Weston must have cultivated turnips before this ;^u . re nt
for Blythe says, that Sir Richard affirmed to himself he
did feed his swine with them. They were first given boiled,
but afterwards the swine came to eat them raw, and would
run after the carts, and pull them forth as they gathered
them ; an expression which conveys an idea of their being
cultivated in the fields.
Blythe’s book is the first systematic work in which there
are some traces of the alternate husbandry so beneficially
established since, by interposing clover and turnip between
culmiferous crops. He is a great enemy to commons and
common fields, and to retaining land in old pasture, unless
it be of the best quality. His description of the different
kinds of ploughs is interesting; and he justly recommends
such as were drawn by two horses (some even by one
horse), in preference to the weighty and clumsy machines
which required four or more horses or oxen. Almost all
the manures now used seem to have been then well
known; and he brought lime himself from a distance of
20 miles. He speaks of an instrument which ploughed,
sowed, and harrowed at the same time ; and the setting of
corn was then a subject of much discussion. “ It was
not many years,” says Blythe, “ since the famous city of
London petitioned the parliament of England against two
anusancies or offensive commodities, which were likely to
come into great use and esteem ; and that was Newcastle
coal, in regard of their stench, &c., and hops, in regard
they would spoyle the taste of drink, and endanger the
people.”
Hartlib’s Legacy is a very heterogeneous performance, Hartlib.
containing, among some very judicious directions, a great
deal of rash speculation. Several of the deficiencies
which the writer complains of in English agriculture
must be placed to the account of our climate, and never
have been or can be supplied. Some of his recommen¬
dations are quite unsuitable to the state of the country,
and display more of general knowledge and good inten¬
tion, than of either the theory or practice of agriculture.
Among the subjects deserving notice may be mentioned
the practice of steeping and liming seed corn as a preven¬
tive of smut; changing every year the species of grain, and
bringing seed corn from a distance ; ploughing down green
crops as manure ; and feeding horses with broken oats and
chaff. This writer seems to differ a good deal from Blythe
about the advantage of interchanging tillage and pasture.
“ It were no losse to this island,” he says, “ if that we
should not plough at all, if so be that we could certainly
have corn at a reasonable rate, and likewise vent for all our
manufactures of wooland one reason for this is, that
pasture employeth more hands than tillage, instead of de¬
populating the country, as was commonly imagined. The
grout, which he mentions “ as coming over to us in Hol¬
land ships,” about which he desires information, was pro¬
bably the same with our present shelled barley ; and mills
for manufacturing it were introduced into Scotland from
Holland towards the beginning of the last century.
To the third edition, published in 1655, are subjoined
Dr Beatie’s Annotations, with the writer of the Legacy’s
answers, both of them ingenious, and sometimes instruc¬
tive. But this cannot be said of Gabriel Plattes’s Mercu-
rius Lcetificans, also added to this edition, which is a most
extravagant production. There are also several commu¬
nications from Hartlib’s different correspondents, of which
the most interesting are those on the early cultivation and
great value of clover. Hartlib himself does not appear
much in this collection; but he seems to have been a
2 K
258
Historical
Summary.
Ray ami
hvelyn.
laws
against
laying ara-
b!e land t(
pasture,
AGRICULTURE.
very useful person in editing the works of others, and as
a collector of miscellaneous information on rural subjects.
It is strange that neither Blythe nor Hartlib, nor any of
Hartlib’s correspondents, seem ever to have heard of
Fitzherbert’s works.
Among the other writers previous to the Revolution, we
shall only mention Ray the botanist and Evelyn, both men
of great talents and research, whose works are still in
high estimation. A new edition of Evelyn s Silva and
Terra was published in 1777 by Dr Hunter, with large
notes and elegant engravings, and reprinted in 1812.
The preceding review commences with a period of
feudal anarchy and despotism, and comes down to the
time when the exertions of individual interest were pro¬
tected and encouraged by the firm administration of equal
laws; when the prosperity of Great Britain was no longer
retarded by internal commotions, nor endangered by hos¬
tile invasion.
The laws of this period, in so far as they relate to agri¬
culture and rural economy, display a similar progress in
improvement.
From the beginning of the reign of Henry VII. to the
end of Elizabeth’s, a number of statutes were made for
! the encouragement of tillage, though probably to little
purpose. The great grievance of those days was the
practice of laying arable land to pasture, and suffering the
farm-houses to fall to ruin. “ Where in some towns,” says
the statute 4th Henry VII. (1488), “ two hundred persons
were occupied and lived of their lawful labours, now there
are occupied two or three herdsmen, and the residue fall
into idleness therefore it is ordained, that houses which
within three years have been let for farms, with twenty
acres of land lying in tillage or husbandry, shall be upheld,
under the penalty of half the profits, to be forfeited to the
king or the lord of the fee. Almost half a century after¬
wards, the practice had become still more alarming; and
in 1534 a new act was tried, apparently with as little suc¬
cess. “ Some have 24,000 sheep, some 20,000 sheep,
some 10,000, some 6000, some 4000, and some more and
some less and yet it is alleged the price of wool had
nearly doubled, “ sheep being come to a few persons’
hands.” A penalty was therefore imposed on all who
kept above 2000 sheep; and no person was to take in
farm more than two tenements of husbandry. By the
39th Elizabeth (1597), arable land made pasture since the
1st Elizabeth shall be again converted into tillage, and
what is arable shall not be converted into pasture.
Many laws were enacted during this period against va¬
gabonds, as they were called ; and persons who could not
find employment seem to have been sometimes confound¬
ed with those who really preferred idleness and plunder.
The dissolution of the feudal system, and the suppression
of the monasteries, deprived a great part of the rural po¬
pulation of the means of support. They could not be em¬
ployed in cultivating the soil, for there was no middle
class of farmers possessed of capital to be vested in im¬
provements ; and what little disposable capital was in the
hands of great proprietors could not, in those rude times,
be so advantageously embarked in the expensive and pre¬
carious labours of growing corn, as in pasturage, which
required much less skill and superintendence. Besides,
there was a constant demand for wool on the Continent;
while the corn-market was not only confined by laws
against exportation, but fettered by restrictions on the in¬
ternal trade. The laws regarding the wages of labour
and the price of provisions are a further proof of the ig¬
norance of the age in regard to the proper subject of le- Hbstoriciil
gislation. v ^
By the statute 1552 it is declared, that any person tliat
shall buy merchandise, victual, &c. coming to market, f^restai_
or make any bargain for buying the same before they shall iingi
be in the market ready to be sold, or shall make any
motion for enhancing the price, or dissuade any person
from coming to market, or forbear to bring any of the
things to market, &c. shall be deemed a forestaller. Any
person who buys and sells again in the same market, or
within four miles thereof, shall be reputed a regrater. Any
person buying corn growing in the fields, or any other
corn, with intent to sell again, shall be reputed an unlaw¬
ful ingrosser. It was also declared, that no person shall
sell cattle within five weeks after he had bought them.
Licences, indeed, were to be granted in certain cases, and
particularly when the price of wheat was at or under 6s.
8d. a quarter, and other kinds of grain in that proportion.
The laws regarding the exportation and importation ofand for re.
corn during this period could have had little effect in en_
couraging agriculture, though towards the latter part °f^ra(]e
it they gradually approached that system which was finally
established at and soon after the Revolution. From the
time of the above-mentioned statute against forestallers,
which effectually prevented exportation, as well as the
freedom of the home trade, when corn was above the
price therein specified, down to 1688, there are at least
twelve statutes on this subject; and some of them are so
nearly the same, that it is probable they were not very
carefully observed. The price at which wheat was allowed
to be exported was raised from 6s. 8d. a quarter, the price
fixed by the 1st and 2d of Philip and Mary (1553), to 10s.
in 1562 ; to 20s. in 1593 ; to 26s. 8d. in 1604; to 32s. in
1623 ; to 40s. in 1660; to 48s. in 1663; and at last, in
1670, exportation was virtually permitted without limita¬
tion. Certain duties, however, were payable, which in
some cases seem to have amounted to a prohibition ; and
until 1660 importation was not restrained even in years
of plenty and cheapness. In permitting exportation, the
object appears to have been revenue rather than the en¬
couragement of production.
The first statute for levying tolls at turnpikes, to make
or repair roads in England, passed in 1662.
Of the state of agriculture in Scotland in the 16th and Agricul-
the greater part of the 17th century, very little is known ;ture
no professed treatise on the subject appeared till after the™^™^
Revolution. The south-eastern counties were the earliest and 17th
improved, and yet in 1660 their condition seems to have cen^urjes,
been very wretched. Ray, who made a tour along the
eastern coast in that year, says, “ we observed little or wo
fallow grounds in Scotland; some ley ground we saw, which
they manured with sea wreck. 1 he men seemed to be
very lazy, and may be frequently observed to plough in
their cloaks. It is the fashion of them to wear cloaks
when they go abroad, but especially on Sundays. They
have neither good bread, cheese, nor drink. They cannot
make them, nor will they learn. Their butter is very in¬
different, and one would wonder how they could contrive
to make it so bad. They use much pottage made of coal-
wort, which they call hail, sometimes broth of decorticated
barley. The ordinary country-houses are pitiful cots, built
of stone and covered with turfs, having in them but one
room, many of them no chimneys, the windows very small
holes, and not glazed. The ground in the valleys and
plains bears very good corn, but especially bears barley or
bigge, and oats, but rarely wheat and rye.”1
Select Remains of John Ray. Lond. 17H0.
AGRICULTURE.
250
Historical It is probable that no great change had taken place in
Summary. Scotland from the end of the 15th century, except that
tenants gradually became possessed of a little stock of
their own, instead of having their farm stocked by the
landlord. “ The minority of James V., the reign of Mary
Stuart, the infancy of her son, and the civil wars of her
grandson Charles I., were all periods of lasting waste.
The very laws which were made during successive reigns,
for protecting the tillers of the soil from spoil, are the
best proofs of the deplorable state of the husbandman.”1
Yet in the 17th century were those laws made which
paved the way for the present improved system of agri¬
culture in Scotland. By statute 1633, landholders were en¬
abled to have their tithes valued, and to buy them either
at nine or six years’ purchase, according to the nature of
the property. The statute 1685, conferring on landlords
a power to entail their estates, was indeed of a very dif¬
ferent tendency in regard to its effects on agriculture.
But the two acts in 1695, for the division of commons,
and separation of intermixed properties, have facilitated
in an eminent degree the progress of improvement.
Progress of From the Revolution to the accession of George III. the
agriculture progress of agriculture was by no means so considerable as
to°n0088 'VG s^ou^ be led to imagine from the great exportation of
0 ' corn. It is the opinion of well-informed writers,2 that
very little improvement had taken place, either in the
cultivation of the soil or in the management of live
stock, from the Restoration down to the middle of last
century. Even clover and turnips, the great support of
the present improved system of agriculture, were confined
to a few districts, and at the latter period were scarcely
cultivated at all by common farmers in the northern part
of the island. Of the writers of this period, therefore, we
shall notice only such as describe some improvement in
the modes of culture, or some extension of the practices
that were formerly little known.
In Houghton’s Collections on Husbandry and Trade, a
periodical work begun in 1681, we have the first notice
of turnips being eaten by sheep. “ Some in Essex have
their fallow after turnips, which feed their sheep in winter,
by which means the turnips are scooped, and so made
capable to hold dews and rain water, which, by corrupting,
imbibes the nitre of the air, and when the shell breaks it
runs about and fertilizes. By feeding the sheep, the land
is dunged as if it had been folded; and those turnips,
though few or none be carried off for human use, are a
very excellent improvement, nay, some reckon it so though
they only plough the turnips in without feeding.”3 This
was written in February 1694; but ten years before, Wor-
lidge, one of his correspondents, observes, “ sheep fatten
very well on turnips, which prove an excellent nourish¬
ment for them in hard winters, when fodder is scarce ; for
they will not only eat the greens, but feed on the roots in
the ground, and scoop them hollow even to the very skin.
Ten acres (he adds) sown with clover, turnips, &c. will
feed as many sheep as one hundred acres thereof would
before have done.”4
At this time potatoes were beginning to attract notice.
“ The potato,” says Houghton, “ is a bacciferous herb,
with esculent roots, bearing winged leaves and a bell
flower.
“ This, I have been informed, was brought first out of
Virginia by Sir Walter Raleigh ; and he stopping at Ire¬
land, some was planted there, where it thrived very well, Historical
and to good purpose ; for in their succeeding wars, when all Summary,
the corn above the ground was destroyed, this supported v>—^
them ; for the soldiers, unless they had dug up all the ground
where they grew, and almost sifted it, could not extirpate
them ; from whence they were brought to Lancashire, where
they are very numerous, and now they begin to spread all the
kingdom over. They are a pleasant food boiled or roasted,
and eaten with butter and sugar. There is a sort brought
from Spain, that are of a longer form, and are more luscious
than ours; they are much set by, and sold for sixpence or
eightpence the pound.”5
The next writer is Mortimer, whose Whole Art of Hus- Mortimer.
bandry was published in 1706, and has since run through
several editions. It is a regular, systematic work, of con¬
siderable merit; and it does not appear that much improve¬
ment has been made since in the practices he describes, in
many parts of Britain. From the third edition of Hartlib’s
Legacy, we learn that clover was cut green, and given to
cattle; and it appears that this practice of soiling, as it is
now called, had become very common about the beginning
of last century, wherever clover was cultivated. Ryegrass
was now sown along with it. Turnips were hand-hoed, and
extensively employed in feeding sheep and cattle, in the same
manner as at present.
The first considerable improvement in the practice of thatTu11-
period was introduced by Jethro Tull, a gentleman of Berk¬
shire, who began to drill wheat and other crops about the year
1701, and whose “Horse-hoeing Husbandry? published in
1731, exhibits the first decided step in advance upon the prin¬
ciples and practices of his predecessors. Not contented with
a careful attention to details, Tull set himself, with admirable
skill and perseverance, to investigate the growth of plants,
and thus to arrive at a knowledge of the principles by which
the cultivation of field-crops should be regulated. Having
arrived at the conclusion that the food of plants consists of
minute particles of earth taken up by their rootlets, it followed,
that the more thoroughly the soil in which they grew was dis¬
integrated, the more abundant would be the “pasture” (as
he called it), to which their fibres would have access. He
was thus led to adopt that system of sowing his crops in rows,
or drills, so wide apart as to admit of tillage of the intervals,
both by ploughing and hoeing, being continued until they
had wellnigh arrived at maturity.
As the distance between his rows appeared much greater
than was necessary for the range of the roots of the plants,
he begins by showing that these roots extend much far¬
ther than is commonly believed, and then proceeds to inquire
into the nature of their food. After examining several hypo¬
theses, he decides this to be fine particles of earth. The
chief, and almost the only use of dung, he thinks, is to di¬
vide the earth, to dissolve “this terrestrial matter, which
affords nutriment to the mouths of vegetable rootsand this
can be done more completely by tillage. It is therefore ne¬
cessary not only to pulverise the soil by repeated ploughings
before it be seeded, but, as it becomes gradually more and
more compressed afterwards, recourse must be had to tillage
while the plants are growing ; and this is hoeing, which also
destroys the weeds that would deprive the plants of their
nourishment.
The leading features of Tull’s husbandry are his practice
of laying the land into narrow ridges of five or six feet, and
upon the middle of these drilling one, two, or three rows,
1 Chalmers’s Caledonia, vol. ii. p. 732.
J Annals of Agriculture, No. 270. Harte’s Essays. Comber on National Subsistence, p. 161.
3 Houghton’s Collections on Husbandry and Trade, vol. i. p. 213. edit. 1728.
4 Ibid. vol. iv. p. 142-144. i iud. vol. ii. p. 468.
260 ' A G R I C U
Historical distant from one another about seven inches when there
Summary, were three, and ten when only two. The distance oi the
plants on one ridge from those on the contiguous one he
called an interval; the distance between the rows on the
same ridge, a space or partition: the former was stirred re¬
peatedly by the horse-hoe, the latter by the hand-hoe.
The extraordinary attention this ingenious person gave
to his mode of culture is perhaps without a parellel: “ I
formerly was at much pains,” he says, “ and at some charge
in improving my drills for planting the rows at very near dis¬
tances, and had brought them to such perfection, that one
horse would draw a drill with eleven shares, making the
rows at three inches and a half distance from one another ;
and at the same time sow in them three very different sorts of
seeds, which did not mix \ and these, too, at different depths.
As the barley-rows were seven inches asunder, the barley
lay four inches deep. A little more than three inches above
that, in the same channels, was clover; betwixt every two
of these rows was a row of St Foin, covered half an inch
deep.
“ I had a good crop of barley the first year; the next
year two crops of broad clover, where that was sown ; and
where hop-clover was sown, a mixed crop of that and St
Foin; but I am since, by experience, so fully convinced of
the folly of these, or any other mixed crops, and more espe¬
cially of narrow spaces, that I have demolished these instru¬
ments, in their full perfection, as a vain curiosity, the drift
and use of them being contrary to the true principles and
practice of horse-hoeing.”1
In the culture of wheat, he began with ridges six feet
broad, or eleven on a breadth of 66 feet; but on this he
afterwards had fourteen ridges. After trying different num¬
bers of rows on a ridge, he at last preferred two, with an inter¬
vening space of about ten inches. He allowed only three pecks
of seed for an acre. The first hoeing was performed by turn¬
ing a furrow from the row, as soon as the plant had put forth
tour or five leaves ; so that it was done before or at the begin¬
ning of winter. The next hoeing was in spring, by which the
earth was returned to the plants. The subsequent operations
depended upon the circumstances and condition of the land
and the state of the weather. The next year’s crop of wheat
was sown upon the intervals which had been unoccupied the
former year; but this he does not seem to think was a mat¬
ter of much consequence. “ My field,” he observes, “ where¬
on is now the thirteenth crop of wheat, has shown that the
rows may successfully stand upon any part of the ground.
The ridges of this field were, for the twelfth crop, changed
from six feet to four feet six inches. In order for this al¬
teration the ridges were ploughed down, and then the next
ridges were laid out the same way as the former, but one
foot six inches narrower, and the double rows drilled on
their tops; whereby, of consequence, there must be some
rows standing on every part of the ground, both on the for¬
mer partitions, and on every part of the intervals. Notwith¬
standing this, there was no manner of difference in the good¬
ness of the rows; and the whole field was in every part of
it equal, and the best I believe that ever grew on it. It is
now the thirteenth crop, likely to be good, though the land
was not ploughed crossways.”2
It follows, from this singular management, that Tull
thought a succession of crops of different species altogether
unnecessary; and he labours hard to prove against Dr
Woodward, that the advantages of such a change under his
plan of tillage were quite chimerical; though he seems to
admit the benefit of a change of the seed itself.
In cultivating turnips he made the ridges of the same
L T U E E.
breadth as for wheat, but only one row was drilled on each. Historical
His management, while the crop was growing, differs very Summary,
little from the present practice. When drilled on the level,
it is impossible, he observes, to hoe-plough them so well as
when they are planted upon ridges. But the seed was de¬
posited at different depths, the half about four inches deep,
and the other half exactly over that, at the depth of half
an inch. “ Thus planted, let the weather be never so dry,
the deepest seed will come up; but if it raineth imme¬
diately after planting, the shallow will come up first. We
also make it come up at four times, by mixing our seed half
new and half old, the new coming up a day quicker than the
old. These four comings up give it so many chances for
escaping the fly; it being often seen that the seed sown over
night will be destroyed by the fly, when that sown the next
morning will escape, and vice versa: or you may hoe-plough
them when the fly is like to devour them ; this will bury
the greatest part of these enemies : or else you may drill in
another row without new-ploughing the land.”
Drilling and horse and hand hoeing seem to have been in
use before the publication of Tull’s book. “ Hoeing,” he says,
“may be divided into deep, which is our horse-hoeing; and
shallow, which is the English hand-hoeing; and also the shal¬
low horse-hoeing used in some places betwixt rows, where
the intervals are very narrow, as 16 or 18 inches. This is
but an imitation of the hand-hoe, or a succedaneum to it, and
can neither supply the use of dung nor fallow, and may be
properly called scratch-hoeing.” But in his mode of forming
ridges his practice seems to have been original; his imple¬
ments display much ingenuity; and his claim to the title of
father of the present horse-hoeing husbandry of Great Bri¬
tain seems indisputable. A translation of Tull’s book was
undertaken at one and the same time in France, by three
different persons of consideration, without the privity of each
other. Two of them afterwards put their papers into the
hands of the third, M. du Hamel du Monceau of the Royal
Academy of Sciences at Paris, who published a treatise on
husbandry, on the principles of Mr Tull, a few years after.
But Tull seems to have had very few followers in England
for more than 30 years. The present method of drilling
and horse-hoeing turnips was not introduced into Northum¬
berland till about the year 1780 ;3 and it was then borrowed
from Scotland, the farmers of which had the merit of first
adopting Tull’s management in the culture of this root
about 1760, and from whom it has since made its way, but
slowly, into the southern parts of the island.
Tull’s doctrines and practices being quite in advance of
his own times, were, as is usual in such cases, vehemently
opposed by his contemporaries. He was, in consequence, in¬
volved in frequent controversy, in conducting which he oc¬
casionally showed an asperity of temper which excites our
regret, but which is not to be wondered at, when we con¬
sider the trials of patience which he encountered from the
unreasonable opposition of the agricultural community to his
improvements ; the thwarting of his experiments by his own
labourers, who, in their ignorant zeal against innovations,
wilfully broke his machines, and disregarded his orders ; and
from acute and protracted bodily disease. The soundness of
his views and practice, as regards turnip culture, came by
and by to be acknowledged, and have ever since been gene¬
rally adopted. But it is only now that his full merit begins
to be understood. The Rev. Mr Smith, in his “ Word in
Season,” has recalled attention to his peculiar system of
wheat culture, in a way that has startled the whole commu¬
nity ; while Professor Way, in his eloquent lectures recently
delivered before the Royal Agricultural Society, has shown
1 Horse-hoeing Husbandry, p. 62. Lond. 1762.
2 Rid. p. 424.
3 Northumberland Survey, p. 100.
AGRICULTURE. 261
Historical that his science is true in the main, and even more strikingly
Summary, ahead of his times than his practice.
Among the English writers of this period may be men¬
tioned Bradley, Lawrence, Hales, Miller, Ellis, Smith,
Hill, Hitt, Lisle, and Home. Most of their works went
through several editions in a few years; at once a proof
of the estimation in which they were held, and of the di¬
rection of the public mind towards investigating the prin¬
ciples and practice of agriculture.
Writers on Of the progress of the art in Scotland, till towards the
end of the 17th century, we are almost entirely ignorant.
Donaldson! ^rst wor^’ written by Donaldson, was printed in
1697, under the title of Husbandry Anatomized; or,
an Inquiry into the Present Manner of Teiling and Ma¬
nuring the Ground in Scotland. It appears from this
treatise, that the state of the art was not more advanced
at that time in North Britain than it had been in Eng¬
land in the time of Fitzherbert. Farms were divided into
infield and outfield; corn crops followed one another
without the intervention of fallow, cultivated herbage, or
turnips, though something is said about fallowing the
outfield; inclosures were very rare; the tenantry had not
begun to emerge from a state of great poverty and de¬
pression ; and the wages of labour, compared with the
price of corn, were much lower than at present; though
that price, at least in ordinary years, must appear ex¬
tremely moderate in our times. Leases for a term of
years, however, were not uncommon; but the want of
capital rendered it impossible for the tenantry to attempt
any spirited improvements.
Donaldson first points out the common management of
that period, which he shows to have been very unproduc¬
tive ; and afterwards recommends what he thinks would
be a more profitable course. “ Of the dale ground,” he
says, “ that is, such lands as are partly hills and partly
valleys, of which sorts may be comprehended the greatest
part of arable ground in this kingdom, I shall suppose a
farmer to have a lease or tack of three score acres, at
three hundred merks of rent per annum (L.16. 13s. 4d.
sterling). Perhaps some who are not acquainted with
rural affairs may think this cheap; but those who are the
possessors thereof think otherwise, and find difficulty
enough to get the same paid, according to their present
way of manuring thereof. But that I may proceed to the
comparison, I shall show how commonly this farm-room
is managed. It is commonly divided into two parts, viz.
one-third croft, and two-thirds outfield, as it is termed.
The croft is usually divided into three parts; to wit, one-
third barley, which is always dunged that year barley is
sown thereon ; another third oats ; and the last third peas.
The outside field is divided into two parts, to wit, the one
half oats, and the other half grass, two years successively.
The product which may be supposed to be on each acre
of croft, four bolls (three Winchester quarters), and that of
the outfield, three (2£ quarters) ; the quota is seven score
bolls, which we shall also reckon at five pounds (8s. 4d.)
per boll, cheap year and dear year one with another. This,
in all, is worth L.700 (L.58. 6s. 8d. sterling).
“ Then let us see what profit he can make of his cattle.
According to the division of his lands, there is 20 acres
of grass, which cannot be expected to be very good, be¬
cause it gets not leave to lie above two years, and there¬
fore cannot be well swarded. However, usually, besides
four horses, which are kept for ploughing the said land,
ten or twelve nolt are also kept upon a farm-room of the
above-mentioned bounds; but, in respect of the badness
of the grass, as said is, little profit is had of them. Per¬
haps two or three stone of butter is the most that can be
made of the milk of his kine the whole summer, and not
above two heffers brought up each year. As to what Historical
profit may be made by bringing up young horses, I shall Summary,
say nothing, supposing he keeps his stock good by those
of his own upbringing. The whole product, then, of his
cattle cannot be reckoned above fifty merks (L.2. 15s. 6d.).
For, in respect his beasts are in a manner half-starved,
they are generally small; so that scarce may a hefter be
sold at above twelve pounds (L.l sterling). The whole
product of this farm-room, therefore, exceeds not the value
of L.733 (L.61. Is. 8d. sterling), or thereabout.” The la¬
bourers employed on this farm were two men and one woman,
besides a herd in summer, and other servants in harvest.
Donaldson then proceeds to point out a different mode
of management, which he calculates to be more profit¬
able ; but no notice is taken of either clover or turnips
as crops to be raised in his new course, though they are
incidentally noticed in other parts of the work.
“ I also recommend potatoes as a very profitable root
for husbandmen and others that have numerous families.
And because there is a peculiar way of planting this root,
not commonly known in this country, I shall here show
what way it is ordinarily planted or set. The ground
must be dry; and so much the better it is if it have a
good soard of grass. The beds or riggs are made about
eight foot broad, good store of dung being laid upon your
ground; horse or sheep dung is the proper manure for
them. Throw each potatoe or sett (for they were some¬
times cut into setts) into a knot of dung, and afterwards
dig earth out of the furrows, and cover them all over,
about some three or four inches deep; the furrows left
between your riggs must be about two foot broad, and
little less will they be in depth before your potatoes be
covered. You need not plant this root in your garden;
they are commonly set in the fields, and wildest of ground,
for enriching of it.” As to their consumption, they were
sometimes “ boiled and broken, and stirred with butter
and new milk; also roasted, and eaten with butter ; yea,
some make bread of them, by mixing them with oat or
barley meal; others parboil them, and bake them with
apples, after the manner of tarts.”
There is a good deal in this little treatise about sheep,
and other branches of husbandry; and, if the writer was
well informed, as in most instances he appears to have
been, his account of prices, of wages, and generally of the
practices of that period, is very interesting.
The next work on the husbandry of Scotland is, 7%eLord BeL
Countrymaris Rudiments, or an advice to the Farmers haven.
in East Lothian, how to labour and improve their grounds ;
said to have been written by Lord Belhaven about the
time of the Union, and reprinted in 1723. In this we
have a deplorable picture of the state of agriculture in
what is now the most highly improved county in Scot¬
land. His lordship begins with a very high encomium
on his own performance. “ I dare be bold to say,
there was never such a good easy method of husbandry
as this, so succinct, extensive, and methodical in all
its parts, published before.” And he bespeaks the fa¬
vour of those to whom he addresses himself, by adding,
“ neither shall I affright you with hedging, ditch¬
ing, marling, chalking, paring and burning, draining,
watering, and such like, which are all very good improve¬
ments indeed, and very agreeable with the soil and situ¬
ation of East Lothian ; but I know ye cannot bear as yet
a crowd of improvements, this being only intended to ini¬
tiate you in the true method and principles of husbandry.”
The farm-rooms in East Lothian, as in other districts,
were divided into infield and outfield. “ The infield
(where wheat is sown) is generally divided by the tenant
into four divisions, or breaks, as they call them, viz. one
202
AGRICULTURE.
Historical
Summary.
Society of
Improvers,
Maxwell
Invention
of a
threshing-
machine.
of wheat, one of barley, one of pease, and one of oats; so
that the wheat is sowed after the pease, the barley alter
the wheat, and the oats after the barley. The outheld
land is ordinarily made use of promiscuously for feeding
of their cows, horse, sheep, and oxen; tis also dunged
by their sheep, who lay in earthen folds; and sometimes,
when they have much of it, they fauch or fallow a part
of it yearly.” Under this management the produce seems
to have been three times the seed; and yet, says his
lordship, “ if in East Lothian they did not leave a higher
stubble than in other places of the kingdom, their grounds
would be in a much worse condition than at present they
are, though bad enough.”—“ A good croP of corn makes
a good stubble, and a good stubble is the equalest
mucking that is.” Among the advantages of inclosures,
he observes, “ you will gain much more labour from your
servants, a great part of whose time was taken up in ga¬
thering thistles and other garbage for their horses to feed
upon in their stables; and thereby the great trampling
and pulling up, and other destruction of the corns, while
they are yet tender, will be prevented.” Potatoes and
turnips are recommended to be sown in the yard (kitchen-
garden). Clover does not seem to have been m use.
Rents were paid in corn; and, for the largest farm, which
he thinks should employ no more than two ploughs, the
rent was about six chalders of victual “ when the ground
is very good, and four in that which is not so good. But
I am most fully convinced they should take long leases
or tacks, that they may not be straitened with time in the
improvement of their rooms; and this is profitable both
for master and tenant.” o i j • u
Such was the state of the husbandry of Scotland in the
early part of last century. The first attempts at improve¬
ment cannot be traced farther back than 1723, when a
number of landholders formed themselves into a society,
under the title of the Society of Improvers in the Know¬
ledge of Agriculture in Scotland. The earl of Stair, one
of their most active members, is said to have been the
first who cultivated turnips in that country. The Select
Transactions of this society were collected and published
in 1743 by Mr Maxwell, who took a large part in its
proceedings. It is evident from this book that the society
had exerted itself in a very laudable manner, and appa¬
rently with considerable success, in introducing culti¬
vated herbage and turnips, as well as in improving the
former methods of culture. But there is reason to believe
that the influence of the example of its numerous mem¬
bers did not extend to the common tenantry, who are al¬
ways unwilling to adopt the practices of those who are
placed in a higher rank, and supposed to cultivate land
for pleasure rather than profit. Though this society, the
earliest probably in the United Kingdom, soon counted
upwards of 300 members, it existed little more than 20
years. Maxwell delivered lectures on agriculture for one
or two sessions at Edinburgh, which, from the specimen
he has left, ought to have been encouraged.
In the introductory paper in Maxwell’s collection, we
are told, that “ the practice of draining, inclosing, summer
fallowing, sowing flax, hemp, rape, turnip and grass seeds,
planting cabbages after, and potatoes with, the plough, in
fields of great extent, is introduced ; and that, according
to the general opinion, more corn grows now yearly where
it was never known to grow before, these twenty years last
past, than perhaps a sixth of all that the kingdom was in
use to produce at any time before.”
In this work we find the first notice of a threshing-ma¬
chine : it was invented by Mr Michael Menzies, advocate,
who obtained a patent for it. Upon a representation made
io the society that it was to be seen working in several
places they appointed two of their number to inspect it; Histouical
and in their report they say, that one man would be Summary,
sufficient to manage a machine which would do the work
of six. One of the machines was “ moved by a great water-
wheel and triddles,” and another “ by a little wheel of
three feet diameter, moved by a small quantity of water.
This machine the society recommended to all gentlemen
and farmers. _ ^ .
The next work is by the same Mr Maxwell, printed in
1757, and entitled the Practical Husbandman; being a
collection of miscellaneous papers on Husbandry, &c. In
this book the greater part of the Select Transactions is re
published, with a number of new papers, among which, an
Essay on the Husbandry of Scotland, with a proposal for
the improvement of it, is the most valuable. In this he
lays it down as a rule, that it is bad husbandry to take
two crops of grain successively, which marks a consider¬
able progress in the knowledge of modern husbandry ;
though he adds, that in Scotland the best husbandmen
after a fallow take a crop of wheat; after the wheat, peas;
then barley, and then oats; and after that they fallow
again. The want of inclosures was still a matter of com¬
plaint. The ground continued to be cropped so long as it
produced two seeds; the best farmers were contented
with four seeds, which was more than the general produce.
The first act of parliament for collecting tolls on the
highway in Scotland was passed in 1750, for repairing
the road from Dunglass bridge to Haddington. In ten
years after, several acts followed for the counties of Edm-
burgh and Lanark, and for making the roads between
Edinburgh and Glasgow. The benefit which agriculture
has derived from good roads, it would not be easy to esti¬
mate. The want of them was one great cause of the slow
progress of the art in former times.
The Revolution in 1688 was the epoch of that system of
corn laws to which very great influence has been ascribed,
both on the practice of agriculture and the general pro¬
sperity of the country. But for an account of these and
later statutes on the subject, we must refer to the article
Corn Laws. . . .
The exportation of wool was prohibited in 1647, in
1660, and in 1688; and the prohibition strictly enforced
by subsequent statutes. The effect of this on its price,
and the state of the wool trade, from the earliest period
to the middle of last century, are distinctly exhibited by
the learned and laborious author of Memoirs on Wool,
Pr Tlfe^gradual advance in the price of farm produce soon Progress
after the year 1760, occasioned by the increase of popu a- ^ yj§2.
tion, and of wealth derived from manufactures and com¬
merce gave a powerful stimulus to rural industry, aug¬
mented agricultural capital, and called forth a more skilful
and enterprising race of farmers. The arable lands of the
country, which, under the operation of the feudal system,
has been split up into minute portions, cultivated by the
tenants and their families without hind labour, began now
to be consolidated into larger holdings, and let to those ten¬
ants who possessed most energy and substance. This en¬
largement of farms, and the letting of them under leases for
a considerable term of years, continued (in Scotland) to be
a marked feature in the agricultural progress of the country
until the end of the century, and is to be regarded both as
a cause and a consequence of that progress. The passing
of more than 3000 inclosure bills during the reign of Geo.
III., before which the whole number was but 244, skews
how rapidly the cultivation of new land now proceeded.
The disastrous American war for a time interfered with
the national prosperity ; but with the return of peace in
1783, the cultivation of the country made more rapid pro-
AGRICULTURE.
Historical gress. The quarter of a century immediately following
Summary. js memorable in our agricultural annals for the intro-
duction of various important improvements. It was during
Bakewell. this period that the genius of Bakewell produced such an
extraordinary change in the character of our more impor¬
tant breeds of live stock ; but especially by the perfecting
of a new race of sheep—the well-known Leicesters—which
have ever since proved such a boon to the country, and
have added so much to its wealth. Bake well’s fame as a
breeder was for a time enhanced by the improvement which
he effected on the long-horned cattle, then the prevailing
breed of the midland counties of England. These, how¬
ever, were ere long rivalled, and have now been entirely
superseded by the short-horn or Durham breed, which the
brothers Colling obtained from the useful race of cattle that
had long existed in the valley of the Tees, by applying to
them the principle of breeding which Bakewell had already
Alternate established. A more rational system of cropping now be¬
ll usbandry gan very generally to supersede the thriftless and barbarous
practice of sowing successive crops of corn until the land
was utterly exhausted, and then leaving it foul with weeds,
to recover its power by an indefinite period of rest. Instead
of this, green crops, such as turnips, clover, and ryegrass,
began to be alternated with grain crops, and hence the name
alternate husbandry, by which this improved system is
generally known. The land was now also generally ren¬
dered clean and mellow by a summer fallow, before being
sown with clover or grasses. Hitherto, the husbandry of
England had been very superior in every respect to that of
Stimulus Scotland. Improvements now, however, made rapid pro-
glv?n gress in the latter. So early as 1764, Mr Dawson, at Frog-
in Scotland den’ Roxburghshire, is said to have had 100 acres of
drilled turnips on that farm in one year. A few years after
this, the Messrs Culley—one of them a pupil of Bakewell—
left their paternal property on the banks of the Tees, and
settled on the Northumbrian side of the Tweed, bringing
with them the valuable breeds of live stock and improved
husbandry of their native district. The improvements intro¬
duced by these energetic and skilful farmers, spread rapidly
and exerted a most beneficial influence upon the border
counties. An act passed in 1770, which relaxed the rigour
of strict entails, and afforded power to landlords to grant
leases and otherwise improve their estates, had a beneficial
effect on Scottish agriculture. From 1784 to 1795, im¬
provements advanced with steady steps. This period was
distinguished for the general adoption and industrious work¬
ing out of ascertained improvements. Small’s swing plough,
and Meikle’s thrashing-machine, although invented some
vears before this, were now perfected and brought into
general use, to the great furtherance of agriculture. Two
important additions were about this time made to the field
crops, viz., the Swedish turnip and potato oat. The latter
was accidentally discovered in 1788, and both soon came
Merino into general cultivation. In the same year, Merino sheep
Sheep. were introduced by his Majesty, George III., who was a
zealous farmer. For a time, this breed attracted much at¬
tention, and sanguine expectations were entertained that it
would prove of national importance. Its unfitness for the
production of mutton, and increasing supplies of fine cloth¬
ing wool from other countries, soon led to its total rejection.
In Scotland, the opening up of the country by the con¬
struction of practicable roads, and the enclosing and sub¬
dividing of farms by hedge and ditch was now in active pro¬
gress. The former admitted of the general use of wheel-
carriages, of the ready conveyance of produce to markets,
and in particular, to the extended use of lime ; the applica¬
tion of which was immediately followed by a great increase
of produce. The latter, besides its more obvious advan¬
tages, speedily freed large tracts of country from stagnant
263
water, and their inhabitants from ague ; and prepared the Historical
way for the under-ground draining which soon after began Summary,
to be practised.
The agriculture of the country was thus steadily improv¬
ing, when suddenly the whole of Europe became involved Kemark_
in the wars of the French Revolution. In 1795, under the al3le prro.
joint operation of a deficient harvest, and the cutting oft ofgress from
foreign supplies of grain by the policy of Napoleon, the 1795 to
price of wheat, which, for the twenty preceding years, had 1815.
been under 50s. a quarter, suddenly rose to 81s. 6d., and in
the following year, reached to 96s. In 1797, the fear of
foreign invasion led to a panic and run upon the banks, in
which emergency the Bank Restriction Act, suspending Bank Re¬
cash payment, was passed and ushered in a system of un-str*ction
limited credit transactions. Under the unnatural stimulus Act-
of these extraordinary events, every branch of industry ex¬
tended with unexampled rapidity. But in nothing was this
so apparent as in agriculture ; the high prices of produce
holding out a great inducement to improve lands then arable,
to reclaim others that had previously lain waste, and to
bring much pasture-land under the plough. Nor did this
increased tillage interfere with the increase of live stock ;
as the green crops of the alternate husbandry more than
compensated for the diminished pasturage. This extraor¬
dinary state of matters lasted from 1795 to 1814 ; the prices
of produce even increasing towards the close of that period.
The average price of wheat for the whole period was 89s. 7d.
per quarter ; but for the last five years it was 107s., and in
1812 it reached to 126s. 6d. The agriculture of Great
Britain, as a whole, advanced with rapid strides during this
period ; but nowhere was the change so great as in Scotland.
Indeed, its progress there, during these twenty years, is
probably without parallel in the history of any other country.
This is accounted for by a concurrence of circumstances.
Previous to this period, the husbandry of Scotland was still
in a backward state as compared with the best districts of
England, where many practices, only of recent introduction
in the north, had been in general use for generations. This
disparity made the subsequent contrast the more striking.
The land in Scotland was now, with trifling exceptions, let
on leases for terms varying from twenty to thirty years, and
in farms of sufficient size to employ at the least two or three
ploughs. The unlimited issues of Government paper, and
the security afforded by these leases, induced the Scotch
banks to afford every facility to landlords and tenants to em¬
bark capital in the improvement of the land. The substan¬
tial education supplied by the parish schools, of which nearly
the whole population could then avail themselves, had dif¬
fused through all ranks such a measure of intelligence as
enabled them promptly to discern, and skilfully and ener¬
getically to take advantage of this spring-tide of prosperity ;
and to profit by the agricultural information now plenti¬
fully furnished by means of the Bath and West of England
Society, established in 1777; the Highland Society, insti¬
tuted in 1784; and the National Board of Agriculture in
1793 ; of which, however, more anon. As one proof of the
astonishing progress of Scottish husbandry during this
period, we may mention that the rental of land which in
1795 amounted to L.2,000,000, had in 1815 risen to
L.5,278,685, or considerably more than doubled in twenty
years.
But of the causes which have influenced the agriculture
of the period under review, none have been so powerful as
the extraordinary increase of our population, which, in
round numbers, has twice doubled during the past seventy
years. Not only are there four times as many people re¬
quiring to be fed and clad now as there was then, but from
the increased wealth and altered habits of the people, the
individual rate of consumption is greater now than formerly
264
A G RI C U
Historical This is particularly apparent in the case of butcher-meat,
Summary, the consumption of which has increased out of all propor-
tion with that of bread-corn. To meet this demand, there
behoved to be more green crops and more live stock ; and
from that has resulted more wool, more manure, and more
corn. While this ever-growing demand for farm-produce
has stimulated agricultural improvement, it has also opera¬
ted in another way. The productiveness of the soil has
been greatly increased, and will no doubt be still more so
in future ; but the area of the country cannot be increased.
Land—the raw material from which food is produced being
thus limited in amount, and in increasing demand, has ne¬
cessarily risen in price. So much is this the case, that
whereas the average price of wheat for the five years preced¬
ing 1852, has been L.2, 8s. 7|d. per quarter, or L.2 13s. 10d.
less than during the five years preceding 1815, the rent of
land is actually higher now than it was then. The raw ma¬
terial of the food-grower having thus risen in price, his only
resource has been to fall upon plans for lowering the cost of
producing his crops and for increasing their amount. To
such an extent has he succeeded, that the produce-market
has been kept full, and prices have decreased. The busi¬
ness of farming has in the main been a less prosperous one
than most other branches of national industry, and yet agri¬
culture, as an art and as a science, has made steady pro¬
gress. We believe it is only in this way that the contem¬
poraneous existence of two things apparently so incompa¬
tible as a steady rise in the rent of land, and a steady de¬
crease in the price of its produce, can be satisfactorily ac¬
counted for.
The abundant crop of 1813, and restored communication
Prom 1815 with the continent of Europe in the same year, gave the
to present first check to these unnaturally exorbitant prices and rents,
time. q-pg restoration of peace to Europe, and the re-enactment
of the Corn-Laws in 1815, mark the commencement of an¬
other era in the history of our national agriculture. It was
ushered in with a time of severe depression and suffering, to
the agricultural community. The immense fall in the pi ice
of farm-produce which then took place was aggravated, first,
by the unpropitious weather and deficient harvest of the
years 1816, 1817 ; and still more by the passing in 1819 of
the Bill restoring cash payment^ ; which coming into opera-
Sir Robert tion in 1821, caused serious embarrassment to all persons who
Peel's Bill fia(f entered into engagements at a depreciated currency,
restoring which had now to be met with the lower prices of an en-
nients^ hanced one. The much-debated Corn-Laws, after under-
Corn-Laws going various modifications, and proving the fruitful source
of business uncertainty, social discontent, and angry parti¬
sanship, were finally abolished in 1846, although the Act
was not consummated until three years later. Several other
Acts of the Legislature, passed during this period, have ex¬
erted an important influence on agriculture. Of these, the
first in date and importance is the Tithe Commutation Act
of 1836. All writers on agriculture had long concurred in
pointing out the injurious effects on agriculture, of the tithe
system as it then stood. The results of the change have
amply verified the anticipations of those who were instru¬
mental in procuring it. Since the removal of this formidable
hindrance to improvement, it has been stimulated by those
acts under which the Government has been empowered to
Drainage advance money on certain conditions, for the draining of
Acts. estates. An important feature in these advances is, that
the 6£ per cent, of interest charged upon them, provides a
sinking fund by which the debt is extinguished in 22 years.
Additional facilities have also been granted, by the Act
passed in 1848 for disentailing estates, and for burdening
such as are entailed with a share of the cost of certain speci¬
fied improvements.
Another class of outward events, which has had an im-
Act com¬
muting
tithes into
a rent
charge.
L T U R E.
portant influence upon agriculture, requires our notice. We Historical
refer to those mysterious diseases affecting both the animal Summary,
and vegetable kingdoms, the causes and remedies for which,
we have alike failed to discover. The murrain, or “ vesicular
epizootic” appeared first in 1841 ; having been introduced, Cattle Mur-
as is supposed, by foreign cattle. It spread rapidly over the rain,
country, affecting all our domesticated animals, except horses,
and causing everywhere great alarm and loss, although sel¬
dom attended by fatal results. It has prevailed ever since,
in a greater or less degree. It was soon followed by the
more terrible lung-disease, or pleuro-pneumonia, which con¬
tinues to cause such mortality among our herds. But these
have been as nothing in comparison with the dreaded pota¬
to-disease, which first appearing in 1845, has since per¬
vaded the whole of Europe, and in Ireland especially has
been the sad precursor of famine and pestilence. This
seemingly insignificant blight, has already wellnigh with-Pptato-
drawn from cultivation one of our most esteemed field crops;
it influences the business of farming in a way that baffles the
shrewdest calculators, and is producing social changes of which
no man can predict the issue.
We can here do little more than enumerate some of the
more prominent improvements in practical agriculture which
have taken place during the period under review. Before
the close of the past century, and during the first quarter of
the present one, a good deal had been done in the way of
draining the land; either by open ditches, or by Elkington’s
system of deep-covered drains. This system has now been
superseded by one altogether superior to it both in principle
and practice. In 1835, James Smith of Deanston (honour Smith of
to his memory!) promulgated his now well-known system ofDeanston’s
thorough draining and deep ploughing. It has been carried
out already to such an extent, as to have altered the very
appearance and character of whole districts of our countiy,
and has prepared the way for all other improvements. The
words “Portable Manures,” indicate at once another promi¬
nent feature in the agriculture of the times. Early in the
present century, ground bones began to be used in the east- Bone Dust,
ern counties of England as a manure for turnips; whence
the practice spread, at first slowly, and then very rapidly,
over the whole country. It was about 1825 when it began
to be generally used in Scotland. In 1841 the still more
potent guano was introduced in Great Britain; and about Guano and
the same time, bones, under the new form of superphosphate Superphos-
of lime. By means of these invaluable fertilizers, a stimu- P^6 01
lus has been given to agriculture which can scarcely be over- ime'
The labour of agriculture has been greatly lightened and
its costs curtailed, by means of improved implements and
machines. The steam-engine has taken the place of the Thrashing
jaded horses, as a thrashing power. This was first done in by Steam.
East Lothian, by Mr Reid at Drem, who in 1820 erected
such an engine at a cost of L.600. It would be tedious to
particularise other instances in this department, as it will be
treated of fully in its proper place. It is especially in this
department that the influence of the ever-memorable Ex¬
hibition of the Industry of all Nations in 1851, has told upon
agriculture. Reaping by machinery, may virtually be re¬
garded as one of the fruits of that great gathering.
The railways, by which the country is now intersected in Railways,
all directions, have proved of great service to farmers, by
conveying their bulky produce to distant markets cheaply and
quickly ; and by making lime and other manures available
to the occupiers of many inland and remote districts. In
nothing has this benefit been more apparent, than in the case
of fatted live stock, which is now invariably transported by
this means, with manifold economy to all concerned.
During the whole of this period, there has been going on
great improvements in all our breeds of domesticated ani-
AGRICULTURE.
265
live stock
and field
crops.
Agricul¬
tural So¬
cieties.
Farmer’s
Magazine
Historical mals. This has been manifested, not so much in the pro-
Summary. (juction of individual specimens of high merit—in which re-
spect the Leicesters of Bakewell, or the short-horns of Col-
Improved ling, have perhaps not yet been excelled—as in the diffusion
of these and other good breeds over the country, and in the
improved quality of our live stock as a whole. The fattening
of animals is now conducted on more scientific principles.
Increased attention has also been successfully bestowed on
the improvement of our field crops. Improved varieties,
obtained by cross-impregnation, either naturally or artificially
brought about, have been carefully propagated, and gene¬
rally adopted. Increased attention is now bestowed on the
cultivation of the natural grasses. The most important ad¬
ditions to our list of field crops during this period, have been
Italian ryegrass, winter beans, white Belgian carrot, and
sugar beet.
Let us look now at the means by which, during this period,
agricultural knowledge has at once been increased and dif¬
fused. Notice has already been taken of the institution of
the Highland Society and National Board of Agriculture.
These patriotic societies were the means of collecting a vast
amount of statistical and general information connected with
agriculture, and by their publications and premiums made
known the practices of the best-farmed districts of the coun¬
try and encouraged their adoption elsewhere. These na¬
tional associations were soon aided in their important la¬
bours by numerous local societies which sprung up in all
parts of the kingdom. After a highly useful career, under
the zealous presidency of the amiable Sir John Sinclair, the
Board of Agriculture was dissolved, but has left in its
Statistical Account, county surveys, and other documents,
much interesting and valuable information regarding the
agriculture of that period. In 1800, the original Farmer’s
Magazine entered upon its useful career under the editor¬
ship of Robert Brown of Markle, the author of the well-
known treatise on “ Rural Affairs.” The Highland Society
having early extended its operations to the whole of Scot¬
land, by and by made a corresponding addition to its title,
and as the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland
continues to occupy its important sphere with a steadily in¬
creasing membership, popularity, and usefulness. As its
revenue and experience increased, it gradually extended its
operations. In 1828, shortly after the discontinuance of the
Farmer’s Magazine, its “Prize Essays and Transactions”
Quarterly began to be issued statedly in connection with the “ Quar-
Journal of terly Journal of Agriculture,” a periodical which still occu-
Atrrip.nl- pjes a prominent place in our professional literature. This
Society early began to hold a great annual show of live stock,
implements, &c., the popularity of which continues unabated.
In 1842, Mr John Finnic at Swanstone, near Edinburgh,
having suggested to some of his neighbours the desirableness
of obtaining the aid of chemistry to guide farmers in many
departments of their business, the hint was promptly acted
upon, and these Mid-Lothian tenant-farmers had the merit
of originating an Agricultural Chemistry Association (the
first of its kind), by which funds were raised, and an eminent
mistry As- chemist engaged, for the express purpose of conducting such
sociation. investigations as the title of the Society imports. After a
successful trial of a few years this association was dissolved,
after transferring its functions to the Highland and Agricul¬
tural Society, which has ever since devoted much of its at¬
tention to this subject. The accompanying article on Agri¬
cultural Chemistry from the pen of its present accomplished
chemist, Dr Anderson, shows the nature and importance of
the labours in which he, and his predecessor, Professor
Johnston, have been engaged. This society has of late years
established itself on a broader basis, and imparted new en¬
ergy to its operations by lowering its admission-fee in behalf
of tenant-farmers, who have in consequence joined it in great
VOL. II.
Agricul¬
ture.
Agricul¬
tural Che-
numbers, and now take an important part in the conduct of Historical
its business. The practice adopted by it, about the same Summary,
time, of holding periodical meetings for the discussion of im-
portant practical questions, by means of essays from selected
individuals, is doing good service to the cause of agricultural
progress.
The obvious success of this National Scottish Society has
led to the formation of similar ones in England and in Ireland. Royal
The former instituted in 1838, and shortly afterwards incor- Agricul-
porated by Royal Charter, at once entered upon a career oft^ral So-
usefulness, the extent of which cannot well be overrated.
Its membership—comprising the most influential persons in an
the kingdom—and its revenues are now so large as to enable
it to conduct its proceedings on a scale befitting its position
and objects. These are of a varied character, but its efforts
are concentrated upon its journal and annual show. The
former, published twice a-year, is chiefly composed of the
essays and reports to which the liberal prizes of the society
have been awarded, and undoubtedly stands at the head of
our present agricultural periodicals. At its annual shows, a
prominent place is assigned to implements and machines.
Such as admit of it, are subjected to comparative trials, which
are conducted with such skill and pains that the awards com¬
mand the entire confidence of exhibitors and their customers.
The extent and rapidity of the improvement in agricultural
machinery which the society has been the means of effecting,
is altogether extraordinary.
There are few market-towns of any importance that have
not their organised club or occasional gathering of the farmers Farmers’
in their neighbourhood, for the discussion of professional Clubs,
topics. We have now also a goodly list of agricultural pe¬
riodicals, both weekly and monthly, most of them ably con¬
ducted, which are extensively read, and are the means of
collecting and diffusing much valuable knowledge, which,
but for them, would often, as in former times, perish with its
authors, or be confined to corners. The facilities now af¬
forded by railways for cheap and expeditious travelling, in¬
duce most farmers to take an occasional peep at what is going
on beyond their own neighbourhood. This, more than any¬
thing, deals deathblows to prejudices, and extends good hus¬
bandry.
In reviewing the history of our national agriculture for the
past fifty years, it is pleasing to note the growing intelligence
displayed by our agriculturists in the prosecution of their
calling. It is curious, also, to observe the analogy betwixt
the order of that progress, and that which is usually observed
in individual minds. For a length of time we see agricultu¬
ral societies and writers occupying themselves chiefly about
the practical details and statistics of husbandry, and attaching
much importance to empirical rules. Gradually, however,
we observe, along with a zealous collecting of facts, a grow¬
ing disposition to investigate the causes of things, and to
know the reason why one practice is preferable to another.
When, therefore, the Royal Agricultural Society adopted as
its motto “ Practice with Science,” it expressed not more
the objects to be aimed at in its own proceedings, than the
characteristic feature of our present stage of agricultural
progress.
CHAPTER II.
PRACTICE OF BRITISH AGRICULTURE.
We shall now endeavour to present a picture of British
Agriculture in its present state. In doing this, we shall take Practical
much the same course which we should pursue, if we were
asked to conduct a visitor over our own farm, and to give pian oj.
him a detailed account of its cultivation and management. Treatige.
In the case supposed, we should, first of all, explain to him
2 L
AGRICULTURE.
266
Practical that the farm comprises a great diversity of soils; that its
Agricul- fields are very variously circumstanced as regards altitude,
turc. exposure, and distance from the homestead; and that in its
tillage, cropping, and general management, regard must be
had to these diversities, whether natural or artificial. Having
thus premised, we should then conduct him through the
homestead, pointing out the position and uses of the various
FARM BUILDINGS, and of the MACHINERY and IMPLEMENTS
contained in them. From thence we should proceed to the
fields, examine their fences and the tillage operations.
With some observations about the succession of crops, and
the manures applied to them, there would follow an examina¬
tion of the CULTIVATED CROPS, PASTURES, and MEADOWS ; of
the live stock of the farm ; and of the measures adopted in
reclaiming certain waste lands belonging to it. This sur¬
vey being completed, there would naturally follow some dis¬
cussion about the tenure of land, the capital required for
its profitable cultivation, the condition of farm labourers,
the necessity for devoting more attention to the education
of the agricultural community, and the duty of the legisla¬
ture to remove certain obstructions to agricultural im¬
provement. In the sequel we shall give, from authentic
sources, some examples to illustrate the British husbandry
of the present day.
Soils. The soil constituting the subject-matter on which the hus¬
bandman operates, its character necessarily regulates to a
large extent the nature of his proceedings. The soil or sur¬
face covering of the earth in which plants are produced is
exceedingly varied in its qualities. Being derived from the
disintegration and decomposition of the rocks which consti¬
tute the solid crust of the globe, with a mixture of vegetable
and animal remains, soils take their character from that of
the rocks from which they have chiefly been derived. There
is hence a generally prevailing resemblance betwixt the soils
of a district and the rocks over which they lie, so that a
knowledge of the composition of the one affords a key to the
character of the other. But this connection is modified by
so many circumstances that it is altogether impossible by the
mere study of geology to acquire an easy and certain rule for
determining the agricultural character of the soil of any par¬
ticular district or field, as it has been the fashion with some
writers of late years to assert. “ When indeed, we regard a
considerable tract of land, we can for the most part trace a
connection between the subjacent deposits and the subsoil,
and consequently, the soil. Thus, in a country of sandstone
and arenaceous beds we shall find the soil sandy; in one of
limestone, more or less calcareous ; in one of schistose rocks,
more or less clayey. But even in tracts of the same geolo¬
gical formation, there exist great differences in the upper
stratum, arising from the prevalence of one or other mem¬
ber of the series, or from the greater or less inclination of
the strata, by which the debris of the different beds are more
or less mixed together on the surface. The action of w ater,
too, in denuding the surface at one part, and carrying the
debris in greater or smaller quantity to another, exercises
everywhere an important influence on the character of soils.
1 hus the fertility of a soil on the higher ground from which
the earthy particles are washed, is found to be very different
from that of the valley to which these particles are carried.
It is seen accordingly, that within the limits of the same geo¬
logical formation, soils are greatly varied, and that the mere
knowledge of the formation will not enable us to predicate
the character of the soil of any given tract, either with re¬
spect to its texture, its composition, or its productiveness.”1
Even a very limited acquaintance with the geology of Great
Britain serves, however, to account for the exceedingly diver¬
sified character of its soils. The popular definitions of soils, Practical
and to which it is safest for practical farmers to adhere, have ^8ricu1'
respect to their most obvious qualities. Thus they are desig- v ,''urc~^ ^
nated from their composition, as clays, loams, sands, gra¬
vels, chalks, or peats ; or from their texture, in which re-
spect those in which clay predominates are called heavy, soils
stiff, or impervious ; and the others light, friable, or porous.
From the tendency of the former to retain moisture they are
often spoken of as tvet and cold, and the latter, for the oppo¬
site reason, as dry and ivarm. According to their measure
of fertility they are also spoken of as rich or poor. The
particular crops for the production of which they are respec¬
tively considered to be best adapted, have also led to clays
being spoken of as wheat or bean soils, and the friable ones
as barley and turnip soils. This latter mode of discriminat¬
ing soils is however becoming every day less appropriate; as
those of the lighter class, when sufficiently enriched by suit¬
able manuring, are found the most suitable of all for the
growth of wheat; while the efforts of agriculturists are now
successfully directed to the production of root crops on
those so strong as heretofore to have been reckoned unfit
for the purpose. But still, such extreme diversities as we
everywhere meet with in our soils, must necessarily lead to
a corresponding diversity in their agricultural treatment,
and hence the necessity for keeping this fact prominently in
view in every reference to British agriculture as a whole.
But if diversity of soil necessarily modifies the practice ofInflufnce
the husbandman, that of climate does so far more powerfully.of Climate-
The soils of the different parts of the globe do not very ma¬
terially differ from each other, and yet their vegetable pro¬
ducts vary in the extreme. This is chiefly owing to differ¬
ence of temperature, which decreases more or less regularly
as we recede from the equator, or ascend from the sea-level.
Places in the same latitude and at the same elevation, are
found however to vary exceedingly in temperature, accord¬
ing to their aspect, the prevailing winds to which they are
exposed, their proximity to seas or mountains, and the condi¬
tion of their surface. The different parts of Great Britain are
accordingly found to possess very differing climates. In pass¬
ing from south to north its mean temperature may be taken to
decrease one degree Fahrenheit for every 80 miles, and the
same for every 300 feet of elevation. The temperature of
the west side of our island also differs materially from that
of the east, being more equal throughout the year. This is
owing to the prevalence of mild westerly winds charged
with moisture, which, while they equalise the temperature,
cause the average fall of rain on the west side of Britain to
be in many cases the double, and in some nearly the triple,
of that on the opposite side. In the central parts of Eng¬
land cultivation is carried on at 1000 feet of elevation, but
800 may be taken as the ordinary limit. In Scotland the
various crops are usually from two to three weeks later in
coming to maturity than in England. In both divisions of
the island the western counties, owing to their mild and hu¬
mid climate, are chiefly devoted to pasturage, and the east¬
ern, or dry ones, to tillage. As compared with the conti¬
nent of Europe our summers are neither so hot, our winters
so cold, nor our weather so steady. We want therefore
many of its rich products, but on the other hand, our milder
winter and moister climate are eminently favourable to the
production of pasturage and other cattle crops, and admit
of agricultural operations being carried on more regularly
throughout the year. Indeed, looking to the immense va¬
rieties of the products of our soil, there is probably no other
country so favourably circumstanced for a varied and suc¬
cessful agriculture.
1 Low’s Practical Agriculture, p. 42.
AGRICULTURE.
267
Practical
Agricul¬
ture.
Agricul¬
ture influ¬
enced by
distribu¬
tion of
population
Farm-
Buildings.
Evils of
defective
Home¬
steads.
Besides those variations in the agricultural practice of this
country which arise from diversities of soil and climate, there
are others which are due to the distribution of the popula¬
tion. The proximity of cities and towns, or of populous vil¬
lages, inhabited by a manufacturing or mining population,
implies a demand for dairy produce and vegetables, as well
as for provender and litter, and at the same time, affords an
ample supply of manure to aid in their reproduction. Such
commodities, from their bulk or perishable nature, do not
admit of long carriage. The supplies of these must there¬
fore be drawn from comparatively limited areas, and the
character of the husbandry there pursued is determined apart
from those general influences previously referred to. From
these and other causes there is a diversity in the practice of
British agriculture which increases the difficulty of describing
it accurately. Indeed, it is so well known that there are pe¬
culiarities of character attaching to almost every individual
held and farm, and still more to every different district or
county, which demand corresponding modifications of treat¬
ment in order to their successful cultivation, that a prudent
man if required to take the management of a farm in some
district greatly inferior in its general system of farming to
that which he may have left, will yet be very cautious in in¬
novating upon specific practices of the natives. To such pe¬
culiarities it is obviously impracticable to refer in such a trea¬
tise as the present. They are referred to now because they
suggest an explanation of some of those discrepancies in the
practice and opinions of farmers, equally successful in their
respective localities, which we constantly meet with; and be¬
cause, in proceeding to delineate the practice of Berwick¬
shire, where our personal experience has been gained by
twenty years of actual farming, we would deprecate the idea
of claiming for its modes a superiority over those of other
districts. Its geographical position, and the mixed hus¬
bandry pursued in it would justify, in some measure, its be¬
ing referred to as a fair sample of the national agriculture.
But it is on the specific ground that it is best to speak from
actual experience as far as that will serve, that we vindicate
this selection.
In pursuance of the plan already indicated, let us now re¬
fer for a little to Farm-Buildings. We have spoken of the
soil as the raw material upon which the farmer operates:
his homestead may, in like manner, be regarded as his manu¬
factory. That it may serve this purpose in any good mea¬
sure, it is indispensable that the accommodation afforded by
it be adequate to the extent of the farm, and adapted to the
kind of husbandry pursued upon it. It should be placed
upon a dry, sunny, sheltered site, have a good supply of wa¬
ter, and be as near as possible to the centre of the farm.
The buildings should be so arranged as to economise labour
to the utmost. It should be constructed of substantial ma¬
terials, so as to be easily kept in repair, and to diminish, to
the utmost, risk from fire. The most cursory examination of
existing homesteads will suffice to show that in their con¬
struction these obvious conditions have been sadly neglected.
For one farm really well equipped in this respect, hundreds
are to be met with in all parts of the kingdom, and more es¬
pecially in England, most wretchedly deficient. Wherever
this is the case it is impossible that the farmer, however skil¬
ful or industrious, can make the most of his materials, or com¬
pete on equal terms with his better furnished neighbours.
As the agricultural community becomes more generally alive
to the importance of economising labour by a judicious ar¬
rangement of buildings, and of reducing the cost of the pro¬
duction of beef (and adding to the amount and fertilizing
power of the home-made manure) by the manner in which
the live stock is housed, we may hope that improvement in
this department will make rapid progress. Tenants will re¬
fuse to embark their capital, and waste their skill and labour
on farms unprovided with suitable apparatus for cultivating
them to the best advantage. Landlords, and their agents,
will by and by find that until this is done, they must put up
with an inferior tenantry, an antiquated husbandry, and with
lower and worse-paid rents.
In erecting new homesteads, or in making considerable Economy of
additions to or alterations upon existing ones, it is of much consulting
importance to call in the aid of an architect of ascertained*1 compe-
experience in this department of his art, and then to have*®^ archl'
the work performed by contracts founded upon the plans and
specifications which he has furnished. A reasonable sum thus
expended will be amply returned in the cost, trouble, and dis¬
appointment which it usually saves to both landlord and ten¬
ant. It is to be hoped that in future a greater number of
thoroughly qualified architects will devote themselves to this
department of their profession, and that they will meet with
adequate encouragement. It is not, therefore, with the view
of superseding their services, but simply to illustrate our re¬
ferences to existing practices, that we subjoin a plan of farm-
buildings.
While protesting against the utter rudeness and inadequacy
of the great majority of homesteads, we must also deprecate
the hurtful expenditure sometimes lavished in erecting build¬
ings of an extent and style altogether disproportionate to the
size of the farm, and out of keeping with its homely purposes.
When royalty or nobility, with equal benefit to themselves
and their country, make agriculture their recreation, it is
altogether befitting that in such cases the farm-yard should
be of such a style as to adorn the park in which it is situate.
And even those intended for plain everyday farming need
not be unsightly ; for ugliness is sometimes more costly than
elegance. Let utility, economy, and comfort first be secured,
and, along with these, as much as possible of that pleasing
effect which arises from just proportions, harmonious ar¬
rangement, and manifest adaptation to the use they are de¬
signed for.
Much has recently been written on this subject, in the jour¬
nals of our national agricultural societies, and other agricultu¬
ral periodicals ; and plans in great variety have been offered to
public notice. Indeed, there is at present so much diversity
of opinion about the best plan of farm-buildings, that most
practical farmers, if offered a new homestead, would have
considerable difficulty in deciding upon that which should be
adopted in their own case. That now given has been de¬
signed by an experienced Roxburghshire farmer, Mr Hardie,
Harrietfield, near Kelso. It is calculated for a farm of 600
acres of good arable land, cultivated on the system presently
pursued in Berwick or Roxburgh shires. It expresses very
fairly the present state of opinion in these counties on the
question of housing fattening cattle, as provision is made in
it for using at once yards, stalls, and boxes.
The barn, with its thrashing machinery, and other appur- Principles
tenances, naturally forms the nucleus of the homestead, and to be at-
regulates the distribution of the other buildings. The com- (ended to
mand of water-power will often determine the exact site ofin t|ie ar‘
the barn, and indeed of the whole buildings. The cheapness of p'arm
and safety of this motive-power render it well worth while to Buildings,
make considerable sacrifices to secure it, when a really suf¬
ficient and regular supply of it can be had. But the diffi¬
culty of securing this when the adjoining lands are thoroughly
drained, with the great efficiency, and facility of application
of steam-power, are good reasons why precarious supplies of
water-power should now be rated very differently than when
a horse-wheel or windmill were the only alternatives. A very
usual and suitable arrangement is to have the whole buildings,
forming a lengthened parallelogram, facing south or south¬
east. The barn being placed in the centre of the north range,
with the engine-house behind it, and the straw-house at right
angles in front, with doors on both sides for the ready con-
Practical
Agricul¬
ture.
268
AGRICULTURE.
Rickyard
Railways,
Practical veyance of litter and fodder to the yards, &c. It is always
Agricul- advantageous to have the barn of sufficient height to afford
tur®- ample accommodation to the thrashing and winnowing ma-
chinery. When the disposition of the ground admits, it is a
great convenience to have the stackyard on a level with the
upper barn, so that the unthrashed corn may be wheeled into
it on barrows, or on a low-wheeled truck drawn by a horse.
Failing this, the sheaves are usually pitched in at a wide
opening from a framed cart. The space on which the cart
stands while this is going on is usually paved, that loose ears
and scattered grain may be gathered up without being soiled;
and it is a further improvement to have it covered by some
simple roof, to protect the sheaves from sudden rain.
In several recent instances stackyards have been laid with
rails, and the stacks built on low platforms set on wheels, so
that each stack, as required, can be pushed close up to the
barn, and the sheaves pitched from it directly to the side of
the feeding-board. A friend who recently visited the farm
of Mr Favell at Stockeld near Harrowgate, where this plan
has been adopted, has kindly furnished the following notice
of it. The rails for the stackyard are laid 7 feet 3 inches
apart. On these are ranged a series of trucks, each on two
pairs of wheels, the axles of which are 11 feet apart, and hav¬
ing a platform 20 feet long and T-J feet wide formed of planks
placed close together to prevent the ascent of vermin. On
this the stack is built to the height of 16£ feet above the
truck. The stacks are ranged on one set of rails only, which
lead directly to the door of the thrashing machine. Mr Favell
admitted the inconvenience of having his wheat, barley,
beans, and oats, all on one line, and stated his intention of
having a series of rails radiating from the door of the barn.
On a farm near Hull the stackyard is fitted with rails and
turn-tables in a more complete manner. Where this expe¬
dient has been adopted, the rails, trucks, &c., have usually
been second-hand railway materials.
It is a good arrangement to have the straw-barn fitted up
with a loft, on the level of the opening at which the straw is
discharged from the thrashing-mill, so as to admit of fodder
being stored above and litter below. A sparred trap-door in
front of the shaker retains the straw above, or lets it fall to
the ground as required. This upper floor of the straw-barn
Place for is the most convenient place for fixing a chaff-cutter to be
Chaffcutter driven by the thrashing-power. The granary should com¬
municate with the upper barn, that the dressed grain may be
raised to it by machinery.
A loft over the engine-room, communicating with the upper
barn and granary, forms a suitable place for fixing a grind¬
ing-mill, bruising-rollers, and cake-breakers, as it affords op¬
portunity for having these machines easily attached to the
steam-power. It suits well to have the house in which cattle
food is cooked attached to and under the same roof as the
engine-house. One coal store and chimney thus serves for
both. The small boiler can even be built in so close to the
large one as to derive some benefit from its waste heat; and
meal, &c., can be conveyed by spouts from the grinding loft
above. An open shed outside the barn, for the accommo¬
dation of a circular saw, is also a desideratum. By the aid of
the latter machine and a handy labourer, the timber required
for ordinary repairs on the farm may be cut out at trifling
expense.
The cattle-housing of whatever description, where there
are the largest and most frequent demands for straw, is placed
nearest to the straw-house, and in communication with the
turnip-stores, and the house (if any) in which food is cooked
or otherwise prepared. Where cattle are bred, the cow-house
and calf-house are kept together. A roomy working court
is always a great convenience, and it suits well to have the
Grinding
Mill, &c.
Circular
Saw.
stable opening to it, and the cart-shed and tool-house occu- Practical
pying another side. Costly machines, such as corn-drills, Agricul-
require to be kept in a locked place, to preserve them from
the collisions, and the loss or derangement of their minute
parts, to which they are exposed in an open cart-shed.
An abundant supply of good water is a most important Water,
matter. The best source is from springs, at such an eleva¬
tion as to admit of its being brought in a pipe, with a con¬
tinuous flow. Failing this, a well and pump is the usual al¬
ternative, although it is sometimes necessary to collect the
rain-water from the roofs, and preserve it in a capacious and
carefully-made tank. In every case it is desirable to have
a regulating cistern, with ball-cock, from which it is distri¬
buted by pipe to every part of the homestead where it is re¬
quired. It is, in every case, of importance to have the eaves
of the whole buildings spouted, and the rain-water carried
off to where it can do no mischief. Where fattening cattle
are kept in open yards with sheds, by spouting the eaves, and
slightly hollowing the yards towards their centres, the whole
urine is absorbed by their litter, and retained in the manure.
If stall feeding is practised, a pit is required, into which the
solid dung is wheeled, and the liquid conveyed by drains.
Liquid manure tanks are at present in universal repute, but Tanks for
we shall endeavour to show, when treating of manures, that Liquid
they are not such an indispensable appendage to a farm-yard Manure-
as is generally asserted. In Scotland, it is customary to carry
the dung from the byres into a yard in which young cattle
are kept, where it is daily spread about and subjected to fur¬
ther treading, along with such quantities of fresh litter as are
deemed necessary. That from the stables is carried into the
adjoining feeding-yard, and it is usually remarked, that the
cattle occupying it make more rapid progress than their
neighbours.
An important part of the buildings of a farm are the cot- Labourers’
tages for its labourers. It is in all cases expedient to have Cottages,
the people required for the ordinary working of a farm resi¬
dent upon it; and it is always much better to have families,
each in their own cottage, than a number of young people
boarded in the farm-kitchen, or writh the farm-overseer.
These cottages are usually a little removed from the other
farm-buildings, and it is, on various accounts, better to have
them so. There is, however, an advantage in having the cot¬
tages of the farm-steward and cattleman either within the
court-yard, or close to its entrance, that these responsible
functionaries may at all times be near to their charge, and
especially that they may be at hand when any of the live
stock require night attendance. As there are manifold ad¬
vantages in having but one main entrance to the homestead,
and that closed by a gate which can be locked up at night,
it will be obviously necessary to have the keeper of the key
close at hand to open the gate by night if required. Much
more attention than formerly is now paid to the construction
of cottages. The apartments are better floored, higher in
the roof, and so arranged as to secure comfort and decency.
Besides a small garden, each cottage is usually provided
with a pig-sty and ash-pit, and in some cases with a coal-
place and privy besides.
The position and style of the farmer’s dwelling also claims Farm-
a remark here. The approved mode used to be, to place House,
it either directly in front or rear of the farm-yard, on the
ground that the farmer would thus have his premises and
cattle under his eye even when in his parlour or bedroom.
As has been well remarked, “ The advantages of this par¬
lour-farming are not very apparent, the attendant evils glar¬
ingly so. If the condition of ready communication be ob¬
tained, the farm-house should be placed where the amenities
of a country residence can be best enjoyed.”1 On all hands
1 For further information on Farm Buildings, see Appendix (B.) to this article, infra; see also Morton's Cyclopaedia of Agriculture, ar¬
ticle “Farm Buildings.”
Benefit of
* fences.
Evils of
very small
enclosures.
Thorn
hedges.
A GRIC U
we now hear it urged, that it is only by men possessed
of capital and intelligence that the business of farming can
be rendered remunerative. Those who desire to have such
men for tenants, will be more likely to succeed by providing
a commodious and comfortable Farmery, pleasantly placed
among trees and shrubs, than by setting it down in the pre¬
cincts of the dung-heap.
FENCES.
The fences by which farms are generally enclosed and
subdivided, form another part of what may be termed their
fixtures, and may therefore be suitably noticed here. When
lands are let to a tenant, the buildings and fences are usu¬
ally put into sufficient repair, and he is taken bound to keep
and leave them so, at the issue of his occupancy. Although
there are some persons who advocate the total removal of
subdivision fences, it is admitted on all hands, that the farm
as a whole, and the sides of public thoroughfares which may
intersect it, should be guarded by sufficient fences of some
kind. The general belief has hitherto been, that there is a
farther advantage in having the land subdivided by perma¬
nent fences into enclosures of moderate size. The use of
such partition fences is not only to confine the live stock to
particular fields, or restrain them from trespassing on the
other crops ; but to afford shelter from cutting winds. It is
now frequently urged, that the heavier cattle should never be
turned to pasture at all, but kept on roots and green fox-age the
whole year round; and that sheep can be managed satisfac-
toxily by means of moveable hurdles. It is highly probable
that the practice of soiling will become more general, as it
undoubtedly deserves to do. Still this does not necessarily
call for the total removal of subdivision fences, which we
cannot but regard as an imprudent proceeding. It is pro¬
bable that those who have adopted it have done so very much
owing to the prevalence of the opposite extreme. There
are large portions of the finest land in England so encumbered
with hedges and hedgerow trees, as to be utterly incapable
of profitable cultivation. In many cases the fields are so
small and the trees so large, that their roots actually meet
fi'om the opposite sides and pervade the entire sm-face soil
of the area enclosed by them. When manure is applied to
such fields, it is monopolised by these freebooters from the
hedges, and the crops of grain or hay, such as they are, are
so screened fi-om the sun and wind, that there is great risk
of their being spoiled in the harvesting. If drains are made
in such fields they are speedily filled up by the rootlets, and
thus rendered useless.1 In such circumstances, it is no won¬
der that zealous agricultui'al improvers should look upon
hedgerows much as American settlers do upon their forests;
and, like them, be sometimes indiscriminate in their clear¬
ings. We believe that there is an advantage in having land,
whether for pasture or tillage, subdivided into pai'allel-sided
fields of from 10 to 40 acres each, according to the size of
the farm, by means of permanent fences of a kind adapted to
the locality. When the soil and climate are favourable to
the growth of the common ivhite thorn, hedges formed of it
combine efficiency, economy, and ornament, in a greater de¬
gree than any other fence. But to have a x-eally efficient
thorn hedge, much attention must be paid to its planting,
rearing, and after management. In proceeding to run a new
line of thorn hedge, care must be taken that the soil is clean
and in good heart; and that the subsoil is porous and dry.
L T U R E. 269
When these conditions do not obtain, they must be secured Fences,
by fallowing, manuring, draining, and trenching. The young
quicks should be stout and well rooted; not taken indiscri¬
minately as they stand in the nurseryman’s beds, but of uni¬
form stoutness. Such selected plants are always to be had
for a small additional price, which will be found to be well re¬
paid in the superior progress of such plants, when contrasted
with that of others taken as they chance to come to hand.
The embx-yo fence must be kept free of weeds, and secured
from the enci-oachments of cattle by a line of rails on both
sides. Some persons advise that the young hedge should
from the first be trimmed into line by using the pruning
hook after each year’s growth. It is certainly better not to
touch it with the knife, ox*, at least, only to restrain an occa¬
sional shoot that unduly overtops its neighbours, until the
centre stems are at least a couple of inches in diameter. If
the plants are then headed over fence-high, and the lateral
shoots pruned to a straight line, a close fence with a substan¬
tial backbone in it is secured; whereas by pruning annually
from the first, a fence is obtained that pleases the eye, but
which, consisting only of a mass of spray, presents no effec¬
tual barrier to cattle. When a thorn hedge has reached the
stage just referred to, the protecting rails may be removed,
and the hedge kept in a neat and efficient state by annual
pruning. On good, deep soil, thorns will stand this constant
removal of the annual growth of spray for many years without
injury. In less favourable circumstances, it is found neces¬
sary from time to time to withhold the pruning knife for a
few years togethex-. When the hedge has been reinvigora-
ted by such periods of unrestrained growth, it can again be
cut back to tlxe centre stems, and subjected anew to a course
of annxxal pruning. To insure a close fence, the bottom of
the hedge must at all times be kept clear of tall weeds. The
constant use of the weeding-iron is however objectionable ;
for, besides being expensive, it injures the bark of the thorns,
and thereby impairs their health. It is quite sufficient to
cut the weeds close to the surface, twice a year, by means
of a reaping hook or short scythe.
In arable lands, by this plan of keeping hedges about four
feet high, and cutting down the weeds as required, an effi¬
cient and ornamental fence is maintained at comparatively
small cost, and with little injxiry to the adjoining crops from
shading, or the harbouring of weeds and vermin.
Although the white thorn forms a better hedge than any
shrub yet tried for the purpose in this country, there are
many upland situations where the beech or hornbeam grow
more freely, and are to be preferred either alone or in mixture
with it. These plants, and also crab or sloe, are sometimes
useful in filling a gap occasioned by the removal of a hedge¬
row tree, or the death of a portion of thorn hedge.
In exposed situations where thorns do not thrive, dry- stone
stone walls are the most usual substitute. When carefully walls,
constructed, of stones suitable for the purpose, they last a
long time, and form an excellent fence. Their durability is
much enhanced by having the cope-stones set in lime-mcr-
tar. A layer along the centre of the wall, and an external
pointing, of lime-mortar will also repay the additional first
cost thus incux-red. A wall of this kind, four feet high, ex¬
clusive of the cope, while quite sufficient to restrain cattle
and the heavier kinds of sheep, is no barrier to the moxmtain
breeds, which can easily clear a six-foot wall. A simple and
very effective fence has however come much into use of late
1 It has been computed that not less than IJ million acres are occupied by hedge-rows in England and Wales, and that, if the land
overshaded and plundered by roots be included, the amount is 3 millions. In Devonshire one-fourth of the enclosures in many paiushes
are under two acres; more than one-third under three acres, and nearly two-thirds under four acres. Two millions, at least, of these
acres might be redeemed, and what a margin is here available for increased production. The land thus wasted would probably yield a
sum equal to county and poor rates, and perhaps malt-tax too. .S'ee Farmers' Magazine for March, 1852, p. 253.
AGRICULTURE.
270
Pences, years. It is composed of iron wire, (No. 8 being the size most
commonly used,) which is attached by small staples to com-
Wire mon stakes such as are used for wooden railings, driven firmly
fences, into the ground about five feet apart. The wire is drawn
out of the coil, and the ends of the various lengths or threads
are neatly joined by first heating them and then twisting the
one into the other, until the quantity required for the stretch
of fence is run out. It is then attached to every third or
fourth stake by a staple, which must not be driven home.
The other lines of wire are then treated in the same manner,
each being attached to the stakes at such width apart as has
been determined upon, and marked upon the stakes. A
ready way of doing this is by stretching along the stakes a
common gardener’s line which has been previously rubbed
with chalk, or a charred stick, and striking it against the
stakes at the required heights in the way that sawyers mark
a plank. When the requisite number of wires has thus been
loosely attached, they are pulled as tight as possible by the
hands of the workmen, after which a screw or lever is ap¬
plied to each in turn until it is made perfectly tight. As the
efficiency of this kind of fence is wholly dependent on per¬
fect tightness being obtained, a stout straining-post must be
fixed securely in the ground at the end of each line of fence.
This serves the double purpose of furnishing a fulcrum for
the stretching instrument, and a secure attachment for the
ends of the wires. When the straining is accomplished, each
wire is stapled to each stake. The gates are usually hung
upon these straining posts. Although wooden straining-
posts are commonly used, some persons prefer iron ones,
fixed into large blocks of stone. Five wires thus stretched,
at an average width of six inches, form an effectual fence for
the wildest sheep. They could indeed easily clear it so far
as height is concerned, but they are afraid to leap at an ob¬
ject which they cannot see until they are close upon it.
They may be seen at first walking along the line anxiously
looking for an opening, and if one more bold than the others
makes a run at it, he is sure to catch such a fall as effectually
deters him from repeating the attempt. A cwt. of No. 8
wire costs at present 16s., and when drawn out, yields a line
about 620 yards in length. Staples cost Is. 8d. per gross;
stakes ready for driving, from one penny to twopence each.
With these cheap and portable materials, which any labourer
of ordinary intelligence can easily put together, a fence ad¬
mirably adapted for enclosing or subdividing mountain pas¬
tures, is now quite attainable by every sheep-farmer, and will
well repay its cost. It is equally available for protecting
young thorn hedges, and generally for all purposes for which
wooden railing is used. As a fence for cattle or horses, it
is advisable to add a single rail of wood nailed flat along
the tops of the stakes, which must be sawn off evenly
for this purpose. As compared with wooden railing, wire
is much cheaper and more durable, and more easily kept
in repair. It is cheaper also than stone walls, available
in many situations where they are not, and a more certain
barrier to agile sheep; but it is less durable and affords no
shelter.
The latter defect can in some situations be remedied by
raising a low mound of turf, running the wire-fence along
the top of this mound, and sowing on it the seeds of the
common whin.
Pences We have already noticed, that the fences of a farm are
should be usually erected by the landlord, and kept in repair by the
maintained tenant. The latter is at least usually taken bound in his
at mutual jeage t0 peep an(J leave them in good order; but as this ob-
Landlord %ati°n °ften very indifferently performed, and much da-
and Tenantmage an(l vexation occasioned in consequence, it is always
expedient that a person should be appointed by the landlord
to attend to the fences, and the half of his wages charged
against the tenant. By such a course, dilapidation and dis¬
putes are effectually guarded against, and the eyesore of de- Machines
fective, ill-kept fences is wholly removed. an(1 Im‘
plements.
MACHINES AND IMPLEMENTS OF HUSBANDRY.
That the cultivation of the soil may be carried on to the
best advantage, it is necessary that the farmer be provided
with a sufficient stock of machines and implements of the
best construction. Very great improvement has of late years
taken place in this department of mechanics. The great
agricultural societies of the kingdom have devoted much of
their attention to it; and under their auspices, and stimulated
by their premiums and exhibitions, manufacturers of skill
and capital have embarked largely in the business. In many
instances the quality of the article has been improved and its
cost reduced. There has hitherto been a tendency to pro¬
duce implements needlessly cumbrous and elaborate, and to
introduce variations in form which are not improvements.
The inventors of several valuable implements, the exclusive
manufacture of which they have secured to themselves by
patent, appear to have retarded their sale, and marred their
own profits by the exorbitant prices which they have put
upon them. Some, however, have become alive to the ad¬
vantages of looking rather to large sales with a moderate pro¬
fit on each article, and of lowering prices to secure this. A
most salutary practice has now become common of inventors
of implements of ascertained usefulness granting license to
other parties to use their patent-right on reasonable terms,
and thus removing the temptation to evade it by introducing
some alteration which is trumpeted as an improvement, al¬
though really the reverse.
The lower price and extended use of iron in the construc¬
tion of agricultural implements is materially adding to their
durability, and generally, to their efficiency, and is thus a
source of considerable saving. While great improvement
has taken place in this department, it too commonly happens,
that the village mechanics, by whom a large portion of this
class of implements is made and repaired, are exceedingly
unskilled, and lamentably ignorant of the principles of their
art. They usually furnish good materials and substantial
workmanship, but by their unconscious violation of mechani¬
cal laws, enormous waste of motive power is continually in¬
curred, and poor results are attained. This can probably be
remedied only by the construction of the more costly and
complex machines being carried on in extensive factories,
where, under the combined operation of scientific superin¬
tendence, ample capital, and skilled labour, aided by steam-
power, the work can be so performed as to combine the
maximum of excellence with the minimum of cost.
We begin our brief notice of the implements of the farm,
with those used for the tillage of the soil. Of these the
first place is unquestionably due to the plough. A history Ploughs,
of this implement, tracing its gradual progress from the an¬
cient Sarcle to its most improved form at the present day,
is necessarily a history of Agriculture. So much is this the
case, that a tolerably correct estimate of the progress of the
art in any country, whether in ancient or modern times,
may be formed by ascertaining the structure of the plough.
Much attention has been paid to its construction in Britain
for the last 100 years, and never more than at the present
day. After all that has been done, it is still, however, an
unsettled point, which is the best plough for different soils
and kinds of work; and, accordingly, many varying forms
of it are in use in those parts of the kingdom which have
the reputation of being most skilfully cultivated. Ever since
the introduction of Small’s improved swing-plough, the
universal belief in Scotland, and to a considerable extent in
England, has been, that this is the best form of the imple-Wheel-
merit. Wheel-ploughs have accordingly been spoken of byplough-
A G K I C U
Machines Scottish Agriculturists in the most depreciatory terms, and
dements ^ turns out that this has been nothing better than an
J—n; unto,inded prejudice. For when subjected to careful com¬
parative trial, as has been fi-equently done of late, the bal¬
ance of excellence is undoubtedly in favour of the plough
with wheels. Its advantages are, that it is easier of draught
ransome's patent two-wheeled plough.
—that the quality of its work is better and greatly more
uniform than can be produced by a swing plough—that in
land rendered hard by drought, or other causes, it will enter
and turn over even furrows where its rival either cannot
work at all, or at best with great irregularity and severe ex¬
ertion to the ploughman ; and lastly, that its efficiency is
independent of skill in the ploughman. This last quality
has indeed been usually urged as an objection to wheel-
ploughs, as their tendency is said to be to produce an inferior
class of workmen. Those who know the difficulty of get¬
ting a field ploughed uniformly, and especially of getting the
depth of furrow specified by the master adhered to over a
field, and by all the ploughmen, can best appreciate the
value of an implement, that when once properly adjusted,
will cut every furrow of an equal width and depth, and lay
them all over at exactly the same angle. The diversity in
the quality of the work at those ploughing competitions, to
which only the picked men of a neighbourhood are sent, and
where each may be supposed to do his very best, shews con¬
clusively how much greater it must be on individual farms,
even under the most vigilant superintendence. In every
other art the effects of improved machinery is to supersede
manual dexterity ; and it does seem absurd to count that an
objection in agriculture which is an advantage in everything
else. There is more force in the objection that wheel-
ploughs are inferior to swing ones in ploughing cloddy
ground, or in crossing steep ridges, and that they cannot be
used for forming drills for turnip or other crops. This objection
vanishes when it is known that in the most improved wheel-
ploughs, the wheels can be laid aside at pleasure, and that they
can then be used in all respects as swing-ploughs. A mould-
board, somewhat higher and wider behind than that best
adapted for ordinary work, is required for forming turnip-
drills. This, however, is easily managed by having two dis¬
tinct mould-boards for each plough. An important feature
in the English ploughs is, that they are fitted with cast-iron
shares, which being case-hardened on their under surface,
wear unequally, and so preserve a sharp edge. I he necessity
tor daily recourse to the smithy is thus removed, and along
with it, that irregularity in the quality of the work and
draught of the plough, which so often arises from witting or
unwitting alterations being made in the net of the share in
the course of its unceasing journeys thither. It remains to
he seen whether these more brittle shares will withstand the
collisions to which they are liable in our stony Scottish soils.
A good implement of this kind should therefore be sufficient
for all usual kinds of ploughing. When it is desired to turn
a very deep furrow, a plough differing from the common
one only in being somewhat larger and stronger in all its
parts is used, with four horses to draw it.
Ploughs which break and stir the subsoil, without bringing
Subsoil- it to the surface, by following in the wake of the common
pJough. plough, are now much used. The first of the kind—the in¬
vention of the late Mr Smith of Deanston—is a ponderous
L T U R E. 271
implement, requiring at least four good horses to draw it. Machines
It is well adapted for displacing and aiding in the removal and Im-
of earth-fast stones. The inventor has happily described its plements.
operation by terming it a “ horse pick.” Read’s subsoil-
plough is a much lighter implement, which can usually be
drawn by two horses. Since the introduction of thorough
draining, it is found beneficial to loosen the soil to much
greater depth than was formerly practicable, and this class
of implements is well fitted for the work.
Broadshare or paring ploughs are much used in various paring-
parts of England in the autumn cleaning of stubbles. A plough,
broad-cutting edge is made to penetrate the soil to the
depth of one or two inches, so as to cut up the root-weeds
which at that season lie for the most part near the surface.
These, as well as the stubble, being thus detached from the
firm soil, are removed by harrowing and raking ; after
which, the land is worked by the common plough. An im¬
plement of this kind is frequently used in carrying out the
operation of paring and burning.
Various implements of the plough type, so modified as to
adapt them for particular processes, have from time to time
been offered to public notice, but have failed to meet with
general favour. We limit our notice to those of ascertained
utility, and refer the reader who desires fuller information,
to “ Ransome’s Implements of Agriculture,” and similar
works, where he will find descriptions of the most interest¬
ing of them.
GRUBBERS, &C.
Next in importance to the plough, is the class of imple¬
ments variously called grubbers, cultivators, or scarifiers.
To prepare the soil for the crops of the husbandman, it is
necessary to pulverize it to a sufficient depth, and to rid it
of weeds. The appropriate function of the plough is to
penetrate, break up, and reverse the firm surface of the
field. This, however, is only the first step in the process,
and does but prepare for the more thorough disintegration
which has usually been accomplished by harrowing, rolling,
and repeated ploughings. Now, however excellent in its
own place, the plough is a cumbrous and tedious pulverizer,
besides needlessly exposing a fresh surface at each opera¬
tion, and cutting the weeds into minute portions, which
renders their removal more difficult. These defects were
long felt, and suggested the desirableness of having some
implement of intermediate character betwixt the plough and
harrow, which should stir the soil deeply and expeditiously
without reversing it, and bring the weeds unbroken to the
surface. The whole tribe of grubbers, &c., has arisen to
272
AGRICULTURE.
Machines meet this demand, and we shall now consider the compara-
and Im- ^ve merits of the more prominent of the group. The first
plements. nptice js (jue to Finlayson’s harrow, which, as improved by
Scoular, was, until recently, the best implement of its kind.
Its faults—and they attach equally to Kirkwood’s and Wilkie’s
—are, that it is severe work for two horses; is liable to
choke in turfy or foul ground, and that it consolidates the
bottom of the furrow, while producing a fine tilth on the sur¬
face. Finlayson’s grubber, in its improved form, weighs
about five cwt., and costs as many pounds.
Another useful implement of this class which enjoys a large
reputation in England is Biddle’s scarifier. It is mounted
lated by raising or lowering the shank which supports its
single wheel in front. Its tines can be easily moved on their
supporting bars, and it may be worked with five or seven
as desired. By substituting a shorter hind-bar, and setting
the tines more closely together, it makes a most efficient drill
grubber. We shall have occasion to refer to this implement
frequently in treating of tillage operations.
Since the introduction of Tennant’s grubber, and from
the favour with which it has been received, several variations
on its form have been made by different parties, but all re¬
taining the important features of lightness and cheapness.
Messrs Scoular & Co., of Haddington, have produced an ex¬
ceedingly useful implement of this kind, which is also in very
Machines
and Im¬
plements.
scoular’s geubber.
general use. There seems no reason why these light grub¬
bers should not have their tines so constructed as to have
the working parts moveable (as in Biddle’s scarifier), so that
sharp points for grubbing, or broad hoes for paring, could be
used at pleasure.
BIDDLE’S SCARIFIER, AS MADE BY RANSOME AND CO.
on four wheels ; two small ones in front and two much larger
behind. The frame and tines are of cast-iron, and can be
raised and depressed at pleasure by means of two levers
which regulate the depth to which the tines shall penetrate.
The tines are prepared to receive case-hardened cast-iron
points of different widths, or steel hoes of nine inches width,
so that the implement can be used for breaking up and paring
the surface, or for grubbing out weeds and pulverising the
soil, as may be required. An important feature in this scari¬
fier is, that it keeps its hold of a hard surface much better
than a plough. It weighs half a ton, is drawn by four or six
horses, and costs about L.18.
The Ducie or Uley cultivator has many features in com¬
mon with Biddle’s, and although brought forward as an im¬
provement upon it, has not established its title to be so re¬
garded. The great weight, high price, and amount of horse¬
power required to work them, are serious objections to both
of these implements.
Of more recent notoriety than either, and contrasting with
them favourably in these respects, is an implement invented
by Mr John Tennant, at Shields, near Ayr, and now popu¬
larly known as Tennant’s grubber. Its construction, as the
annexed cut will shew, is simple in the extreme. Its weight
is about 2 cwt., its price L.4, 10s., and its draught easily over¬
come by two horses. The depth at which it works is regu¬
n ARROWS.
When a field has been broken up by the plough, it is
usually next operated upon by the harrow, whether the ob¬
ject be to prepare it for and to cover in seeds, or to bring
clods and roots to the surface. It is virtually a rake dragged
by horses. In its most ordinary form, the frame-work is of
wood with iron tines, of which each harrow contains twenty.
Formerly each horse dragged a single harrow, although two
or more were worked abreast. Under this arrangement the
harrows had too much independent motion, and were liable to
get foul of each other. This has been remedied, first partially,
by coupling them loosely by riders, and then more effect¬
ually by a hinge-like joining, which allows a separate vertical
motion, but only a combined horizontal one. A rhomboidal
form is also given to this pair of harrows—usually called
brakes—so that when properly yoked, no two tines can work
in the same track. This description of harrow is now fre¬
quently made entirely of iron.
Howard’s patent harrows are a further improvement on
this implement. The zigzag form given to each section ena-
howard’s patent harrow.
bles the whole so to fit in, that the working parts are equally dis¬
tributed over the space operated upon. The number of tines
is 75, instead of 40, as in the form last noticed, and yet from
AGRICULTURE.
273
Machines the form of frame and manner of coupling, the tines are well
and Im- apart, and have each a separate line of action. Practical
plements. farmers speak very highly of the effective working of this
implement. By an exceedingly simple contrivance the centre
part when turned on its back forms a sledge on which its fel¬
lows can be piled, and drawn along from one field to another.
A light description of harrows with smaller and more nume¬
rous tines, is sometimes used for covering in grass-seeds. If
a harrow is to be used at all for this purpose, Howard’s is a
very suitable kind, but a much better implement is the chain-
web with discs, the invention of Smith of Deanston. The old-
fashioned ponderous break harrow is now entirely discarded,
and the more efficient cultivator used in its stead. A form of
the latter, from its close resemblance to harrows, is noticed
now rather than before. It is a very strong iron harrow, with
the tines made longer and very considerably curved forwards.
An iron rod with a loop handle is fixed to the hind bar, by
means of which the driver can easily hitch it up and get rid
of weeds, &c. Two such harrows are coupled together and
drawn by four horses. Its pulverizing power is very consi¬
derable. But when clods have been brought to the surface
they are most effectually reduced by various kinds of
ROLLERS.
Those formerly used were solid cylinders of timber or stone
attached to a frame and shafts, for which hollow ones of cast-
iron are now generally substituted. The simplest form of
these has a smooth surface, and is cast in sections to admit
of more easy turning. They are made of diverse weights,
way projecting teeth. Twenty-three of these discs are strung Machines
loosely upon a round axle, so as to revolve independently of and Im-
each other. The free motion thus given to each disc, and plements.^
which has latterly been increased by casting each alternate one
wider in the eye, adds at once to the pulverizing and self¬
cleaning power of the roller. Three horses yoked abreast
are required to work it. The axle is prolonged at each end
sufficiently to receive travelling wheels, on which it is trans¬
ported from place to place. Although primarily designed
and actually much used for breaking clods, it is even more
in request for consolidating loose soils, checking the ravages
of wire-worm, and covering in clover and grass seeds. F or
the latter purpose, its action is perfected by attaching a few
bushes to it, which fill up the indentations and leave a sur¬
face so beautifully even, as to rival the accuracy and neatness
of a well-raked border. We have long thought that it would
be an improvement in this valuable implement to reduce its
weight so far as to suit it to the draught of two horses.
Cambridge’s roller possesses several features in common Cam-
with Crosskill’s, and is used for similar purposes. It consists bridge s
of discs with fluted instead of serrated edges.
Crosskill’s
clod-
crusher.
SMOOTH CAST-IRON FIEED ROLLER.
so as to be adapted for the draught of one or tvyo horses as
required. Those of the former description, weighing in all
6 cwt., and costing as many pounds sterling, are exceedingly
useful for all purposes where expedition rather than heavy
pressure is wanted. From their greater durability, smoother
surface, and less liability to clog, the readiness with which
they can be cast of any weight that is required, and their
moderate price, it is probable that cast-iron cylinders wil
speedily supersede all others.
Several important variations on the common smooth roller
have been introduced of late years. Of these the first notice
roller.
CAMBRIDGE'S PRESS-WHEEL ROLLER.
Gibson’s clod-crusher has a double row of smooth discs on G ibson's
separate axles, the projecting edges of which work into each clod-
other. Both implements have this advantage over Crosskill’s, crusaer.
that they do not so readily clog on a damp surface.
Under this head may be noticed press drills, which, by
means of a series of narrow cylinders with conical edges, form
corresponding grooves in loose soil. Seeds sown broadcast
over a surface thus treated come up in rows. The land-Land-
presser is a modification of the press-roller. It is made withPresser-
LAND-PRESSER.
crosskill’s clod-crusher.
is due to Crosskill’s clod-crusher. It consists of cast-iron discs
2$- feet in diameter, with serrated edge and a series of side-
YOL. II.
two or three conical edged cylinders to fit into the seams of
the same number of plough furrows, the other end of the
axle on which they are fixed being supported by a plain car¬
riage-wheel. It is drawn by one horse, and follows in the
wake of two or three ploughs, according to the number of
its cylinders. When wheat is sown after clover lea, this im¬
plement is found exceedingly useful in closing the seams,
and forming a uniform seed-bed.
The Norwegian, or as it should rather be called, the Norwegian
Swedish, harrow is strictly a clod-crushing implement. From harrow,
its radiating spikes penetrating the surface over which it is
drawn, ithasbeen calleda harrow; butits revolving motion en¬
titles it rather to be classed with rollers. In its usual form it
consists ofthree rows of cast-iron rowels arranged upon parallel
axles fixed in an iron frame, which is supported on three
2 M
only substituting parallel rows of rowels for tines. There is
also the same leverage for raising and depressing the frame.
But this implement has recently been constructed on a much
simpler and cheaper plan, in which the wheels and lever ap¬
paratus are discarded altogether. It thus consists of a simple
wrought-iron frame with four rows of rowels. A few boards
are laid across the frame, forming a platform over the rowels,
on which the driver stands when it is wished to increase the
weight and efficiency of the implement. On the upper side at
either end, is fixed a piece of wheel-tire, on which the imple¬
ment, when turned on its back, can slide along, sledge-fashion,
when it is wished to move it from place to place. As thus
constructed, it can be made for about L.5. This is the best
implement yet introduced for breaking moist clods.
Before leaving the implements of tillage, it may be proper
to notice two, which have been a good deal brought under
Breast- notice of late years, viz. the breast-plough and trenching-
plough and fork. The former is extensively used in carrying out the
trenching- process of paring and burning. It is the implement so well
fork. known in Scotland as the flaughter-spade. In using it the
workman guards his thighs with a piece of board, fastened on
apron-wise, and with this presses against the cross-head of
the implement, and urges forward its cutting edge. When
a thin turf has thus been severed from the surface, he throws
it topsy-turvy by a jerk of his arms. The fork is used in
giving a deep autumn digging to land, in preparation for
root crops. Both operations can ordinarily be more econo¬
mically performed by using horse-power with suitable im¬
plements. But for clearing out corners of fields, hedge sides,
and similar places, manual labour with these tools can fre¬
quently be made to supplement the plough to good purpose.
IMPLEMENTS FOR SOWING.
A large portion of the grain annually sown in Great
Broadcast Britain, is still distributed by hand from the primitive sow-
sowing. ing sheet.
“ The sower stalks
With measured step, and liberal throws the grain
Into the faithful bosom of the ground.”
In Scotland, a decided preference is still given to broadcast
sowing, for which purpose a machine is used which covers
from 15 to 18 feet, according to the width of ridges adopted.
It consists of a long seed-box carried on a frame mounted
on two wheels. From these, motion is communicated to a
spindle which revolves in the seed-box, and expels the seed
by means of cogs or brushes, through openings which can be
graduated to suit the required rate of seeding. It is drawn
by a single horse, is attended by one man, and can get over
30 acres a-day. It is peculiarly adapted for the regular dis¬
tribution of clover and grass seeds. In one exhibited at the
Highland Society’s Show at Perth in 1852, by an ingenious
apparatus on the principle of the odometer, the machine
itself is made to register the space which it travels over, and Machines
thus to indicate the rate per acre at which it is distributing and Im'
the seed. Excellent results have been, and still are, ob- PlemeDts-
tained from broadcast sowing. But as tillage becomes more “ v""-
perfect, there does arise a demand for greater accuracy in
the depth at which seeds are deposited in the soil, for
greater precision in the rate and regularity of their distri¬
bution, and for greater facilities for removing weeds from
amongst the growing crop. These considerations led, at a
comparatively early period, to the system of sowing crops in
rows or drills, and hence the demand for machines to do
this expeditiously and accurately. We accordingly find in
our best cultivated districts, the sowing and after-culture of
the crops now conducted with a precision which reminds
the spectator of the processes of some well-arranged factory.
This is accomplished by means of a variety of drilling ma¬
chines, the most prominent of which we shall now notice.
The Suffolk drill is the kind in most general use. It is Suffolk
a complicated and costly machine by which manure and drill.
SUFFOLK DRILL. (GARRETT AND CO.)
seeds can be simultaneously deposited. That called the
“ general purpose drill,” can sow 10 rows of corn, with or
without manure, at any width between the rows, from 4-|- to
10 inches, and at any rate per acre betwixt two pecks and
six bushels. It can be arranged also to sow clover and
grass seeds—the heavier seeds of clover being thrown out by
minute cups—and the lighter grass seeds brushed out from
a separate compartment. It is further fitted for sowing
beans and turnips—the latter either two drills at a time on
the ridge, or three on the flat. This drill, as most recently
improved by Messrs Hornsby of Granthan, and Garrett of
Leiston, has an apparatus for preserving the machine in a
level position when working on sloping ground. As a main
object in drilling crops at all. is to admit of the use of the
hoe, it become an important point to accomplish the drilling
with undeviating straightness, and exact parallelism in each
successive course of the drill. This is now obtained by
means of a fore carriage, which an assistant walking along¬
side so controls by a lever as easily to keep the wheel in
the same rut down which it had previously passed. Messrs
Hornsby have also introduced India-rubber tubes for con¬
ducting the seed, in place of the tin funnels hitherto used.
These drills cost about L.42.
The Woburn drill of the Messrs Hensman, is simpler in Woburn
its construction than those already noticed. “In all otherdri11-
drills, the coulters, which distribute the manure or seed,
hang from the carriage. In this drill the carriage rests upon
the coulters, which are like the iron of skates; it may be
said, indeed, to run on four pairs of skates. Hence this drill’s
power of penetrating hard ground, and of giving a firm bed
to the wheat-seed in soft ground. Each drill coulter, how¬
ever, preserves its independence as when suspended. This
self-adjustment is required by the inequality of tilled ground,
and is thus obtained: each pair of coulters is fixed to the
end of a balance beam, these again to others, and they to a
central one. Thus each coulter, in well-poised rank, gives
NORWEGIAN HARROW (CROSSKILL’S).
274 A G R I C U
Machines wheels,—one in front and two behind. The outline and ar-
and Im- rangements are in fact the same as in Finlayson’s grubber,
pleraents.
AGRICULTURE.
Machines its independent share of support. It varies from the gene-
and Im- rality of drills, as it is drawn from the centre by whipple-
plements. trees instead of shafts ; and the drill-man behind can steer
or direct the drill with the greatest nicety. The corn-box
of the drill is entirely self-acting, and delivers the seed
equally well going either up or down hill. It is also cap¬
able of horse-hoeing, by attaching hoes to the levers instead
of the coulter-shares. It is drawn by a pair of horses, and
the price from L.18 to L.20.”i
Turnip Drill. In Scotland, and in the north and west
of England, turnips are usually sown on the ridge by a ma¬
chine which sows two rows at a time. In the south-eastern
parts of England, which are hotter and drier, it is found
Turnip better to sow them on the flat, for which purpose machines
drill. are constructed which sow four rows together, depositing
manure at the same time. Both kinds are adapted tor sow¬
ing either turnips or mangold-wurzel seeds as required. With
the view of economising seed and manure, what are called
drop-drills have recently been introduced, which deposit
both—not in continuous streams—but in jets, at such inter¬
vals apart in the rows as the farmer wishes the plants to
stand. What promises to be a more useful machine is a
Chandler’s water-drill invented by a Wiltshire farmer—Mr Chandler,
water- of Market Lavington. “ His water-drill pours down each
dri11- manure-coulter the requisite amount of fluid, mixed with
powdered manure, and thus brings up the plant from a mere
bed of dust. Having used it largely during three years, I
may testify to its excellence. Only last July, when my
bailiff had ceased turnip-sowing on account of the drought,
by directing the use of the water-drill, I obtained from this
latter sowing an earlier and a better show of young plants
than from the former one with the dust-drill. Nor is there
any increase of expense, if water be within a moderate dis¬
tance, for we do not use powder-manures alone. 1 hey must
be mixed with ashes, that they may be diffused in the soil.
Now the expense and labour of supplying these ashes are
equal to the cost of fetching mere water ; and, apart from
any want of rain, it is found that this method of moist diffu¬
sion, dissolving, instead of mingling only, the superphos¬
phate, quickens its action even upon damp ground, and makes
a little of it go further.”2
The practice of top-dressing wheat, vetches, clover, or
meadows, with guano and various light manures, has now so
much increased, and the inconvenience of scattering them
over the surface by hand is so great, that various machines
Holmes’ have recently been invented for distributing them, lhat by
manure Holmes of Norwich has obtained the prize offered for such
distributor a machine by the Royal Agricultural Society of England.
MANURE DISTRIBUTOR. (J. HOLMES AND SONS, NORWICH.)
It can also be used for sowing such manures over turnip
drills, covering three at once. Such machines will probably
be more used in future for distributing lime, which can thus
be done much more regularly than by cart and shovel, espe¬
cially when it is wished to apply small quantities for the de¬
struction of slugs or for other purposes. It seems quite prac-
275
tieable to have this or a similar machine so constructed as Machines
that it could be readily hooked on to the tail of a cart con- and 1m-
taining the lime or other substance which it is desired to dis- I)lemem^
tribute by it. The top-dressing material could by such an
arrangement be drawn into the hopper of the distributor, as
it and its tender move along, and the cart, when emptied, be
replaced by a full one with little loss of time.
A cheap and effective machine, capable of being in a simi¬
lar manner attached to a dung-cart, and which could tear
asunder fold-yard manure, and distribute it evenly in the
bottoms of turnip drills, would be a great boon to farmers,
and seems a fitting object to be aimed at by those possessed
of the inventive faculty.
HORSE-HOES.
It has already been remarked, that the great inducement
to sow grain and green crops in rows is, that hoeing may be
resorted to, for the double purpose of ridding them of weeds
and stimulating their growth by frequent stirring of the soil.
It is now upwards of a century since Jethro Tull demon¬
strated in his books and on his fields, the facility with which
horse-power could be thus employed. His system was early
adopted in regard to turnips, and led, as we have seen, to a
complete revolution in the practice of agriculture. The pe¬
culiar manner in which he applied his system to grain crops,
and the principles on which he grounded his practice, have
hitherto been for the most part repudiated by agriculturists,
who have thought it indispensable to drill their grain at in¬
tervals so narrow as to admit, as was supposed, of the use of
the hand-hoe only. But the accuracy with which corn-drills
perform their work, has been skilfully taken advantage of,
and we now have horse-hoes, covering the same breadth as
the drill, which can be worked with perfect safety in inter¬
vals of but seven inches wide. By such a machine, and the
labour of a pair of horses, two men, and a boy, ten acres of
corn can be hoed in as many hours. Not only is the work
done at a fifth of the expense of hand-hoeing, and far more
effectually; but it is practicable in localities and at seasons
in which hand-labour cannot be obtained.
Garrett’s horse-hoe is admitted to be the best implement Garrett’s
of its kind. It can be used for hoeing either beans, turnips, horse-hoe.
GARRETT’S HORSE-HOE.
or corn, as the hoes can be adapted to suit any width betwixt
rows, and the axle-tree being moveable at both ends, the
wheels, too, can be shifted so as to be kept betwixt the rows
of plants. The shafts can be attached to any part of the
frame to avoid injury to the crop by the treading of the
horses. Each hoe works on a lever independent of the others,
and can be loaded with different weights on the same prin-
1 See Mr Pusey’s Report on Implements.—Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, vol. xu. p. 604.
2 lb., p. 607.
276
Machines
and Im¬
plements.
AGRICULTURE.
ciple as the coulters of the corn-drill to accommodate it to
uneven surfaces and varying degrees of hardness in the soil.
A great variety of implements under the general names
of horse-hoes, scufflers, scrapers, or drill-grubbers, fitted for
the draught of one horse, and to operate on one drill at a
time, is in use in those parts of the country where root crops
are chiefly sown on ridgelets from 24 to 30 inches apart.
With considerable diversity of form and efficiency, they in
general have these features in common, viz., provision for
being set so as to work at varying widths and depths, and
for being armed either with hoes or tines, according as it is
wished to pare the surface or stir the soil more deeply. A
miniature Norwegian harrow is sometimes attached to drill-
grubbers, by which weeds are detached from the soil, and
the surface levelled and pulverized more thoroughly. Ten¬
nant's grubber with its tines set close together, and two
horses yoked to it abreast by a tree long enough to allow
them to walk in the drills on either side of that operated
upon, is the most effective implement for cultivating betwixt
the rows of beans, potatoes, turnips, or mangold, that we
have yet seen used for this purpose. The next class that
claims attention is
HARVESTING IMPLEMENTS.
These, until recently, comprised only the reaping-hook
and scythe. An implement, by means of which horse-power
could be made available for this important operation has long
been eagerly desired by farmers. Repeatedly during the
past 50 years have their hopes been excited by the announce¬
ment of successful inventions of this kind; but, after much
fair promise, have hitherto always met with disappoint¬
ment. These hopes have recently been revived, and raised
to a higher pitch than ever, by the appearance, in the Great
Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations, of two reaping-
American machines, known as McCormick’s and Hussey’s, from the
United States of America, where, for several years past, they
have been used extensively and successfully. These imple¬
ments were subjected to repeated trials in different parts of
England, on crop 1851, but never in circumstances which
admitted of their capabilities being tested in a thoroughly
satisfactory manner.
At the first of these trials, made under the auspices of the
Royal Agricultural Society, the preference was given to
M‘Cormick’s, to which the Exhibition Medal was in conse¬
quence awarded. It turned out, however, that at this trial
Hussey’s machine had not a fair chance, it being attended
reaping-
machine.
Highland and Agricultural Society, appeared in the Trans- Machines
actions of the Society, by which the attention of the public and Il"~
was recalled to a reaping machine of home-production, viz., P t ments^
that invented by the Rev. Patrick Bell, now minister of the
hussey’s reaping machine, by garret and co.
by a person who had never before seen it at work, for, when
a further trial took place before the Cleveland Agricultural
Society, with Mr Hussey himself superintending his own
machine, an all but unanimous decision was given in his favour.
Hussey’s machine was in consequence adopted by the leading
implement makers, such as Messrs Garrett, Crosskill, &c.
Early in 1852, a very important communication from the
pen of Mr James Slight, curator of the museum of the
BELL S REAPING MACHINE, BY CROSSKILL.
parish of Carmylie in Forfarshire, and for which a premium Bell’s
of L.50 had been awarded to him by the Highland Society reaPin£*
so long as 26 years ago. This machine attracted much at_mactline-
tention at that time. Considerable numbers were made and
partially used, but from various causes the invention was lost
sight of, until by the arrival of these American machines,
and the notoriety given to them by the Great Exhibition,
with concurring causes about to be noticed, an intense inte¬
rest was again excited regarding reaping by machinery.
From Mr Slight’s report, the public learned that the identi¬
cal Bell’s machine to which the prize was awarded, had for
the last 14 years been statedly employed on the farm of
Inch-Michael in the Carse of Gowrie, occupied by Mr George
Bell, a brother of the inventor, who, during all that period,
and on the average of years, succeeded in reaping four-fifths
of his crop by means of it. Mr Slight further stated, that
at least four specimens of it had been carried to America,
and that from the identity in principle betwixt them and
those now brought thence, with other corroborating circum¬
stances, there is little doubt that the so-called American in¬
ventions are after all but imitations of this Scottish machine.
When it became known that Bell’s machine was to be ex¬
hibited, and if possible, subjected to public trial, at the meet¬
ing of the Highland and Agricultural Society at Perth, in
August 1852, the event was looked forward to by Scottish
farmers, with eager interest. On that occasion, it was ac¬
cordingly again brought forward, with several important im¬
provements made upon it, by Mr George Bell, already re¬
ferred to, and was fully tested in competition with Hussey’s,
as made by Crosskill. To the disappointment of many, Mr
M‘Cormick did not think fit to enter the lists either at this
or at subsequent opportunities. The following is the report
of the judges who acted upon that occasion:—
“ Out of five reaping machines exhibited, four were on the
principle of Hussey’s, and one on that of the Rev. Patrick
Bell. Of these only two were entered for trial. The Hus¬
sey machine was from the well-known house of Crosskill of
Beverly, the other was the early constructed Scotch machine,
invented in 1828 by Patrick Bell, with certain improvements
lately introduced by his brother, George Bell, of Inch-Michael
farm, Perthshire.
“ As has already been stated, arrangements were made by
the secretary to conduct the trial on the farm of Muirton, and
three fields, oats, barley, and wheat, were placed by Mr Mor¬
ton, the tenant, at the disposal of the society, for the experi¬
ment.
“ The following judges were appointed to superintent the
trial:—Laurence Oliphant of Condie ; Henry Stephens, au¬
thor of The Book of the Farm; James Stirling, civil engineer,
Edinburgh ; John Finnic, farmer, Swanston ; John Dickson,
farmer, Saughton Mains; John Gibson, farmer, Woolmet;
James Steedman, farmer, Boghall; William Watson, mill¬
wright, Errol; John Young, engineer, Newton-upon-Ayr.
“ A space was first cut by the sickle along the ends of the
fields, so as to enable the machines to commence. Hussey’s,
agriculture.
277
piemen ts.
Machines from being drawn by the horses, requires a further clearance
and Im- a]ong the sides sufficiently broad to allow the horses to walk.
, Bell’s, on the other hand, being propelled by the horses, and
having the power of delivering the grain to the right or left,
opens a passage for itself at any point, whether at the side or
in the centre of a field; hence in each trial it took pi ece-
dence in starting. Each machine was worked by two horses.
“ The first essay was in a field of oats. The crop was
standing, and nearly ripe, consequently in a favourable con¬
dition for machine-cutting, although it stood rather thin on
the ground. Bell’s machine at first created an impression,
from the slow movement of its shears (making only about 110
strokes per minute), that it might pass over and crush the
grain. A second or two, however, sufficed to dispel this;
and as the implement progressed, it left a stubble about four
inches high, cut with the most perfect regularity, and so clean,
that scarcely a straw or a grain was observable on it. A stop¬
page occurred, to allow some adjustment to the height of
bubble, and during the five or six turns made by the ma¬
chine, two or three stoppages took place in crossing deep
furrows and unequal ground; but, on the whole, the work
was well and continuously performed. The cutting was per¬
fect throughout, and the corn laid with great regularity in an
unbroken swathe, the straw lying at an angle of 30 degrees
with the line of progress. The breadth of the cut, when shut
on both sides, is 6 feet, but cutting with an open side, the
breadth seems not to exceed 5|- feet. In the present case the
average of four turns was only 5 feet.
“ Hussey’s machine next came into operation on the oats.
The rapid vibration of its cutters, which gave about 570 strokes
per minute, produced a feeling of confidence at the stai t that
it would leave nothing uncut; and the first turn, though not
performed without stoppage, was satisfactory with respect to
cutting. The grain, however, was not so well laid as by Bell s,
and the stubble was higher and not so clean. The succeeding
cuts were less satisfactory, frequent stoppages occurred, and
when there was any undergrowth of grass, the machine was
greatly baffled. While the operation of cutting was fairly per¬
formed, it was evident that the radical defect of the machine
lay in the want of sufficient and regular means for removing
the grain when cut. This division of the process depended
exclusively on the rakeman, and when he missed the proper
moment for removal, the cutters were immediately choked.
In point of economy a most important defect was observable,
—the breadth cut by Hussey’s did not, on an average, ex-
cccd 3~ feet.
“ The barley crop was much heavier than the oats, and par¬
tially laid, thus presenting greater difficulties to the machines.
The superiority of Bell’s was here decided in every respect,
while the morefrequent stoppages of Hussey’s from choking,
seemed to be caused partly by the greater weight of the crop,
but mainly by the inability of the rakeman to perfoun his
duties under the combined difficulty of a partially matted and
a heavy crop. . , ,
“ In the wheat field the crop was of great weight and
strength, estimated at a produce of six quarters the imperial
acre ; and here the decided superiority of uniformly continued
mechanical action over intermitting muscular force was strik¬
ingly illustrated. Bell’s machine, at the outset, cutting a
breadth of 5£ feet along the edge of a ditch, had a stoppage,
from inequality of surface, after which it proceeded almost
without intermission, cutting its regular breadth, and laying
the wheat with great regularity, three or four straws only
being seen out of the proper angle on the top of the swathe.
Under this ordeal, Hussey’s had still some merit. It cut a
fair stubble, though higher than desirable. It began with its
usual breadth, but even that (small compared with Bell’s) was Machines
beyond the powers of the rakeman to remove ; the machine, and im-
consequently, became choked at intervals of a few yards, and /
it ultimately appeared necessary to reduce the bi eadth of cut
to about two feet. In the wheat, therefore, the comparative
failure of this machine was, under any economical view, ob¬
vious and decided. The action of the fan in Bell s machine,
in gathering and depositing the crop upon the web, induced
an apprehension that the grain might to some extent be
beaten out. This the judges carefully investigated and found
to be groundless.
“ Taking into consideration all the circumstances of these
trials, the judges unanimously felt warranted in awarding the
premium to Mr Bell, for the following reasons:
“ I**, For the decided superiority of his machine in eco¬
nomising time and expense, owing to the greater breadth cut
by it with the same horse-power, the difference being as 10
“2d, For the character and quality of the work performed
by it, as being cleaner cut, producing less waste or shake,
and laying the swathe with a regularity better suited for
binding in sheaves, than when laid off in unequal bundles.
“3d, For being less liable to choke, and to the conse¬
quent stoppages. .
“4^, For being mechanically adapted to deposit the
grain in rows, performing the operation in a superior man¬
ner, and saving, in the opinion of the judges, the labour of
two men, as compared with Hussey s.
“ oth, For the advantages arising from its having the
means of laying off the grain to the right side or the left, this
feature, combined with that of being propelled instead of being
drawn, enabling it to enter on either side, or into the centre
of a field, without any previous clearing, and to continue
the cutting without interruption, while the cut portion of
the crop was lying on the ground.
“ 6th, For greater efficiency when operating on a crop
partially lodged.”1
Subsequent to this, Bell’s machine, besides being seen at
work by many visitors on his own farm at Inchmichael, was
publicly exhibited at four different places,—viz., Phantassie
in East Lothian ; in the neighbourhood of Dunfermline in
Fife; in Ireland, at the special invitation of the Royal So¬
ciety, who handsomely paid the expense of transporting it
thither; and last of all, at Keillor in Forfarshire, on which
occasion a challenge was given by public advertisement to
all other reaping machines to compete with Bell’s for a
sweepstakes of L.50 a side. The subject is so important
that we shall here quote from the report of the last of these
“ Keillor, September 4, 1852.
“ We, the undersigned, having been requested to act as Trial of
Judges at the trial of reaping machines, which took place reaping-
this day at the above farm, pursuant to a challenge given machine
by Hugh Watson, Esq., and Mr George Bell, for a sweep- Keillor,
stakes of Fifty Sovereigns each, to test the merits of the
different machines which are now attracting public attention
in this country, and, if possible, to decide upon the best be¬
fore next season,
Report
“ That only three reapers appeared upon the field, viz.:—-
“ 1st, An American machine, known by the name of
Hussey’s, constructed and improved under the superinten¬
dence of Mr Crosskill, of Beverley, and worked by his agent,
Mr Lover
at
i Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, Oct. 1852, p. 419.
AGRICULTURE.
278
Machines 2d, A similar machine, with some important improve-
and Im- ments, exhibited by Lord Kinnaird; and,
p ements.^ « 3^ The old original reaping machine, invented by the
Rev. Mr Bell of Carmylie, Forfarshire, and which, it appears,
has been worked by his brother, Mr George Bell, on his farm
of Inchmichael, in the county of Perth, for upwards of
twenty years.
“ Another machine, constructed by an ingenious mechanic
at Invergowrie, near Dundee, was also expected, but met
some accident on trial the previous evening, which was the
cause of much disappointment.
“ It was understood that Mr M‘Cormick, from America,
was also on the ground, but the machine which bears his
name did not appear.
“ Mr Love, on the part of Mr Crosskill, stated before the
trial commenced, that, after the decision of such a high and
competent authority as the Highland Society, at Perth, and
after witnessing a trial of the machine itself at Phantassie, Mr
Crosskill considered it would be useless to contend against
Mr Bell’s any longer, which he considered a far superior and
more effective machine than any he had yet seen; but that
he (Mr Love) would give every assistance in his power to
work Hussey’s that day for the satisfaction of the large and
influential body who were then present.
“ As it was desirable that the merits of the machines should
be tested in every possible way, it was deemed advisable that
the locality should not be too favourable to their easy work¬
ing, but should possess all the average difficulties of an or¬
dinary corn crop, so as to ascertain the working powers of
each. Accordingly the ground selected for the trial was a
large field of barley, on the slope to the south of Keillor
House; and three lots of one imperial acre each having
been measured off, Bell’s machine was started first, and per¬
formed its work steadily and well in 45 minutes. We ex¬
amined the stubble carefully, both up and down hill, and it
was cut much to our satisfaction, though some difference of
opinion existed as to which way the machine worked best.
It appeared that the breadth cut each time was something
over six feet, and the corn was delivered at the side of the
machine in one uniform long line, and most convenient for
the binders. Mr Bell concluded by driving a transverse cut
obliquely across the field, and right through the centre of
the grain, which appeared to show off the merits of the ma¬
chine to much advantage.
“ The other two machines were then set to work on simi¬
lar lots of ground, and Hussey’s, under the superintendence
of Mr Love, cut about two-thirds of the prescribed quantity
within the 45 minutes, while, from some reason not ex¬
plained, the other did not complete its task. As these two
machines were nearly similar, with the exception of that ex¬
hibited by Lord Kinnaird, which had an endless cloth re¬
volving directly in the track of the machine, and intended to
facilitate the delivery of the corn in a straight line behind it
the work performed by them was nearly alike. We found on
examination that the breadth cut was about three feet and a
half each time; and though the stubble was well cut up
hill, and when the machine worked against the inclination of
the barley, yet it was quite the contrary down hill, where
the stalks were often dragged and left uncut. Indeed so
strongly did the director of Hussey’s machine feel this dif¬
ficulty, that, after the first round, he avoided cutting down
hill at all, and confined himself to working up hill exclu¬
sively, by which nearly one half the time was lost. The
stops of these two machines were also much more frequent
than with Bell’s, arising from stones and other impediments
as well as from the cutters driving into the ground, which
not only caused great delay, but also ran much risk in da- Machines
maging the machines irreparably. From the shortness and and !«»-
peculiar construction of the cutters, it appeared to us that Plements-
they were much too liable to choke or clog, particularly when
they came in contact with anything green, or lying at an angle
from them, which rendered it often necessary to stop the
machines, in order to have the teeth cleared, and the impedi¬
ments otherwise removed.
“ When the trial at the barley was completed, the parties
adjourned to the wheat field, and Bell’s machine first charged
directly into the centre, and cut a large lane for itself, up¬
wards of six feet in breadth, laying the wheat, which was
an exceedingly heavy crop, in a perfectly straight line, and
peculiarly well placed for the binders, the reaping of this
heavy crop appeared to be comparatively easy work after the
barley, and the easy, masterly way in which it was cut down,
without any apparent difficulty or noise, gave general satis¬
faction. Three-quarters of an acre was cut within the half-
hour, or at the rate of an acre within the three-quarters,
while the stubble appeared beautifully clean and well cut,
and no delay whatsoever took place in the performance by
Bell’s. A lane having been thus cleared, the two other
machines set to work, and completed half an acre each in
shorter time, and with greater ease than with the barley,
and the stubble exhibited none of those inequalities which
marked the down-hill work at the other crop.
“ With regard to the relative merits of the different ma¬
chines, it is evident that two of them are imitations, but not
improvements, of Mr Bell’s original one; and, with the ex¬
ception of their being somewhat lighter and more portable,
when not actually at work, and more easily turned, they do
not retain what we consider the leading and important fea¬
tures of his; while, though doing only two-thirds of the
work, they appear to be as distressing to the men and horses
that work them.” 
(Signed) George A. Grey, Millfield Hill, Northumberland;
Charles Chambers, Aberdeenshire; John Garland, Kincar¬
dineshire; Andrew Archer, Forfarshire; William Blackadder,
C.E., Glammis; Archibald Turnbull, Perthshire, Judges.
John Ogilvy, Bart., Baldovan; Edward Bullen, Dublin,
Stewards. Alexander Geekie, Baldowrie, Timekeeper?-
Since these trials, Mr Bell has informed the public that
he has committed the manufacture of his machine, now se¬
cured to him by patent, to Mr Crosskill of Beverley, and that
he has added to it a contrivance, by means of which he an¬
ticipates that it will deposit the cut corn in quantities ready
for sheaving, instead of a continuous swathe as hitherto.
Before leaving this subject a remark is due in connection
with the strange neglect of this machine for 25 years, and
the enthusiasm with which it has now been hailed on its re¬
appearance. The first is so far accounted for by the fact re¬
cently noticed by Mr George Bell, that such specimens of his
brother’s machine as formerly got into the hands of farmers
were so imperfectly constructed that they did not work satisfac¬
torily and thus brought discredit on his invention. The true
explanation seems to be, that at that date the country was not
ready for such a machine. Not only was manual labour then
abundant and cheap, from the number of Irish labourers, who
annually, as harvest drew near, flocked into the arable dis¬
tricts of Great Britain; but thorough draining had made
little progress, and the land was everywhere laid into high
ridges, presenting a surface peculiarly unfavourable for the
successful working of a reaping machine. Now, however,
the conditions are reversed. Linder the joint operation of
a famine at home pressing out, and the gold discoveries in
Australia alluring, emigration from Ireland and elsewhere
1 North British Agriculturist, 8th September 1852.
AGRICULTUR E. 279
Machines has so thinned the population as already to tell seriously on
and Im- j}ie supply of labour. The lower price of farm produce con-
plements.^ sequen|; on free-trade, urgently demands a reduction in the
~ v"*- rate of producing it; and from the extent to which thorough
draining has now been carried, high ridges and deep furrows
are not merely useless, but positively hurtful. In these
altered conditions lies the true explanation of the former
apathy and present enthusiasm manifested by our farmers to¬
wards this invention. In America, where reaping by ma¬
chinery has already become a well-established agricultural
practice, much progress appears to have been made during
1851-52 in improving this class of machines. At a meeting
of the New York State Agricultural Society, in July 1852,
no less than eight to ten different mowing and reaping ma¬
chines were subjected to public trial, all of which accom¬
plished their work in a more or less satisfactory manner.
The report of this trial in the American Cultivator con¬
cludes thus—“ On the whole, the trial was a complete triumph
of machinery over hand-work, for both mowing and grain¬
cutting ; and, when machines shall be perfected, simplified,
and rendered much cheaper than at present, mowers and
reapers must become as indispensable on all farms of mode¬
rate size, as horse-rakes, ploughs, and thrashing machines.’"1
Now that our leading agricultural mechanists have set
themselves in good earnest to the task, and with such eager
demand from their customers to stimulate them, we may
with some confidence anticipate that really efficient reaping
machines will, ere long, be available to British farmers. The
trials which have recently been made, suffice to shew that
we have already several machines by which the mere reap¬
ing is upon the whole performed in a satisfactory manner.
What we now want is to have the cut grain deposited out
of the track of the machine, and in parcels ready for sheaf¬
ing. So long as the gatherers and binders must work in
column, each hurrying past the other, to clear the course for
the next round of the reaper, there must necessarily be much
loss of time and unnecessary waste. With a machine thus
improved, starting so long beforehand as to admit of the same
number of people working in line, each with a ready par¬
celled swathe to himself, proper superintendence, economi¬
cal arrangement, and accurate work will be attainable.
HORSE RAKES.
Horse-rakes are in frequent use for gathering together
the stalks of corn which are scattered during the process of
HOESE-RAKE (SMITH'S).
reaping; for facilitating the process of haymaking, and also
for collecting weeds from fallows. By an ingenious contri- Machines
vance in the most improved form of this implement, the “d Im-
teeth are disengaged from the material which they have P ements.^
gathered without interrupting the progress of the horse.
Haymakers are valuable implements, and well deserving
of more general use. They do their work thoroughly, and
HAYMAKEK,
enable the farmer to get through a great amount of it in
snatches of favourable weather. Where manual labour is
scarce, or when, as in Scotland, haymaking and turnip-thin¬
ning usually come on hand together, the haymaker and horse-
rake render the horse power of the farm available for an im¬
portant process which cannot be done well unless it is done
rapidly and in season.
We seem to be verging on the time when, by means of
reaping, haymaking, and raking machines worked by horse
power, farmers will be enabled to cut and carry their grass
and corn with little more than the ordinary forces of their
farms.
WHEEL CARRIAGES.
The cartage of crops, manure, &c. upon an arable farm, is
such an important part of the whole labour performed upon
it, (equal, as shown by a recent estimate, to one-half,)2 that
it is a matter of the utmost consequence to have the work
performed by carriages of the most suitable kind. It was
for a long time keenly debated by agriculturists, whether
waggons or carts are most economical. This question is now
undoubtedly settled. Mr Pusey says, “ It is proved beyond
question, that the Scotch and Northumbrian farmers, by using
one-horse carts, save one-half of the horses which south-
country farmers still string on to their three-horse waggons
and three-horse dung-carts, or dung-pots, as they are called.
The said three-horse waggons and dung-pots would also cost
nearly three times as much original outlay. Few, I suppose,
if any, farmers buy these expensive luxuries now; though it
is wonderful they should keep them; for last year at Gran¬
tham, in a public trial,horses with five carts were matched
against five waggons with ten horses, and the five horses beat
the ten by two loads.”3 The one-horse carts here referred
HARVEST-CART.
to are usually so constructed as to be easily adapted to the
different purposes for which wheel-carriages are needed upon
1 See Farmers’ Magazine, November 1852, p. 392.
2 See Morton’s Cyclopaedia of Agriculture. Article “ Carriages.”
3 Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England. Mr Pusey’s Report, p. 617 (vol. xii.).
AGRICULTURE.
280
Machines a farm. For each pair of wheels and axle there is provided
and Im- a close-bodied cart, and another with sparred sides and broad
plements. shelvinprSj cal]ed a long-cart, or harvest-cart, either of which
“ can easily be attached to the wheels, according to the nature
of the commodities to be carried. Such a cart, weighing
from 7 to 8 cwt., with iron axle and oak shafts, costs at
present, in Berwickshire,from L.10 to L.ll, when complete,
with both close and harvest bodies, &c. Sometimes a simple
moveable frame is attached to the close-body to fit it for car¬
rying hay or straw; but although one or two such frames
are useful for casual purposes throughout the year, they are
inferior for harvest work to the regular sparred cart with its
own shafts. In some districts the whole of the close-bodied
carts used on the farm are made to tip. For many purposes
this is a great convenience ; but for the conveyance of grain
to market, and generally for all road work, a firm frame is
much easier for the horse, and less liable to decay and de¬
rangement. The Berwickshire practice is to have one pair
of tip-carts on each farm, and all the rest firm or dormant¬
bodied, as it is sometimes called.
Many farms are now provided with a water or tank cart,
for conveying and distributing liquid manure.
A plan for lessening the expenditure of horse-labour in
the carriage of roots, &c. and accomplishing it with less in¬
jury to the land, by means of a portable railway, has been
introduced by R. Neilson, Esq., of Halewood, near Liver¬
pool, and tried by others in various parts of the country.
When we first heard of this portable farm railway, we con¬
fess to having regarded it as a mere toy for amateurs, to
whom expense was no object. Further inquiry and reflec¬
tion have led us to a different conclusion, and we now regard
it as likely ere long to come into general use. In the Agri¬
cultural Gazette, of 22d March 1851, Mr Neilson, after
stating that his farm consists of heavy clay land, on which
the difficulty of carting off root crops, or carting on manures,
&c. was so great as to lead him to invent a rude sort of rail¬
way of wood, which so well answered the purpose, that for
the last nine or ten years he had used it always for taking
off his root crop, and frequently in putting on manure, thus
describes his contrivance:—“ The sides are of the common
deal, 18 feet long, or shorter if thought more desirable, nearly
3 inches deep and 2| thick. A balk of timber 18 feet long
and 12 inches by 13" square, will cut up into 20 of them.
They are connected by means of wooden sleepers of tougher
material (slabs or thinnings of oak, ash, beech, &c.), 2 feet
5 long, 3 inches broad by 2 inches thick, and morticed
through the side pieces about 4 feet; the tenon is left in
the upper side of the cross piece, and the mortice is cut in
the side piece, so as to allow the bottom of it and the cross
piece to be on a level, so that the flange of the wheel will
travel above. The tenons are fastened by a half-inch
wooden pin driven through the side piece | of an inch from
the outer edge; on the upper and inner edge of the side
piece is laid a strip of iron from ^ to J an inch thick, and
from •§ to 1 inch broad (according to the weight of work
required over it), screwed down at every 15 or 18 inches
with two-inch screws, the heads being countersunk in the
iron rim. Thus the iron strip is clear of the wooden pin that
fastens the cross pieces, and need not be removed if any
of the latter break and require renewing. The ends of the
iron strip are bent over the ends of the side rails and let in
flush, and are secured by a band of hoop-iron covering the
mortice hole outside, passing round the end, and for six inches
along the inside of the side rail, and through this plate is
fastened the joint for attaching to the next rail. After
many contrivances, I have found the following the best and
most convenient mode of connecting two consecutive rails Machines
together: a pin three inches long, of half-inch square iron, and Im-
turned with a half-inch eye at one end, and driven nearly Plements-
home in each end of each side piece. Care must be taken
that these pins are fixed half an inch on the inside of the
centre on one end, and half an inch on the outside of the
centre on the other end of the same rail, so that when two rails
are brought together, the two pins of the one rail are both
inside or both outside the two pins of the other rail, which
prevents them separating sideways, and the eyes being level,
are fastened by a half-inch pin or plug put through them,
and which forming a joint, enables the railway to be laid
more easily over undulating ground. These pins or plugs
are secured to the side pieces by a small piece of light jack
chain. Though this description is but an imperfect one, I
trust that with the accompanying sketch it may be suffi¬
ciently understood to be tried; and where the surface is
suitable and not too hilly, I’ll answer for it, that on heavy
land it will not readily be discontinued. Of the waggons
and turn-tables I presume no description is needed; the lat¬
ter is very simple, adapted to the length of the former, and
costs about L.10. The former will hold about ten or twelve
cwt. of turnips, and discharges sidevrays over the wheel,
which is about 18 inches high. Cost about L.2, 15s., or
L.3. My arrangement for getting off my turnips is to de¬
liver the rails, waggons, and turn-tables in proper working
order to the labourers who contract to deliver the turnips at
the field-gate at so much per acre, and to restore the rails,
&c. in good order, or pay for breakage and damage.” 1
Mr Caird, who visited Mr Neilson’s farm in October 1850,
thus notices the invention:—“ A light tramway with wag¬
gons is made use of for taking the turnip crop off the ground
in moist weather. The tramway is readily shifted, and the
crop is thrown into the waggons, which are then each pushed
along by a man, so that the entire crop may be removed
from the ground, which thus receives no injury from the
feet of horses. The tramway can be constructed for Is. 4d.
per yard, and might be very advantageously introduced on
all heavy farms where it is found difficult to take off the tur¬
nip crop in moist weather. A gang of men are at present
employed on a considerable field of Mr Neilson’s in taking
off the turnip crop, which they draw from the ground, fill
into the waggons, and convey outside of the gate at the rate
of 6s. an acre, shifting the tramway at their own cost. At
this work they earn 2s. 3d. a-day.”2 On the Home farm
of Earl Grey at Hawick, he found the same contrivance in
use, and thus refers to it,—“ The root crops are taken from
the ground, without injury to the surface, by the use of
Crosskill’s portable railway. The rails are found very easy
to shift, and the work goes on with great expedition. The
Swedes are carried on the rails to the headland, where they
are stored till required, in long narrow heaps, thatched with
straw.”3
MACHINES FOR PREPARING CROPS FOR MARKET.
Steam Engines.—The extent to which steam power is
now employed for the purposes of the farm is another marked
feature in the recent progress of agriculture. We have al¬
ready referred to the value of water power for propelling
agricultural machinery when it can be had in sufficient and
regular supply. As it is only in exceptional cases that farms
are thus favoured, the steam-engine is the power that must
generally be reckoned upon; and accordingly its use is now
so common that a tall chimney has become, over extended
districts, the prominent feature of nearly every homestead.
It has been satisfactorily shewn that grain can be thrashed
1 See Agricultural Gazette for 1851, p. 186.
2 See Caird’s English Agriculture, 1850-51, p. 270.
3 Ibid. p. 375.
agriculture.
281
Machines
and Im¬
plements.
Portable
verms
stationary
engine.
and dressed by well-constructed, steam-propelled machinery,
at one-fourth the cost of thrashing by horse power and dress¬
ing by hand-fanners. So great indeed is the improvement
i n steam-engines, and so readily can the amount of P<>wer
be accommodated to the work to be done, that we find them
everywhere superseding the one-horse gin, and even manual
labour, for pumping, churning, coffee-grinding, &c. Where-
ever then, a thrashing-mill is used at all, it may be safely
asserted that, next to water, steam is the cheapest power by
which it can be propelled. The portable engine is the form
which has hitherto found most favour in the southern parts
of the kingdom. Mr Pusey thus states the reasons for
PORTABLE STEAM-ENGINE. (CLAYTON, SHUTTLEWORTH AND CO.)
which he regards them as preferable to fixed engines,—“ It
a farm be a large one, and especially if, as is often the case,
it be of an irregular shape, there is great waste of labour for
horses and men in bringing home all the corn in the straw
to one point, and in again carrying out the dung to a dis¬
tance of perhaps two or three miles. It is therefore co -
mon, and should be general, to have a second outiying yard.
This accommodation cannot be reconciled with a fixe
gine.
PORTABLE THRASHING-MACHINE. (CLAYTON, SHUTTLEWORTH AND CO.)
“ If the farm be of a moderate size, it will hardly and if
small will certainly not—bear the expense of a fixed engine:
there would be waste of capital in multiplying fixed engines
to be worked but a few days in the year. It is now com- Machines
mon, therefore, in some counties for a man to invest a small
capital in a moveable engine, and earn his livelihood by let- ^ ,
ting it out to the farmer.
“But there is a further advantage in these moveable en¬
gines, little, I believe, if at all known. Hitherto corn has
been thrashed under cover in barns; but with these engines
and the improved thrashing-machines we can thrash the rick
in the open air at once as it stands. It will be said, how can
you thrash out of doors on a wet day ? The answer is simple.
Neither can you move your rick into your barn on a wet
day ; and so rapid is the work of the new thrashing-machines,
that it takes no more time to thrash the corn than to move
it. Open-air thrashing is also far pleasanter and healthier
for the labourers, their lungs not being choked with dust, as
under cover they are; and there is, of course, a saving of
labour to the tenant not inconsiderable; but when these
moveable steam-engines have spread generally, there will
arise an equally important saving to the landlord in build¬
ings. Instead of three or more barns clustering round the
homestead, one or other in constant want of repair, a single
building will suffice for dressing corn and for chaft-cutting.
The very barn-floors saved will be no insignificant item.
Now that buildings are required for new purposes, we must,
if we can, retrench those buildings whose objects are obso¬
lete. Open-air thrashing may appear visionary: but it is
quite common with the new machinery; nor would any one
perform the tedious manoeuvre of setting horses and men to
null down a rick, place it on carts, and build it up again in
the barn, who had once tried the simple plan of pitching the
sheaves at once into the thrashing-machine.”
To us these reasons are inconclusive. A fixed engine can
be erected and kept in repair at greatly less cost than a por¬
table one of the same power. It is much easier to keep the
steam at working pressure in the common boiler than in the
tubular one, which, from its compactness, is generally adopted
in portable engines. It is no doubt very convenient to draw
up engine and machinery alongside a rick and pitch the
sheaves at once upon the feeding-board, and very pleasant
to do this in the sunshine and “caller air, but we should
think it neither convenient nor pleasant to have engine and
thrashing gear to transport and refix every time of thrashing;
to have grain and chaff to cart to the barn, there to undergo
a separate process of dressing by some other power; the
thrashed straw to convey to the respective places of con¬
sumption, and all this in circumstances unfavourable to ac¬
curate and cleanly disposal of the products, and excessive
exposure to risk of weather. Sudden rain will no doubt in¬
terrupt the carrying in of a rick in the one case as the thrash¬
ing of it in the other; but there is surely a vast difference
betivixt merely re-covering the partially carried rick, having
machinery, work-people, and products safely under covei,
and engine and people ready by a slight change of gearing
for other work, such as bruising, grinding, or chaft-cutting.
Mr Favell and others have also now shown, that it is. quite
as practicable and much less laborious to bring the rick to
the engine as to take the engine to the rick.
The fact that in the best modern machines, the gram is
not merely separated from the straw, but riddled, winnowed,
sacked, and weighed ready for market as the thrashing pro¬
ceeds, at no more expense of time, fuel, or wages, than by
the portable engine is expended on thrashing only, makes it
very evident to us that the former is in every point of view
the preferable machine. It is urged on behalf of the pro¬
table engine that in districts where the farms are genera y
small, one may serve a good many neighbours. Now, not
Mr Pusey’s Report on Implements-Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, vol. xii, p.
621.
2 N
YOU. II.
282
AGKICULTURE.
Machines to dwell on the expense and inconvenience to small occu-
lements ^’e(luently transporting such heavy carriages, and of
p emen^s.^ having as much of their crop thrashed in a day (there being
manifest economy in having at least a day’s work when it is
employed) as will meet their demands for fodder and litter
for weeks to come, we are persuaded that on farms, of even
80 or 100 acres, a compact fixed engine of two or three horse¬
power will thrash, bruise grain, cut chaff, work a churn, and
cook cattle-food, See. more economically than such work can
be done in any other way. It is very usual to find on such
farms, especially in dairy districts, an apparatus for cooking
cattle-food by steam, or by boiling in a large copper, where
as much fuel is used every day, and as much steam gene¬
rated, as would work such an engine as we have referred to,
and do the cooking over and above. Even a small dairy im¬
plies a daily demand for boiling water to scrub vessels and
cook food for cows. How manifestly economical, then, when
the steam is up at any rate, to employ this untiring, obe¬
dient agent, so willing to turn the hand of anything, in per¬
forming the heavy work of the homestead with a power
equal perhaps to that of all the men and horses employed
upon the farm.
I he prices of portable engines by the best makers, are,
for 4-horse power, with tubular boiler, four wheels, double
shafts, &c. about L.200. For a 6-horse power, from L.250
and upwards.
A fixed engine, of the best construction, such as is used
in the Lothians, of 4-horse power, can be got
for    0 0
The building of a brick chimney, and engine-
house, setting engine and boiler, and sup¬
plying water, costs  
modifications and supposed improvements of the thrashing Machines
machine, which have been introduced by various parties, the and I™,
mills made by Meikle himself have not yet been surpassed, Plements.
so far as thorough and rapid separation of the grain from the ^
straw is concerned. The annexed sketch presents a section
of Meikle’s machine, and explains its operation. The un-
meikle's thrashing-machine.
L.55 0 0
In all, L.150 0 0
6-horse power L.180. 8-horse power L.205.
Fixed over- The kind of fixed engine most approved for farm-work in
steam- nor^1 England and south of Scotland is the over¬
engine. head crank-engine, attached by direct action to the spur-
wheel, and sometimes even to the drum-shaft of the thrash¬
ing-machine. Their cheapness, simplicity of construction,
easy management, and non-liability to derangement fit them
in an eminent degree for farm-work.
(>See article on “comparative advantages of fixed and
portable steam-power for the purposes of a farm” By
Robert Ritchie, Esq., C.E., Edinburgh, in Transactions of
Highland society for March 1852, p. 281.J
THRASHING-MACHINE.
It is now 65 years since an ingenious Scotch mechanist,
Andrew Meikle, produced a thrashing machine so perfect’
that its essential features are retained unaltered to the pre¬
sent day. Indeed, it is frequently asserted that, after all the
thrashed corn is fed evenly into a pair of slowly revolving
fluted rollers of cast-iron, by which it is presented to the
action ot a rapidly revolving cylinder or drum armed with
four beaters, which are square spars of wood faced with iron,
fixed parallel to its axis, and projecting about four inches
from its circumference. The drum is provided with a dome
or cover, and the corn being partly held by the fluted rollers
as it passes betwixt the drum and its cover, the rapid strokes
of the beaters detach the grain from the ears and throw the
straw forward upon slowly revolving rakes, in passing over
which, the loose grain is shaken out of the straw and falls
through a grating into the hopper of a winnowing and rid¬
dling machine, which rids it of dust and chaff, and separates
the grain from the unthrashed ears and broken straw, called
roughs or shorts. The grain and roughs are discharged by
separate spouts into the apartment below the thrashing loft,
where the corn is fed into the rollers, and the thrashed straw
falls from the rakes into the straw-barn beyond. Since
Meikle’s time, further additions have been made to the ma¬
chinery. In the most improved machines driven by steam
or a sufficient water-power, the grain is raised, by a series of
buckets fixed on an endless web, into the hopper of a double
winnowing machine, by which it is separated into clean corn,
light, whites or capes, and small seeds and sand. The dis¬
charging spouts are sufficiently elevated to admit of sacks
being hooked on to receive the different products as they
fall. When barley is thrashed, it is first carried by a sepa¬
rate set of elevators, which can be detached at pleasure, into
a “ hummeller,” in which it is freed from the awns, and then
raised into the second fanners in the same manner as other
grain. Ihe hummeller is a hollow cylinder, in which aEarl
spindle fitted with transverse blunt knives revolves rapidly, hummeller.
The rough grain is poured in at the top, and after being
acted upon by the knives, is emitted at the bottom through
an opening which is enlarged or diminished by a sliding
shutter, according to the degree of trimming that is required.
A larger set of elevators is usually employed to carry up the
roughs to the feeding-board, that they may again be sub¬
jected to the action of the drum. The roughs are not
emptied directly on the feeding-board, but into a riddle, from
which the loose grain passes by a canvass funnel direct to
the winnower in the apartment below, and only the un¬
thrashed ears and short straw are allowed to fall upon the
board.
1 he alterations that have been made upon the thrashing-
machine since Meikle’s time chiefly affect the drum. Meikle
himself tried to improve upon his beaters by fixing a pro¬
jecting ledge of iron on their outer edges so as to gjve them
a scutching action similar to that of flax-mills. This strips
AGRICULTURE.
283
Machines
and Im¬
plements.
Scutching
drum.
High¬
speed
drum.
Bolting-
drum.
Peg-drum
off the grain from oats or barley very well, when thinly fed
in; but its tendency is to rub of the entire ears, especially
of wheat, and also to miss a portion of the ears, whenever
there is rapid feeding in. More recent trials with drums on
the scutching principle show it to be on the whole inferior
to the plain beater.
We have already referred to the general use of portable
thrashing-machines in the eastern counties of England.
These, for the most part, have drums with six beaters upon
a skeleton frame, which revolve with great rapidity (about
800 times per minute, hence often called high-speed drum),
within a concave, or skreen, which encloses the drum for about
one-third its circumference. This skreen consists alternately
of iron ribs and open wire-work, and is so placed that its
inner surface can be brought into near contact with the
edges of the revolving beaters, and admits of this space being
increased or diminished by means of screws. No feeding-
rollers are used with this drum, the unthrashed corn being
introduced directly to it.
Another form of drum, acting on the same principle as that
just referred to, but cased with plate-iron, and having for
beaters, eight strips of iron projecting about one-fourth of
an inch from its surface, and which works within a concave
which embraces it for three-fifths of its circumference, is in
use when it is desired to preserve the straw as straight and
unbroken as possible. 1 hese are made of sufficient width
to admit of the corn being fed in sideways, and are called bolt¬
ing machines, from the straw being delivered in a fit state
for being at once made up into bolts or bundles for market.
Although the term beaters is retained in describing these
drums, it is evident that the process by which the grain is se¬
parated from the ears, is rubbing rather than beating. This
necessarily requires that only a narrow space intervene be¬
twixt drum and concave, and that the corn be fed in some-
what thinly. Such machines thrash clean, whether the ears
are all at one end of the sheaf or not, and deliver the straw
straight and uninjured; but it is objected to these by some
that they are slower in their operation than the common
beating-drum,—are liable to choke if the straw is at all damp,
—that the grain is sometimes broken by them, and that they
require greater power to drive them.
A further and more recent modification is the peg-drum.
In this case the drum is fitted with parallel rows of iron pegs,
projecting about inches from its surface, which m its re¬
volutions pass within one fourth of an inch of similar pegs
fixed in the concave, in rows running at right angles to the
drum. Great things were at first anticipated froni this in¬
vention, which, however, it has failed to realise. But iron
pegs have more recently been added to the common beater-
drum with apparent success. The beaters in this case are
made one half narrower than usual, and have stout iron pegs,
formed of square rods, driven into their faces, angle fore¬
most, and slightly reflected at the points. These act by a
combination of beating and rippling, and are said to thrash
clean, and to be easily driven.
There is thus a great variety of thrashing-machines to be
found in different parts of the country, the comparative merits
of which are frequently and keenly discussed by agncu
turists. The extraordinary discrepancies in the amount and
quality of the work performed by different machines, and m
the power required to effect it, are quite as much due to the
varying degrees of skill with which their parts are propor¬
tioned and put together, as to varying merit in the respec¬
tive plans of construction.
In the best examples of six-horse power stationary steam-
engines and thrashing machinery, as found m the Lothians,
fifty quarters of grain, taking the average of wheat, barley,
and oats, are thrashed, dressed, and sacked up ready for
market in a day of ten hours, with a consumption of 7-2- cwt.
of good coals, and a gross expenditure for wages, value of Machines
horse-labour, fuel, and wear and tear of machinery, of 9d. an(^ ^rn
plements.
per quarter. ^ ^ i i i i ^
The Royal Agricultural Society of England have done
much towards ascertaining the real merits of the \aiious
thrashing-machines now in use, by the carefully conducted
comparative trials to which they have subjected those which
have been presented in competition for their liberal pi izo.
The accuracy of these trials, and the value of the iccorded
results, have been much enhanced by the use of an inge¬
nious apparatus invented by Mr C. E. Amos, consulting
engineer to the Society, which is figured and described at
p. 479 of Vol. xi. of the Society’s Journal. A pencil con¬
nected with this apparatus traces a diagram upon a sheet of
paper recording every variation of the power employed dur¬
ing the experiment to work the machine under trial. For
reasons already stated, we regard it as unfortunate that the
patronage of this great Society has hitherto been so exclu¬
sively bestowed upon portable machines.
WINNOWING MACHINES.
We have already referred to the fanners, which, except
in portable machines, are almost invariably found in com¬
bination with thrashing machinery, so as to deliver the gram
into the corn-barn in a comparatively clean state ; and we
have also noticed the further contrivances by which, when
there is a sufficient motive power at command, the complete
dressing of the grain goes on simultaneously with the thrash-
ino-. The winnowers used in such cases do not differ in con¬
struction from those worked by hand. Indeed, it is usua
to have one at least that can be used in either way at plea¬
sure. In these machines the separation of the clean from
the light grain, and of both from dust, sand, and seeds of
weeds or other rubbish, is effected by directing an artificial
blast of wind upon a stream of grain as it falls from a riddle.
There is thus a combination of fanning and sifting, which
is used in different degrees according to the views of the
mechanist. In some forms of this machine, the benefit of
the artificial blast is in a great measure lost through an in¬
judicious excess of sifting apparatus. In the principal corn
districts of Scotland, these machines have recently been
much improved by the Messrs Elsey from Wisbeach, who
lav most stress on the proper management of the fan.
'The now frequent use of various kinds of gram in the Corn-
fattening of live-stock creates a necessity for machines to bruiser and
prepare'it for this purpose, either by breaking, bruising, orSjn mg-
grinding. A profusion of these, to be worked by hand, is
everywhere to be met with. Such machines axe always
most economically worked by steam or water power. When ^
that can be had, a set of rollers for bruising oats or linseed,
and millstones to grind the inferior grain of the farm, form
a most valuable addition to barn machinery. Machines for
breaking linseed-cake into large pieces for cattle, or smaller
for sheep, are now in general use. The breaking is per¬
formed by passing the cakes between two serrated rollers,
by which it is nipt into morsels. These are usually driven
by hand; but it is always expedient to have a pulley at¬
tached to them, and to take advantage of mechanical power
when available.
CHAFF-CUTTERS.
The use of this class of machines has increased very much
of late years. Fodder, when cut into lengths of from half
to whole inch, is somewhat more easily masticated, but
the chief advantages of this practice are, that it prevents
waste, and admits of different qualities as of hay and straw,
or straw and green forage,—being so mixed that animals can¬
not pick out the one from amongst the other, but must eat
the mixture as it is presented to them. Such cut fodder
284
AGRICULTURE.
Machines also forms an excellent vehicle in which to give meal or
and Im- bruised grain, either cooked or raw, to live-stock. This is
pie men ts. pecu]jariy the case with sheep when feeding on turnips, as
they then require a portion of dry food; but waste it grie¬
vously when not thus prepared. They are constructed on
a variety of plans; but the principle most frequently adopted
is that of radial knives
bolted to the arm of a fly¬
wheel, which work across
the end of a feeding-box
fitted with rollers which
draw forward the straw or
hay, and present it in a
compressed state to the
action of the knives. A
machine on this principle,
made by Cornes of Bar-
bridge, has gained the first
premium, in its class, at re¬
cent meetings of the Royal
Agricultural Society of
England. Gillets’guillotine
chaff-cutter is an exceed¬
ingly ingenious and efficien t
G uillotine machine, performing its work with great accuracy and without
cutter frequent sharpening of its one double-edged knife. These
CHAFF-CUTTER, BY RICHMOND
AND CHANDLER.
CHAFF-CUTTER, BY GILLET .
machines are most economically worked by the power used
for thrashing. T. he most convenient site for them is in the
upper loft of the straw-barn, when the straw can be supplied
with little labour, and the chaff either shoved aside or
allowed to fall as it is cut, through an opening in the floor,
into the apartment below, and at once conveyed to other
parts of the homestead. 1 he practice, on some farms where
there is a fixed steam-engine is, to thrash a stack of oats in
the forenoon, and to cut up the straw, and bruise or grind
the grain simultaneously in the afternoon.
TURNIP-CUTTER.
Cattle and sheep which have arrived at maturity are able
to scoop turnips rapidly with their sharp gouge-like front
teeth, and so can be fattened on this kind of food without
an absolute necessity of slicing it for them. Even for adult
TURNIP-SLICER, (GARDENER’S,)
BY SAMUELSON.
animals there is, however, an advantage in reducing turnips Machines
to pieces, which they can easily take into their mouths, and and Im-
at once get between their grinders without any preliminary Plements-
scooping; but for young stock, during the period of denti-
tion, it is indispensable to
their bare subsistence. It is
largely through the use of
slicing-machines that certain
breeds of sheep are fattened
on turnips, and got ready for
the butcher at 14 months old.
It seems to be admitted on Gardener's
all hands that Gardener’s pa-turnip-
tent turnip-cutter is the bestcutter-
that has yet been produced
for slicing roots for sheep. It
is now made entirely of iron,
and is an exceedingly useful
machine.
In cattle feeding it is not usually thought necessary to
divide the roots given to them so minutely as for sheep. A
simple machine, fashioned much on the principle of nut¬
crackers, by which, at each depression of the lever handle,
one turnip is forced through a set of knives which divide it
into slices each an inch thick, is very generally used in Ber¬
wickshire for this purpose. Many persons, however, prefer
to have the turnips put into the cattle-troughs whole, and
then to have them cut by a simple cross-bladed hand-
chopper, which, at each blow, quarters the piece struck by
it. The mode of housing fattening cattle largely deter¬
mines whether roots can be most conveniently sliced before
or after being put into the feeding-troughs. A recent
writer1 urges the advantage of rasping or crushing roots into
minute fragments, and mixing them with chaff before giv¬
ing them to cattle, as this not only renders them of easy
mastication, but prevents, in wintry weather, the chilling
effects of a bellyfull of such watery food as turnips alone.
A machine by Moody, resembling a bark mill, is said to per
form the crushing very satisfactorily.
STEAMING APPARATUS FOR COOKING CATTLE FOOD.
We have several times alluded to the cooking of food for
cattle. This is performed either by boiling in a common
pot, by steaming in a close vessel, or by infusion in boiling
water. A variety of apparatus is in use for these purposes.
A convenient one is a close boiler, with a cistern over it,
from which it supplies itself with cold water by a self-acting
stop-cock. This is alike suitable for cooking either by
steaming or infusing.
WEIGHING MACHINES.
It is of course indispensable for every farm to be pro¬
vided wdth beam and scales, or other apparatus, for ascer¬
taining the weight of grain, wool, and other commodities,
in quantities varying from 1 lb. to 3 cwt. But, besides this,
it is very desirable to have a machine by which not only
turnips, hay, manures, &c, can be weighed in cart-loads, but
by which also the live weight of pigs, sheep, and bullocks,
can be ascertained. Such a machine, conveniently placed
in the homestead, enables the farmer to check the weighing
of purchased manure, linseed-cake, coal, and similar com¬
modities, with great facility. It affords the means of con¬
ducting various experiments for ascertaining the comparative
productiveness of crops, and the quantities of food consumed
by cattle, and their periodic progress, with precision and
facility. To persons unable to estimate the weight of cattle
Hev. Mr Huxtable in his “ Present Prices.1
AGRICULTURE.
285
plements
Conclud¬
ing re¬
marks on
imple¬
ments.
Machines by the eye readily and accurately, such a machine is. in-
and Im- valuable. „ ,
We have thus enumerated, and briefly described, those
machines and implements of agriculture which may be he
to be indispensable, if the soil is to be cultivated to the best
advantage. The list does not profess to be complete ; but
enough is given to indicate the progress which has recently
taken place in this department. We have already reierred
to this department of the proceedings of the Royal Agri¬
cultural Society of England, and would earnestly recom¬
mend to all engaged in agriculture, the careful study
of the reports on implements contained in the yth, lutn,
11th, and 12th volumes of their Journal. The care
with which they have selected their judges, and the skiltul
manner in which those entrusted with the difficult and re¬
sponsible office have discharged their duties, are truly ad¬
mirable. A few extracts from these reports will serve to
show the extent and value of this department of the So¬
ciety’s labours. In the report for 1847, Mr Thomson of
Moat-Hall says, “ The Society’s early shows of implements
must be viewed chiefly in the light of bazaars or expositions.
Neither stewards nor judges had yet acquired the expe¬
rience requisite for the adequate discharge of their office, so
that such men as Messrs Garrett, Hornsby, Ransome, and
a few others, would have laughed in their sleeves had they
been told that they could learn anything in the Society s
show-yard. In spite, however, of a creditable display on
the part of a few leading firms, the majority of the imple¬
ments exhibited at these early shows were of inferior con¬
struction and workmanship, and the general appearance of
the exhibitions meagre and unsatisfactory.
“ The attention of some of the leading members ol the
Societv (especially of the late lamented Mr Handley), was
earnestly directed to the improvement of this department,
and they soon perceived that little was gained by collecting
implements in a show-yard for people to gaze at, unless an
adequate trial could be made of their respective merits. 1 o
attain this end great exertions were made, and every im¬
provement in the mode of trial was followed by so marked
an increase in the number and merit of the implements
brought forward at subsequent shows, as to prove the strong¬
est incentive to further effort.
“ At the Cambridge and Liverpool meetings, when these
trials were in their infancy, their main attraction consisted
of ploughing-matches on a large scale, which gratified sight¬
seers, but gave no results that could be depended upon, and
therefore disappointed all practical men. It would occupy
time unnecessarily to trace the gradual changes which have
led to the discontinuance of these showy exhibitions, and
the substitution in their place of quiet, business-like tna s
in the presence of stewards and judges alone. Suffice i
say, that what they have lost in display, they have game
in efficiency, and consequently in favour with those classes
for whose benefit they were designed. At the York meet¬
ing, the improved mode of trying the thrashing-machines
supplied a deficiency which, until that time, had been
much felt, viz., the absence of any means of ascertaining
the amount of power expended in working the machines
under trial; and it may now be asserted, with some con¬
fidence, that, with the exception of an occasional error or
accident, the best implements are uniformly selected for
^ “ Jt now remains to answer the question proposed for
consideration, viz., to what extent the great improvement
made of late in agricultural implements is due to the exer¬
tions of this Society, and with this view a tabular statement
is subjoined, which shows the relative extent and import¬
ance of the Society’s two first and two last shows of im¬
plements :—
Money.
£5
0
230
364
Awards.
Medals.
4
7
21
13
No. of
Exhibitors.
1839 Oxford,  23
1840 Cambridge,  3b
1848 York,  146
1849 Norwich,  145
From this it will be seen that at Cambridge, where the trial
of implements was confined to one day, and was, in other re¬
spects, so immature as to be of little practical value, the num¬
ber of exhibitors was only thirty-six, and the judges, in whom
a certain discretionary power was vested, awarded no money
and but seven medals, in consequence of the scarcity of ob¬
jects deserving of reward ; whilst at York, eight years after,
when trials lasted several days, and had attained a consider¬
able degree of perfection, the number of exhibitors had in¬
creased four-fold. The additional amount offered in prizes
at the later meetings has undoubtedly assisted in creating this
great increase of competition, but it cannot be considered
the principal cause, since the implement-makers are unani¬
mous in declaring that, even when most successful, t e
prizes they receive do not re-imburse them for their expenses
and loss of time. How, then, are the increased exertions of
the machine-makers to be accounted for ? Simply by the
fact that the trials of implements have gradually won the
confidence of the farmer, so that, when selecting implements
for purchase, he gives the preference to those which have
received the Society’s mark of approval. This inference is
corroborated by the makers themselves, who readily admit
that the winner of a prize, for any implement of genera
utility, is sure to receive an ample amount of orders, and
that the award of a medal is worth on an average L.50.
In reporting upon the agricultural implement department
of the Great Exhibition, Mr Pusey says, “ The yearly shows
and trials of the Royal Agricultural Society have certainly
done more in England for agricultural machines within the
last ten years, than had been attempted anywhere m all for¬
mer time It seems proved that since annual
country shows were established by Lord Spencer, Mr Hand-
ley, and others yet living, old implements have been im¬
proved, and new ones devised, whose performances stand the
necessary inquiry as to the amount of saving they can ettect.
To ascertain that amount precisely is difficult; but, looking
through the successive stages of management, and seeing
that the owner of a stock-farm is enabled, in the preparation
of his land, bv using lighter ploughs, to cast off one horse m
three, and by adopting other simple tools, to dispense alto¬
gether with a great part of his ploughing, that in the cul¬
ture of crops by the various drills, horse labour can be partly
reduced, the seed otherwise wanted partly saved, or the use
of manures greatly economised, while the horse-hoe replaces
the hoe at one-half the expense,—that at harvest the Ame¬
rican reapers can effect thirty men’s work, whilst the Scotch
cart replaces the old English waggon with exactly half t e
number of horses,—that in preparing corn for man s food,
the steam thrashing-machine saves two-thirds of our former
expense,—and in preparing food for stock, the turnip-cut¬
ter, at an outlay of Is. adds 8s. a-head in one winter to the
value of sheep ; lastly, that in the indispensable but costly
operation of draining, the materials have been reduced from
80s. to 15s.—to one-fifth, namely, of their former cost; it
seems to be proved that the efforts of agricultural mechanists^
have been so far successful, as in all these main branches oj
farming labour, taken together, to effect a saving, on out¬
goings, of little less than one-half.
Scottish agriculturists, in reading these reports, will pro¬
bably note with self-gratulation, that some of the improve¬
ments referred to as of recent introduction in England, viz.
two-horse ploughs and one-horse carts, have long een esta
blished among themselves. Indeed, they will find gracefm
Machines
and Im¬
plements.
286
Machines notice of the fact on the face of these reports. Unless alto-
Tilpmonut pc^’er blinded by prejudice they will, however, see that our
ijnems. brethren south of the Tweed have already outstripped us in
many particulars, and that unless our national society, our
mechanists, and farmers, exert themselves with correspondino-
judgment and zeal, we must henceforth be fain to follow^
where we at least fancy that we have hitherto been leading
But we have more important motives and encourao-ements
to exertion than mere national emulation. The extent to
which the cost of production of farm produce has been les¬
sened by recent improvements on the implements of hus¬
bandry, and in the details of farm management, is greater
than many are aware of. It seems to be in this direction
mainly that we are to look for outgate from our present em¬
barrassments. If by further improvements we are enabled
to keep fewer horses, and to get our harvest work accom¬
plished by the ordinary forces required throughout the year
the saying of money and anxiety will be really important.
Believing, as we do, that on every farm enormous waste of
motive power, mechanical, animal, and manual, is continuously
going on through the imperfection of the implements and
machines now in use, we would urge upon all concerned to
00, -ob to this; for, with all our improvements, there is
undoubtedly yet a large margin for retrenchment here.
esides the bulky and costly implements now enume-
i atec, every farm must be provided with a considerable as¬
sortment of hand-implements and tools, all of which it is of
consequence to have good of their kind. Although not in¬
dividually costly, they absorb a considerable capital in the
aggregate. When not in use, they require to be kept
under lock, and at all times need to be well looked after.
VV ithout waiting to describe these in detail, let us now see
flow the work of the farm is conducted.
AGRICULTURE.
CHAPTER III.
TILLAGE OPERATIONS.
i ben the natural green sward, or ground that has been
c eaied of a cultivated crop, is to be prepared for the sow-
mg or planting of further crops, the plough leads the way in
breaking up the compact surface, by cutting from it succes-
swe slices, averaging about ten inches in breadth by seven
rLhtPhandWh-Hh half °Ver u!)(m each other to the
'f :; -, nd fde’ This turning of the slices or furrows to
to L81!0^/611^8 lti1nfCeSsary t0 scluare off the space
•ire Paral elograms, half the slices of which
aie laid the one way and the other half the other bv the
frTfariousivT111^ f ^ pl0Ugh> TheSe Parallel sPaces
are variously termed ridges, stetches, lands, or feirinas
wds" VheT^ ^ ^ fr0m a ^rrorS
; ' ’ CI’ veiy narrow spaces are used, a waste of la-
-)om ensues, from the necessity of opening out and then
rP-elosmg an extra number of indexer guiding furrows^
while very wide ones involve a similar waste from the S-
tance which the plough must go empty in traversing at the
ends. The spaces thus formed by equal numbers of furrow
slices turned from opposite sides have necessarily a roundld
outline, and are separated by open channels. In a mo£t
climate and impervious soil, this ridging of the surface
causes rain-water to pass off more rapidly, and keeps the sod
drier than would be the case if it was kept flat. Hence the
cultivated lands of Great Britain almost invariably exhibit
this ridged form of surface. Until the art of under-ground
draining was discovered, this was indeed the only mode of
keeping cultivated ground tolerably dry. But it is at best
a very defective method, and attended by many disadvan¬
tages. When land is naturally dry, or has been made so by
thorough drainage, the flatter its surface is kept the better
tor the crops grown upon it. We are not forgetful that
there are in various parts of Great Britain, clays so imper¬
vious, that piobably no amount ot draining or disintegration
of the subsoil will render it safe to dispense with ridging.
These, however, are exceptional cases, and as a rule, such
a condition of soil and subsoil should be aimed at as will ad¬
mit of this rude expedient of ridging being altogether dis¬
pensed with. Unless land can absorb the whole rain which
hills upon it, its full range of fertility cannot be developed;
for the same showers which aggravate the coldness and
sterility of impervious and already saturated soils, carry
down with them, and impart to those that are pervious ever
fresh supplies of genial influences. Instead, then, of this Import-
perennial source of fertility being encouraged to run off by ance of re¬
surface channels, or to stagnate in the soil and become its taining a
bane, let provision be made for its free percolation through flatsurfa<:e'
an open stratum several feet in thickness, and then for its
escape by drains of such depth and frequency as each par¬
ticular case requires. When this is attained, a flat sur¬
face will generally be preserved, as alike conducive to the
welfare of the crops, and to the successful employment of
machinery for sowing, weeding, and reaping them.
. a^ existing treatises on agriculture, we find great stress
laid on the proper formation of the ridges, careful cleaning
out of the separating channels, or water-furrows, and draw¬
ing and spading out of cross-cuts in all hollows, so that no
water may stagnate on the surface of the field. As thorough
under-draining makes progress, such directions are becom¬
ing obsolete. But whether ridging or flat work is used, the
one-sided action of the plough renders it necessary, in set¬
ting about the ploughing of a field, to mark it off into pa¬
rallel spaces by a series of equidistant straight lines. Sup¬
posing the line of fence, at the side at which he begins, to
be straight, the ploughman takes this as his base line ; and
measuring from it, erects his three or more feiring poles per¬
fectly in line, at a distance from the fence equal to half the
width of the ridges or spaces in which it is proposed to
plough the field. This operation—called in Scotland/U>-
ing the land—is usually entrusted to the most skilful
ploughman on each farm, and is regarded as a mark of
honour. Having drawn a furrow in the exact line of his
poles, which practice enables him to do with an accuracy
truly admirable, he proceeds, using always the last furrow
as a fresh base from which to measure the next one, until
the field is all marked off. Wlien this is done, it presents
the appearance of a neatly ruled sheet of paper. Besides
the poles just referred to, the ploughman is frequently fur¬
nished with a cross staff, by means of which he first of all
marks off two or more lines perpendicular to the straight
side at which he commences, and along these he measures
with his poles, which are graduated for the purpose, in lay¬
ing oft his parallel lines. This feiring is only required when
a process of fallowing, in preparation for green crop, has obli¬
terated the former ridges. In breaking up clover lea or
older sward, the ploughman begins at the open furrows,
which afford him a sufficient guide.
In ploughing for a seed-bed, the furrow-slice is usually
cut about five inches deep. In the case of lea, it should be
turned over unbroken, of uniform thickness, and laid quite
close upon the preceding one, so as to hide all green sward.
I he improved wheel-plough already referred to does this
iv oi k very beautifully, cutting out the slice perfectly square
from the bottom of the furrow, and laying it over upon one
corner, so as to leave a triangular space under each slice,
qrming an air-drain from end to end of the ridge, which
aids much in keeping the land dry, and in bringing it sooner
into pioper condition for harrowing in spring. The perfect
agriculture.
287
Tillage
opera¬
tions.
uniformity in the width and depth of the slices cut by it, per¬
mits the harrow to act equally upon the whole surface.
( When the slice is cut unevenly, they draw the loosened soil
' from the prominences into the hollows, so that one part is
scraped bare, and the other remains untouched and un¬
broken. This must necessarily yield a poor seed-bed, and
contrasts unfavourably with the uniform tilth produced by
harrowing after such work as these wheel-ploughs invari¬
ably produce. In the Lothians and west of Scotland, a
form of plough is much used for ploughing lea, which cuts
out the slice with an acute angle at the land side. 1 his,
when turned over, stands up with a sharp ridge, which looks
particularly well, and offers a good subject for harrows to
work upon. But if a few of these furrow-slices are removed,
the firm earth below exhibits the same ribbed appearance
as the newly ploughed surface, instead ot the clear level so e
on which the right-sided slice cut by the wheel-plough is
laid over so as to rest upon its lower angle. This ribbing
of the unstirred subsoil is exceedingly objectionable in all
kinds of ploughing.
In the autumn ploughing of stubble-ground in prepara¬
tion for the root-crops of the following season, a much
deeper furrow is turned over than for a seed-furrow. In
ordinary cases, it should not be less than nine inches, while
in very many, if ten or twelve can be attained so much the
better. In all deep soils, this bringing up and mixing with
the surface of fresh material from below, is highly beneficial.
It must not, however, be practised indiscriminately. Sih-
cious and peaty soils need compactness, and to have the
soil that has been artificially enriched kept a-top. For such
deep work as we have noticed above, three or even four
horses are frequently yoked to the plough. When a field
slopes considerably one way, it is good practice to work the
plough down the slope only, and return it to the top empty.
A pair of horses working in this way, will turn as deep a
furrow, and get over as much ground, as three will do tak¬
ing a furrow both ways, and with less fatigue to themselves
and to the ploughman. After bringing a heavy furrow
downhill, they get recruited in stepping briskly back with
only the empty plough to draw. This mode of ploughing
one furrow down the slope, tends less to gather the soi to¬
ward the bottom than by using a turn-wrist plough across
the slope. It is while giving this deep autumn furrow that
the subsoil-plough is used. It follows m the wake of the
common plough, and breaks and stirs the subsod, but with¬
out raising it to the surface. This is a laborious operation,
and engrosses too much of the horse-power of the farm to
admit of large breadths being overtaken in any one season.
In all indurated subsoils, however, it repays its cost; tor
when once thoroughly done, it diminishes the labour o
ordinary ploughings for several succeeding rotations, aids
the drainage, and adds to the fertility of the soi.
The harrow, cultivator, and roller, are all more simple in
their action, and easier managed than the plough. Harrow¬
ing is most effective when the horses step briskly along. 1 ie
tines are then not merely drawn through the sod, but in
their combined swinging and forward movement, strike into
it with considerable force. It is with reference to this t at
a single application of this implement is called a stroke o t e
harrows. Rollers are used to aid in pulverizing and clean¬
ing the soil by bruising clods, and lumps of tangled roots
and earth, which the other implements have brought a-top;
in smoothing the surface for the reception of small seeds, or
the better operation of the scythe and other implements; and
for consolidating soil that is too loose in its texture. Ex¬
cept for the latter purpose light rollers are much superior to
heavy ones. When it is wanted, for example, to bruise clots
of quickens, that the after harrowing may more thoroughly
free the roots from the adhering earth, a light cast-iron rol¬
ler say of 5 cwt., drawn by one horse, effects this purpose
as thoroughly as one double the weight drawn by a pair;
and does it, moreover, in much less time, at less than half v
the expense, and without injuriously consolidating the free
soil. These light rollers are conveniently worked in pairs;
the ploughman driving one horse and leading the other-
With a pair of active horses, and such rollers, a good deai
more than double the space can be rolled in a day, than by
yoking them both to one heavy one of the same length of
cylinder. For mere clod-crushing, provided the clods are
moist, the Norwegian harrow is superior to any roller . and
for tightening a loose surface or checking wire-worm, ser¬
rated or smooth-edged discs, such as Crosskill s or Gibson s,
are better than smooth cylinders of the same weight, so t lat
the heavy smooth roller, requiring two or more horses to
draw it, is superseded by better implements for all purposes
where rollers are used at all.
As a general rule, none of these tillage operations can be
performed to advantage when the soil is wet. When rain
falls inopportunely there is a strong temptation to push on
the field operations, before the soil has recovered the proper
state of dryness. When this is done the farmer almost in¬
variably finds in the issue that he has made more haste than
<rood speed. Soils with a good deal of clay in their compo¬
sition are peculiarly susceptible of injury in this way. Nice
discrimination is needed to handle them aright. They re¬
quire, moreover, a full stock of well-conditioned horses, that
the work may be pushed rapidly through whenever the tide
favours. To manage such soils successfully, especially when
root crops are grown, tries the skill of the farmer to the ut
most.
Tillage
opera¬
tions.
PREPARATION OF THE LAND FOR CROPS.
Beside those simple tillage operations which are necessary
in every instance of committing seeds and plants to the earth,
there are more costly and elaborate processes of preparation
which must be encountered in certain circumstances, in order
to fit the soil for bearing cultivated crops. It is now only
in exceptional cases that the British agriculturist has to re¬
claim land from a state of nature. The low-country farmer
does occasionally meet with a patch of woodland, a bank
covered with gorse or brushwood, which he sets about con¬
verting into arable land. It is in the higher districts that,
from the facilities now afforded for readily enriching poor
soils by portable manures, the plough still frequently invades
new portions of muir and bog, and transforms them into fields.
The occupiers of land in these upland districts aie accord¬
ingly still familiar with the processes of paring and burning,
trenching, removing earth-fast stones, and levelling inequa¬
lities of surface. In breaking up land that has been for a
course of years under pasturage, paring and burning is also
frequently resorted to in all parts of the country. The grand
improvement of all—thorough underground drainage—is
common to every district and class of soils. After all these
operations have been successfully performed, and the land
has been subjected to a continuous course of culture, it is
found necessary, from the accumulation of weeds, or undue
consolidation of the soil, to subject it from time to time to
the process of Fallowing. We shall now notice these pi e-
paratory operations in order. _ .
Draining.—From the moist climate of Britain, draining is
undoubtedly the all-important preliminary operation in setting
about the improvement of the soil. As this subject is treate
of at large in a separate article under the title “ Draining, i
is superfluous to enter here into details of the process. ie
facilities for carrying it out are now very great, from the ex¬
cellence and cheapness of the tiles or pipes ot burnt clay,
which have nearly superseded every other material tor tlie
purpose of forming underground drams, bo recently as
288
AGRICULTURE.
Prepara- twelve years ago, when only the common hand-moulded
non of the horse-shoe tile was in use, the writer had much difficulty in
Orops°r these (about 12-J inches long by 3 wide) at 40s.
\ ^ Per thousand, and soles at half as much more. Whereas now,
beautifully moulded and well-burned pipes of 2-inch bore,
and 15 in length, can be had in any quantity at 18s. per
thousand. Formerly, when a large receiving or main drain
was wanted, the only resource was a costly conduit built
with stone; now a strong description of tiles, varying from
3 to 12 inches diameter, to suit any anticipated flow of water,
can be had at very moderate prices. This improvment in
the quality, and lowering of the cost of draining materials,
has arisen not merely from the increased number and better
construction of the kilns used in their production, but chiefly
from their being moulded by machinery.
Before the introduction of tiles, covered drains were usu¬
ally made of considerable depth, and were directed rather to
the cutting off of springs, and intercepting the flow of water
from higher to lower grounds than to the removing of re¬
dundant moisture from the whole area of a field. This was
provided for by furrows, cross-cuts, and open ditches. With
the use of tiles, the system of furrow draining, as it is often
called, has rapidly extended. By this plan provision is made
over the entire field for carrying off rain underground as fast
as it falls. This is done by converting the whole furrows of
the field into drains; the deeper main drains occupying the
place of the ditches and cross-cuts, the shallower parallel ones
that of the ridge furrows. The number of channels for the
escape of the water thus remains the same, but instead of
being on the surface they are sunk to depths varying from
20 inches to 4 feet, according to the nature of the soil, and
are filled with tiles or pipes of a size adapted to the greatest
anticipated flow of water. By such a system of draining, not
the surface merely, but the entire stratum of soil and sub¬
soil, to the depth of the drains, is at all times kept free from
stagnant water and its inseparable evils. For a time these
furrow drains were too generally made so shallow as not to se¬
cure the full benefits of the system. It is now known that by
deeper drainage the temperature of the subsoil is consider-
ably raised, to the great benefit of plants growing above it,
and care is therefore taken to make the drains at least three
feet in depth.
In executing this work, the first step is to ascertain that
there is sufficient outfall to admit of the drains being cut to
a proper depth. In a majority of cases, the natural flow of
the water determines this point beyond any risk of mistake ;
but when this is not the case, recourse must be had to the
spn it-level, lest money be wasted in making drains that will
not run. This work can be carried on at all seasons, but is
usually best done in summer or early autumn, and when
the land is m grass. The digging is usually paid for by task
work, and the setting of the pipes by day’s wages. A tho-
roug % trust-worthy and experienced workman is usually
se ected for the latter work, with instructions to set no tiles
until he is satisfied that the depth of the drains and level of
the bottoms are correct. When the soil is returned into the
drains, all aeiects are of course buried, and it therefore be¬
hoves the owner or his substitute, whether tenant or bailiff
to exercise a vigilant superintendence over draining opera¬
tions. Unless carefully executed they cannot be efficient •
and without efficient drainage all other agricultural opera-
tions are carried on under grievous disadvantages. The ex¬
tent of land in Great Britain naturally so dry as not to need
draining, is very much less than even practical farmers who
have not studied the subject are at all aware of.
Removal of Earthfast Stones.—Newly reclaimed lands
and even those that have long been under tillage, are fre¬
quently much encumbered with earth-fast stones. This is
particularly the case in many parts of Scotland. Their re¬
moval is always desirable, though necessarily accompanied Prepara-
with much trouble and expense. In our personal practicetion of the
we have proceeded in this way. In giving the autumn landfor
furrow preparatory to a fallow crop, each ploughman car- v Crops' y
ries with him a few branches of fir or beech, one of which
he sticks in above each stone encountered by his plough.
If the stones are numerous, particularly at certain places*
two labourers, provided with a pick, a spade, and a long
wooden lever shod with iron, attend upon the ploughs, and
remove as many of the stones as they can, while yet’par-
tially uncovered by the recent furrow. Those thus dug up
are rolled aside upon the ploughed land. When the land
gets dry enough in spring, those not got out at the time of
ploughing are discovered by means of the twigs, and are now
dug up. Such as can be lifted by one man are carted off
as they are, but those of the larger class must first be re¬
duced by a sledge hammer. They yield to the hammer more
easily after a few days’ exposure to drought than when at¬
tacked as soon as dug up. Before attempting to break very
large boulders, a brisk fire of dried gorse or brushwood is
kept up over them until they are heated, after which a
few smart blows from the hammer shivers them completely.
Portions of otherwise good land are sometimes so full of
these boulders, that to render them available, the stones must
be got rid of by trenching the whole to a considerable depth.
Should ploughing by steam-power ever become general, a
preliminary trenching of this kind will in most cases be re-
quisite before tillage instruments thus propelled can be used
with safety.
Paring and Burning has, from an early period, been re¬
sorted to for the more speedy subduing of a rough uncul¬
tured surface. It is still the most approved method of deal¬
ing with such cases, as well as with any tough old sward
which is again to be subjected to tillage. In setting about
this operation, which is usually done in March or April, a
turf, not exceeding an inch in thickness, is first peeled off’in
successive stripes by a paring-plough drawn by two horses,
oi by the breast-plough already described. These turves are
first set on edge and partially dried, after which they are
collected into heaps and burned, or rather charred. The
ashes are immediately spread over the surface, and ploughed
in with a light furrow. By this process the matted roots of
the pasture plants, the seeds of weeds, and the eggs and
larvae of innumerable insects, are at once got rid of; and a
highly stimulating top-dressing is supplied to the land. A
crop of turnips or rape is then drilled on the flat, and fed off
by sheep, after which the land is usually in prime condition
for bearing a crop of grain. This practice is unsuitable for
sandy soils, which it only renders more sterile; but when
clay or peat prevails, its beneficial effects are indisputable.
We shall, in the sequel, give an example of its recent suc¬
cessful application.
Land, when subjected to the plough for the first time,
abounds not unfrequently with sudden hollows and protu- tjs f
berances, which impede tillage operations. These can belevelling-
compendiously levelled by means of a box shaped like a box.
huge dust-pan, the front part being shod with iron, and a
pair of handles attached behind. This levelling-box is drawn
by a pair of horses. Being directed against a prominent part,
it scoops up its fill of soil, with which it slides along sledge-
fashion to the place where it is to discharge its load, which
handT ^ Canting °Ver’ °n the Ploughraan disengaging the
In till parts of Great Britain, abundance of pasture land,
tv* m°ften ^age ^ant^. a^so’ t° be met with lying in broad, Straight-
ng i y raised, serpentine ridges. These seem to have origi- ening
natet when teams of six or eight bullocks were used in Rooked
ploughing; and it has been suggested that this curvature ofridges'
e ridges at first arose from its being easier to turn these
A GRICU
Prepara- long teams at the end of each land by sweeping round in a
tion of thecurve than by driving straight out. The very broad head¬
land for ]an(js foun(i jn connection with these curved ridges point to
v j[_r0^)S[' j the same fact. A theory still lingers among our peasantry,
v that “ water runs better in a crooked furrow than in a straight
one,” and has probably been handed down since the dis¬
covered awkwardness of curved ridges was first seen to need
some plausible apology. These immense, wave-like ridges
are certainly a great annoyance to the modern cultivator;
but still the sudden levelling of them is accompanied with
so much risk, that it is usually better to cut drains in the
intervening hollows, and plough aslant them in straight
lines, by which means a gradual approximation to a level
surface is made. We are at present engaged in preparing
for turnips a field which was levelled, by cleaving down the
old crooked ridges, upwards of forty years ago, and where
every succeeding crop still shows, by alternate curving bands
of greater and less luxuriance, the exact site of the crowns
and furrows of the ancient ridges.
Trenching. But for its tediousness and costliness, trenching two or
three spits deep by spade or fork is certainly the most ef¬
fectual means for at once removing obstructions, levelling the
surface, and perfecting the drainage by thoroughly loosening
the subsoil. For the reasons mentioned, it is seldom resorted
to on a large scale. It is becoming a more common prac¬
tice, with careful farmers, to have those patches of ground
in the corners, and by the fences of fields, which are missed
in ploughing, gone over with the trenching-fork. The addi¬
tional crop thus obtained may fail to compensate for this
hand-tillage, but it is vindicated on the ground that these
corners and margins are the nurseries of weeds which it is
profitable to invade and abolish.
Fallowing.—When, by those operations that have now
been described, land has been reclaimed from its natural
state, and rendered fit for the purposes of the husbandman,
it is everywhere so charged with the germs of weeds, most
of which possess in a remarkable degree the power of repro¬
duction and multiplication, that it is only by the most inces¬
sant and vigorous efforts that he can restrain them from
encroaching upon his cultivated crops, and regaining entire
possession of the soil. He can do much towards this by or¬
dinary tillage, and by sowing his crops in rows, and hoeing
in the intervals, during the early stages of their growth. But
if his efforts are restricted to such measures only, the battle
will soon go against him. Besides this, all arable soils in
which clay predominates, particularly when undrained, have
such a determined tendency to become compact and soured,
that under ordinary efforts they fail to yield a genial seed¬
bed. There is a necessity, therefore, for having recourse,
from time to time, to that ameliorating process of lengthened
tillage called fallowing. This process begins in autumn, im¬
mediately after the removal from the ground of the cereal
crop, which had been sown upon the land newly broken up
from clover lea, or natural sward, and extends either to the
time for sowing turnips and analogous crops in the follow¬
ing spring, or is continued during the entire summer in pre¬
paration for autumn-sown wheat. We shall first describe
that modification of the fallowing process by which the soil
is prepared for the sowing of drilled green crops, and then
the more prolonged form of it usually called summer or
naked fallow.
The object aimed at being the thorough disintegration
and cleaning of the soil, the usual practice is to begin by
ploughing as deeply as is found practicable. This first or
autumn furrow is accordingly turned over to a depth of 8 or
9 inches; or by using a stronger plough drawn by three or
four horses, it is carried to 12 inches in depth; and in some
cases, by following with a subsoil-plough in the wake of the
common one, the soil is stirred to the depth of 14 or 16
VOL. II.
L T U R E. 289
inches. All cultivators are agreed as to the importance of Prepara-
thus deeply and effectually disintegrating all soils that are^'1®n t'10
naturally dry or thoroughly drained. In the case of un- Qr0pS_
drained lands, and even of very unctuous clays, although \ ^ ^ ■
well drained, such deep stirring of the soil in autumn does
but increase its capacity of retaining the fains of winter, and
of being thereby more effectually soured, and is therefore
to be avoided. Assuming, however, that we have to do with
soil thoroughly drained and moderately friable, it is undoubt¬
edly beneficial to loosen it deeply and thoroughly at this
stage. But before this deep ploughing is set about, it will
be worth while to consider well its bearing upon the clean¬
ing part of the process. On carefully examining the fields
at the time of reaping the grain crops, and from week to
week thereafter, the roots of the couch-grass are found at
first lying close to the surface; but instantly, on their get¬
ting the ground to themselves, they begin to send out fresh
fibres, and to push their shoots deeply into the soil. In these
circumstances, to proceed at once, according to the custom¬
ary practice, to plough deeply, allows these weeds much time
to increase, while this laborious and tedious operation is go¬
ing on *, and although, when performed, it gives some pre¬
sent check to their progress, by burying them under a mass
of loosened soil, it not only increases the difficulty of their
after removal, hut places them out of the reach of frost, and
in the best possible position for pervading the entire soil, on
the first recurrence of mild weather. The consequence is,
that fallows so treated are invariably found in spring more
fully stocked with quickens than they were at the time of
the autumn ploughing. The observation of this suggested ^ utumn
the practice, now very common in England, of cleaning fal- cleanin,r-
lows in autumn before giving the first deep furrow. For
this purpose, such implements as Biddle s scarifier, or the
broad-share paring-ploughs, are set to work as fast as the
grain-crops are reaped, and the whole surface is rapidly
pared at a depth of two or three inches. This completely
loosens the yet shallow-lying roots of the couch-grass, which
are then freed from the adhering earth by the harrow and
light roller, raked together and burned, or carted off. This
pulverizing of the surface-soil, in early autumn, is usually
followed by the springing up of an abundant crop of annual
weeds, which are thus got. rid of by the subsequent plough¬
ing. So great and manifold are the advantages of this mo¬
dern practice, that in those districts where it is most in use,
other autumn work, even wheat-sowing, is comparatively
neglected until it is accomplished. When the weeds have
been got rid of in this summary and inexpensive manner,
deep ploughing is then resorted to with unalloyed benefit.
In the case of farms that have for a lengthened period
been carefully cultivated, the stubbles may be found so clean
as not to require their whole area to be scarified in the
manner now described. Instead of this, it may suffice Removal of
to have them carefully examined, and such patches or weeds by
stray plants of couch-grass, or other perennial weeds, asforkinS-
are met with, forked out. By this means the fallows are
kept clean at little expense, and when spring arrives, those
repeated ploughings, and other tedious and costly opera¬
tions, are wholly avoided, in performing which, the con¬
dition of the soil is marred, and the best seed-time often
missed. When fallows are thus cleaned in autumn, it is
highly advantageous to cart on to them at once, and cover
in with a deep furrow all the farm-yard dung that is on hand
up to the completion of their first ploughing. From the
length of time which must elapse before the land can again maiiuringi
be touched, it is quite safe, or rather, it is highly advanta¬
geous, to apply all the recently made dung, although in a
very rough state. In doing this, it is necessary that a per¬
son precede each plough, and trim the rank litter into t ic
previous furrow, that it may be properly covered up and re-
2 o
290
agriculture.
Mr Ten*
nant’s
system of
winter-
Prepara- gularly distributed. Unless this precaution is observed, the
tion of theploughs are constantly choked and impeded, the manure is
land for drawn together into unsightly hassocks, and the whole ope-
v ( r°ps- , ration is imperfectly performed. The recommendations to
this practice axe, first, An important saving of labour, for the
manure being carted direct from the yard, &c. on to the
land, and evenly spread over it, there is no forming, cover¬
ing up, and turning, of dunghills, or refilling and carting in
spring. This heavy work is accomplished at a season when
time is less pressing than in spring, and the sowing of the
crop can be proceeded with more rapidly when the time for it
arrives, and while weather favours. Second, There is a saving
of manure by burying it at once in its rough state, instead
of first fermenting it in large heaps ; and a large portion of
the fallow break can thus be dressed with home-made manure.
Third, The rough dung thus ploughed in decomposes slowly,
its virtues are absorbed and retained by the soil, with the
whole mass of which it is thoroughly incorporated by the
spring tillage, and which, in consequence, is found, after such
treatment, in a peculiarly mellow and favourable condition
for receiving the seed.
The advantages of autumn cleaning and manuring of land
in preparation for green crops are so great that the utmost
exertions should be made to secure them. Over a large por¬
tion of England the harvest is usually so early as to leave
ample time for accomplishing the cleaning process before
being arrested by bad weather. From the later harvest-sea¬
son and more humid climate of Scotland, it is there more
difficult to carry it out to the whole extent of the fallow-
break ; but still, with promptitude and energy, much can be
done. One of her shrewd and intelligent sons, Mr Tennant,
the inventor of the grubber which bears his name, has, how¬
ever, introduced a system of autumn tillage, founded upon
the same principle, and accomplishing virtually the same
fallowing. encj^ })ut ]ess expensive and better adapted to the climate of
Scotland than that just described. So soon as the grain crops
are harvested, Mr Tennant sets his light grubbers agoing,
and by working them over the whole field several times, and
in opposite directions, stirs the whole surface soil to the
depth of six or eight inches, tears up and brings to the sur¬
face all root-weeds, where, after being knocked about and
freed from adhering soil by repeated harrowings, they are
left for the winter. A field thus treated presents for a time
a singularly untidy and unpromising appearance; but the
idtimate effects of the practice, as well in the cleaning as the
disintegrating of the soil, are very remarkable. When roots
of couch-grass, &c. are freed from the soil, and fully exposed
to the vicissitudes of the weather, at a season when their
vital force is at the lowest point, they are unable to resist
its effects, and gradually die. If placed in similar circum¬
stances in spring, with their vital energy in full play, the
merest point of a root embedded in, or even in contact with
pulverised soil, enables thetn to push down fresh fibres, to
re-establish their connection with the soil, and to grow as
lustily as ever. But so completely is the destruction of these
pests secured by this simple process of winter exposure, that
on the return of spring they may be ploughed in with im¬
punity. Mr Tennant assures us, that ever since he adopted
this practice, now twelve years ago, he has been enabled to
dispense with the removal of these weeds. Having recently
had an opportunity of inspecting his farm, we are enabled to
testify to its cleanness and high state of fertility. On this
plan, then, the cleaning of fallows is accomplished by tillage
operations alone, w ithout any outlay for raking or hand-pick¬
ing, burning or carting off. Nor is this done at the ex¬
pense of the pulverising part of the process. On the con¬
trary, Mr Tennant asserts, and we have so far verified his
assertion by actual experiment, that by disintegrating the
soil in autumn, as is done by this grubbing and harrowing,
it receives far more benefit from the alternation of frost and Prepara-
thaw, rain and drought, than when merely ploughed and lefttion of the
lying during winter in compact furrow-slices. This plan ^nd for
affords the same facilities as the other for autumn manuring, i r0f^_ y
by raking off the weeds at once from so much of the fallow-
break as it is wished to manure before winter. When the
remainder is ploughed in April following, more of it may
then have the farm-yard dung applied to it in the same way.
Agriculturists owe a large debt of gratitude to Mr Tennant
for the invention of his beautifully simple and efficient grub¬
ber, and for this scientific application of it to the fallowing
process.
The autumn tillage of the fallows having been accom¬
plished in one or other of the ways described, the land is
left untouched till the return of spring. If it is infested by
annual weeds, it is expedient, as soon as it is dry enough to
bear treading with impunity, to level and stir the surface by
a turn of the harrows. This slight moving of the mellowed
surface-soil induces the seeds of weeds to germinate more
quickly than they would otherwise do, and thus a crop of
them is got rid of by the next tilling. This preliminary
harrowing is useful also in affording a level course for the
tillage implements. By the time that the labour connected
with the sowing of spring crops is over, the fallows are
usually dry enough to be stirred with safety. This point
must, however, be well seen to, as irreparable mischief is
often done by going upon them too soon. And now it is,
that, instead of rigidly following any customary routine of
so many ploughings, harrowings, and rollings, the skilful
cultivator will regulate his procedure by the actual circum¬
stances of his soil, and the object which he has in view.
What is needed for the successful growth of drilled green-
crops, is to have the soil free from weeds, thoroughly disin¬
tegrated to the depth of six or eight inches, and yet moist
enough to ensure the ready germination of seeds deposited
in it. Where such autumn cleaning and manuring, as we
have described have been successfully carried out, all that
is needed in order to obtain a proper tilth, is to go to work
with light grubbers, first in the line of the previous furrows
and then across them, and then to harrow, roll, and remove Substitu-
any weeds that have been missed in autumn, after which tion of
the soil will be in the best possible condition for drilling, light grub-
On friable soils, this method of performing the spring tillage ^ers for the
by means of the grubber instead of the plough, is perfectly Plough-
practicable, and has manifold advantages to recommend it.
The saving of labour is very great, as a man and pair of
horses will more easily grub four acres than plough one
acre. Weeds are more easily removed, as the grubber pulls
them out unbroken, whereas the plough cuts them in pieces.
The soil that has been all winter subjected to the mellowing
influences of the weather, and which, in consequence, is in
the best possible condition to yield a genial seed-bed, is re¬
tained a-top, whereas ploughing buries it and brings up clods
in its stead. And lastly, the soil being merely stirred, with¬
out having its surface reversed, its natural moisture {or
winter sap) is retained, whereby the germinating of seeds
sown in it becomes almost a certainty. The importance of
this last point in the cultivation of such crops as the turnip,
whose seeds must usually be sown during hot and dry
weather, can scarcely be overrated. This practice is pecu¬
liarly appropriate for soils of loose texture, which are inva¬
riably injured by repeated ploughings. But it is also re¬
sorted to successfully on soils of the opposite extreme.
Many farmers in the Lothians now grow abundant and ex¬
tensive crops of turnips on strong clay soils by spreading a
liberal dressing of dung on the stubble in autumn, plough¬
ing it in with a deep furrow, leaving the land untouched
until sowing-time has fully arrived, and then stirring the
mellowed surface soil by the grubbers, removing weeds,
291
AGRICULTURE.
Prepara- and drilling and sowing at once without any ploughing,
tion of the \y]ien this system is adopted on tenacious soils, it is prudent
land for 0perate upon portions of the field in detail; taking in only
v ^ ^ j so much at a time as can be grubbed and drilled the same
day, for if rain should intervene betwixt the grubbing and
the drilling, the soil would set like mortar, and the tide be
lost. When once the ridglets are made up in good condi¬
tion, they can withstand a fall of rain with comparative
impunity; and hence the occurrence of a course of fine
weather, when the season is yet too early for sowing, is
sometimes taken advantage of by preparing the land and
making it up into ridglets, although it should require to re¬
main in this state weeks, or even months, before sowing
takes place. In such a case, immediately before sowing,
the ridglets are first partially levelled by harrow ing length¬
wise, in order to loosen the soil and destroy annual weeds,
and then again made up by using a double-breasted plough.
It is sometimes objected to this system of spring-tillage, that
it fails to rid the land of thistles and other tap-rooted weeds;
but it is surely easier to fork these out as they appear, than
to plough a whole field merely to destroy as many thistles
as a man, it may be, would dig up in a day. By taking ad¬
vantage of the tilth obtained by the action of the elements,
instead of first ploughing down the mellowed surface, and
then attempting laboriously to reduce the obdurate furrows
by mechanical means, skilful and energetic farmers now
succeed in preparing even tenacious soils for drilled green-
crops, at little expense, and with a good measure of cer¬
tainty.
On these opposite classes of soils, then—the very loose,
and the tenacious—spring tillage, in preparation for root-
crops, is performed to better purpose by means of the grub¬
ber than the plough. Betwixt these extremes, however, lies
the most valuable class of soils—the strong fertile loams—
on which the heaviest crops, and best quality of Swedes, are
grown. With these it is usually expedient to have recourse
to at least one spring ploughing, as soon, but only as soon,
as the soil is dry enough to crumble freely to the very bot¬
tom of the furrow. As this usually occurs from four to six
weeks before the time of sowing the crop, it is advisable to
plough the entire field, and leave it so until rain falls, when
a moderate use of the grubber, harrows, and light roller,
usually suffice to produce a good tilth for ridging. When
operations are not thus facilitated by a seasonable fall of
rain, it is necessary to proceed somewhat differently. The
field is lying as it was left by the plough, with a rough dried
surface. If harrowed while in this state, an abundant crop
of clods is brought to the surface, which quickly harden,
when thus fully exposed to drought. To avoid this incon¬
venience, the field is first rolled with a heavy roller, and then
grubbed across the direction in which it was last ploughed.
By this means the clods being pressed down amongst the
loose earth resist the grubber, and are crumbled by it, in¬
stead of being merely raked out and left entire on the sur¬
face, as would happen, but for this preliminary rolling. The
grubbers are followed closely by harrows and a light roller,
and these again by the grubbers; but this time with seven
tines on instead of five, after which a sufficient tilth is usually
obtained. All this is on the supposition that the land is clean
when these spring operations are commenced ; for should it
be otherwise, it is usually better to begin with the grubber
on the stale winter furrow, and to get rid of the weeds, be¬
fore using the plough. Let it ever be borne in mind, that if
the soil is cleaned, and sufficiently disintegrated, the less
working it gets at this stage the better.
SUMMER OR NAKED FALLOW.
Having thus described at length that modification of the
fallowing process by which the soil is prepared for the sow¬
ing of green crops, we shall now, as proposed, speak of that Prepara-
prolonged form of it called a summer or naked fallow. Fromtion of tlie
the facilities now afforded, by means of tile-training and por- la"d for
table manures, for an extended culture of green crops, this i r0p^ j
laborious and costly process, which in its day was justly re-
garded as the very key to good and profitable farming, is
now restricted to the more obdurate clay soils, or to cases
where draining and other modern improvements are ne¬
glected. The manifold advantages of having abundant crops
of turnips, or mangel wurzel, instead of naked fallow, some¬
times tempt the occupiers of clay soils to push the cultiva¬
tion of these crops beyond due bounds. We know of cases
where, after large expenditure in draining, the cultivation of
turnips has been carried to such an extent, and conducted
so injudiciously, that the land has got foul and soured, and
its gross produce has been reduced below what it was while
the land was undrained, and under a regular system of all
but exclusive naked fallows. However thoroughly drained,
clay soils retain their ticklish temper, and are so easily dis¬
concerted by interference during unfavourable weather, that
the preparing of them for the cultivation of root-crops, and
still more, the removing of these crops when grown, is at
best a hazardous business, and requires to be conducted with
peculiar tact. Judicious farmers, who know by experience
the difficulties that have to be overcome in cultivating such
soils, are of opinion, that all that can yet be ventured upon
with safety, is to prolong the period of the naked fallow’s
recurrence, rather than entirely to dispense with it. After a
series of alternate grain and cattle crops, it is accordingly
still their practice to wind up with a summer fallow, by
which they rectify unavoidable defects in the tillage of pre¬
ceding years, and put their land in good humour for enter¬
ing again upon a fresh course of cropping.
This process is begun by a deep ploughing in autumn, in
performing which the land is gathered into ridges, that it
may be kept as dry as possible during winter. When the
more urgent labours of the following spring are so far dis¬
posed of as to afford leisure for it, a second ploughing is
given to the fallow—usually by reversing the furrows of au¬
tumn. This is followed at intervals by two cross-ploughings,
which are made to reverse each other, in order to keep the
land level. As it is the nature of these soils to break into
lumps, under the action of the plough, rather than to crumble
down, the clods thus produced get so thoroughly parched in
dry weather, that root-weeds inclosed in them are killed by
sheer desiccation. To further this cheap mode of getting
rid of them, the land is not rolled, but stirred by the grub¬
ber and harrow as frequently as possible, so as to expose the
clods freely to the drought. We know by experience that
fallows can be cleaned effectually by thus taking advantage
of the tendency in clay soils to bake excessively under ex¬
posure to the hot dry weather which usually prevails in June
and July. Should the season happen to be a showery one,
this line of tactics must needs be abandoned, and recourse
had to the judicious use of the grubber, Norwegian, and
common harrow, in order to free the weeds from the soil,
and then to clear them off by raking or hand-picking. This
is more costly, and, as we believe, less beneficial to the soil
than the simple method first noticed, which should therefore
be attempted in the first place. As in haymaking, much can
here be done in a few favourable days, by keeping grubbers
and harrows at work, and turning the clods frequently.
When farm-yard dung is to be applied to such fallows, it is
desirable that it should be carted on and ploughed in before
July expires. In applying it, two methods are followed.
That usually adopted is, after marking off the ridges, to put
down the dung in small heaps, at regular distances, and
forthwith to spread it and plough it in. In the other, the
land is formed into ridglets, running diagonally across the
292
agriculture.
Succession intended line of the ridges, and the dung is enclosed in them
of Crops. in the manner to be hereafter described in treating ot tm-
nip culture. In either way, after the lapse of several weekb,
the surface is levelled by harrowing, and the land is gathered
into ridges by the last of this series of ploug inSs> ience
called the seed-furrow. When lime is to be applied to such
land, this is the stage of the rotation which is usually chosen
for doing so. It is spread evenly over the surface, imme¬
diately before the last ploughing. In finishing off this fal¬
lowing process, it is necessary, on undrained lands, to be
careful to clean out the ridge-furrows and cross-cuts, in an¬
ticipation of wintry rains. But if such land is worth culti¬
vating at all, it is surely worth draining, and this operation
once thoroughly performed, puts an end to all furthei so i-
citude about furrows.
CHAPTER IV.
SUCCESSION OF CROPS.
There are few agricultural facts more fully ascertained
than this, that the growth, year after year, on the same soil,
of one kind of plants, or family of plants, and the removal
from it, either of the entire produce, or at least of the ripened
seeds of such plants, rapidly impairs the general fertility of
that soil, and, in particular cases, unfits it for bearing further
crops of the kind by which it has been exhausted, fihe ex¬
planation of the causes of this phenomenon belongs to the
agricultural chemist, or vegetable physiologist, to whom we
willingly leave the task. What we have to do with is the
fact itself, and its important bearing on agricultural practice.
There is no natural tendency in the soil to deterioration. It
at any time, therefore, the earth fails to yield its increase
for the use of man, it is owing to his own ignorance and cu¬
pidity, and not to any defect in the beneficent arrangements
of the Creator. The aim, then, of the agriculturist, and the
test of his skill, is to obtain from his farm abundant crops at
a remunerative cost, and without impairing its future pro¬
ductiveness. In order to this, two conditions are indispen¬
sable ; 1st, that the elements of fertility abstracted from the
soil by the crops removed from it be duly and adequately
restored; and, 2d, that it be kept free from weeds. The
cereal grains, whose seeds constitute the staple food of the
human family, are necessarily the most important and valu¬
able of our ordinary crops. The stated removal from a farm
of the grain produced on it, and its consumption elsewhere,
is too severe a drain upon its productive powers to admit ot
these crops being grown every year on the whole, or greater
part of it, without speedily impairing its fertility. Suppos¬
ing, however, that this waste could be at once repaired by
the annual return to the soil of manure equivalent in con¬
stituent elements to the produce removed, the length of time
which grain crops occupy the soil, and their habit of growth,
interpose peculiar difficulties in the way of cleaning it tho¬
roughly, either before they are sown, or while they occupy
the ground. Again, although bread-corn is the most import¬
ant product of our soil, other commodities, such as butcher-
meat, dairy produce, vegetables, wool, and flax, are indispen¬
sably required. The economical culture of the soil demands
the employment of animal power, which, to be profitably used,
must be so distributed as to fill up the year. The maintenance
of the working cattle, and of other live stock, implies the
stated culture of a large amount of herbage and forage. Now,
these varied conditions are duly met by cultivating grain
and cattle crops alternately, and in about equal proportions.
In carrying out these general principles, much discrimina¬
tion is required in selecting the particular plants best adapted
to the soil, climate, and other circumstances, of each farm;
and in arranging them in the most profitable sequences.
For not only is it necessary duly to alternate grain and green Succession
crops, but, in general, there is a necessity, or at least a high ot Crops, ^
expediency, in so varying the species or varieties of the lat-
ter class as to prolong, as much as possible, the periodic re¬
currence of any one of them on the same field. In settling
upon a scheme of cropping for any particular farm, regard
must be had to its capabilities,—to the markets available for
the disposal of its products,—and to the command of man¬
ure. When these things have been maturely considered, it
is always beneficial to conduct the cropping of a farm upon
a settled scheme. The number of men and horses required
to work it is regulated chiefly by the extent of the fallow-
break, which it is therefore desirable to keep as near to an
average annual breadth as possible. When the lands of a
farm vary much—as regards fertility, fitness for particular
crops, and proximity to the homestead,—they must be so ap¬
portioned as to make the divisions allotted to each class of
crops as equal as possible, in all respects, taking one year
with another. Unless this is done, those fluctuations in the
gross produce of farms which arise from varying seasons, are
needlessly, it may happen ruinously aggravated ; or such an
accumulation of labour is thrown on certain years which may
prove unfavourable ones as to weather, that the work is nei¬
ther done well nor in due season. No better rotation has
yet been devised for friable soils of fair quality than the well-
known four-field or Norfolk system. By this course half
the arable lands are in grain crops, and half in cattle crops,
annually. It is indeed true, that, in the way in which this
course has hitherto been usually worked, both turnips and
clover have recurred so frequently (every fourth year) on
the same fields, that they have become subject to disease,
and their produce excessively precarious. But the excel¬
lence of this course is, that its main features can be retained,
and yet endless variation be introduced in its details. For
example, instead of a rigid one-fourth of the land being each
year under turnips, barley, clover, and wheat, or oats, re¬
spectively, half only of the barley division is frequently in.
practice, now sown with clover seeds, and the other halt
cropped in the following year with beans, peas, potatoes, or
vetches. On the same set of fields, coming round again to
the same point, the treatment is reversed by the beans, &c.
and clover being made to change places. An interval of
eight years is thus substituted for one of four, so far as these
two crops are concerned. Italian rye-grass, unmixed with
any other plant, is now frequently taken in lieu of clover, on
part of the division usually allocated to it, and proves a
grateful change both to the land and to the animals which
consume it. In like manner, instead of sowing turnips un¬
varyingly every fourth year, on each field, a portion ot the
annual division allotted to this crop, can advantageously be
cropped with mangel-wurzel, carrots, or cabbages, and
taking care to change the site occupied by each when the
same fields again come in turn. The same end is even
so far gained by alternating Swedish with yellow or globe
turnips. It is also found expedient, either systematically or
occasionally, to sow a field with clover and pasture grasses
immediately after turnips, without a grain crop, and to allow
it to remain in pasture for four years. A corresponding ex¬
tent of the other land is meanwhile kept in tillage, and two
grain crops in succession are taken on a requisite portion to
equalize the main divisions, both as respects amount of la¬
bour and the different staple products. A closer cover of
grasses and a better pasture is obtained in this way than by
first taking the customary grain crop after turnips ; the land
is rested and invigorated for future tillage, the outlay on
clover and grass-seeds somewhat diminished, and the land
better managed for the interests of all concerned than by a
rigid adherence to the customary rotation. It is common
enough for landlords, or their agents, to tie down the ten-
AGRICULTURE.
293
Succession antry over large estates to the rigid observance of some pet
of Crops, rotation of their own. In an unimproved state of agricul-
ture, and for a tenantry deficient both in capital and intelli¬
gence, such trammels, kindly enforced, may be as beneficial
to them as to their landlord. But, when the culture of the
soil is undertaken by men of good education, who bring to
the business ample capital, and skill to use it to the best
advantage, such restrictions are much more likely to do harm
than good to both parties. It is to be observed, in regard
to those restrictive clauses usually inserted in farm-leases,—
such as, that two grain crops shall never be taken in imme¬
diate succession ; that no hay, straw, or turnips, shall be sold
from the farm ; that only certain limited quantities of pota¬
toes or flax shall be grown; that land shall be two or more
years in grass, &c.; that they all proceed on the suppo¬
sition that the farm is to maintain its own fertility. They
obviously do not contemplate the stated purchase of large
quantities of guano, bones, and similar extraneous manures,
or the consumption by live stock of linseed-cake, grain, or
other auxiliaries to the green crops produced on the farm.
Now, not only are such clauses incompatible with such a
system of farming as we have just now indicated, but their
direct tendency, if enforced, is to hinder a tenant from
adopting it even when disposed to do so. We hear now-a-
days of tenants who are annual purchasers of these extraneous
fertilising substances to the extent of 20s. to 30s. worth for
every acre occupied by them. To enforce the same restric¬
tion on such men as on others who buy none at all, is ob¬
viously neither just nor politic; and we believe that any prac¬
tical farmer, if he had his choice, would rather be the suc¬
cessor of a liberal manurer, however he may have cropped,
than of one who has farmed by rule on the starving system.
We are quite aware that, in regard to the first-mentioned of
these restrictions (viz. that which forbids taking two grain
crops in immediate succession), the contrary practice is still
asserted by agricultural authorities to be necessarily bad
farming. Now, we do not concur with this opinion, but be¬
lieve, on the contrary, that when land is kept clean, and is
as highly manured and well tilled as it must be to grow
cattle-crops in perfection, the second successive crop of
grain will usually be better than the first, its production no¬
wise injurious to the land, and the practice, in such circum¬
stances, not only not faulty, but an evidence of the skill and
good management of the farmer. A frequent encomium
applied to a particularly well-cultivated farm is, that “ it is
like a garden.” The practice of market-gardeners is also
frequently referred to as a model for farmers. Now, the
point with them is to have every inch of their ground under
crop of some kind at all seasons, and to carry everything to
market. Under such incessant cropping, the fertility of the
soil is maintained only by ample manuring and constant til¬
lage. By these means, however, it is maintained, and the
practice is extolled as the perfection of management. Such
a system must therefore be as true in farming as in garden¬
ing when the like conditions are observed. Undoubtedly
he is a good farmer, who, while keeping his land clean and
in good heart, obtains the greatest produce from it at the
least proportionate outlay; and it is no valid objection to
his practice merely to say, that he is violating orthodox
rotations.
Some curious information has been afforded regarding the
effects of growing successive crops of one kind of plant on
the same field, by two examples of it that have recently at¬
tracted much attention. We refer to the experiments of Mr
Lawes at Rothamstead, and of the Rev. Mr Smith at Lois
Weedon. It is well known that Mr Lawes has now for a
number of years devoted a considerable extent of land to the
prosecution of a series of interesting experiments, one field
being allotted to those upon wheat, another to turnip, and
another to beans. One acre in the wheat-field has now borne Succession
ten successive crops of wheat without any manure whatever. of Crops.
The land is annually scarified and thoroughly cleaned so soon
as the crop is removed, whereupon it is ploughed and again
drilled with wheat, which is then hoed in spring. Now with
occasional variations due to the character of particular sea¬
sons, Mr Lawes finds that the average annual produce of
this acre is 16 bushels of grain and 16 cwt. of straw, below
which he has as yet failed to reduce it by ten successive
crops. His soil is a strong clay loam, resting at a depth of
five or six feet upon chalk. In the case of turnips, he has
found that when treated in the same way they cease after a
few years to grow larger than radishes, nor can he by the
application of any amount or variety of manure which he has
yet tried, obtain a second successive crop equal to the first.
With the wheat, on the contrary, the addition of four cwt.
of Peruvian guano at once doubles the produce. Mr
Smith’s experiments, as is well known, are a revival of
Jethro Tull’s system of growing wheat continually on the
same field, by a plan of alternate strips of wheat and bare
fallow, which are made to change places annually. He has
so far improved upon Tull’s pi'actice, inasmuch as his land is
thoroughly drained, and his fallow spaces are deeply trenched
every autumn, as well as ploughed and hoed during the grow¬
ing season. The result is, that his land thus treated, has
yielded an average annual produce of 34 bushels per acre
for six or seven successive crops. Now it is not our inten¬
tion to offer any opinion on this as a system of wheat-grow¬
ing. We refer to it along with Mr Lawes’s, for the purpose of
shewing that, notwithstanding the prevalent opinion that
grain crops exhaust the fertility of soils more rapidly than
green crops, this is true only in a very restricted sense.
Green crops judiciously interposed do undoubtedly serve a
most important purpose in the means which they furnish for
maintaining the fertility of a farm, but it is worthy of note, that
whereas by the addition of suitable manure, thorough tillage,
and diligent removal of weeds, clay soil at least will stand an
indefinite succession of grain crops, the same means entirely
fail to yield the same results with our most popular green crops.
Our personal experience quite accords with this ; for we sup¬
pose it will be admitted, that the corn crops of the country
are at the present day superior both in quality and quantity
to these of any preceding period; whereas potatoes, turnips,
and clover, which we have so long regarded as our sheet
anchor, have become increasingly precarious, and threatened
to fail us altogether. We offer these facts for the considera¬
tion of those who out-and-out condemn the practice of sow¬
ing two white crops in immediate succession. In stating this
opinion, we must, however, guard misapprehension. Unless
the land is highly manured and kept thoroughly clean, we are
just as much opposed to the practice as any one can be; but
when mischief is done by it, we believe that it is due rather to
the presence of weeds than to the second grain crop. Neither
do we plead for the absolute removal of restrictive clauses from
farm leases. Human nature being what it is, men who do not
see it to be for their own advantage to farm well, will, through
ignorance or greed, impoverish their land unless they are
restrained. Clauses as to cropping should, however, be pro¬
hibitory rather than prescriptive—have reference rather to
what is removed from the farm than to what is grown upon
it—and they should be contingent upon the other practices
of the tenant. So long as he continues by ample manuring
and careful tillage to maintain the fertility and general good
condition of the farm rented by him, it can be no advantage
to his landlord to hinder him from cropping it at his own
discretion. It will be seen from these remarks, that we
attach more importance to those general principles which
should regulate the succession of crops, than to the laying
down of formulae to meet supposed cases, i he man who
294
A GRIC U
Manures, cultivates by mere routine, is unprepared for emergencies,
v r —< anrl is sure to lag in the race of improvement ; while he
who studies principles is still guided by them, while altering
his practice to suit changing circumstances. Illustrations
of this will be found in our closing notices of the farming
of selected districts.
CHAPTER V.
MANURES.
In our remarks on tillage operations, and on the succes¬
sion of crops, we have seen how much the practice of the.
husbandman is modified by the kinds and amount oi
manures at his disposal. In describing the crops of the
farm and their culture, frequent reference will also neces¬
sarily be made to the use of various fertilising substances;
and we shall, therefore, before proceeding to that depart¬
ment of our subject, enumerate and briefly remark on the
most important of them. In such an enumeration, the first
notice is unquestionably due to
Farm-Yard Dung.—This consists of the excrements of
cattle, their litter, and the refuse of their fodder; usually
first trodden down in successive layers, and partially fer¬
mented in the farm-yard, and then removed to some conve¬
nient place and thrown together in heaps, where, by fur¬
ther fermentation and decay, it is reduced to a dark-coloured,
moist, homogeneous mass, in which state it is usually ap¬
plied to the land. It is thus the residuum of the whole pro¬
ducts of the farm, minus the exported grain, and that por¬
tion of the other crops which, being first assimilated in the
bodies of the live-stock, is sold in the form of butcher-meat,
dairy-produce, or wool. In applying farm-yard dung to
land there is thus a returning to it of what it had previously
produced, less the above exceptions, and such waste as may
occur during the process of decay by gaseous exhalation or
liquid drainage. It is obvious that the value of such dung
as a fertilising agent must depend much on two circum¬
stances ; viz., 1st, the nature of the food consumed by the
animals whose excrements are mingled with it; and 2d, the
success with which waste from drainage and exhalation has
been prevented. When cattle used during the winter
months to be barely kept alive on straw and water, and
were confined in an open yard, which, in addition to its own
share of rain, received also the drip from the eaves of the
surrounding buildings—which, after percolating the litter,
flowed unchecked into the neighbouring ditch—it is need¬
less to say that the dung resulting from such a process was
all but worthless. It is much to be regretted that, from the
faulty construction of farm-buildings, farmers still find it
impossible to guard their dung-stores from injury and waste.
When cattle-yards are slightly hollowed towards their cen¬
tre, and the surrounding eaves are spouted, the litter absorbs
the whole of the urine and the rain which falls upon the un¬
covered area, while the treading of the cattle goes far to
prevent undue fermentation and escape of gases. The same
remark applies still more strongly to covered boxes, the
dung resulting from this mode of housing fattening cattle
being of the best quality. In the case of byres and stables
it is certainly desirable to have a covered depot, into which
the litter and solid excrements may be wheeled daily, and
to have the urine conveyed by proper drains and distributed
over this mass of solid matter* As there is usually more
liquid than these can at once absorb, it is well to have a
tank at the lowest part of this depot in which to store the
surplus, that it may from time to time be returned upon the
adjoining mass, or conveyed to heaps in the fields. Advan¬
tage is usually taken of frosty weather to cart out to the fal¬
low division of the farm the dung that was accumulated in
yards and boxes. It is formed into large square heaps about
L T U R E.
four feet deep, in situations most convenient for ready ap- Manim*.
plication to the land when the season for sowing the crops
arrives. It is desirable to prepare a site for these heaps by
carting together and spreading down a quantity of earth
(or peat, when that can be got), for the purpose of absorb¬
ing the ooze from the fermenting mass laid upon it. At the
beginning of winter, the loaded dung-carts are driven on to
the heaps, and their contents are spread evenly over it, layer
above layer, both to equalise the quality of the dung-heap
as a whole; and, by the compression thus applied, to prevent
a too rapid fermentation. When the heap has attained the
requisite bulk, a covering of earth or peat is spread over it
to keep it moist, and to prevent the escape of its ammonia.
When this home-made manure was the only kind statedly
at the command of the farmer, it was considered necessary,
and we believe truly, to have it in an advanced state of de¬
composition before putting it into the turnip-drill. There
was a waste of manure by this practice, but unless it was in
a state to supply instant nourishment and stimulus to the
young turnip plants, the crop was certain to be a deficient
one. The application, along with farm-yard dung, of guano,
superphosphate of lime, and other portable manures, quite
does away with the necessity of having the former much
rotted. These concentrated manures stimulate the growth
of the plants during their early stage, and put them in the
best condition for making gradual use of the slowly dissolv¬
ing dung. Excessive decomposition of farm-yard dung is
now therefore avoided, and pains rather bestowed to improve
its quality by protecting it from the weather, and retaining
its ammonia and natural juice. The cheapest, and perhaps
also the best, way of doing this is to cart the dung direct
from the cattle-yards to the fields, and at once to plough it in.
Liquid Manures.—We have spoken of the importance of
carefully retaining the urine of the housed live-stock, by
having it absorbed in the solid matter of the dung-heap, and
of collecting the surplus into a suitable tank, where it may
be available for moistening the heap from time to time, and
especially when about to be applied to the land. A system
has, however, recently attracted much notice, by which
pains are taken not only to preserve every drop of urine and
ooze from dung-heaps, but, as far as practicable, to apply
the whole manure produced on the farm in a liquid form.
It is in Ayrshire, and especially on the farm of Myremill,
that this system has been carried out most fully. Our re¬
ference will be best explained by quoting at length from
the “ Minutes of Information” issued by the General Board
of Health regarding sewage manure.
“ The next farm visited was in the immediate vicinity of
Glasgow, where the supply of liquid manure is derived from
another source, and distributed in a different manner. The
supply is from a dairy of 700 cows, attached to a large distil¬
lery : the entire drainage from the former flows in a full con¬
tinuous stream into a tank containing 30,000 or 40,000 gal¬
lons, whence it is pumped up immediately by a 12-horse power
engine, and forced through 4-inch iron pipes, laid about 18
inches under ground, into large vats or cisterns placed on the
highest points of the land to be irrigated. From these it de¬
scends by gravitation through another system of pipes laid
along the ridges of the hills, finding an outlet through stand-
cocks placed at intervals, from which it is distributed through
moveable iron pipes fitting into each other, and laid along the
surface in whatever direction the supply is required. The
land thus irrigated consists of three, farms lying at some dis¬
tance apart, the farthest point to which the liquid is conveyed
being about two miles, and the highest elevation 80 feet above
the site of the tank and engine. The principal use to which
the irrigation has been applied has been to preserve the fer¬
tility of the pastures, the general appearance of which was at
first rather disappointing, but this was explained by the. fact
that they are fully stocked, and that the cows rush with avidity
to those parts that have been last irrigated, and eat them down
AGRICULTURE.
295
Manures, quite bare. As is the case in other instances, however, by far
i ) the most profitable application has been found to be. Italian
rye-grass, of which 15 (Scotch) acres were under cultivation,
some with seed supplied by Mr Dickinson, whose successful
cultivation of it by similar means near London has long been
known. The first cutting of this had yielded about ten tons
the acre, the second nine, and the third, which was ready for
cutting, was estimated at eight or nine more. Some crops of
turnips and cabbages were pointed out to us in a state of vigo¬
rous growth, and withmore than common promise of abundance;
these were raised by a dressing of ashes and refuse (of little
fertilising value, having been purchased at 2s. 6d. a ton),
conjoined with four doses of liquid, one after the preceding
crop of oats had been carried, one prior to sowing, and two more
at different stages of growth. The enterprising gentleman who
has carried out these works at his own expense, and in spite of
the discouragement arising from partial failure in his earlier
attempts, though speaking cautiously, as was natural in a ten¬
ant on a nineteen years’ lease, of the pecuniary results of this
undertaking, imparted some facts which leave little doubt that
it must have been largely remunerative. Besides maintaining,
if not increasing the fertility of the pastures, to which the solid
manure from the byres was formerly devoted, at a heavy ex¬
pense of cartage (the whole of which is now saved), he is en¬
abled to sell all this manure of which we estimated the quantity
at about 3000 tons a-year at 6s. a-load. For a good deal of the
Italian rye-grass not required for his own consumption, he^ob¬
tained upwards of 13s. a ton, the profit on which, taking into
account the yield before stated, may easily be imagined. Thir¬
teen carts, each containing six barrels of ten gallons each, are
used to convey the milk to market, where it is sold at 5d. the
Scotch pint, equal to six pints imperial measure. The income
from milk would, therefore, be not less than L.13, 6s. 8d. per
day, or L.15,816, 13s. 4d. per annum.
‘ ‘ The next place visited was the farm of Myre Mill, near May-
bole, in Ayrshire, the property of Mr Kennedy, who adopted
and improved on the method of distribution just described. On
this farm, about 400 imperial acres of which are laid down with
pipes, some of the solid as well as the liquid manure has been
applied by these means, guano and superphosphate .of lime
having been thus transmitted in solution, whereby their value
is considerably enhanced. This is especially the case with
guano, the use of which is thus rendered in great measure in¬
dependent of the uncertainties of climate, and it is made capa¬
ble of being applied with equal advantage in dry as in wet
weather. In some respects the farm labours under .peculiar
disadvantages, as water for the purpose of diluting the liquid has
to be raised from a depth of 70 feet, and from a distance of more
than 400 yards from the tanks where it is mixed with the
drainage from the byres. These tanks are four in number, of
the following dimensions respectively :—48 X 14 X 12 ; 48 X
14 X 15 ; 72 X 14 X 12 ; 72 X 17 X 12. They have each a
separate communication with the well from which their con¬
tents are pumped up ; which are used in ditferent degrees of
‘ ripeness,’ a certain amount of fermentation induced.by.the
addition of rape-dust being considered.desirable. The liquid, is
diluted, according to circumstances, with three or four times its
bulk of water, and delivered at the rate.of about 4000 gallons
an hour, that being the usual proportion to an acre. . 1 he
quantity to be applied is determined by a. float-gauge in the
tank, which warns the engineer, whose business it is to watch
it, when to cut off the supply, and this is a signal to the man
distributing it in the field to add another length of hose, and
to commence manuring a fresh portion of. land. . The pumps
are worked by a 12-horse power steam-engine, which performs
all the usual work on the farm, thrashing, cutting.chaff and
turnips, crushing oil-cake, grinding, &c., and pumping. The
pipes are of iron; mains, submains, and service pipes, five,
three, and two inches in diameter respectively, laid eighteen
inches or two feet below the surface. At certain points are
hydrants to which gutta-percha hose is attached in lengths of
twenty yards, at the end of which is a sharp nozzle with an ori¬
fice ranging from one to one and a-half inch, according to the
pressure laid on, from which the liquid makes its exit with a
jet of from twelve to fifteen yards. All the labour requir¬
ed is that of a man and a boy to adjust the hose and di¬
rect the distribution of the manure, and eight or ten acres Manures,
may thus be watered in a day. There are now 70 acres of v
Italian rye-grass, and 130 of root crops on the farm. The
quantity they would deliver by a jet from a pump worked by
a 12-horse steam engine, would be 40,000 gallons, or 178 tons
per diem, and the expense per ton about 2d., but a double set
of men would reduce the cost. The extreme length of pipe is
three-quarters of a mile, and with the hose the total extent of
delivery is about 1,900,000 yards, or 400 acres. To deliver
the same quantity per diem, by water-carts to the same ex¬
treme distance, would be impracticable. One field of rye-grass
sown in April, had been cut once, fed off twice with sheep, and
was ready (August 20th) to be fed off again. In another, after
yielding four cuttings within the year, each estimated at 9 or
10 tons per acre, the value of the aftermath for the keep of
sheep was stated at 25s. an acre. Of the turnips, one lot of
Swedes dressed with 10 tons of solid farm manure, and about
2000 gallons of the liquid, having six bushels of dissolved
bones along with it, was ready for hoeing 10 or 12 days earlier
than another lot dressed with double the amount of solid
manure without the liquid application, and were fully equal to
those in a neighbour’s field which had received 30 loads of
farm-yard dung, together with 3 cwt, guano and 16 bushels
bones per acre ; the yield was estimated at 40 tons the Scotch
acre, and their great luxuriance seemed to me to justify the
expectation. From one field of white globe turnips sown later,
and manured solely with liquid, from 40 to 50 tons to the
Scotch acre was expected. A field of carrots treated in the
same manner as the Swedes, to which a second application of
liquid was given just before thinning, promise from 20 to 25
tons the acre. Similarly favourable results have been obtained
with cabbages ; and that the limit of fertility by these means
has not yet been reached, was clearly shown in one part of the
Italian rye-grass which had accidentally received more than its
allowance of liquid, and which showed a marked increase of
luxuriance over that around it. The exact increase of produce
has not been accurately determined, but the number of cattle
on the farm has increased very largely, and by means of the
Italian rye-grass at least four times as many beasts as before
can be kept now on the same extent of land, the fertility of
the land being at the same time increased. This plant, of all
others, appears to receive its nourishment in this form with
most gratitude, and to make the most ample returns for it;
and great as are the results hitherto obtained, I believe that
the maximum of productiveness is not yet reached, and that
the present experiment must be carried yet further before we
know the full capabilities of this manure. Of one important
fact connected with this crop, I am assured, that notwithstand¬
ing the rank luxuriance of its growth, animals fed upon it, not
only are not scoured, but thrive more than on any other kind
of grass in cultivation.
“ Taking into the irrigation account the whole cost of the
engine, and the whole of the fuel and wages—although half of
these might have been deducted—the following appears to be
the capital account and working expenses for fertilising Myre
Mill farm:—
Tanks complete     £300 0 0
Steam-Engine  150 0 0
Pumps        80 0 0
Iron Pipes, laying, and hydrants   1000 0 0
Gutta-Percha, distributing pipes, &c....   56 0 0
£1586 0 0
Annual interest on £1586, and wear and
tear, at 7^ per cent..   ,.....£118 19 0
Annual Wages  104 0 0
Fuel          58 0 0
£281 19 0
This amount divided by the number of acres, is equal to the
annual sum of 14s. per acre.
“ I now come to the practical results of so cheap a mode of
fertilising land.
“ Mr Young informed me that in one of the fields he had
296 A G R I C U
Manures, himself measured the growth of Italian rye-grass, and had found
v «- it to he two inches in twenty-four hours ; and that within seven
months, Mr Kennedy had cut from a field we were passing at
the time 70 tons of grass per acre. Where the whole is cut,
four or five heavy crops are thus taken ; hut upon some of the
land during the last two years 20 sheep to the acre have been
penned in hurdles, and moved about the same field from time to
time; after each remove the fluid has been applied, and imme¬
diately followed by an abundant growth of food. There is not
the slightest appearance of exhaustion in the land,—its fertility
appears to increase. I was informed that, before the liquid
manure was used, the land would not keep more than a bullock
or five sheep to the acre ; now it will maintain, if the crops are
cut and carried in, five bullocks or twenty sheep to the acre.
Some beans, bran, and oil-cake are bought for the stock; but, on
the other hand, one-third or more of the farm is kept in grain,
notwithstanding the great number of live stock.
“ Canning Park.—Mr Telfer’s farm, near Ayr. This is a
small dairy farm of 40 acres, near the level of the sea, and
about a mile and a-half west of the town of Ayr. The subsoil
is beach gravel with a slight admixture of clay. Water is too
abundant. It lies dead within about 20 inches of the surface,
and in winter nearer than that.
“ No bedding or litter is used here. The cows lie on cocoa-nut
mats. The ventilation is perfect; and the air sweeter than in
the majority of the dwelling-houses of human beings.
“ The following appears to be the cost of carrying out the
system at Mr Telfer’s farm :—
“Tank    £30 0 0
Engine   60 0 0
Iron pipes and hydrants  100 0 0
Distributing hose-pipe, &c  20 0 0
£210 0 0
“ Annual interest on £210, and wear and
tear at per cent  £15 15 0
Wages and fuel     11 0 0
£26 15 0
“In summer the cows have a quantity of oil-cake, as well as
grass ; and in winter they have turnips or mangel-wurzel, bean,
or barley meal, and cut hay or grass ; the whole mess being
steamed together. Miss Bell, the cousin of Mr Telfer, manages
the dairy, and said that last year the hay bought would amount
to from £30 to £40, and she should think the grain to not less
than £200. In general terms, the other food is produced upon
the farm. As to the produce of grass, which is the chief article,
the first cutting during the present year was in the latter end
of March about 18 inches thick. The second was from 18 inches
to 2 feet thick. The third was from 3 feet to 4 feet 6 inches
thick. The fourth nearly the same. The fifth was 2 feet
thick; and the sixth, in process of cutting at the time I was
there,, we measured at 18 inches thick. Taking the mean, where
two dimensions are given for the same crop, I find the aggre¬
gate depth of grass, grown and cut otf this farm within seven
months, to be not less than 14 feet 3 inches. All this is, how¬
ever, eaten upon.the premises, and the whole marketable pro¬
duce of the farm is represented by the milk and butter.
“As to the quantity and value of these, Miss Bell stated,
that the previous week the butter was 114 lb. and 120 lb.,—
together 234 lb. sold at Is. per pound. This, she stated, was
about the average quantity and price. The amount for butter
would therefore be £11, 14s. per week, or per annum L.608,
8s. She informed me farther, that during about eight months
in the year, the cold milk realises about the same amount as
the butter. In the summer months, during hot weather, the
market value of the milk is only about half "that of the butter.
From these data, the amount for milk sold per annum is £507.
“ The total receipts for the two articles of milk and butter
amount to £1115, 8s. per annum.
“ I only need to add that, previously to the adoption of the
L T U K E.
present system of farming, these 40 acres of land were barely Manures,
sutficient to support eight or nine cows, and would have been
well let at a rental of 30s. an acre.”
The attention now so generally directed to this subject,
and the importance attached to it in many quarters, justify
this lengthened quotation, and call for some remarks upon
it. We have carefully examined two of the instances re¬
ferred to in this report, viz., Port Dundas and Myre Mill;
and some smaller experiments more cursorily. After doing
so we are sorry to say that we have arrived at a very diffe¬
rent estimate of this system of manuring from that expressed
in the above quotations. We at once, and with pleasure,
acknowledge that in so far as concerns the storing up and
preparing of the liquid manure, its application to the land,
and the production, by means of it, of crops of Italian rye¬
grass almost surpassing belief in their luxuriance and weight
of produce, Mr Kennedy’s experiments have been crowned
with complete success. The excellence of this grass as food
for live stock, and their relish for it is also indisputable.
Neither do we dispute the statements of those, who tell us
that manure when largely diluted with water, and properly
applied in the liquid form, is more beneficial to plants, than
in any other way in which it can be presented to them.
Admitting all this, the question remains, has it yet been
shown that this system can be economically applied to ordi¬
nary farms. Data are still wanting from which to answer
this question conclusively, but we shall state some of the
reasons which constrain us, as presently advised, to do so in
the negative.
Supposing an adequate motive power already to exist, and
to be partly employed for other purposes, the capital that
must be invested in providing the tanks and other apparatus
necessary for carrying out this system, amounts to about L.4
per acre over a farm of average extent. If the system be a
sound one, the great amount of this outlay cannot fairly be
urged as an objection to it. The addition of a permanent
rent charge of 5s. per acre to an entire farm, for a benefit
which in any one year can be available to but a limited por¬
tion of it, is however a serious matter. In each case refer¬
red to in the “ Minutes of Information,” the whole annual
charge, whether arising from interest on capital, wear and
tear of machinery, or working expenses, is divided by the
whole acreage of the farm. In the first seven cases given
in the tabular statement,1 this mode of calculation is correct,
as the whole areas do actually benefit each year by the irri¬
gating process. But when we come to those irrigated by
machinery, we find that a half or two-fifths only of the land
receives the benefits of it in any one year. If the annual
charge in this latter class of cases is divided by the acreage
actually irrigated, it becomes evident that the expense is
double that of the Pusey meadows, and equal to that of the
old meadows near Edinburgh, instead of being less as it is
made to appear. Again, in estimating the profits, an oppo¬
site course is followed. While the charges are made to
appear less by spreading them over the whole area of the
farm, the enormous produce of grass from the irrigated parts
is put prominently forward, and little is said about its pro¬
duce as a whole. In the dairy cases too, we are told of
enormous gross profits, without being pointedly reminded
that the larger portion of the keep of the cows, such as dis¬
tillery offal, bean-meal, hay, and even straw and turnips, is
actually purchased; that in this way a quantity of extraneous
manure becomes available for the associated farm, sufficient
(however applied) to maintain it in a state of fertility; and
that there would be handsome profits from the dairy, irre¬
spective of the farm altogether. In fact, town dairies usually
1 See next Page.
Table No. II., Shewing Cost, $c., of the Application of Sewerage Waters and Liquid Manures.
297
AGRICULTUKE.
YOL. IL
md jet pipe.
298 A G R I C U
Manures, have no land attached to them. The cows are maintained
solely by purchased food, and the sale of manure, liquid and
solid, forms one of the stated items of income. In Mr Har¬
vey’s and similar cases, two separate businesses are in fact
mixed up, and yet the whole is spoken of in such a way as
if the profit was mainly due to the use of liquid manure. In¬
deed the whole of these “ Minutes of Information, issued
by the General Board of Health, have an air of special plead¬
ing about them, which to us seriously detracts from their value.
The entire annual cost ot applying manure in this man¬
ner is stated to amount to from 10s. to 14s. per acre for the
whole extent of the farm. Now this would suffice to pro¬
vide annually from 1 to 1J cwt. of Peruvian guano (even at
its present high price) for every acre of the farm, or from 2
to 3 cwt. per acre, if applied, as the liquid is, to the portion
under green crop only. The stated application of such a
dressing of guano, in separate portions, and during showery
weather, will be found to yield results little inferior to those
obtained by the use of liquid manure. To do this requires
no costly apparatus, or permanent sinking of capital, and its
application can be desisted from at any time when found
unremunerative. The adoption of this plan of applying the
liquid manure of the farm necessarily demands that the whole
system of management be accommodated to it. In order to
furnish this liquid manure, the whole green crops must,
summer and winter, be conveyed to the homestead, and
there consumed in such a manner as that the urine and dung
of the animals fed upon it may be scoured into the tanks.
It is no such easy matter to replenish these tanks as some
persons seem to think. When cattle are housed in boxes or
properly protected yards, the whole of the urine is absorbed
by the litter, and goes to the field in the dung-cart. This
is certainly a more expensive way of conveying it to the
fields than by pipes. But then, as in the new system, the
urine, &c, is diluted with at least three times its volume of
water, there are 4 tons of manure to convey on the one plan
for one on the other. Even where pipes are used, all the litter,
and a portion at least of the dung has still to be carted out,
so that no claim of a saving of carriage can validly be put
forward on behalf of this system; but its merits must be
grounded solely on the superior efficacy of manure, when
applied in a liquid instead of a solid form.
In the case of dry and loose soils, the consuming of the
turnip crop, by folding sheep upon it, has hitherto been re¬
garded as at once the cheapest way in which it can be con¬
verted into wool and mutton, and the land consolidated and
enriched, so as to fit it for producing grain and other crops.
On tenacious soils, and in a moist climate, which is quite
the case at Myre Mill, it is certainly impracticable to pursue
this system in winter. It is perhaps also the case that sheep
are healthier, fatten more rapidly, and yield more wool, when
fed under cover, than when folded on the open turnip field.
Admitting all this, however, we are disposed to think that
these benefits are better secured by Mr Randell of Chad-
bury’s plan of littering the pens with burnt clay, which keeps
the sheep clean, and their feet in good order, and, when
mingled with their urine and dung, forms a most valuable
manure for any kind of land. Were this carried out by
means of moveable covered pens, which could be erected
and easily shifted from place to place in the turnip field,
* the carriage of the turnips and manure would be greatly re¬
duced, especially if accomplished by means of the portable
^ railway.
In the case of dairies near towns, where the cows are
largely fed on brewery or distillery offal, and other purchased
food, the circumstances are totally different from those of
ordinary farms, depending solely on their own resources.
The liquid manure that would otherwise run to waste, when
thus applied, is so much clear gain, in so far as the value of
L T U R E.
the increased produce exceeds the cost of application. It Manures,
may form a wholesome caution to some persons, to mention ^
here that, notwithstanding all that has been written about
the success of the spirited operations at Port-Dundas, we
were recently told by Mr Harvey, that so dubious is he still
about it, that if the thing were to do again, he would rather
keep his money in his pocket, and let the urine run into the
canal, as formerly. If there is doubt even in such a case,
how much more when the manure must virtually be pur¬
chased. And this leads us to remark that we have better
hopes of the ultimate success of this plan of manuring, when
it is restricted to the application of the surplus liquid manure
of the homestead to some piece of meadow near at hand,
supplementing this supply, when necessary, by dissolving
guano in water, and sending it through the pipes. These
remarks apply even more strongly to the sewage from towns.
The liquid, in this case, is highly charged with fertilising
ingredients of the most valuable kind, seeing that it consists
largely of night-soil from a population consuming much ani¬
mal food. With few exceptions, this valuable liquid, which
flows in such quantities from all our towns, is not only utterly
lost, but is a grievous nuisance, by polluting our streams, and
generating disease. In applying it as manure, the expense
lies entirely in providing and working the necessary appa¬
ratus. In such cases, then, with an unfailing supply of
highly fertilising liquid, costing nothing to begin with,
there is every inducement to put into operation any plan by
which it can be economically applied to field crops. The
enhanced value of green forage in the vicinity of towns is
an additional motive for attempting this. It is gratifying to
think that this important problem (the profitable disposal of
town sewage) is in a fair way of being satisfactorily solved.
The ingenuity and enterprise displayed by Mr Kennedy
and others, in their endeavours to cheapen by this means
the cost of farm produce, and the frankness and untiring pa¬
tience with which they have shown and explained their pro¬
ceedings to the unceasing stream of visitors, which the
novelty of the operations has attracted from all parts of the
kingdom, and even from foreign countries, are altogether so
admirable and praiseworthy, that it requires no slight effort
to speak of them otherwise than approvingly. The confi¬
dence with which various influential parties are proclaiming
the complete success of this scheme of irrigation, and recom¬
mending it for general adoption, seems, however, to require
that those who have examined it, and arrived at an opposite
conclusion, should publicly say so.
It is unreasonable to expect that private parties are to
divulge their whole business affairs; and yet, without a full
Dr. and Cr. account for some ordinary arable farm treated
on this system, it is impossible to arrive at a sound judgment
on its merits. Until this can be done, it would be better to
abstain from publishing partial statements, which tend only
to mislead the public mind. We offer these remarks in no
spirit of hostility to this new system of farming. We shall
rejoice unfeignedly to find that our opinion of it is erro¬
neous, and that it really warrants the sanguine expectations
which some parties entertain regarding it. We simply main¬
tain that as yet the case is “ not proven,” and our counsel
to those who are disposed to try it is, not to embark in it to
an extent that would embarass them, if, as we fear, it should
prove a failure.
Guano.—Next to farm-yard manure, which must ever be
looked to as the chief means of maintaining the fertility of
a farm, guano claims our notice. This substance is the dung
of sea-fowl, and is found on rocky islets in parts of the world
where rain seldom falls. The droppings of the myriads of
birds by which such places are frequented, have in many
cases been permitted to accumulate during untold ages, and
are now found in enormous deposits. The principal supply,
AGRICULTURE.
299
Manures, both for quantity and quality, has hitherto come from the
^ Chincha Islands on the coast of Peru. The introduction ot
this powerful and exceedingly portable manure has given a
prodigious impetus to agricultural improvement. It is but
ten years since a few casks of this article were brought to
Liverpool from Peru, where it has been known and prized
as a valuable manure from the remotest periods. No sooner
had its value been discovered by our British agriculturists
than the demand for it became most eager, and so greatly
has the consumption already increased, that the importation
during 1851 reached to 150,000 tons. The price at which
it was sold at first was L.20 per ton, from which, with in¬
creased supplies it fell to L.ll, when the discovery in 1844
of a considerable deposit on the Island of Ichaboe on the
coast of Africa at once reduced the price to L.9. To shew
the rate and extent of the increase in its consumption, we
here give a table of imports.
“ A Parliamentary paper issued on the motion of Mr
Scholefield shews that the imports of guano were 288 .1 tons
in 1841; 20,398 in 1842 ; 3002 in 1843; 104,251 in 1844;
283,300 in 1845; 89,203 in 1846; 82,392 in 1847; 71,414
in 1848; 83,438 in 1849; 116,925 in 1850; and 243,016
in 1851.”
The Chincha deposit being the property of the Peruvian
Government, is.sold for their behoof through the medium
of one British mercantile firm, Messrs Gibbs, Bright, & Co.,
and is thus a close monopoly, the holders of which regulate
the price and the supply to suit their own interests. The
price charged for quantities of 30 tons and upwards has for
several years been L.9, 5s. per ton. Were the price lowered
to L.5 or L.6 there can be no doubt that the consumption
would at once be doubled. Discoveries have recently been
made of other deposits on the Peruvian and African coast,
and in Australia. The quality of both of the latter is much
inferior to that from Peru. It is in a more advanced state
of decay, and contains more moisture and sand. The value
of that from Peru depends chiefly on the large amount of
ammonia (about 18 per cent, in average samples) which it
contains. Even at L.9, 10s. per ton, the price at which it
is usually retailed, it is the cheapest form in which ammonia
can be purchased. Guano is largely used as a manure for
most of our field crops, but chiefly for turnips. The quantity
applied per acre ranges from two to four cwt. It is most
economically used in combination with other manures, as
we shall have occasion to show when treating of turnip cul¬
ture. The dung of birds, from its including both liquid and
solid excrements, is superior as a manure to that of quadru¬
peds. Pigeon’s dung has long been in high repute as an
excellent fertiliser, and brought a high price in days when
portable manures were scarcely to be had. It is now little
heard of: Guano, the excrement of fowls which feed upon
fish, being superior, weight for weight, and available to every
one. The dung of domestic poultry is usually mixed with
the general dung heap, but it could be turned to better ac¬
count if kept by itself. It has been recommended to strew
the floors of poultry houses daily with sawdust or sand, and
to rake this with the droppings into a heap to be kept under
cover and used like guano.
Bones.—It is now about forty years since ground bones
began to be used by farmers in the east side of England as
a manure for turnips. At first they were roughly smashed by
hammers and applied in great quantities. By and bye mills
were constructed for grinding them to a coarse powder, in
which state they continued to be used as a dressing for turnips,
at the rate of sixteen to twenty bushels per acre, in all parts
of the kingdom and to a very great extent, until the admir¬
able discovery by Baron Liebig of the mode of preparing
superphosphate of lime by dissolving bones in sulphuric
acid. We shall not attempt to explain on chemical princi¬
ples the wonderful superiority of this substance over simple Manures,
bone-dust in promoting the growth of the turnip plant.
What we should do indifferently, by borrowing from others,
will be found well done by an accomplished chemist in the
separate article on Agricultural Chemistry. We can, how¬
ever, testify from experience, to the important fact that one
bushel of bone-dust dissolved by a third of its weight of
sulphuric acid is superior in manurial value to four bushels
of simple bone-dust. It is not merely, or even chiefly, in the
lessened cost at which an acre of turnips can be manured
that this superiority lies, but especially in this, that from the
extraordinary stimulus given by superphosphate of lime to
newly germinated turnip plants, they usually arrive at the
stage when they are fit for thinning in from ten to fifteen
days earlier than when sown over farm-yard dung or simple
bone-dust, or both combined. This shortening of the criti¬
cal period during which the attacks of the insignificant but
dreaded turnip beetle so often baulk the hopes of the hus¬
bandman, is an advantage not easily estimated, and one well
fitted to inspire him with confidence in the science to which
he owes the discovery, and with grateful respect for the
eminent discoverer. This powerful effect in quickening the
growth of the young turnip plants is possessed in quite as
great a degree by Peruvian guano, when it is supplied with
sufficient moisture. In climates and seasons which may be
characterised as moist and cool, guano will show best results,
whereas in those which are rather hot and dry superphos¬
phate has the advantage. Accordingly we find guano the
comparative favourite in Scotland ; and its rival in the drier
counties of England.
Guano is believed to encourage a great expanse of foliage,
and to be more especially suited for early sowings—and super¬
phosphate to influence development of bulb, and to deserve
the preference for a later seed time. The obvious inference
is that, for the turnip crop at least, these valuable fertilisers
should be used in combination ; and actual experiment has
verified its soundness. The use of them is universal and
ever on the increase. They constitute also the standard by
which farmers estimate the cost and effects of other purchased
manures. The extent to which they are used, their high
price, and the facility with which they can be adulterated A dultera-
with comparatively worthless ingredients, have led to almosttl0n of
unparalleled frauds. The adulteration of guano has in factmanuies
become a regular trade. Had farmers only their bodily
senses to aid them, the detection of this fraud would be
difficult—perhaps impossible. Here, however, they can call
the chemist to their aid, with the certainty of ascertaining
the real character of the articles which they are invited to
purchase. If purchasers of guano would but insist in every
instance on getting from the seller an analysis by some com¬
petent chemist, and along with it a written warrandice that
the stock is of the quality therein indicated, detection and
punishment of fraud would be easy. In regard to super¬
phosphate of lime, the prudent and economical plan is for Mode of
the farmer to purchase bone-dust and sulphuric acid and preparing
prepare it himself. We have conducted this process for81*?®^08'-
several years past in the following way. A trough was pro-j’jjg6 °
vided 7 feet X 3*4 X 2T0, made of 2£ inch deal, strongly
jointed and secured at the corners by wooden pegs, as iron
nails would be corroded by the acid. This holds conveniently
48 bushels of bones. The heap of bone-dust is then gone
over with a barley riddle, and the small dust which passes
through this is laid aside to 'be used as a drying material for
the other portion, after it is subjected to the acid. We find
that a third part of the bone-dust passes through the riddle.
Three bottles, or carboys as they are called, of concentrated
acid, averaging 180 lb. each, are then emptied into the trough
and mixed with cold water at the rate of 1^ of water, by
measure, to 1 of acid. In practice, the water is poured
300
agriculture.
Manures, in first and then the acid. Into this mixture 48 bushe s
of bones, previously measured and laid close to the trough, are
rapidly shovelled by two labourers, who will do well to be at¬
tired in clothes and shoes past spoiling. So soon as the bones
begin to be thrown in, violent ebullition commences. By
the time that the whole of the bones are thrown in, there
will be barely liquid enough to moisten the last of them.
The labourers therefore dig down at one end of the trough
till they reach the bottom, and then carefully turn back and
mix the whole quantity until they reach the other end. 1 he
surface is then levelled and covered with a layer of the dry
riddlings two inches thick. In this state it is allowed to remain
for two days, when the trough is emptied, and the same process
is repeated until the whole quantity is gone over. When
shovelled out of the trough the bones are found to have be¬
come a dark coloured paste, still very warm and emitting a
sweetish smell. While one person throws it out, another
adds to it its proportion of dry riddlings and mixes them
carefully. This mass is heaped up in the corner of a shed,
and augmented at each emptying of the trough, until the
requisite quantity is obtained. After this the mass is care¬
fully turned over several times, at intervals of five or six
days, and is then dry enough for sowing either by hand or
machine. Some prefer moistening the bones with boiling
water, and then adding pure acid as they are shovelled into
the trough; but by first mixing the acid and water there is
greater certainty of all the bones being equally acted upon.
There is also great convenience in using the finest portion
of the bone-dust for drying the other, as suitable material
for this purpose is sometimes difficult to procure.
We have referred to superphosphate of lime, prepared
Superphos-from bones. A new source of supply has, however, been
phate from discovered of late years, the extent and importance of which
fossil bonesis |)ecoming more apparent as investigation proceeds. We
allude to those phosphoric deposits found in such abundance
in the crag, and upper and lower green-sand formations in
the south of England. The existence of these fossil ani¬
mal remains was first pointed out by Drs Mantel and
Buckland, though it is to Professor Henslow that we are
indebted for having called attention to their eminent agri¬
cultural value, and described the localities whence they
may be most readily obtained. These remains consist of
the fractured and rolled bones of sharks, gigantic sea-liz¬
ards, and whales, which at one period of our earth’s his¬
tory must have existed in myriads in our oceans and seas.
Mixed with these bones are found many fish-teeth and
shells of different species, and likewise immense numbers
of rolled, water-worn pebbles, which at one period were
imagined to be the fossilised excrements of the animals
themselves, and were on this account called coprolites by
Professor Henslow and others. Although this has since
been proved a mistake, the name has been adopted and will
probably be continued. These fossil bones, and so-called
coprolites of the crag are found in enormous quantities on
the coasts of Suffolk, Norfolk, and Essex, whence Mr Lawes
of Rothamstead obtains nearly the whole of the material
which he employs in the preparation of his well known
“ coprolite manure,” or “ Lawes’ superphosphate.” Already,
it is believed, several thousands of tons of these fossils in
one form or other are annually sold for manure, with a
rapidly increasing demand. Those found in the crag for¬
mation are exceedingly hard, and require to be ground by
powerful machinery, and dissolved in sulphuric acid to ren¬
der the phosphate of lime available as manure. Fossils,
though less abundant in the green-sand, can be reduced to
the requisite fineness by simple machinery, and are then fit
for agricultural purposes without any chemical preparation.
They are found plentifully in the parish of Farnham, so long
celebrated for the excellence and abundance of its hops,
or copro
lites.
which are now discovered to be due to the presence in the Manures,
soil of these fossil remains. The discovery of these mines
of manure in various parts of our country has been made
most seasonably, and may yet prove of immense national
importance. When Liebig predicted that, “ in the remains
of an extinct animal world, England is to find the means of
increasing her wealth in agricultural produce, as she has
already found the great support of her manufacturing in¬
dustry in fossil fuel,” he was regarded by many as merely
indulging a fine philosophic fancy ; but enough has already
been realised to convince the most sceptical of the import¬
ance of the data on which he founded his opinion. We
have gleaned this information from an article “ on the Phos¬
phoric strata of the Chalk Formation,” by Messrs Paine and
May, in vol. ix. p. 56 of the Journal of the Royal Agricul¬
tural Society of England; and another in vol. xii. p. 91, by
T. J. Herapath, on the “ Fossil Bones and Pseudo-Copro-
lites of the Crag.”
On mixing a quantity of bone-dust with its own bulk of Fermented
mould or sand, and wetting the whole with the liquid which bones,
oozes from the dung-heap, violent fermentation immediately
ensues, dissolving the bones, and making them more readily
available for the nourishment of the turnip-crop. Many
farmers are so satisfied with this preparation, that they dis¬
pense with the acid. This is not judicious, as the super¬
phosphate of lime is a more valuable manure than bones
dissolved by simple fermentation.
Bones are sometimes applied as a top-dressing to grass Bones as a
land with singular success. “ This Cheshire practice con- J.°P'd^1^re
sists in applying an extraordinary dose of bones to pasture- ure
land. ‘ For pasture-land, especially the poorer kind,’ says
Mr Palin, ‘ there is nothing equal to bone-manure, either as
regards the permanency of its effects, or the production of
a sweet luxurious herbage, of which all cattle are fond.
Many thousand acres of the poor clay soils have been
covered with this manure during the last eight or ten years.’
The average quantity used is about a ton and a half to the
acre ; it is therefore a landlord’s improvement, on which 7
or 8 per cent, is generally paid. Boiled bones act as long
as unboiled bones, retaining the phosphorus, though not so
quickly, having lost the animal matter. Boiled bones (1845)
cost L.3, 10s. per ton ; the outlay then was five guineas per
acre, sometimes L.7 or L.8. 11 have known,’ says a cor¬
respondent, ‘ many instances where the annual value of our
poorest clay-lands has been increased by an outlay of from
L.7 to L.8 an acre, at least 300 per cent.; or, in other
words, that the land has been much cheaper after this out¬
lay at 30s., than in its native state at 10s. per acre; with
the satisfaction of seeing a miserable covering of pink-grass,
rushes, hen-gorse, and other noxious weeds exchanged for
a most luxuriant herbage of wild clover, trefoil, and other
succulent grasses.’ Though much of the clover and trefoil
may disappear in five or ten years (sometimes they last
fifteen years), an excellent herbage remains. Draining, the
writer adds, ‘ may be carried too far where bones are used,
for boned lands suffer by a dry summer. The land should
be kept cool.’ I have found the same thing on water-
meadows. The freer the grass is growing, the more it suf¬
fers from drought; and this is natural, for a larger supply
of sap is required. This writer adds, ‘ I have known many
a poor, honest, but half-broken man raised from poverty to
comparative independence, and many a sinking family saved
from inevitable ruin, by the help of this wonderful manure.
Indeed, I believe land, after boning, will keep three cows
where two fed before. As to this practice, however, cau¬
tion is necessary. It seems to belong to cold clays for grass
in Cheshire, though on such soil it would hardly answer
elsewhere, even for turnips. A Cheshire landlord told me
that he had tried it vainly for grass in Suffolk. I know no
AGRICULTURE.
SOI
Manures, case of its success out of Cheshire, unless in the bordering
v/—'' counties, and have heard some cases of its failure even in
those. It will not do, therefore, at all to adopt it hastily.
We only know it to have succeeded about Cheshire, which
is on the red marls geologically, and on the rainy side of
the country, and must remember that it is a costly proceed¬
ing, striking in its success, but as yet circumscribed in its
practice, and therefore in the proof of its efficacy.”1
Rape-Cake reduced to powder forms an excellent manure
for wheat and other crops. It is usually applied at the rate
of from four to eight cwt. per acre. The cakes resulting
after oil has been expressed from camelina, hemp, and cotton
seeds, and from pistachio and castor-oil nuts, from beech,
and other mast, all possess considerable value as manure.
All parts of the carcases of animals form valuable manure,
and are now carefully used in that way whenever they are
unfit for more important uses. The blood and other refuse
from shambles and from fish-curers’ yards, when mixed
with earth and decomposed, make a valuable manure, and
are eagerly sought after by farmers to whom such supplies
are accessible. In Australia and South America it has long
been the practice to slaughter immense numbers of sheep
and cattle for the sake of their hides and tallow only, there
being no market for them as beef and mutton. To obtain
the whole tallow, the carcases are subjected to a process of
boiling by steam and afterwards to pressure, and are then
thrown aside in great piles. This dried flesh has recently
been brought to this country and sold as a manure. A
notice and analysis of it, by Dr Anderson, appears in the
Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society for
October 1850, p. 367.
The refuse from glue-works; the blubber and dregs from
fish-oil; blood that has been used in the process of sugar¬
refining ; the shavings and filings of horn and bones from
various manufactures, and woollen rags, are all made avail¬
able for manure.
Night-soil is a powerful manure; but owing to its offen¬
sive odour it has never been systematically used in Britain.
Various plans are tried for obviating this objection, that
most in repute at present being its mixture with charred
peat. From the universal use of waterclosets in private
dwellings, the great mass of this valuable fertilising matter
now passes into sewers, and is carried off by streams and
rivers, and is for the most part totally lost as a manui e.
When sewage water is used for irrigation, as in the neigh¬
bourhood of Edinburgh, it is to the night-soil dissolved in it
that its astonishing effects in promoting the growth of grass
are chiefly due. We have already expressed our views in
regard to the use of it in this diluted form of sewage water.
That mode of applying it is necessarily restricted to lands in
the vicinity of towns. It is therefore much to be desired
that a really effective process for preparing it for market in
a dry, inodorous state, at a moderate price, and with its vir¬
tues unimpaired, should speedily be brought into general
operation. The enormous and ever-increasing expenditure
on guano, shows how unbounded will be the demand for it
when it shall be thus available. The important progress
that has recently been made towards the attainment of so
desirable a result is shown in a paper by Professor Hera-
path in No. xxix. of the Journal of the Royal Agricul¬
tural Society, where he describes the process as carried on
at Cardiff Gaol. These operations are well explained in the
following letters, addressed by the governor of the gaol and
the patentee, in reply to inquiries for further information, to
the editor of the North British Agriculturist newspaper of
29th September 1852, from which we now quote
“ Cardiff Gaol, 20th September 1852. Manures.
“ Sir,—In reply to your letter on the subject of sewage man- V'—
ure, I beg first of all to state that the magistrates’ principal Mode of
object was to do away with the great nuisance arising from the treating
drains emptying into a ditch, from which all the filth of the night-soil
gaol was conveyed into a thickly populated part of the town, in Cardiff
“ The expense of carrying on the drain to the sea was sup-Gaol,
posed to cost about £2000. This serious outlay induced the
magistrates to apply to Mr Higgs, of 69 Lillington Street,
Vauxhali, Westminster, who was in possession of a patent for
deodorizing sewage, for plans, and the expense of converting
the sewage into manure. The building, two sets of pipes (one
for diverting the sewage into a large tank, the other for the
water which passes from the tanks), sewage tanks, lime tanks,
with a large pump, &c. for pumping the sewage into the oper¬
ating tank, cost £200. The plan fully answers the purposes for
which it was intended. The water passes off without any un¬
pleasant smell. The sewage precipitates, and when dry enough
it is moulded into bricks, dried and sold at 60s. per ton.
“ The whole of the work being done by prisoners makes it
all profit, except the lime used for condensing the effluvium.
Being unable to furnish you with further particulars, I beg to
refer you to Mr Higgs, who will give you every information on
the subject. I am not aware that this plan has been tried in
any other quarter. John B. AVoods.”
“ 69 Lillington Street, Westminster, 25th Sept. 1852.
“ Sir,—In answer to your letter of the 22d inst., I beg to say
it affords me much pleasure in communicating information to
you, respecting my invention for collecting the contents of
sewers, &c. and producing therefrom a concentrated and ino¬
dorous manure. This plan, which was patented in 1846, re¬
ceived the sanction of Parliament in the following session, by
the incorporation of a company to carry it into operation in a
portion of the metropolis, but which, owing to the commercial
depression of that period, was not put into action; however,
trial works were erected at Northumberland Wharf, Charing
Cross, and carried on for the space of four months, which rea¬
lized the most sanguine expectations which had been formed.
These works were visited by the officers of the commissioners
of sewage, and the secretary of the General Board of Health,
who reported most favourably thereon; shortly after, the visit¬
ing justices of the county of Glamorgan, finding that the drain¬
age of Cardiff Gaol was complained of, as being inimical to the
healthy condition of a hamlet called New Town, through which
it passed, resolved to try its efficacy ; they therefore erected
at Cardiff Gaol the works to which your letter refers. These
were finished, and began to work on 25th October 1849, and
have continued in operation ever since. That they have given
satisfaction, you will see in a testimonial given by Walter
Coffin, Esq., now M.P. for Cardiff.
“ ‘ As one of the visiting justices of the County Gaol at Car¬
diff, I am happy to be able to testify that Mr Higgs’ method
of disinfecting the sewage of the prison has been eminently suc¬
cessful, by removing the great evils attendant on improper
drainage. The sewage thus disinfected becomes a portable and
very powerful manure, as attested by the farmers who have
triedit. (Signed) Walter Coffin.’
‘ Cardiff, 14(A August 1851.
“Mr Wood also writes :— ‘ Having watched the progress of
Mr Higgs’ patent for disinfecting sewage, and turning the same
to a profitable purpose, I beg to express my entire concurrence
in Mr Coffin’s statement. (Signed) John B. Woods,
‘ Gov. of the County Gaol at Cardiff.’
“ Before I give you a brief detail of the method, I beg to say
that it is not intended to disinfect or deodorize matter which
has already passed into a state of decomposition, such as the
contents of old privies or cesspools, but it is intended to pre¬
cipitate and collect the contents of current sewers, and to pre¬
vent that decomposition, so detrimental to the healthy state of
the atmosphere, wherever it may take place.
“You will by this perceive that it is intended to preserve
Article by Mr Pusey. See Journal of Royal Society of England, vol. xi. p. 409.
302 AGRICULTURE.
Manures, the manure in its integrity, till decomposition takes place in
the soil, where its fertilising effects are very powerful.
“ The modus operandi is as follows:—
“The sewage matter intended to be operated upon is re¬
ceived into one or more tanks, as the case may require ; at the
same time a stream of milk-of-lime is caused to flow in and mix
with the sewage—this, at once, as soon as the tank is full, and
the fluid at rest, causes the precipitation of all the organic
matter with the phosphates, urates, sulphates, &c. contained
in the fluid, with the expulsion of the ready formed ammonia,
if there be any. This altogether, with any other effluvium
that may be disengaged, escapes by a pipe (the tank being
closely covered), and passes through a convoluted chamber,
where it is fixed by chemical agents, so that not an atom is lost.
After the matter in the tank has been suffered to rest for about
an hour, the supernatant water may be let off", quite clear and
inodorous, and the pulpy manure, in another hour, dried by an
apparatus and rendered fit for market.
“ This may be accomplished at something less than £1 per
ton, and you see it fetches at Cardiff" £3 per ton ; and from its
effects it is calculated to fetch much more, for its efficiency is
quite equal to the best guano.
“The agent by which this is in most cases accomplished, lime,
is well known to be a most excellent fertiliser, as has been so
well shown by Professor Johnston in his work on that subject,
so that in this method nothing is added to the manure of a
worthless or mischievous character ; but the fertilising princi¬
ples of the sewage, including its nitrogenous matter, are so well
fixed, that last year Captain Buffer, an excellent agriculturist
of Devonshire, systematically tried it against guano, at £9,10s.
per ton, and pronounced in its favour, notwithstanding that
the sewage had been collected as long ago as 1847.
“ W. Higgs.”
If the premium of L.1000 and the Gold Medal of the So¬
ciety, recently offered by the Council of the Royal Agricul¬
tural Society to the discoverer of a manure equal to Peru¬
vian Guano, to be sold at L.5 per ton, and procurable in
unlimited quantities, is won at all, it seems likely that the
material will be obtained from the contents of our sewers.
Sea-weed.—Along our sea-board large supplies of valu¬
able manure are obtained in the shape of drifted sea-weed.
This is either applied as a top-dressing to grass and clover,
ploughed in with a light furrow, for various crops, or mixed
in dung-heaps. It requires to be used in large quantities
per acre—from 40 to 60 loads—and is evanescent in its
effects. Grain grown on land manured with sea-weed, is
generally of fine quality and is in repute as seed corn.
Crops of Buckwheat, Rape, Vetches, and Mustard, are
sometimes ploughed in, while in a green, succulent state, to
enrich the land. It is however more usual to fold sheep on
such crops, and so to get the benefit of them as forage, as
well as manure to the land. The leaves of turnips are fre¬
quently ploughed in after removing the bulbs, and have a
powerful fertilising effect.
Lime. Besides manures of an animal and vegetable ori¬
gin, various mineral substance's are used for this purpose. The
most important and extensively used of these is lime. In the
drier parts of England it is not held in much esteem, whereas
in the western and northern counties and in Scotland, its
use is considered indispensable to good farming. Expe-
Carbonate rienced farmers in Berwickshire consider it desirable to lime
of lime. the land every 12 years, at the rate of from 120 to 200
bushels of the unslacked lime per acre. It is found espe¬
cially beneficial in the reclaiming of moory and boggy lands,
on which neither green nor grain crops thrive until it has
been applied to them. Its use is found to improve the qua¬
lity of grain, and to cause it in some cases to ripen earlier.
It facilitates the cleaning of land; certain weeds disappear¬
ing altogether for a time after a dressing of lime. It is the
only known specific for the disease in turnips called “fingers
and toes,” on which account alone it is frequently used in
circumstances which would otherwise render such an out¬
lay unwarrantable. The practice, still frequent, of tenants Manures,
at the beginning of a 19 years’ lease, liming their whole
farm at a cost per acre of from L.3 to L.5, proves conclu¬
sively the high estimation in which this manure is held.
The belief—in which we fully concur—is however gaining
ground, that moderate and frequent applications are prefer¬
able to these heavy doses at lengthened periods.
When bare fallowing was in use, it was commonly towards
the close of that process that lime was applied. Having
been carted home and laid down in large heaps, it was, when Modes of
slaked, spread evenly upon the surface and covered in byaPPlica*
a light furrow. It is now frequently spread upon the au-tl0n"
tumn furrow preparatory to root crops, and worked in by
harrowing or grubbing, and sometimes by throwing the land
into shallow ridglets. Another method much used, is to
form it into compost with decayed quickens, parings from
road-sides, and margins of fields, &c. which, after thorough
intermixture by frequent turnings, is spread even evenly upon
in grass. A cheap and effectual way of getting a dressing
of such compost thoroughly comminuted and incorporated
with the surface soil, is to fold sheep upon it, and feed them
there with turnips for a few days. The value of such compost
is much enhanced by mixing common salt with the lime and
earth at the rate of one part of salt by measure to two parts
of lime. A mixture of these two substances in these propor¬
tions prepared under cover, and applied in a powdery state,
is much approved as a spring top-dressing for corn-crops on
light soils. In whatever way lime is applied, it is important
to remember that the carbonic acid, which has been ex¬
pelled from it by subjecting it in the kiln to a red heat, is
quickly regained from the atmosphere, to which therefore it
should be as little exposed as possible before applying it to
the land. A drenching from heavy rain after it is slaked
is also fatal to its usefulness. Careful farmers therefore
guard against these evils by laying on lime as soon as it is
slaked; or when delay is unavoidable, by coating these
heaps with earth, or thatching them with straw. In order
to reap the full benefit of a dressing of lime it must be so
applied as, while thoroughly incorporated with the soil, to
be kept near the surface. This is more particularly to be
attended to in laying down land to pasture. This fact is so
well illustrated by an example quoted in the last edition of
this work that we here repeat it.
“ A few years after 1754,” says Mr Dawson, “ having a con¬
siderable extent of outfield land in fallow, which I wished to
lime previous to its being laid down to pasture, and finding
that I could not obtain a sufficient quantity of lime for the whole
in proper time, I was induced, from observing the effects of
fine loam upon the surface of similar soil, even when covered
with bent, to try a small quantity of lime on the surface of this
fallow, instead of a larger quantity ploughed down in the usual
manner. Accordingly, in the autumn, about twenty acres of
it were well harrowed in, and then about fifty-six Winchester
bushels only, of unslaked lime, were, after being slaked, care¬
fully spread upon each English acre, and immediately well
harrowed in. As many pieces of the lime, which had not been
fully slaked at first, were gradually reduced to powder by the
dews and moisture of the earth,—to mix these with the soil, the
land was again well harrowed in three or four days thereafter.
This land was sown in the spring with oats, with white and red
clover and rye-grass seeds, and well harrowed without being
ploughed again. The crop of oats was good, the plants of
grass sufficiently numerous and healthy; and they formed a
very fine pasture, which continued good until ploughed some
years after for corn.
‘ ‘ About twelve years afterwards I took a lease of the hilly
farm of Grubbet, many parts of which, though of an earthy
mould tolerably deep, were too steep and elevated to be kept
in tillage. As these lands had been much exhausted by crop¬
ping, and were full of couch-grass, to destroy that and procure
a cover of fine grass, I fallowed them, and laid on the same
AGRICULTURE.
Manures, quantity of lime per acre, then harrowed and sowed oats and
grass-seeds in the spring, exactly as in the last-mentioned ex¬
periment. The oats were a full crop, and the plants of grass
abundant. Several of these fields have been now above thirty
years in pasture, and are still producing white clover and other
fine grasses: no bent or fog has yet appeared upon them. It
deserves particular notice, that more than treble the quantity
of lime was laid upon fields adjoining of a similar soil, but
which being fitter for occasional tillage, upon them the lime
was ploughed in. These fields were also sown with oats and
grass-seeds. The latter throve well, and gave a fine pasture
the first year; but afterwards the bent spread so fast, that in
three years there was more of it than of the finer grasses.”.
The conclusions which Mr Dawson draws from his extensive
practice in the use of lime and dung, deserve the attention of
all cultivators of similar land.
Con cl u- “ !• That animal dung dropped upon coarse benty pastures
sions produces little or no improvement upon them; and that, even
as to the when sheep or cattle are confined to a small space, as in the
effects of case of folding, their dung ceases to produce any beneficial ef-
Ume and feet after a few years, whether the land is continued in pasture
dung. or brought under the plough.
“ 2. That even when land of this description is well fallowed
and dunged, but not limed, though the dung augments the pro¬
duce of the subsequent crop of grain, and of grass also for two
or three years, that thereafter its effects are no longer discer¬
nible either upon the one or the other.
“ 3. That when this land is limed, if the lime is kept upon
the surface of the soil, or well mixed with it, and then laid
down to pasture, the finer grasses continue in possession of
the soil, even in elevated and exposed situations, for a great
many years, to the exclusion of bent and fog. In the case of
Grubbet-hills, it was observed, that more than thirty years
have now elapsed. Besides this, the dung of the animals pas¬
tured upon such land adds every year to the luxuriance, and
improves the quality of the pasture, and augments the produc¬
tive powers of the soil when afterwards ploughed for grain ;
thus producing, upon a benty outfield soil, effects similar to
what are experienced when rich infield lands have been long in
pasture, and which are thereby more and more enriched.
‘ ‘ 4. That when a large quantity of lime is laid on such land,
and ploughed down deep, the same effects will not be produced,
whether in respect to the permanent fineness of the pasture,
its gradual amelioration by the dung of the animals depastured
on it, or its fertility when afterwards in tillage. On the con¬
trary, unless the surface is fully mixed with lime, the coarse
grasses will in a few years regain possession of the soil, and
the dung thereafter deposited by cattle will not enrich the land
for subsequent tillage.
tl Lastly, It also appears from what has been stated, that
the four-shift husbandry is only proper for very rich land,
or in situations where there is a full command of dung ; that
by far the greatest part of the land of this country requires to
be continued in grass two, three, four, or more years, according
to its natural poverty; that the objection made to this, viz.
that the coarse grasses in a few years usurp possession of the
soil, must be owing to the surface soil not being sufficiently
mixed with lime, the lime having been covered too deep by the
plough.” (Farmer's Magazine, vol. xiii. p. 69.)
Marl. Our remarks hitherto have had reference to carbonate
of lime in that form of it to which the term lime is exclu¬
sively applied by farmers. But there are other substances
frequently applied to land which owe their value chiefly to the
presence of this mineral. The most important of these is
marl, which is a mixture of carbonate of lime with clay, or
with clay and sand, and other compounds. When this sub¬
stance is found in the proximity of, or lying under, sandy or
peaty soils, its application in considerable doses is attended
with the very best effects. The fen lands of England, the
mosses of Lancashire, and sandy soils in Norfolk and else-
303
where, have been immensely improved in this way. In Lan- Manures,
cashire, marl is carried on the mosses by means of portable
railways at the rate of 150 tons, and at a cost of about L.3
per acre. In the fens long trenches are dug, and the sub¬
jacent marl is thrown out and spread on either side at an ex¬
pense of 54s. per acre. By this process, often repeated, of
claying or marling, as it is variously called, the appearance
and character of the fen lands have been totally changed;
excellent wheat being now raised, where formerly only very
inferior oats were produced. As the composition both of
peat and of clay marl varies exceedingly, it is always pru¬
dent, either by limited experiment, or chemical analysis of
both substances, to ascertain the effect of their admixture.
Lime is always present in those cases which prove most suc¬
cessful ; but an overdose does harm.
Shell-Marl.—Under some mosses and fresh water lakes
extensive deposits of shell-marl are frequently found. It
contains a larger per-centage of lime than clay-marl, and
must be applied more sparingly.
Chalk.—Throughout the extensive chalk districts of Eng¬
land, the practice of spreading this substance over the sur¬
face of the land, has prevailed from the remotest times. In
the case of the Lincolnshire Wolds, once as celebrated for
desolate barrenness as they now are of high culture and
smiling fertility, chalkingwas one important means of bringing
about this wonderful improvement, as it still is in maintaining
it. “ The soil being but a few inches in depth, and often con¬
taining a large proportion of flints, naturally possesses very
little fertility—often being a light sand, not strong enough
naturally to grow turnips—so that the farmers were at first
obliged to make a soil, and must now maintain its new-born
productiveness. The three principal means by which this
is done, are the processes of chalking, and boning, and manur¬
ing with sheep. A dressing of 80 or 100 cubic yards per
acre of chalk is spread upon the land, and then a crop of
barley is obtained, if possible, being sown with seeds for graz¬
ing. The seeds are grazed with sheep two years, the sheep
being at the same time fed with oil-cake ; and then the land
will be capable of producing a fine crop of oats. Bones are
also used frequently for the barley crop, and when they first
came into use were thrown upon the land in a chopped state,
neither broken nor crushed, and as much as 40 or even 50
bushels per acre. The boning and sheep-feeding are in con -
stant operation, but chalking is required only at intervals of
a few years. On the western side of the Wold district,
wherever the chalk adjoins the white or blue marl, an exten¬
sive application of it is made to the surface. Thus immense
quantities of earth and stone have been added by manual la¬
bour and horse-carriage to the thin covering of original soil;
and, besides this, the soil is being continually deepened by
deep ploughing, the chalk fragments thus brought to the sur¬
face crumbling into mould.”1
In Dorsetshire “ it is usual to chalk the land once in twenty
years, the sour description of soil being that to which it is
found most advantageous to apply it. The chalk is dug out
of pits in the field to which it is applied, and it is laid on
sometimes with barrows, but chiefly with the aid of donkeys.
The first method costs 40s. an acre, the last 35s. when hired
donkeys are used ; 20s. to 25s. where the donkeys are the
property of the farmer. The chalk is laid on in large lumps,
which soon break down by the action of frost and exposure
to the weather. Chalk is occasionally burnt and applied as
lime, in which state it is preferred by many farmers, notwith¬
standing the additional cost of the burning.”2
Shell-Sand and Limestone Gravel.—On the western shores
1 Farming of Lincolnshire, by John Algernon Clarke. Journal of Royal Agricultural Society, vol. xih P‘ 331.
2 See Caird’s English Agriculture 1850 and 1851, |>. 01.
304
AGRICULTURE.
Manures, of Great Britain and Ireland are found great quantities of sand
mixed with sea-shells in minute fragments. This calcareous
sand is carried inland considerable distances and applied to
the land as lime is elsewhere. Limestone gravel is also
found in various places and used in the same way.
Sulphate of Lime or Gypsum is considered an excellent
top-dressing for clover and kindred plants. It is thought by
some, that the failure of red clover is to be accounted for, by
the repeated crops of that plant having exhausted the gyp¬
sum in the soil. Its application has been followed by fa¬
vourable results in some cases, but has yet quite failed in
others. It is applied in a powdered state at the rate of two
or three cwt. per acre when the plants are moist with rain or
dew.
Burnt Clay.—Thirty years ago, burnt clay was brought
much into notice as a manure, and tried in various parts of
the country, but again fell into disuse. It is now, however,
more extensively and systematically practised than ever.
Frequent reference to the practice is to be found in the
volumes of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society
of England. This burning of clay is accomplished in several
ways. Sometimes it is burnt in large heaps or clamps con¬
taining from 80 to 100 cart-loads. A fire being kindled with
some faggots or brushwood, which is covered up with the
clay, taking care not to let the fire break out at any point,
more fuel of the kind mentioned, or dross of coals, is added
as required, and more clay heaped on. A fierce fire must
be avoided, as that would make the clay into brickbats. A
low, smothered combustion is what is required ; and to main¬
tain this a good deal of skill and close watching on the part
of the workman is necessary. A rude kiln is sometimes used
for the same purpose. Either of these plans is suitable where
the ashes are wanted at a homestead for absorbing liquid
manure, &c.; but for merely spreading over the land, that
called clod-burning is preferable, and is thus described in
volume viii. page 78, of the Royal Agricultural Society’s
Journal:—“ Roll and harrow, in dry weather, till the majo¬
rity of clods are about the size of a large walnut; nothing
so good as the clod-crusher to forward this operation: when
perfectly dry, collect them into rows about six yards apart,
with iron-teethed rakes ; take a quarter of a whin faggot, or
less, according to size, previously cut into lengths by a man
with an axe; place these pieces about four yards apart in
the rows, cover them with clods, putting the finest mould
upon the top of the heap, to prevent the fire too quickly es¬
caping ; observe the wind, and leave an opening accordingly;
having set fire to a long branch of whin, run from opening
to opening till two or three rows are lighted, secure these,
and then put fire to others ; keeping a man or two behind
to attend to the fires and earthing up till the quantity de¬
sired may be burned, which will generally take four or five
hours, say from 25 to 35 loads per acre of 30 bushels per
load.
“ This work is often put out to a gang of men at about
10s. per acre for labour, and the whins cost 4s. 6d. per acre,
not including the carting,
“ When the heaps are cold, spread and plough in. The
great advantage of burning clods in these small heaps in
preference to a large one, is the saving of expense in col¬
lecting and spreading; there is much less red brick earth,
and more black and charred; no horses or carts moving on
the land whilst burning, and a large field may be all burned
in a day or two, therefore less liable to be delayed by wet
weather. In the heavy land part of Suffolk, the farmers pur¬
chase whins from the light land occupiers, and often cart
them a distance of fourteen or sixteen miles, when there is
no work pressing on the farm. These are stacked up and
secured by thatching with straw, that they may be dry and
fit for use when required. Bean straw is the next best fuel
to whins or furze, and it is astonishing to see how small a Manures,
quantity will burn the clods, if they are of the proper size V v1
and dry. Observe, if the soil is at all inclined to sand, it Burnt clay,
will not burn so well. I will here mention, that I often sift
and store up a few loads of the best blackened earth to drill
with my turnips, instead of buying artificial manure, and
find it answers remarkably well, and assists in maintaining
the position that a heavy land farm in Suffolk can be farmed
in the first rate style without foreign ingredients.”
Burnt clay is an admirable vehicle for absorbing liquid Us value as
manure. A layer of it in the bottom of cattle boxes does f;11 ^bs',r"
good service, at once m economising manure, and yielding liquid
to the cattle a drier bed than they would otherwise have manure,
until the litter has accumulated to some depth. Valuable
results have also been obtained by using it for strewing over
the floors of poultry-houses, and especially of pens in which
sheep are fed under cover. In the latter case, it is mixed
with the excrements of the sheep as they patter over it, and
forms a substance not unlike guano, nor much inferior to it
as a manure. As an application to sandy or chalky soils, it
is invaluable. It is mainly by this use of burnt clay, in com¬
bination with fattening of sheep under cover, that Mr Ran-
dell of Chadbury has so astonishingly increased the produc¬
tiveness of his naturally poor clay soil. A Berwickshire pro¬
prietor, himself a practical farmer, who visited Mr Randell’s
farm in the summer of 1852, thus writes:—“ I have visited
most of the best managed farms in England, at least those
that have so much of late been brought under general no¬
tice ; but without exception, I never saw land in the splen¬
did condition his is in. The beauty of the system lies in
the cheap method he has imparted to it this fertility, and in
the manner in which he keeps it up. A large part of the
farm consisted, fourteen years ago, of poor clay, and was
valued to him at his entry at 7s. 6d. per acre. It is now
bearing magnificent crops of all kinds, the wheat being esti¬
mated to yield from 6 to 7 quarters per acre.
“ Mechi has enriched Tiptree-heath, it is true; but then
it is effected at a cost that will make it impossible for him
to be repaid. Mr Randell, on the other hand, has adopted
a course that is nearly self-supporting, his only cost being
the preparation of the clay. The great secret of his success
lies in his mode of using it; and as I never heard of a simi¬
lar process, I will briefly explain to you how it is done
His heavy land not permitting him to consume the turnip
and mangel crops in the ground, he carts them home, and
feeds his sheep in large sheds. They do not stand on boards
or straw, but on the burnt clay, which affords them a beau¬
tiful dry bed; and whenever it gets the least damp or dirty,
a fresh coating is put under them. The mound rises in
height; and in February, when the shearlings are sold (for
the sheep are only then twelve months old), the mass is from
7 to 8 feet deep. He was shearing his lambs when I was
there, as he considers they thrive much better in the sheds
without their fleeces. They are half-bred Shropshire Downs;
and at the age I mention, attain the great weight of 24 lb.
per quarter.
“ I walked through the sheds, but of course they were
then empty. I saw the enormous quantity of what he called
his ‘ home-made guano,’ the smell from it strongly indicat¬
ing the ammonia it contained. He had sown his turnips, and
other green-crops with it, and what remained he used for the
wheat in autumn. He assured me he had often tested it with
other manures, and always found 10 tons of the compound
quite outstrip 4 cwt. of guano, when they were applied to an
acre of land separately. Burned clay I never saw used be¬
fore in this manner, and I felt very much interested in the
plan he pursued.”
Charred Peat has been excessively extolled for its value
as a manure, both when applied alone, and still more in com-
AGRICULTURE.
305
Manures, bination with night-soil, sewage water, and similar matters,
^ which it dries and deodorises. So great were the expecta¬
tions of an enormous demand for it, and ot the benefits to
result to Ireland by thus disposing of her bogs, that a royal
charter was granted to a company by whom its manufac¬
tures has been commenced on an imposing scale. This char¬
coal is doubtless a useful substance ; but Dr Anderson has
recently proved that peat, merely dried, is a better absorber
and retainer of ammonia than after it is charred. There
seems much risk, therefore, of this peat-charcoal sharing the
fate of so many other schemes for benefiting Ireland.
Soot has long been in estimation as an excellent top-dress¬
ing for cereal crops in the early stage of their growth, and for
grasses and forage plants. It is applied at the rate of lo to
30 bushels per acre. On light soils the addition of 8 or 10
bushels of salt to the above quantity of soot is said to increase
materially its good effect. This mixture trenched, or deeply
ploughed in, is also recommended as one of the most power¬
ful of all manures for carrots.
In London Labour and the London Poor we find the
following statistics as to metropolitan soot:—
Bush, of Soot
per annum.
‘ ‘ 53,840 houses, at a yearly rental above £50, pro-
_ ducing six bushels of soot each per annum, 323,040
90,002 houses, at a yearly rental above £30 and
below £50, producing five bushels of soot
each per annum  450,010
163,880 houses, at a yearly rental below £30, pro-
ducing two bushels of soot each per annum, 337,7bU
Total number of bushels of soot annually
produced throughout London, 1,100,810
The price of soot per bushel is but 5d., and sometimes 4|d.,
but 5d. may be taken as an average. Now, 1,000,000 bushels
of soot at 5d., will be found to yield £20,833, 6s. 8d. per an¬
num.”1
Salt.—Muriate of soda or common salt has often been
commended as a valuable manure, but has never been used
in this way with such uniform success as to induce a general
recourse to it. We have already spoken of it as forming a
useful compound with lime and earth. It can also be used
beneficially for the destruction of slugs, for which purpose
it must be sown over the surface, at the rate of four ox Jive
bushels per acre, early in the morning, or on mild, moist
days, when they are seen to be abroad. It is used also to de¬
stroy grubs and wireworm, for which purpose it is sown in
considerable quantity on grass land, some time before it is
ploughed up. It can be used safely on light soils, but when
clay predominates, it causes a hurtful wetness, and subse¬
quent incrustation of the surface. Its application m its un¬
mixed state as a manure, is at best of doubtful benefit; but
in combination with lime, soot, nitrate of soda, and perhaps
also superphosphate of lime, it appears to exert a beneficia
influence. ^ , .
Cubic Saltpetre, or Nitrate of Soda, has now become one
of our staple manures. The fertilising power of common
saltpetre or nitrate of potass has been known from the earliest
times, but its high price has hitherto hindered its use as a
manure, except in the form in which it is obtained as refuse
from the gunpowder mills. The cubic nitre is brought from
Peru, where there are inexhaustible supplies of it. 1 he
principal deposits of nitrate of soda are in the plain of Ta-
marugal, at a distance of 18 miles from the coast. The beds
are sometimes 7 or 8 feet in thickness, and from these it is
quarried with perfect ease. It is not found in a perfectly
pure state, but contains a mixture of several substances,
chiefly common salt. To fit it for certain uses in the arts Manures,
it is subjected to a process of purification by boiling and eva-
poration. As no fuel is to be found in that arid country,
English coals are used, which are conveyed from the coast
to the works on the back of mules, and the purified nitrate
brought back in the same manner. As nitrate of soda is
now invariably mixed with twice its weight of common salt
before being used as a top-dressing for grain-crops, the pun-
fying process seems altogether a redundancy, so far as. its
agricultural use is concerned. Were it brought to us just
as it is quarried, and were it conveyed to the coast in wheel-
carriages by a good road or railway, instead of miserab e
back-loads by mules, there seems no reason why we should
not have it in abundant supplies, and at a third of the price
which we have hitherto paid, viz., at from L.6 to L.7, instead
of from L.16 to L.20 per ton. As cubic nitre and guano
contains very nearly the same per-centage of nitrogen (t e
element to which the fertilising power of all manures is
mainly due), it may seem surprising that the former should
ever be used in preference to the latter. In practice, how¬
ever, it is found that when applied as a top-dressing in spring,
the former frequently yields a better profit than the latter,
and hence the importance to farmers of getting it at a more
reasonable price. Nitrate of soda is used as a manure for
grain and forage crops. It is now extensively used in Nor¬
folk, and elsewhere, as atop-dressing for wheat, tor this
purpose it is applied at the rate of 84 lb. per acre, in com¬
bination with 2 cwt. of salt. The nitre and salt are thorough¬
ly mixed, and carefully sown, by hand, in two or three equal
portions, at intervals of several weeks, beginning early in
March, and finishing by the third week in April. If nitre
alone is used, it has a tendency to produce over-luxuriance,
and to render the crop liable to lodging and mildew, liut
the salt is found to correct this over-luxuriance, and a pro¬
fitable increase of grain is thus obtained. MrPusey odbrms
us that an application of 42 lb. of nitrate of soda, and 84 lb.
of salt per acre, applied by him to ten acres of barley that
had been injured by frost, had such an effect upon the crop,
that he had seven bushels more grain per acre, and ot better
quality, than on part that was left undressed for comparison.
These seven bushels per acre were attained by an outlay of
6s. 4d. only. This nitre is also applied with advantage to
forage crops. Mr Hope, Fenton Barns, East Lothian, states
that he finds the use of it as a top-dressing to clover, at the
rate of one cwt. of nitrate and two of guano per acre, profit¬
able. Its beneficial effects are most apparent when it is
applied to light and sterile soils, or to such as have been
exhausted by excessive cropping.
Artificial Manures.—Besides those substances, the most
important of which we have now enumerated, which are
available as manure in their natural state, there are a variety of
chemical products, such as salts of ammonia, potash, and soda,
copperas, sulphuric and muriatic acid, &c. which, in combi¬
nation with lime, guano, night-soil, and other substances,
are employed in the preparation of manures, with a special
view to the requirements of particular crops. In some cases
these preparations have been eminently successful, in othei s
but doubtfully so. Many failures are probably due to the
spuriousness of the article made use of; as it is known that
enormous quantities of worthless rubbish have, of late years,
been sold to farmers, under high-sounding names, and at
high prices, as special manures. We would recommen o
those who desire information regarding the preparation amt
use of such compounds, to study the article on Agncu uia
Chemistry, by Mr Lawes of Rothamstead, in the Journal oj
the Poyal Agricultural Society of England; the accounts ot
Farmer's Magazine for March 1852, p. 254.
2 Journal of Royal Agricultural Society, vol. xiU. p. 349.
VOL. II.
306 A G R I C U
Grain experiments, with special manures in the Transactions of the
Crops. Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland; articles on
these topics in Morton’s Cyclopedia; and that by Dr Ander¬
son in the present work. Those who wish to apply such
artificial compounds to their crops, will do well to purchase
the ingredients where they are likely to get them genuine,
and to mix and prepare them for themselves.
In applying these concentrated manures, those only of a
slowly operating character should be used in autumn or
winter, and at that season should invariably be mixed with
the soil. Those in which ammonia abounds should, in
spring, also be mixed with the soil when sowing the crops
to which they are applied. When used for top-dressing grow¬
ing crops, they should not be applied until spring-growth
has commenced, and only in wet weather.
CHAPTER VI,
GRAIN CROPS.
Pursuing the plan announced at the outset, we have now
to speak of field crops, and shall begin with the cereal grasses,
or white-corn crops, as they are usually called by farmers.
Wheat.—It is unnecessary to dwell upon the value of this
grain to the farmer and to the community. It constitutes
emphatically our bread-corn—our staff of life. While its in¬
creased consumption is on the one hand an indication of an
improved style of living among the general population, its
extended culture points, on the other, to an improving
agriculture, as it is only on soils naturally fertile, or that
have been made so by good farming, that it can be grown
with success. Wheat is sown both in autumn and spring,
from which circumstance attempts have been made to clas¬
sify its varieties, by ranging them under these two general
heads. This distinction can only serve to mislead; for while
it is true that there are varieties respectively best adapted
for autumn and spring sowing, it is also true that a majority
of the kinds most esteemed in Britain admit of being sown
at either season, and in practice are actually so treated. It
Varieties is not our intention to present a list of the varieties of wheat
of wheat, cultivated in this country. These are very numerous al¬
ready, and are constantly being augmented by the accidental
discovery of new varieties, or by cross-impregnation, artifi¬
cially brought about for this purpose. The kinds at present
in greatest repute in Scotland are the hardier, white wheats;
among which Hunter’s white still retains the first place.
There are many kinds which, in favourable seasons, produce
a finer sample : but its hardiness, productiveness, and excel¬
lent milling qualities, render it a general favourite both with
farmers and millers. Its most marked characteristic is,
that in rubbing out a single ear, part of the grains are found
to be opaque and white, and others flinty, and reddish co¬
loured, as if two kinds of wheat had been mixed together.
Selections from Hunter’s wheat have been made from time
to time, and have obtained a measure of celebrity under
various local names. The most esteemed of these is the
Hopeton wheat. On very rich soils, both of these varieties
have the fault of producing too much straw, and of being
thereby liable to lodge. Hence, several new kinds with
stiffer straw, and consequent lessened liability to this disas¬
ter, are now in request in situations where this evil is appre¬
hended.
Fenton Wheat, possessing this quality in an eminent de¬
gree, and being at the same time very productive, and of
fair quality, is at present extensively cultivated. It has the
peculiarity of producing stems of unequal height from the
same root, which gives a crop of it an unpromising appear¬
ance, but has perhaps to do with its productiveness. The
L T U R E.
red-straw-white and Piper’s thick-set, are in estimation for Grain
the same properties as the Fenton. Piper’s is said to be ^ Crops. ^
shortest and stiffest strawed wheat in cultivation. It is a
yellow-grained and rather coarse variety, but exceedingly
productive. It has recently been introduced into Scotland
under the name of Protection Wheat. The red-chaff white
is productive, and yields grain of beautiful quality, but it re¬
quires good seasons, as it sheds its seeds easily and sprouts
quickly in damp weather. The Chiddam, pearl, white Kent,
and Talavera have each their admirers, and are all good
sorts in favourable seasons; but in Scotland, at least, their
culture is attended with greater risk than the kinds previ¬
ously named ; they require frequent change of seed from a
sunnier climate, and are only adapted for dry and fertile
soils with a good exposure. As red wheats usually sell at from Red
2s. to 4s. less per quarter than white wheats of similar quality, wheats,
they are less grown than heretofore. But, being considered
more hardy and less liable to mildew than the finer white
wheats, they are still grown in soils more or less adapted
for them. Some of these red wheats are, however, so pro¬
ductive that they are preferred in the best cultivated districts
of England. Spalding’s Prolific holds a first place among
these; being truly prolific, and producing grain of good
quality. In Scotland, it shews a tendency to produce a rough
quality of grain. The Northumberland red and the golden
creeping are there in estimation; the former being well
adapted for spring sowing, and the latter for poor soils and
exposed situations. A red bearded variety, usually called
April wheat, from its prospering most when sown in that
month, is sometimes grown with advantage after turnips,
when the season is too advanced for other sorts ; but it seems
only doubtfully entitled to a preference over barley in such
circumstances. The list now given could easily be extended;
but it comprises the best varieties at present in use, and
such as are suited to the most diversified soils, seasons, and
situations, in which wheat can be grown in this country.
In regard to all of them it is advantageous to have recourse Advantage
to frequent change of seed, and in doing this to give the°£achanSe
preference to that which comes from a soil and climate0 see
better and earlier than those of the locality in which it is
to be sown. Every farmer will find it worth his while to be
at pains to find out from whence he can obtain a change of
seed that takes well with his own farm ; and having done so
to hold to that, and even to induce his correspondent to
grow such sorts as he prefers, although he should have to
pay him an extra price for doing so. An experienced farmer
once remarked to the writer, that by changing his seed he
got it for nothing; that is, his crop was more abundant by
at least the quantity sown, from the single circumstance of
a suitable change of seed. In fixing upon the kind of wheat
which he is to sow, the farmer will do well to look rather to
productiveness than to fine quality. For however it may
gratify his ambition to shew the heaviest and prettiest sam¬
ple in the market, and to obtain the highest price of the
day, no excellence of quality can compensate for a deficiency
of even a few bushels per acre in the yield. It is of impor¬
tance too, to have seed-corn free from the seeds of weeds,
and from other grains, and to be true of its kind. Farmers
who are systematically careful in these respects, frequently
obtain an extra price for their produce, by selling it for seed-
corn to others; and even millers give a preference to such
clean samples. But there are seeds which no amount of
care or accuracy in dressing can remove from seed-corn
viz., those of certain parasitical fungi, which must be got rid
of by a different process. The havoc caused to wheat crops
by Bunt, Black-ball, or Pepper-brand {Uredo caries or Tilletia Steep or
caries) before the discovery of the mode ot preventing it bath for
by steeping the seed-corn in some acrid or caustic bath,see " ica
was often ruinous. The plan at first most usually adopted
A G R I C U L T U E E.
307
Grain was to immerse the seed-wheat in stale chamber-lie, and
Crops, afterwards to dry it by mixture with quick-lime. This
pickle, as it is called, is usually efficacious; but the lime
vexes the eyes, and excoriates the hands and face of the
sower, or clogs the hopper of the sowing machine, and has
therefore been superseded by other substances. Blue vitriol
(sulphate of copper) is as good as anything for this purpose,
and is used in the following manner. A solution is prepared
by dissolving powdered sulphate of copper in water, at the
rate of two ounces to a pint for each bushel of wheat. The
grain is emptied upon a floor ; a little of it is shovelled to
one side by one person, while another sprinkles the solution
over it, and this process is continued until the whole quantity
is gone over. The heap is then turned repeatedly by two
persons working with shovels opposite to each other. After
lying for a few minutes, the grain absorbs the moisture, and
is ready for sowing either by hand or machine. The season
Time of for wheat-sowing extends from September to April, but
sowing. ordinarily that succeeds best which is committed to the ground
during October and November. When summer-fallows
exist, the first sowings are usually made on them. It is
desirable that the land neither be wet nor very dry when
this takes place, so that the precise time of sowing is deter¬
mined by the weather; but it is well to proceed as soon
after. 1st October as the land is moist enough to insure a
regular germination of the seed.
Sowing Over a large portion of England, wheat is the crop usually
on clover sown after clover or one year’s “ seeds.” In such cases the
lays- land is ploughed in the end of September, immediately har¬
rowed, and wheat sown upon it by a drilling machine. On
loose soils the land-presser is frequently used to consolidate
the soil and to form a channel for the seed, which in such
cases comes up in rows, although sown broad-cast. It is
more usual, however, first to level the pressed furrows by
harrowing, and then to use the drill; by means of which,
various portable manures are frequently deposited along with
the seed-corn. The sowing of wheat after clover, or “ seeds,”
as now described, is rarely practised in Scotland, where it so
invariably fails as to show that it is unsuited to our northern
climate. It is here not unusual, however, to plough up such
land in July or August, and to prepare it for wheat-sowing
Rag-fal- by what is called rag-fallowing. After the first ploughing,
lowing. the land is harrowed lengthwise, so as to bi'eak and level
the surface of the furrows and close the interstices without
tearing up or exposing any green sward. It is then allowed
to lie for ten or fourteen days to allow the herbage to die,
which it soon does at this season when light is thus excluded
from it. A cross-ploughing is next given, followed by re¬
peated grubbings, harrowing, and rollings, after which it is
treated in all respects as a summer fallow.
The fallow and clover leas being disposed of, the land
from which potatoes, beans, peas, or vetches, have been
cleared off will next demand attention. When these crops
have been carefully horse and hand hoed, all that is required
Sowinp- is t° clear off the haulm, to plough and sow. If the land is
after green not clean, recourse must be had to a short fallowing process,
crops. before sowing wheat. For this purpose the surface is loosened
by the grubber, the weeds harrowed out and raked off, after
which the land is ploughed and sown. On soils well adapted
for the growth of beans and wheat, viz., those in which clay
predominates, any lengthened process of autumn cultivation
is necessarily attended with great hazard of being caught by
rain, to the loss of seed-time altogether. Every pains should
therefore be taken to have the land so cleaned before-hand,
that these unseasonable efforts may be dispensed with ; and
to have the sowing and harrowing to follow so closely upon
the ploughing, as to diminish to the utmost the risk of hin¬
drance from wet weather. As the crops of turnips, mangel,
or carrots arrive at maturity and are either removed to the
store-heap or consumed by sheep where they grow, succes- Grain
sive sowings of wheat can be made as the ploughing is ac- Crops,
complished, and as the weather permits. It is to be noted, ^
however, that it is only on soils naturally dry, or made so by
thorough draining, and which are also clean, and in a high
state of fertility, that wheat-sowing can be continued with
advantage during the months of December and January. If
the whole of these conditions do not obtain, it is wiser to
refrain until February or March. When these late winter
sowings are made, it is of especial importance to sow close
up to the ploughs daily, as a very slight fall of rain will, at
this season, unfit the land for bearing the harrows. This
sowing and harrowing, in detail, is the more easily managed,
that in the circumstances cross-harrowing is neither neces¬
sary nor expedient. Under the most favourable conditions
as to weather and drainage, soils with even a slight admix¬
ture of clay in their composition will at this season plough
up somewhat clammy, so that cross-harrowing pulls the fur¬
rows too much about, and exposes the seed, instead of co¬
vering it more perfectly. Two double tines of the harrows
lengthwise, is as much as should be attempted at this season.
The sowing of spring-wheat is only expedient on dry and Spring
fertile soils with a good exposure. Unless the whole con-wheat-
ditions are favourable, there is much risk of spring-sown
wheat being too late to get properly ripened, or well har¬
vested. On the dry and fertile soils in the valley of the
Tweed, where the entire fallow break is sown with turnips,
and where consequently it is difficult to get a large breadth
cleared in time for sowing wheat in autumn, it is the prac¬
tice to sow it largely in February and March, and frequently
with good success. Many judicious farmers are, however,
of opinion that, taking the average of a twenty years’ lease,
barley is a more remunerative crop than spring-sown wheat,
even under circumstances most favourable to the latter.
When it is resolved to try it, a very full allowance of seed
should be given—not less than three bushels per acre, and
3J will often be better. If the plants have room they will
tiller; and thus the ripening of the crop is retarded, the risk
of mildew increased, and the quality of the grain deteriorated.
As much seed should therefore be sown as will yield plants
enough to occupy the ground fully from the first, and thus
remove the temptation to tillering. By such full seeding a
fortnight is frequently gained in the ripening of the crop, and
this as frequently makes all the difference betwixt a remu¬
nerative crop and a losing one.
Much controversy has taken place of late years about the Thick and
quantities of seed-wheat which should be used per acre. The thin seed-
advocates of thin-seeding have been so unguarded and ex- ing.
travagantin their encomiums of their favourite practice, some
of them insisting that anything more than a few quarts per
acre does but waste seed and lessen the produce—that many
persons have been induced to depart from their usual prac¬
tice to their serious cost. It is true that with land in a high
state of fertility, and kept scrupulously clean by frequent
hoeings, a full crop of wheat may be obtained from half a
bushel of seed per acre, provided that it is sown in Septem¬
ber, and deposited regularly over the surface. But what
beyond a trifling saving of seed is gained by this practice f
And at what cost and hazard is even this secured ? It is a
mere fallacy to tell us, as the advocates of excessively thin
seeding so often do, that they obtain an increase of so many
hundred-fold; whereas, thick seeders cannot exceed from
twelve to twenty fold, when after all the gross produce of
the latter may exceed that of the former by more than the
quantity of seed saved, with less expense in culture, less
risk from accidents and disease, an earlier harvest and a
better quality of grain. Such a crowding of the ground with
plants as prevents the proper development of the ear is of
course to be avoided; but the most experienced groweisof
308
Grain
Crops.
Broad-cast
versus
drilling.
Tull's sys¬
tem re¬
vived by
Mr Smith
of Lois
Weedon.
AGRICULTURE.
wheat are convinced of the benefit of having the ground
fully occupied at the time when active spring growth begins.
This is secured by using two bushels per acre for the sow¬
ing, made early in October, and by increasing this quantity
at the rate of half a peck per week until three bushels is
reached, which may be held as the maximum. Le»s than
this should not be used from the middle ol Novembei to the
end of the season. These are the quantities to be used in
broad-cast sowing; when drilling or dibbling is resorted to,
two-fifths less seed will suffice. In Scotland, at least, often-
repeated trials have shewn that larger crops are obtained by
broad-casting than by drilling. I he latter mode is however
to be preferred wherever the land is infected by annual
weeds, which can then be got rid of by hoeing. ^ hen
clover and grass-seeds are sown with the grain crop it is
believed also that they thrive better from the grain being
sown in rows, probably because in this case light and air
are less excluded from them. It is believed also that in
highly-manured soils of a loose texture grain deposited some¬
what deeply in rows is less liable to lodge than when sown
broad-cast and shallower. When drilling and hoeing are
resorted to, the latter is effected most cheaply and effectively
by using Garret’s horse-hoe. The mere stirring of the soil
is considered by many farmers to be so beneficial to the
wheat crop that they use the horse-hoe irrespective of the
presence of weeds. Others are of opinion tfiat, apart from
the destruction of weeds, hoeing is injurious to grain crops,
alleging that the cutting of their surface roots weakens the
stems and increases their liability to fall over. Carefully
conducted experiments are required to settle this point. We
have no personal experience bearing upon it beyond this,
that we have repeatedly seen a wheat crop much benefited
by mere harrowing in spring. It is always useful to roll
wheat, and indeed all cereal crops, in order to facilitate the
reaping process although no other benefit should result from
it. When the plants have been loosened by severe frosts,
or are suffering from the attacks of wire-worms, the use of
Crosskill’s roller is usually of great benefit to the crop.
A plan of growing wheat year after year on the same field
without the use of manure has been practised for several
years past by the Rev. Mr Smith of Lois Weedon, North¬
amptonshire, and detailed by him in the pages of the Royal
Agricultural Society’s Journal, and in a pamphlet which
has now had a very extensive circulation. His plan is to a
certain extent a revival of that of Jethro Tull; but with this
important difference, that whereas Tull occupied his ground
with alternate double rows of wheat a foot apart, and vacant
spaces five feet wide, which were carefully cultivated by
ploughings and horse-hoeings repeated at intervals, from the
springing of the wheat until midsummer, Mr Smith intro¬
duces two important elements in addition, viz., thorough
draining and trenching the vacant spaces in autumn so as to
bring portions of subsoil to the surface. A field treated on
this system consists of alternate strips of wheat and bare
fallow, which are made to exchange places year by year, so
that each successive crop occupies a different site from its
immediate predecessor. It has also the benefit of the fresh
soil brought up by the previous autumn’s double-digging,
which is subsequently mellowed and pulverisedby lengthened
exposure to the atmosphere, and by frequent stirrings. The
produce obtained by Mr Smith from his acre thus treated
has been very nearly 34 bushels each year for five succes¬
sive years. At first he restricted himself to the employment
of manual labour, but he has since invented a set of imple¬
ments for sowing, covering in, rolling, and hoeing his crops
by horse labour. We give in his own words his directions
for carrying out this system, what he believes to be the ad¬
vantages of it, and the cost of thus cultivating an acre.
“ I suppose, at the outset, the land intended for wheat, to
he wheat land; having besides a fair depth of staple, and a Gram
subsoil, as will generally, though not universally, be the case, Crops,
of the same chemical composition with the surface. I suppose C—
it dry; or drained three feet deep at least; well cleaned of
weeds the lands cast; and the whole tolerably level.
“1. First of all, then, plough the whole land, when dry,
one inch deeper than the used staple. If it turn up cloddy,
bring the clods down with the roller or the crusher. Let this
be done, if possible, in August. Harrow deep ; so as to get
five or six inches of loose mould to admit the presser. Before
sowing wait for rain. After the rain wait for a fine day or two
to dry the surface. With this early commencement a week or
two is of no material importance compared with that of plough¬
ing dry and sowing wet.
“ As early as possible, however, in September, get in your
seed with the presser-drill; or with some implement which
forms a firm-bedded channel in which to deposit the seed,
grain by grain, a few inches apart. Cover over with the
crusher or rough roller.
“ 2. When the lines of wheat appear above ground, guard
against the rook, the lark, and the slug ; a trite suggestion,
but ever needful, especially here. And now, and at spring,
and all through summer, watch for the weeds, and wage con¬
stant warfare against them. The battle may last for a year
or two, or in some foul cases even more; but, in the end, the
mastery, and its fruits, without fail, will be yours.
“ 3. The plant being now distinctly visible, dig the inter¬
vals two spits deep; increasing the depth, year after year, till
they come to twenty or twenty-four inches. Bring up at first
only four, or five, or six inches, according to the nature of the
subsoil, whether tenacious, or loamy, or light. To bring up
more at the outset would be a ivasteful and injurious ex¬
pense.
“ The digging is done thus: Before proceeding with the
work, a few cuts are made within three inches of the wheat,
the back of the spade being towards the rows. A few double
spits, first of all, at the required depth, are then thrown out
on the headland, and there left for the present. After this,
as the digging proceeds, the staple is cast to the bottom, and
the subsoil thrown gently on the top. This process is carried
on throughout the whole interval; at the end of which inter¬
val, just so much space is left vacant as was occupied by the
soil thrown out at the beginning of it. In commencing the
second interval at that finished end, the earth is thrown out
as at first, not on the headland, however, but into the vacant
space of the first interval. And so on all over the acre.
“ 4. Late in winter, and early in spring watch your op¬
portunity, in dry weather, before the roots of the plant are
laid bare, to press them with the crusher.
“5. In the spring, and early summer, stir the spaces be¬
tween the rows as often as the surface becomes crusted over ;
and move the settled intervals four or five inches deep, with
the common scarifier, set first of all about 28 inches wide; re¬
ducing the width till it come by degrees to 24 and 18. inches.
Continue the process, if possible, at the last-named width, up
to the time of flowering in June.
‘ ‘ These operations are indispensable to full success j and
happily can be carried on at little cost. For, while the inter¬
vals of each acre can be scarified in 50 minute;, the horse-
hoe implement, covering two lands at once, can stir between
the rows in 25. _
“ 6. Immediately the crop is carried, clean the intervals,
and move them with the scarifier in order to sow, without, de¬
lay, the shed grains. When these vegetate and come up into
plant, move the intervals again, five or six inches, deep, and
so destroy them. After that, level with the harrow implement,
and the land is ready for the drill.
If anything occur to prevent the sowing early in Septem¬
ber, and to drive you to the end f October, set the. drill for
a thicker crop. But, if possible, sow early. For this reason.
Tillered wheat has a bad name. But that has reference only
to wheat which has tillered late in the spring. And certainly,
in that case, there is the fear of danger to the crop and.danger
to the sample. For, supposing no mildew to fall on it, even
then the plant ripens unevenly ; the early stems being ready
for the sickle, while the late grown shoots have scarcely lost
AGRICULTURE.
309
Grain their verdure. But if mildew come when the stem is soft and
Crops, succulent and porous, instead of being, as it should be at that
v 1 time, glazed and case-hardened against its attacks, the enemy
enters in and checks the circulating sap; and the end is,
blackened straw, light ears, and shrivelled grain. Therefore,
sow early. Let the plant tiller before winter. Give every
stem an equal start at spring ; and then, with a strict adhe¬
rence to rule, there need be no alarm as to the result, subject
only to those visitations from which no wheat on any system,
in the same description of soil, and under the same climate, is
secure.” (See pamphlet, Word in Season, p. 36.)
“ The advantages of the system of corn-growing which I
have described are principally these. First, while one crop of
wheat is growing, the unsown intervals of the acre are being
fallowed and prepared for another. This the farmer well knows
to be of infinite moment, meeting, as it does, one of the great¬
est difficulties he has to contend with. Next, upon this half¬
portion of the acre, tilled as I describe, there is a yield equal
to average crops on a whole acre. Then, for half the portion
of an acre, there is, of course, only half the labour and half
the expense of an entire acre required for cultivation. And
lastly, the hand-labour required finds constant employment for
the poor.”—{Ibid., p. 17.)
“ After harrowing, and cleaning, and levelling the whole, I
marked out the channels for the seed with my presser imple¬
ment, which is drawn with one horse, and presses two lands at
once. My scheme of implements, to be complete, embraced a
drill, which was to act immediately behind the presser-wheels,
and to drop seed by seed into the hard channels. The spindle
of the presser was to turn the drill-wheels, and the boxes were
to be made removeable. Being unable to accomplish this in
time for this year’s sowing, I had the seed, as heretofore,
dropped by hands, and covered over by rollers.
“ These rollers form the rolle?’ implement in the same
frame, and are managed thus: the three-wheeled pressers are
removed from their sockets, and in their place two rough rollers
formed of several wheels on the self-cleaning principle, are in¬
troduced, and cover over two lands at once.
“ The portion of the field thus seeded will lie in this firm
but rough state till spring time. Then, when the rollers have
been applied again to keep the roots of the plant well in their
place, they too will be removed from the frame, and light wheels
and hoes will be attached ; forming the horse-hoe implement,
for hoeing and stirring between the wheat.
« There is yet one other use for the implement frame. The
intervals of the wheat having been trenched in autumn, and
well and frequently stirred by the common scarifier at spring,
are shut out by the wide-spreading wheat-plant in June from
all further processes till the crop is cut and carried. They are
then to be moved and levelled by the common one-horse scari¬
fier, for seed-time. After this wifi follow the harrow. The hoes
will be removed from the frame, and two small harrows will be
attached, to cover two lands at once ; and with this implement
the horse will walk on the stubble-land, between what before
were the intervals; and the cycle of operations is now complete.
“ In all these operations (excepting in that of scarifying), the
sown lands, and lands about to be made ready for sowing, are
untouched by the foot of man or horse.
“ The time occupied in scarifying the land is about an hour
the acre ; in heavily pressing the channels for the seed, half-
an-hour; in the other operations about 20 or 25 minutes.
(Pp. 25-26.) . _ T
‘‘ The presser-drill, spoken of in p. 25, is completed, and 1
now sow the four acres in 90 minutes, timed by watch; being
at the rate of 18 or 20 acres a day in a day of 8 hours, with a
horse of average power and speed. _
‘ ‘ It has been thought advisable to keep the drill m its own
frame, devoting another frame to the roller-wheels or crusher,
the hoes, the scarifiers, and harrows all of which are made re¬
moveable, and which, with the exception of the spade, the hand-
hoe, and the common scarifier for stirring the intervals, per¬
form the whole cycle of operations for cultivating the land for
wheat.”—(Pp- 33-34.) i i. x v
« i pave only to shew now, by my iresh balance-sheet, how,
with suitable implements, on wheat-land, the whole scheme I
propose is economical, as well as easy and expeditious.
One double-digging in autumn,  £1 10
Three stirrings with scarifier at spring (6d.),... 0 3
One ditto with scarifier and harrow implement,
before sowing,  0
Two pecks of seed (5s. the bushel),  0
Pressing and drilling,   0
Rough rolling, ;  0
Four hoeings between wheat with horse-shoe
implement (6d.),  0
Bird-keeping, - ;  0
All the operations from reaping to marketing, 1
Rates, taxes, and interest,   0
Grain
Crops.
Total amount of outlay, £3 14 0”
“ The produce, supposing it equal to that of former years, in
round numbers, would be :•—
“ Four quarters and two bushels of wheat (at
40s.),  £8 10 0
One ton and 12 cwt. of straw (at £2 the ton), 3 4 0
£11 14 0
3 14 0
Deduct outlay,
Total amount of profit,
£8 0 0’
—{Ibid., p. 30.)
Public attention has more recently been directed to this
system of wheat culture by a lecture on Tull’s husbandry,
delivered by Professor Way, at a council meeting of the
Royal Agricultural Society of England, and by the animated
discussion which followed ; when several gentlemen who had
visited Mr Smith’s farm bore testimony to the continued
excellence of his crops, and intimated that they and others
had begun to test the system upon their own farms. If such
a practice can indeed be pursued on the generality of clay-
soils, then the puzzling problem of how to cultivate them
with a profit is solved at once. It is impossible that prac¬
tical farmers should regard otherwise than with incredulity
a system which so flatly contradicts all existing theory and
practice. The facts submitted to them by Mr Smith being
beyond challenge, they will, in the meantime, hold to the
belief that there is some peculiarity in the soil at Lois Wee-
don which enables it to sustain, as yet, such heavy and con¬
tinued demands on its fertility; and that the issue, there and
elsewhere, must ere long be utter sterility. For our own
part, believing that we have exceeding much to learn in
every department of agriculture, we cannot thus summarily
dispose of these facts. We simply accept them as true, and
leave the exposition of them to experience, whose verdict
we await with much interest.
But Mr Smith is not the only person who has furnished
us with information regarding the continuous growth of
wheat for a series of years on the same soil. Mr Lawes, at
Rothamstead, in Herts, so well known by his interesting
papers on agricultural chemistry in the Royal Agricultural^ Lawes’
Society's Journal, has furnished some facts in connection exPer1'
with the culture of wheat on clay soils, to which farmersraents'
were little prepared to give credence. Mr Caird, who vi¬
sited Rothamstead early in 1851, thus refers to this subject
in his valuable work :—
“ On a soil of heavy loam, on which sheep cannot be fed on
turnips, 4, 5, and 6 feet above the chalk, and therefore unin¬
fluenced by it, except in so far as it is thereby naturally drain¬
ed, ten crops of wheat have been taken in succession, one por¬
tion always without any manure whatever, and the rest with a
variety of manures, the effects of which have been carefully
observed. The seed is of the red cluster variety, drilled uni¬
formly in rows at 8 inches apart, and two bushels to the acre,
hand-hoed twice in spring, and kept perfectly free from weeds.
When the crop is removed the land is scarified with Bentall s
skimmer, all weeds are removed, it is ploughed once, and the
AGRICULTURE.
310
Grain seed for the next crop is then drilled in. During the ten years,
Crops, the land, in a natural state, without manure, has produced a
uniform average of 16 bushels of wheat an acre, with 100 lb.
of straw per bushel of wheat, the actual quantity varying with
the change of seasons between 14 and 20 bushels. The^ repe¬
tition of the crop has made no diminution or change in the
uniformity of the average, and the conclusion seems to be esta¬
blished, that if the land is kept clean, and worked at proper
seasons, it is impossible to exhaust this soil below the power of
producing 16 bushels of wheat every year.
‘ ‘ But this natural produce may be doubled by the applica¬
tion of certain manures. Of these, Mr Lawes’ experiments
led him to conclude that ammonia is the essential requisite.
His conclusions are almost uniform, that no organic matter
affects the produce of wheat, except in so far as it yields am¬
monia ; and that the whole of the organic matter of the corn
crop is taken from the atmosphere by the medium of ammonia.
There is a constant loss of ammonia going on by expiration,
so that a larger quantity must be supplied than is contained in
the crop. For practical purposes, 5 lb. of ammonia is found
to produce a bushel of wheat, and the cheapest form of ammo¬
nia at present being Peruvian guano, 1 cwt. of that substance
may be calculated to give 4 bushels of wheat. The natural pro¬
duce of 16 bushels an acre may therefore be doubled by an ap¬
plication of 4 cwt. of Peruvian guano. To this, however, there
is a limit,—climate. Ammonia gives growth, but it depends on
climate whether that produce is straw or corn. In a wet cold
summer, a heavy application of ammonia produces an undue
development of the circulating condition of the plant, the crop
is laid, and the farmer’s hopes are disappointed. Seven of corn
to ten of straw is usually the most productive crop ; five to ten
seldom yields well. The prudent farmer will therefore regulate
his application of ammonia with a reference to the average
character of the climate in which his farm is situated.
‘ ‘ The practical conclusion at which we arrive is this, that
in the cultivation of a clay-land farm, of similar quality of soil
to that of Mr Lawes’, there is no other restriction necessary
than to keep the land clean. That while it is very possible
to reduce the land by weeds, it is impossible to exhaust it (to
a certain point it may be reduced), by cleanly cultivated corn
crops. That it is an ascertained fact that wheat may be taken
on soils of this description (provided they are manured) year
after year with no other limit than the necessity for cleaning
the land, and that may best be accomplished by an occasional
green crop—turnip or mangold, as best suits—at great inter¬
vals, the straw being brought to the most rotten state, and ap¬
plied in the greatest possible quantity to insure a good crop,
which will clean the land well. If these conclusions are satis¬
factorily proved, the present mode of cultivating heavy clays
may be greatly changed, and the owners and occupiers of such
soils be better compensated in their cultivation than they have
of late had reason to anticipate.” (Caird’s English Agricul¬
ture, in 1850 and 1851, pp. 460-462.)
It is certainly curious to observe, that the addition of
4 cwt. of guano brings up the produce of Mr Lawes’ acre
from its average annual rate of 16 bushels, under its reduced
normal state, to very nearly the same as Rev. Mr Smith’s
acre under his system of alternate strips of corn and sum¬
mer fallow.
Average From information carefully gathered, Mr Caird gives it
yield of as his opinion, that the average produce of wheat per acre
Wheat. in 26 of the 32 counties of England visited by him is 26f
bushels, or 14 per cent, higher than it was estimated at in
the same counties by Arthur Young 80 years before. Were
the country generally anything like as well cultivated as
particular farms that are to be met with in all parts of it,
we should have the present average increased by at least
8 bushels per acre.
Barley.—In Great Britain, barley is the grain crop which
ranks next in importance to wheat, both in an agricultural
and social point of view. Its use as bread-corn is confined
to portions of the lowlands of Scotland, where unleavened
cakes, or “ bannocks o’ barley meal,” still constitute the
daily bread of the peasantry. It is more largely used in
preparing the “ barley broth” so much relished by all classes Grain
in Scotland. To fit the grain for this purpose, it is prepared Crops,
by a peculiar kind of mill, originally introduced from Hoi-
land by Fletcher of Saltoun, in which a thick cylinder of
gritty sandstone is made to revolve rapidly within a case of
perforated sheet-iron. The barley is introduced betwixt
the stone and its case, and there subjected to violent rub¬
bing until first its husk, and then its outer coatings aie re¬
moved. It is, however, in the production of malt liquor and
ardent spirits, and in the fattening of live stock, that our
barley crops are chiefly consumed. We have no doubt that
it would be better for the whole community if this grain
were more largely used in the form of butcher-meat, and
greatly less in that of beer or whisky. It has been custo- Wasteful-
mary for farmers to look upon distillation as beneficial to ness of
them from the ready market which it affords for barley, and brewing
more especially for the lighter qualities of this and other a.ndf <iistl1'
grain crops. But this is a very short-sighted view of the
matter; for careful calculation shows that, when the labour¬
ing man spends a shilling in the dram-shop, not more than
a penny of it goes for the agricultural produce (barley), from
which the gin or whisky is made ; whereas, when he spends
the same sum with the butcher or baker, nearly the whole
amount goes for the raw material, and only a fraction for
the tradesman’s profits. And not only so, but the man who
spends a part of his wages upon strong drink, diminishes,
both directly and indirectly, his ability to buy wholesome
food and good clothing; so that, apart from the moral and
social bearings of this question, it can abundantly be show n
that whisky or beer is the very worst form for the farmer in
which his grain can be consumed. Were the L.50,000,000
at present annually spent in Great Britain upon ardent
spirits (not to speak of beer), employed in purchasing bread,
meat, dairy produce, vegetables, woollen and linen clothing,
farmers would, on the one hand, be relieved from oppressive
rates, and, on the other, have such an increased demand for
their staple products, as would far more than compensate for
the closing of what is, at present, the chief outlet for their
barley. There are many varieties of barley in cultivation,
and some of them are known by different names in different
districts. Those most esteemed at present in Berwickshire Varieties
and neighbouring counties, are the chevalier, the annat, and01 Parley,
the common early long-eared. The chevalier produces the
finest and heaviest grain, weighing usually from 54 lb. to
56 lb. per bushel, and is in high estimation with maltsters.
It is also tall and stout in the straw, which is less liable to
lodge than that of the common barley; and when this accident
does happen, it has the valuable property of not producing
aftershoots or greens. It requires about fourteen days longer
than the common-early to reach maturity, but as it admits
of being sown earlier than the latter sort, this is in practice
no drawback to it. The annat barley resembles the cheva¬
lier in its leading features, but is yellower in its complexion,
and not quite so round in the grain. It ripens a few days
earlier than the chevalier, and in our own experience is
more productive. The common-early is more liable than
those just noticed to suffer from over-luxuriance. It is
generally used for the latest sowings, on those portions of
land from which the turnip crop has been longest in being
removed.
In the elevated or northern parts of the kingdom, four-
rowed barley, usually called Bere or Bigg is cultivated, as ^ere or
it is more hardy, and ripens earlier than the two-rowed BlSS-
varieties. A new variety called Victoria Bere is said to be
so productive, and to yield such a heavy sample, as to be
worthy of cultivation even in lowland districts.
Barley delights in a warm, friable soil, and thrives best
when the seed is deposited rather deeply in a tilthy bed.
Being the grain crop best adapted for succeeding turnips
AGRICULTURE.
311
Grain that have been consumed by sheep-folding, advantage must
Crops, be taken of favouring weather to plough up the land in
successive portions, as the sheep-fold is shifted. So much
of it as is ploughed before 1st February will usually get so
mellowed by the weather as to be easily brought into suit¬
able condition for receiving the seed. In Scotland, the
usual practice is to sow broad-cast on this stale furrow, and
to cover the seed by simple harrowing. A better way is
first to level the surface by a stroke of the harrows, and then
to form it into ribs twelve inches apart, by such an imple¬
ment as has been described, when speaking of Tennant’s
grubber. Over this corrugated surface the seed is sown
broad-cast, and covered by another turn of the harrows. The
ribbing loosens the soil, gives the seed a uniform and suffi¬
cient covering, and deposits it in rows. The only advan¬
tage of such ribbing over drilling is, that the soil is better
stirred, and the seed deposited more deeply, and less crowded
than is done by the ordinary drills. It is certainly of great
advantage to have the seed-corn deposited in narrow lines,
so far as the working of the horse-hoe is concerned; but we
are convinced that stiffer stems, larger ears, a more abun¬
dant yield, and a brighter sample are likely to be obtained
when the seed is loosely scattered in a channel 3 or 4 inches
wide than when crowded into a narrow line. This grain is
now sown considerably earlier than heretofore. When the
soil is enriched by plentiful manuring, its temperature raised
by thorough draining, and the climate and exposure favour¬
able, it should be sown as early in March as possible, and
will often do remarkably well although sown in February.
This early sowing counteracts that tendency to over-luxu¬
riance, by which the crop is so often ruined in fertile soils.
It is chiefly owing to this early sowing (although aided by
the use of hummelling machinery) that the average weight
of barley is so much greater now than it was twenty years
ago. From 53 lb. to 54 lb. per bushel is now about the
average weight in well-cultivated districts; while 57 lb. and
58 lb. is by no means rare. The produce per acre ranges
from 36 to 60 bushels ; 44 bushels being about the average.
The quantity of seed used per acre, is from 2^ to 3 bushels,
for broad-cast sowing, and about a third less when drilled.
As already remarked in regard to wheat, it is well, as the
season advances, to avoid, by a fuller allowance of seed, the
temptation to excessive tillering, and consequent unequal
and later ripening.
Oats.—Over a large portion of England oats are grown
only as provender for horses, for which purpose they are fully
ascertained to be superior to all other grains. Except, there¬
fore, on fen-lands, and recently-reclaimed muiry soils, the
cultivation of oats in south Britain bears a small proportion
to the other cereals. It is in Scotland, “ the land o’ cakes,”
that this grain is most esteemed, and most extensively culti¬
vated. Considerably more than half of the annual grain
crops of Scotland consists in fact of oats. The important
item which oatmeal porridge forms in the diet of her pea¬
santry, and of the children of her other classes, has something
to do with this extensive culture of the oat; but it arises
mainly from its peculiar adaptation to her humid climate.
As with the other cereals, there are very numerous varieties
of the oat in cultivation. In Messrs Lawson’s Synopsis of
the Vegetable Products of Scotland, it is said (Div. i. p. 80.)
“ Our collection comprises nearly sixty varieties, about thirty
of which are grown in Scotland; but of these not more than
twelve are in general cultivation. These twelve varieties
enumerated in the order of their general cultivation, are, the
Varieties Potato, Hopetoun, Sandy, Early-Angus, Late-Angus, Grey-
in cultiva- Angus, Blainslie, Berlie, Dun, Friesland, Black Tartarian,
tlon' and Barbachlaw.” The first four kinds in this list are those
chiefly cultivated on the best class of soils. It is to the pro¬
duce of these that the highest market prices usually have
reference. The weight per bushel of these sorts usually
runs from 42 lb. to 46 lb. From 50 to 60 bushels per acre
is a usual yield of oats. The two last-named kinds are chiefly
esteemed for their large produce, and adaptation to inferior
soils ; but being of coarse quality, they are chiefly used for
provender. A variety which stands the winter is now
frequently grown in England, for the double purpose of
first yielding a seasonable supply of green food to ewes
and lambs in early spring, and afterwards producing a crop
of grain. It has already been stated that, in Scotland,
wheat does not prosper when sown after clover or pasture;
but with the oat it is quite the reverse, as it never grows
better than on land newly broken up from grass. It is, ac¬
cordingly, almost invariably sown at this stage of the rota¬
tion. The land is ploughed in December or January, be¬
ginning with the strongest soil, or that which has lain longest
in grass, that it may have the longest exposure to the mel¬
lowing influences of wintry weather. In March or April,
the oats are sown broad-cast on this first ploughing, and co¬
vered in by repeated harrowings. These are given length¬
wise until the furrows are well broken down, for if the har¬
rows are worked across the ridges, before this is effected,
they catch hold of the edges of the slices, and partially lift¬
ing them, permit the seed-corn to fall to the bottom, where
it is lost altogether. As it is only when a free tilth is ob¬
tained that the crop can be expected to prosper, care must
be taken to plough early and somewhat deeply, laying the
furrows over with a rectangular shoulder; to sow when the
land is in that state of dryness that admits of its crumbling
readily when trode upon, and then to use the harrows un¬
til they move smoothly and freely in the loose soil, two or
three inches deep. The Norwegian harrow is an important
auxiliary to the common ones in obtaining this result. When
wild mustard and other annual weeds abound, it is advisable
to drill the crop and to use the horse-hoe. When the land
is clean, the general belief in Scotland is that the largest
crops are obtained by sowing broad-cast. When the latter
plan of sowing is adopted, from 4 to 6 bushels per acre is the
quantity of seed used. The latter quantity is required in the
case of the Hopetoun and other large-grained varieties. The
condition of the soil as to richness and friability must also
be taken into account in determining the quantity of seed to
be used. When it is in high heart and likely to harrow'
kindly, a less quantity wall suffice than under opposite con¬
ditions. In breaking up a tough old sward, even six bush¬
els per acre may be too little to sow. The following very
interesting experiment bearing on this point was recently
made in Fifeshire. “ Mr Gulland, Wemyss, offered a sweep-
stakes in 1850, that 4 bushels of oats, sown per Scotch acre,
in poor land, would yield a better produce than 8 bushels
sown under similar conditions. The late Mr Hill, maintain¬
ing the contrary, accepted the sweepstakes, and a number
of others took up the same. Experiments were made by Mr
Dingwall, Ramornie, and Mr Buist, Hattonhill. . . .:—
“ In Mr Buist’s experiments,
“ 4 bush, sown yielded 28 bush, per acre, 34 lb. per bush.
8 bush, sown yielded 36 „ „ 34^ lb. „
“ In Mr Dingwall’s experiments,
4 bush, sown yielded 45 bush, per acre, 38^ lb. per bush.
8 bush, sown yielded 49 „ ,, 39 lb. „ ,n
The advocates for thin seeding will of course regard even
the least of these quantities as foolishly redundant. It is quite
true, that if the land is in good heart, the crop will ultimately
stand close to the ground from a very small seeding; but it
will take two or three weeks longer to do this than if the
Grain
Crops.
I Agricultural Gazette, 20th November 1852,
312
Grain
Crops.
('hange of
seed.
Manures
for oat
crop.
Diseases.
AGRICULTURE.
land had been fully stocked with plants from the fh* , y
giving it seed enough. In our precarious chmate, where a
late harvest and bad crops usually go tog® f ’ f t ipen.
utmost importance to secure early, uniform and perfect
ing; and as liberal seeding tends directly to Pror«°te such a
result, practical farmers will do well to take care how they
omit such a simple means of attaining so ini])<” jin ^ ^
We believe that it is on the principle now ^^ted^hat the
sun prior result both as respects quantity and quality ol pro¬
duce, in the double-seeded lots in the experiments now cited,
'S Asbwi* wtotthe vigour and productiveness d: the oat
is much enhanced by frequent change of seed. Our ag
cultural authorities usually assert that the change should, f
possible always be from an earlier chmate and better soil.
This is’undoubtedly true as regards high-lying districts;
but with a good soil and climate, we have always seen the
best results with seed from a later district.
On poor hard soils it is usually remunerative to apply a
cwt. of guano per acre to the oat crop ; sowing it broad¬
cast, and harrowing it in, along with the seed. As much
additional produce is thus ordinarily obtained as more than
pays for the manure, and the land is, in all respects, left m
better condition for the succeeding green crop. In the case
both of very light and strong clay soils, we have obtained
excellent results by applying a liberal dressing of farm-yard
dung, in autumn, to grass-land about to be broken up for
oats. By using, in this way, the dung produced during
the summer months, we have obtained abundant crops o
oats from portions of land which, but for this, would have
yielded poorly; and, at the same time,.by applying tie
bulky manure at this stage of the rotation, instead of directly
for the succeeding green crop, an important saving of time
and labour has been effected, as we shall have occasion to
notice when treating of turnip-culture.
When the young oat plants have pushed their second
leaf, it is always beneficial to use the roller, as it helps to
protect the crop from the evil effects of drought, and faci¬
litates the reaping of it. The oat frequently suffers much
from a disease called “ segging” or “ tulip root,” .which ap¬
pears to be caused by the presence of a maggot in the pith
of the stems close to the ground. On land which is subject
to this disease, it is advisable not to sow early. A dressing
of lime is also believed to be serviceable as a preventative.
On muiry soils, this crop is also not unfrequently lost by
what is called “ slaying? This seems to result from the
occurrence of frosty nights late in spring when the crop is
in its young stage, and which, when grown on such soils,
it cannot withstand. The best remedy is to improve the
texture of the soil by a good coating of clay.
Rye.—The extensive cultivation of this grain in any coun¬
try being alike indicativeof a lowstate of agriculture, and of a
poor style of living among its peasantry, it must be regarded
as a happy circumstance, that it has become nearly obsolete
in Great Britain. It is still occasionally met with in some of
our poorest sandy soils, and patches are occasionally grown
elsewhere for the sake of the straw, which is in estimation
for thatching—for making bee-hives, and for stuffing horse-
collars. Its cultivation as a catch crop, to furnish early food
for sheep in spring, is on the increase.
Grain
Crops.
LEGUMINOUS CROPS.
The only members of this family statedly cultivated for
their grain are beans and pease. Before the introduction
of clover and turnips these legumes occupied a more impor¬
tant place in the estimation of the husbandman than they
have done since. Indeed, in many districts naturally well
adapted for the culture of turnips, that of beans and pease
was for a time all but abandoned. Recently, however, in¬
creasing precariousness in the growth of clover, and even of
turnips, where they have been sown on the same ground v  
every fourth year for a lengthened period, has compelled '•
farmers to return to the culture of beans and pease for the
mere purpose of prolonging the intervals in the periodic re¬
currence of the former crops. But it is found, in regard to
the bean itself, in districts where it has long occupied a
stated place in rotations of six or seven years, that its average
produce gradually diminishes. We have thus an additional
illustration of the importance of introducing as great a variety
of crops as possible into our field culture. It is on this prin¬
ciple that beans and pease are now again extensively culti¬
vated on dry friable soils. Winter beans, or pease of some
early variety, are generally preferred in such cases. 1 he
grain of these legumes, though partially used for human
food, is chiefly consumed by horses and by fattening cattle
and sheep. Being highly nutritious, they are well adapted
for this purpose. By growing beans on a limited portion of
the land assigned to cattle crops, a larger weight of beef and
mutton can be produced from a given number of acres, than
by occupying them wholly with roots, forage, and pasturage.
Several varieties of field beans are cultivated in Great Biitain,
such as the common horse bean, the tick, the Heligoland,
and the winter bean. The latter was introduced into Eng-winter
land about the year 1825, and there rises steadily in esti-bean.
mation. It has been tried in many parts of Scotland and
proves quite hardy, but is objected to from the exceeding
shortness of its straw*. But for this, it is a valuable acqui¬
sition, as it ripens so much earlier than the spring-sown
varieties. Beans are either sown broad-cast, dibbled in nar¬
row rows, or drilled at intervals varying from a foot to 27
inches. The last is undoubtedly the best method; regard
being had both to the amount and quality of produce, and
to the effects of bean culture on the after crops. Beans
should never be sown on land that is foul. By diligent
horse and hand hoeing, land that is clean to begin with,
can be kept so under beans, and left in fine condition for
carrying a white corn crop ; but in opposite circumstances
it is sure to get in:o utter confusion. It is found advisable
therefore to take beans after the white crop that has suc¬
ceeded roots or a bare fallow. In Berwickshire, where a five
years’ course, consisting of turnips, wheat or barley, two years
seeds, and oats has long prevailed, beans are now not un¬
frequently introduced by substituting them for the second
year’s grass. A four years’ course with beans instead of a
portion of the seeds is certainly preferable. In cultivating
this crop, the land is ploughed with a deep furrow m autumn
a dressing of dung being first spread over the surface and
turned in by the plough. As soon in March as the state o ™e an^
the land admits, it is stirred by the cultivator, harrowed, and
formed, by a single turn of the common plough, into shallow
drills twenty-seven inches apart. Ten or twelve such drills
being formed to begin with, the seed is scattered broad-cast,
at the rate of 3 bushels per acre, by a sower who takes in
six of these drills at a time, and gives them a double cast. I he
beans either roll into the hollows as they fall, or are turnec
in bv the ploughs, which now proceed to open, each a fresh
drill, in going down the one side of the working interval, and
to cover in a seeded one in returning on the other side. I ™"re
tares are cultivated on the farm, it is usual to sow a s™a 1 vetches>
quantity (say a peck per acre) amongst the beans, on which
they are borne up and so ripen their seeds better, and yie ci
more abundantly, than when trailing on the ground. When
the crop comes to be thrashed, the tares are easily sepaiate
from the beans by sifting. Ten days or so after sowing, the
drills are harrowed down; and, it the land is cloddy, it ls
smoothed by a light roller. If showers occur when the bean
plants are appearing above ground, or shortly alter, the har¬
rows are used again with the best effect in pulverising the
A GR I C U
Grain soil and destroying newly-sprung weeds. A horse and hand
Crops, hoeing is then given, and is repeated if weeds again appear.
When the plants have got about 6 inches high, it is bene¬
ficial to stir the soil deeply betwixt the rows by using 1 en-
nant’s grubber, drawn by a pair of horses. For this purpose
the tines are set so close together as to clear the rows of
beans, and the horses are yoked to it by a main tree, long
enough to allow the horses to work abreast in the rows, on
either side of the one operated upon. The soil is thus
worked thoroughly to the depth of 6 or 8 inches, without re¬
versing the surface and exposing it to drought, or risk of
throwing it upon the plants. Just before the blooms appear,
some farmers pass a bulking-plough betwixt the rows, work¬
ing it very shallow, and so as merely to move the surface-
soil towards the plants. This may do good; but a deep
earthing up is hurtful. When the blooms open, all opera¬
tions should cease, as otherwise, much mischief may be done.
Such an amount of culture may be thought needlessly costly
and laborious; but unless a bean crop is kept clean, it had bet¬
ter not be sown. And it is to be remembered that the benefit
of this careful tillage is not confined to it, but will be equally
shared in by the wheat crop that follows. The culture of
winter beans differs only in this; that they require to be
sown as early in autumn as the removal of the preceding
grain crop admits of.
Pease are sown in circumstances similiar to those just de¬
tailed ; but they are better adapted than beans to light soils.
They too are best cultivated in rows of such a width as to ad¬
mit of horse-hoeing. The early stage at which they fall over,
and forbid further culture, renders it even more needful than
in the case of beans to sow them only on land already clean.
If annual weeds can be kept in check until the pease once get
a close cover, they then occupy the ground so completely,
that nothing else can live under them ; and the ground, after
their removal, is found in the choicest condition. A thin
crop of pease should never be allowed to stand, as the land
is sure to get perfectly wild. The difficulty of getting this
crop well harvested renders it peculiarly advisable to sow
only the early varieties.
Bean straw In Scotland the haulm of beans is esteemed an excellent
as fodder, fodder for horses and other live stock; whereas in England
it is thought unfit for such a use. The reason of this ap¬
pears to be, that in the southern counties beans are allowed
to stand until the leaf is gone, and the stems blackened be¬
fore reaping; whereas in Scotland they are reaped so soon
as the eye of the grain gets black. When well got, the
juices of the plant are thus, to some extent, retained in the
haulm, which, in consequence, is much relished by live stock,
and yields a wholesome and nutritious fodder.
The cereals and legumes now enumerated, constitute the
staple grain-crops of Great Britain. Others are grown oc¬
casionally, but more for curiosity than profit. Zealous at¬
tempts were made by the late William Cobbett to introduce
. maize or Indian corn as one of our regular crops. It has
aiZe been conclusively proved that none of its varieties, yet tried,
can be ripened in the ordinary seasons of this country. It
has indeed been suggested that it might form a useful addi¬
tion to our garden vegetables—using it, as it is done in
America, by cooking the unripe cobs; and also that we might
Lentiles. grow it beneficially as a forage crop. Lentiles have recently
been grown in different parts of the country; but both of
these grains can be imported of better quality, and at less
cost, than they can be grown at home.
There is great inducement to agriculturists to endeavour
more earnestly to obtain improved varieties of grain by cross¬
impregnation of existing ones. Something has already been
accomplished in this direction; but only enough to show
what encouragement there is to persevere. Whenever the
same skill and perseverance are directed to the improve-
YOL. II.
L T U R E. 313
ment of field crops, that our gardeners are constantly exert- Grain
ing, with such astonishing results, on fruits, flowers, and ve- v CroP3- j
getables, we may anticipate a great increase of produce, not
only from the discovery of more fruitful varieties, but of
such as possess a special adaption to every diversity in the
soil and climate of our territory.
HARVESTING OF GRAIN CROPS, AND THEIR PREPARATION
FOR MARKET.
Several distinct modes of reaping grain are in use. The Raping
most ancient, and still the most common is by the sickle or g.c^^e
reaping-hook, which is used either with a smooth or ser¬
rated edge. The latter was at one time preferred, as by it
the work was performed most accurately. The smooth-
edged instrument is, however, now the favourite, as it re¬
quires less exertion to use it, and the reaper can, in conse¬
quence, get through more work in a day; and also, because
in using it the grain is less compressed, and consequently
dries faster when made into sheaves. In some parks of
England the crops are reaped in a method caWedfagging or lagging-
bagging. The cutting instrument used is heavier, straighter,
and broader in the blade than the common reaping-hook.
The workman uses it with a slashing stroke, and gathers the
cut corn as he proceeds by means of a hooked stick held in
his left hand. It is a similar process to the mode of reaping
with the Hainault scythe,—an instrument which has been
tried in this country, but never adopted to any extent. The
common scythe, especially with that form of handle known
as the Aberdeen handle or sned, is very extensively used
for reaping grain in all parts of the kingdom. Indeed the Mowing,
practice of mowing grain has been increasing of late years,
and would extend more rapidly, but for the greater diffi¬
culty of finding good mowers than good reapers. A greater
amount of dexterity is required to cut grain well by the
scythe than by the sickle. The difficulty lies not in making
smooth and clean stubble, but in so laying the swathe as to
admit of the corn being sheaved accurately. When the
mower lays his swathe at right angles to his line of progress,
and the gatherer is skilful and careful, corn may be handled
as neatly in reaping by the scythe as by the sickle. When
the crops are not much laid or twisted, mowing is some¬
what the cheapest of these modes of reaping. Its chief re¬
commendation, however, is that mown sheaves dry most
quickly, and suffer least from a drenching rain. This arises
from the stems being less handled, and so forming an open
sheaf, through which the wind penetrates freely. Tightly-
bound sheaves are always difficult to dry. If it be true that
we have at last got a really effective reaping-machine, it is
probable that corn cut down by it will also possess this pro¬
perty of rapid drying.
In Berwickshire and adjoining counties, the reaping of
the crops has hitherto been accomplished by employing, at
days’ wages, such a number of reapers as suffices to cut down
the crops on each farm in from twelve to twenty days. The
rate of wages paid to reapers for a number of years has ranged
from 2s. to 2s. 6d. each per diem, with victuals in addition,
costing about eightpence for each person. In marshalling the
band, two reapers are placed on each ridge of 15 feet in
breadth, with a binder to each four reapers, and a steward,
or the farmer in person, to superintend the whole. When
the crop is of average bulk, and lies favourable for reaping,
each bandwin, or set of four reapers and a binder, dear
two acres in a day of ten hours; but 1 ^ to 1^ acres odyf ij
it is bulky and lodged. The cost of reaping by this method
is therefore from 7s. 6d. to 12s. per acre. With such a
reaping-machine as Bell’s, cutting, say eight acres per diem,
and requiring in all ten persons (five men and five wromen
or stout lads), to attend to and clear up after it, at an ave¬
rage wage, including victuals, of 2s. 6d. each; and allowing
2. R
314
AGRICULTURE.
Grain 3s. per diem to cover tear and wear, and interest on its
Crops, prime cost, there seems a reasonable prospect of a goodly
portion of our future crops being reaped for about 3s. 6d.
Iteapingbyper acre. The labour of the horses employed in working
machinery, the reaper is not included in this estimate, as at this season
they would otherwise be idle, and yet eating nearly as much
food as when at work. There would thus be a saving in
actual outlay of 4s. per acre. But this is the least important
view of the matter. On a Berwickshire farm producing 200
acres of crop, there are usually at least six pairs of horses
kept, with a resident population, sufficient to yield about
thirty persons (including women and youths), available for
harvest labour. The stated forces of such a farm will there¬
fore suffice to man tivo reaping-machines, and leave ten
persons still available for opening up fields, clearing cor¬
ners, and reaping such portions as the machines cannot
deal with. In unfavourable seasons, one machine only
might be able to work with twenty persons using the
scythe or sickle. In either way the crop could be cut
down in from ten to fifteen days with little or no extra¬
neous aid; whereas, to accomplish it in the same time
by hand labour only, from fifty to sixty persons are re¬
quired. The rapidity and accuracy with which the sowing
of grain is now accomplished, frequently issues in the whole
crops of a wide district being simultaneously ready for the
sickle. The consequence is, that the supply of labourers
proves insufficient—there is a scramble to get them—the
rate of wages becomes exorbitant, employers are fain to
submit to much sauciness and turbulence ; and all the while
the crops are suffering from over-ripening and are exposed
to shaking winds. Great then will be the boon to farmers,
if, by means of this invention, they can bring their own heavy
cavalry into the field—dispense with the services of mercen¬
aries,—reduce their actual outlay, and yet shorten the period
and lessen the risk of the harvesting process. The call for
reaping-machines is now, therefore, more urgent than ever.
Perhaps we might add, it is only now that our agriculture has
made sufficient progress in other respects to be ready to gear
on to such machinery when presented to us.
When It is now agreed on all hands that grain should be reaped
grain is fit before it becomes what is called dead ripe. In the case of
for i eap- wheat an(j when the grains have ceased to yield a milky
fluid on being pressed under the thumb-nail, and when the
ears and a few inches of the stem immediately under them
have become yellow, the sooner they are reaped the better.
Barley requires to be somewhat more matured. Unless the
pink stripes on the husk have disappeared, and the grain
has acquired a firm substance, it will shrink in drying, and
be deficient both in weight and colour. When allowed to
stand till it gets curved in the neck, the straw of barley be¬
comes so brittle that many ears break short off in the reap¬
ing ; and it suffers even more than other grain-crops under
a shaking wind.
It is of great consequence to see that corn is dry when it
is tied up in sheaves; that these are not too tightly bound,
and that every sheaf is kept constantly on foot. From the
increased demand for harvest labourers, and the rapidity
with which operations must be carried forward, stocking is
not now performed with the same accuracy that it was wont
to be. There is therefore the greater need for employing
a person to review the stooks daily, and keep every sheaf
erect. It was formerly the practice in Scotland to set up
oats and barley in full stooks of twelve sheaves each, viz.,
Different five pairs and two hood-sheaves. These hood-sheaves are
modes of an excellent defence when wet weather sets in, but they re¬
stocking tard the drying of the corn in fine weather, and there are
sheaves. now pew kinc[ers wh0 can set them up so as to stand se¬
curely. It is better, therefore, to aim at rapid drying, and,
for this purpose, to have the sheaves small individually, and
to set but four or six of them together. Large sheaves are Grain
worse to dry than small ones, not only from their greater Crops,
bulk, but from their being almost invariably tighter bound.
The utmost vigilance is required on the part of farmers to
avoid this fault. Beans and pease are reaped by the sickle. ReaPing of
The former are usually not bound into sheaves at once, butbeans or
left prostrate in handfuls for a few days until they havepease‘
withered a little. They are then sheaved, and bound with
ties of twisted straw, which must be provided beforehand.
In stacking beans, the tops of the sheaves are kept outwards,
as by this means fewer pods are exposed to the weather, or
to the depredations of fowls, &c., than when the butts are
to the outside. Pease are rolled into wisps as they are reaped,
and afterwards turned daily until they are fit to carry. When
stacked, they must instantly be thatched, as they take in
wet like a sponge. It requires no little discrimination to Carrying
know when sheaves are dry enough to keep in a stack. Thein stacking
farmer finds it for his profit to consult his most intelligent £rain
and experienced labourers on this point. On thrusting the crofs-
hand into a sheaf sufficiently dried, there is a lightness and
kindliness to the touch not easily mistaken when once under¬
stood. Whenever this is ascertained, the crop is carried
with the utmost possible despatch. This is best accom¬
plished by using one-horse carts, and by building the sheaves
into round stacks of ten or twelve loads each. Very large
stacks are for ostentation, not for profit. The labour of pitch¬
ing up the sheaves to them is needlessly great; corn is much
sooner in a state to keep in small stacks than in large ones,
and sooner gets into condition for market; the crop is more
accessible for thrashing in few-load quantities than in huge
ricks, and the crop of different fields and kinds of grain more
easily kept separate.
young’s stack-stool.
It is always desirable to have the stacks built upon frames stack
or stools elevated 18 or 20 inches from the ground. Be-stools,
sides the security from vermin thus attained, there is a free
admission of air to every part, particularly when aided by a
triangle of rough timber in the centre, which speedily in¬
sures thorough dryness in the whole stack. When stacks
are built upon the ground, with a mere bedding of straw
under them, the grain from the basement tiers of sheaves is
often lighter by several pounds per bushel, than that from the
rest of it. A farmer who has his rick-yard fully furnished
with these frames, can often carry his crop without risk,—
when, if built on the ground, it would inevitably heat,—and
have the grain in condition for market earlier by months
than in the latter case. We have elsewhere noticed a recent,
but, perhaps, too costly improvement upon these stack-
frames, viz., to have them mounted on wheels and set on
rails, so that such stacks can be moved entire to the barn¬
door, when about to be thrashed. As the stacks are built,
they are thatched without delay. For this purpose, careful stacks,
farmers provide beforehand ample stores of thatch and
straw ropes. The thatch is not elaborately drawn, but
merely straightened a little as it falls from the thrashing-
mill, tied into large bundles, and built up into stacks, where
AGRICULTURE.
315
Root it gets compressed, and so lies more evenly than if used
Crops. t|irect from the mill. A good coating of such thatch se-
cured by straw ropes, interlacing each other in chequers,
forms a secure and cheap covering, easily put on by ordi¬
nary farm-labourers ; and possessing, with all its roughness,
an air of unpretending rustic neatness, which harmonises
well with surrounding objects, and which we greatly prefer
to the elaborate ricks of the southern counties with their
shaved sides, combed thatch, and weather-cock-a-peak.
Apart from its cost, the shaving of stacks is objectionable,
as they then suffer more from a beating rain or snow-drift,
than when the natural roughness is left upon them, on the
same principle that a coarse, shaggy toncoat shoots off wet,
better than a smooth broadcloth.
With proper machinery propelled by steam or water, the
thrashing and dressing of grain is a simple and inexpensive
process. As grain is now universally sold with a reference
to its weight per bushel, its relative value depends much
upon its dryness and thorough freedom from chaff, dust,
light grain, and seeds of weeds. Farmers who are syste¬
matically careful in the cultivation, harvesting, thrashing,
and dressing of their crops, can always command the best
prices of the day. In preparing a parcel of grain for market,
it is a good plan to measure a few sacks very carefully, as¬
certain the average weight of these, and then fill every re¬
maining sack to that weight exactly.
CHAPTER VII.
ROOT CROPS.
Potato.—The events of the past seven years render it
necessary to regard this root somewhat differently than was
warranted by its previous history. Its value, as an article
of food, relished alike by prince and peasant, its easy cul¬
ture, its adaptation to a very wide diversity of soil and cli¬
mate, and the largeness of its produce, justly entitled it to
the high esteem in which it was universally held. Like
many other good gifts, it was, however, grossly abused, and
diverted from its legitimate use. From an agreeable,
wholesome addition to the daily food of the community,
advantage was taken of its amazing productive powers, to
Fffecta of Put ^ *n P^ace a the staff of life.” In Ireland, and the
f hr.« potato Highlands of Scotland, the people already in a painfully de¬
disease.” graded condition, and contented to exist with potatoes as
their sole food from year’s end to year’s end, took occasion,
from its very productiveness, under the rudest culture, to
subdivide their lands, and marry prematurely, with reckless
improvidence, and amid an ever-deepening degradation.
We know now, from the utter prostration and helplessness
into which this wretched population was at once thrown by
the memorable potato disease, the terrible penalty which
this abuse of “ a good gift” has brought directly on the
miserable sufferers, and indirectly on the whole community.
It will be well if the stern lesson, enforced by famine and
pestilence, have the effect of leading to a better social con¬
dition. Viewed in this light, the potato disease may yet
prove a blessing to the nation. Its continued prevalence,
although in a mitigated form, cannot well be regarded other¬
wise, when we remember the frantic eagerness with which
the Irish peasantry replanted their favourite root on the first
indication of its returning vigour, and the desperate energy
with which they cling to it under repeated disappointments.
Apart from this specialty, the precarious health of this im¬
portant esculent is much to be regretted. It seems con¬
trary to analogy to suppose that it is likely either to be en¬
tirely lost, or to manifest a permanent liability to this dis¬
ease. It seems more natural to suppose that, by and by,
this disease will disappear, or that some efficient remedy for
it will be discovered. Railways now afford great facilities Root
for transporting this bulky commodity at little expense to Crops,
great distances, and thus render the market for it available
to a wider district, and would, but for the disease, insure its
more extended cultivation.
The varieties of the potato, whether for garden or field Varieties
culture, are exceedingly numerous, and admit of endless in- exceeding-
crease by propagating from seeds. It would serve no use-1/ nunie'
ful purpose to enumerate here even a selection from the s‘
sorts in use in different parts of the country. In Messrs
Lawson’s Synopsis of the Vegetable Products of Scotland,
a description of 175 kinds is given, to which the reader is
referred for particulars. When the crop is grown for cattle
food, bulk of produce will be the primary consideration ; but
for sale or family use, flavour, keeping quality, and hand¬
some appearance, as well as good yield, will be particularly
attended to. Exemption from disease is now a momentous
consideration, whatever the use for which it is grown.
There is this difficulty, however, connected with selections
on the score of healthiness, that while in each season since
the disease broke out, certain varieties have escaped, it is
observed, from year to year, that the exempted list varies;
certain kinds that had been previously healthy becoming as
obnoxious to disease as any, and others in a great measure
escaping that had suffered much before. Indeed, certain
parties, from observing that diseased tubers left in the ground
have produced healthy plants in the following season, have
been induced purposely to plant diseased potatoes, and with
good results. This, however, is probably due to the mere
fact of their being kept in the earth.
In field culture, the potato is frequently grown on a por-Prepara¬
tion of the fallow break; but its appropriate place in the tion of the
rotation is that usually assigned to beans, with which, in ansoil-
agricultural point of view, it has many features in common,
and in lieu of which it may with advantage be cultivated.
As the potato requires to be planted as early in spring as
the weather will admit of, thus leaving little opportunity for
cleaning the land, and as its mode of growth forbids any
effective removal of root-weeds by after culture, it is pecu¬
liarly necessary to have the land devoted to this crop cleaned
in autumn. Winter dunging facilitates the planting, and is
otherwise beneficial to the crop by producing that loose and
mellow condition of the soil in which the potato delights.
The quality of the crop is also believed to be better when
the dung is thoroughly incorporated with the soil, than when
it is applied in the drill at the time of planting. A liberal
application of manure is necessary if a full crop is expected.
The rank growth thus induced renders it, however, more
obnoxious to the murrain, and hence at present it is more
prudent to aim rather at a sound crop than an abundant
one, and for this purpose to stint the manure. When it is
applied at the time of planting, the mode of procedure is
the same as that which will presently be described in the
section on turnip culture. The potato sets are prepared prepara-
a few days before they are expected to be needed. Tubers tion of the
about the size of an egg do well to be planted whole; and sets,
it is a good plan to select these when harvesting the crop,
and to pit them by themselves, that they may be ready for
use without further labour. The larger tubers are cut into
pieces having at least one sound eye in each, although two
are better. It is of great consequence to have seed-potatoes
stored in a cool and dry pit, so that if possible they may be
prepared for planting before they have begun to shoot. If
there has been any heating in the pit, the potatoes are found
to be covered by a rank crop of shoots, which are neces¬
sarily rubbed off, and thus the most vigorous eyes are lost,
and much of the substance which should have nourished the
young plant utterly wasted. A sufficient number of dor¬
mant eyes are no doubt left, but from the comparatively ex-
316
AGRICULTURE.
Root hausted state of the tubers, these produce stems of a weaker
Crops, and more watery character, and more liable to disease than
—v^-', those first protruded. To avoid these evils, gardeners are
at pains to invigorate their seed potatoes and husband their
whole powers for early and vigorous growth by greening
them in autumn, storing them in a cool place with a cur¬
rent of air passing through it, and then in early spring ex¬
posing them to light on a floor, whence they are carefully
removed and planted with their short, thick, green shoots
unbroken.1 Neither the greening nor the sprouting under
cover and in the light, can ordinarily be practised on the
scale on which the field culture of the potato is conducted.
But the important feature in it, viz., so treating potatoes
intended for seed that the crop shall be produced from the
first and most vigorous shoots, and that these shall obtain
the full benefit of the natural pabulum stored up for their
use in the parent tuber, should be carefully considered and
imitated if possible in field culture.
The report of the meeting of the Edinburgh Botanical
Society,on 8th January 1852, bears that “Professor Simpson
communicated the results of some experiments made by
himself and Mr Stewart relative to the growth of alpine
plants after having been kept artificially covered with snow
in an ice-house for many months. Seeds and plants when
kept in this way during winter, and then brought into the
warm air of summer, germinate and grow with great rapi¬
dity. Mr Stewart had also made experiments with animals,
and he found that the chrysalis so treated produced a moth
in eleven days after being brought into the atmosphere,
while other chrysalis of the same moth did not do so for
three or four months after. In arctic regions the rapid
growth of plants during the short summer was well known.
Professor Simpson alluded to the importance of similar ex¬
periments being made on the different kinds of grain. He
referred to the rapidity of harvest in Canada and other
countries where the cold lasted for many months, and he
was disposed to think that if grain was kept in ice-houses
during the winter, and sown in spring, there might be an
acceleration of the harvest.”2
This suggestion for the treatment of seed corn is cer¬
tainly deserving of trial. But the known difficulty of hin¬
dering the premature germination of potato sets in the or¬
dinary method of storing them, seems to point to them as
the peculiarly appropriate subjects of such an experiment.
Potato drills should not be less than 30 inches wide, nor
the sets less: than 10 or 12 inches apart in the rows. The
usual practice is to take the sets to the field in sacks, which
are set down at convenient distances for replenishing the
baskets or aprons of the planters. When a large breadth
is to be planted, a better way is to have the sets in carts,
one of which is moved slowly along in front of the planters.
A person is seated in the cart, who has by him several spare
baskets which he keeps ready filled, and which are handed
to the planters in exchange for empty ones as often as re¬
quired. This greatly economises the time of the planters,
and admits of a greater amount of work being accomplished
by them in a day. Single-bout drills are quite sufficient so
far as the success of the crop is concerned. Where neatness
is much studied, a double-bout certainly makes a nicer finish,
but as the drills should be partially levelled by a turn of the
drill-harrows about ten or fourteen days after planting, as
weather admits, very short time is allowed for admiring the
trigness of the work; and the extra labour thus expended
can certainly be more profitably employed at this busy sea¬
son. So soon as the young potato plants are fairly above
ground, the drill-grubber should be set to work and followed
up without delay by hand-hoeing. Mr Wallace, North- Root
Berwick-Mains, a most successful cultivator of potatoes, has Crops,
for many years taken off all the shoots, save one, from the ^ r—
potato sets as they appear above ground, and the primings
are used in filling up blanks; the result has been, that the
produce of the solitary stem is both larger and of more equal
size and quality than when the shoots are all left. A turn
of the horse-hoe and another hand-hoeing after a short in¬
terval are usually required, after which the common practice
is to earth up the rows by the double mould-board ploughs.
There is reason to believe that this latter practice usually
does harm, rather than good. It no doubt prevents the
uppermost tubers from getting greened by exposure to the
light, but it is believed that the injury inflicted on the roots
which spread into the intervals betwixt the rows far more
than counterbalances any benefits that result or have been
supposed to result from this earthing up. After the plants
are a foot high, a slight stirring of the surface to keep down
weeds is all the culture that is admissible consistently with
the well-doing of the crop. When the crop is matured,
which is known by the decay of the tops, and the firmness
of the epidermis when the tubers are forcibly rubbed by the
thumb, advantage is taken of every dry day in harvesting
the crop. For small plots, the fork is certainly the most
efficient implement for raising the tubers; but on the large
scale when expedition is of such consequence, they are
always unearthed by the double mould-board plough. Al¬
ternate rows are split open in the first instance, and then
the intervening ones, as the produce of the first is gathered.
When a convenient breadth has thus been cleared, a turn
of the harrows is given to uncover such tubers as have been
hid from the gleaners at the first going over. In Kincardine¬
shire, this work is now accomplished by attaching to the
common plough a crescent-shaped share about 18 inches
broad, with four stout prongs, each a foot in height, welded
to its upper surface, and set at an angle of 45° to the sole
of the plough. This being worked directly under the row
of potato plants, unearths the tubers, and spreads them on
the surface by one operation. The potatoes are gathered
into baskets from which they are emptied into carts and
conveyed at once to some dry piece of ground, in which
they are piled up in long narrow heaps and immediately
thatched with straw. The base of the heaps should not
exceed a yard in width, and should be raised above the
surface level rather than sunk below it as is very usually
done. As the dangers to be guarded against are heating
in the first instance and frost ultimately, measures must be
taken with an eye to both. The crop being put together
in as dry and clean a state as possible, and covered with as
much straw as will shoot off rain and protect from any early
frost, is allowed to lie for three or four weeks. By this time
the mass will have become considerably drier, and as weather
admits, the whole is now turned over and shook in a riddle
wide enough to pass dirt and small tubers: diseased roots
are then carefully removed, and the sound ones formed into
a heap as before, with a row of drain tiles laid along the
centre of the base. A good covering of straw is then put
on and coated over two or three inches thick with earth,
care being taken to leave a chimney every two yards along
the ridge. By thus keeping the heaps dry and cool, and
secure from frost, it is usually possible, even yet, to preserve
potatoes in good condition till spring. Such diseased ones
as have been picked out, either at the first gathering or at
the turning of the heaps, can be used for feeding cattle or
pigs. The fact that pigs fatten, apparently, as well on
diseased potatoes when cooked by steaming or boiling, as
* See a Pamphlet On the Cultivation of the Potato by Mr James Cuthill, Market-Gardener, Camberwell, London, which should he
studied by every grower of potatoes. 2 Gardener's Chronicle, 31st January 1852.
AGRICULTURE.
Root on sound ones, is certainly a very important mitigation of
Crops, this dreaded calamity. There are several varieties of the
potato, such as “lumpers,” “cups,” “mangel-wurzel potato,”
&c., which, although unfit for human food, are much relished
by cattle, and which from their abundant produce, healthi¬
ness and great fattening quality are well deserving of being
more generally cultivated for the purpose of being used in
combination with turnips and other substances in the fatten¬
ing of cattle. The turnip crop of 1851 was nearly as much
diseased as the potato crop, and as one remedy against
“ fingers and toes ” in the former, is to let longer intervals
of time intervene before their recurrence in the same field;
and as it has been ascertained that an acre each of beans,
potatoes, and turnips, will produce more beef than three
acres of turnips alone, it is worthy the consideration of those
concerned whether it would not be prudent to substitute a
crop of these coarser potatoes for a portion of their turnip
crop on fields or parts of fields that have borne diseased
turnips in previous rotations.
Turnips.—The introduction of turnips as a field crop con¬
stitutes one of the most marked epochs in British agriculture.
To the present day no better criterion exists by which to esti¬
mate its state in any district, or the skill of individual farmers,
than the measure of success with which this or other root
crops is cultivated. We have already, in our section upon fal¬
lowing, described in detail the process of preparing the soil
for drilled green crops. Referring the reader to what is there
said, we now proceed with our description of turnip culture.
Manure for Previous to the introduction of bone-dust and guano,
turnip. farm-yard dung formed, in the majority of cases, the only
available manure for the turnip crop. It was almost inva¬
riably formed into heaps in the field to which it was to be
applied, and repeatedly turned, as great stress was laid on
having it well rotted. The introduction of these invaluable
portable manures has, however, not only immensely ex¬
tended the culture of the turnip; but has materially modi¬
fied the course of procedure. On the first introduction of
bone-dust, the practice was to use the fold-yard dung, as
far as it would go, and to apply bone-dust alone, in quanti¬
ties of from sixteen to twenty bushels per acre, to the re¬
mainder of the crop. Guano, too, for a time, was used to
some extent on the same principle ; but now it is most satis¬
factorily proved, that whereas very good crops of turnips
can be obtained by manuring either with dung alone, at the*
rate of from fifteen to twenty tons per acre, or bones alone,
at the rate of sixteen to twenty bushels, or guano alone, at
" the rate of three to four cwt., much better crops can be
obtained by applying to each acre its proportion of each
of these kinds and quantities of manures. A portion of the
bones is now usually applied in the form of superphosphate
of lime ; and as this substance, and also guano, have a re¬
markable power of stimulating the growth of the turnip in
its earliest stage, forcing it to the state fit for thinning from
ten to fourteen days earlier than heretofore, there is now
no occasion for the dung being in the advanced state of de¬
composition that was formerly found necessary. When
farm-yard dung alone was used, it behoved to be in a solu¬
ble state, ready to furnish nourishment to the plant from
the beginning. But in bringing it to that state, a consider¬
able loss is sustained by fermentation, and its bulk is so
much reduced, that it becomes difficult to distribute evenly
the allowance which would be available for each acre, in
order to give the whole crop a share of it. This, however,
it is most desirable to do, as good farm-yard manure con¬
tains in itself the whole elements required by the crop. And
hence an additional reason for the plans of applying farm¬
yard dung, which have already been noticed. If that made
during the previous summer has been applied in autumn to
the lea before ploughing for oats, as far as it will go, and
317
another portion of the contemplated turnip break dunged Root
before the winter furrow, with all that has been made up Crops,
to that time, and the future accumulations up to April
formed into heaps, to be applied in the drills for the latest
sowings, the manure produced on the farm may be made to
go over nearly the whole breadth under root crops.
In proceeding to sow those portions that were dunged
before the oat crop, and on the stubble, all that is required,
is to form the drills, and apply the guano or bones, or mix¬
ture of both, by hand. In doing this, ten or twelve drills are
set out the evening before, that all may be ready for a good
start. The light manure is taken to the field in carts, which
are unyoked at convenient distances for replenishing the
aprons of the young persons (one for each plough) who dis¬
tribute it along the drills. The sowers of the manure be¬
ing started on the outside drills, the ploughmen proceed to
open fresh ones inside in going, and to cover in the manure
by reversing the first formed ridglets as they return. The
seed-machine, sowing two rows at a time, follows close up
to the ploughs, and thus the work goes rapidly on, each
plough getting over from 2| to 3 acres a-day. When
farm-yard dung is applied at the time of sowing, the pro¬
cess is the same, except that the drills must be opened
somewhat deeper, and that the dung-carts, followed by an
adequate number of spreaders, precede the sowers of the
light manures. In filling the dung-carts, one able-bodied
labourer is inquired for each plough employed in drilling;
and where these amount to three, six spreaders are required
to distribute it evenly along the drills. In some districts
the double-breasted plough is used in forming the drills
and covering in the dung. In the hands of a skilful plough¬
man, that implement does certainly make neater work to
look at; but so far as the success of the crop is concerned,
the common swing-plough is preferable, for in covering in
with it, the earth is made to run over the top of the ridg-
let, by which means the clods fall into the hollow, and the
finest of the mould is left oft the top, where the seed is to
be deposited. With the double mould-board this cannot so
well be done, and the consequence is, that a groove is
formed on the top of the ridglet, in which the small dry
clods, carried up by the tail of the mould-board, are left,
forming the worst possible bed for the seed. In parching
weather, it is usual to pass a light roller over the drills, imme¬
diately after sowing, to retain the moisture, and insure germi¬
nation. The seed is deposited near the surface, half an inch
of mould being a sufficient covering. The quantity sown is
2 lb. per acre of globe or yellow turnip seeds, and 3 to 4 lb.
of Swedes. Care must be taken that the seed is fresh, so as
to have a vigorous and thick plant. Thick sowing increases
the difficulty of thinning out the plants, but it hastens their
growth, and diminishes the risk of failure from the depreda¬
tions of the turnip beetle. The time of sowing in the south
of Scotland extends from the middle to the end of May for
Swedes, and thence to the middle of June for yellows and
globes. A partial sowing of yellow or globe is however made
by careful stockmasters before sowing the Swedes, to be
ready for use by the end of August or beginning of Septem¬
ber, when pasturage fails. Sowings of early varieties such
as the stubble turnip and certain yellow kinds, are also made
after winter tares or other catch crops, until the middle of
July; but later than this they cannot be sown in Scotland
with advantage, unless for the production of a crop of seed.
The average weight per acre of Swedes may be stated at
18 tons, and of turnips at 22 tons, although double these
rates have occasionally been obtained. Recent experiments
go to show that with liberal manuring and early sowing, the
weight of the crop is considerably increased by thinning out
the plants at wider intervals than has hitherto been custo¬
mary. The usual practice in Scotland has been to sow in
318
AGRICULTURE.
Thinning
turnips.
ridglets 27 inches apart, with 9 or 10 inches betwixt the
plants. Recent experiments establish the fact that with 15
inches from plant to plant, much larger bulbs and a greater
acreable produce are obtained. As it is ascertained that in
the case of Swedes the largest bulbs are also the best in
quality, it is of the greater consequence to allow them ample
room.
The thinning is commenced as soon as the rough leaf is
fairly developed. Previous to this operation the horse-hoe
is worked betwixt the rows for the double purpose of de¬
stroying weeds and facilitating the operation of thinning.
When the plants have rallied after the thinning, and begun
to grow rapidly, the usual practice has been to turn a fur¬
row from either side of them into the middle of the inter¬
val by a one-horse plough, and then to level this down by
a turn of the horse-hoe. A great improvement on this prac¬
tice is to use Tennant’s grubber instead, adjusted for drill
work in the manner already described. By thus using a
strong implement drawn by two horses, the soil in the in¬
tervals betwixt the rows can be stirred a foot deep if re¬
quired, without any risk of hurting the young plants, and
this too is accomplished by a single operation. A second
hand-hoeing is then given, which usually completes the
after culture. It was formerly the invariable practice to
finish off by passing a double mould-board plough betwixt
the rows, which was called setting up. On dry soils this is
not only useless, but positively hurtful to the crop; and
those so wet as to require it are unfit for the profitable cul¬
tivation of turnips at all.
The nature of the soil will usually determine the mode
of consuming the crop. On all loose, dry soils, feeding off
by sheep is the most profitable plan; whereas on deep, strong
loams it is advisable to withdraw the whole and eat them
by cattle, as, unless in very favourable weather, when even
a fourth is fed off by sheep, the extra manuring does not
compensate to the after crops for the injury which they usu¬
ally sustain from the treading and poaching. On the poorest
class of light soils, the whole crop should if possible be con¬
sumed where it grows by sheep; but on those of a better
description, a third, a half, or two-thirds may be withdrawn
for the feeding of cattle according to circumstances. What¬
ever the proportion left on the ground, care is taken to re¬
gulate the intervals so as to distribute the treading and drop¬
pings of the sheep as equally as possible over the field.
The management of the turnip crop, so as that it may be
supplied to the live stock in the best possible condition dur¬
ing the entire season is a point of the greatest importance.
The portion that is to be used as cattle food is removed from
the ground as soon as the crop has sufficiently matured, and
before the time when drenching rains and severe frosts may
ordinarily be looked for. The best way of preserving them
is by storing in long narrow heaps on a dry and sheltered
situation open to the sun, and covering them with a good
coating of straw, secured by straw-ropes. The thatch of the
corn-stacks that are thrashed in autumn is usually reserved
for covering turnip heaps. After 1st November it is well to
make diligent use of every favourable hour in thus securing
the turnip crop. In corroboration and further illustration
of this important point, we here engross an interesting com¬
munication recently received from Mr Archibald Hepburn,
Whittingham Mains, East Lothian :—
“ Mr Buist (Lord Haddington’s factor) is compelled by rea¬
son of the game on the home-farm to store all his turnips ex¬
cept a few required for sheep. He sows very early in May,
chiefly Swedes ; stores in October; leaves the roots on ; makes
the heaps oblong, about 51 feet by 4; thatches with ten inches
of straw ; turns the heaps, and rasps off the shoots in March.
I have myself kept Skirving’s purple-top yellow good in this
way from November till the middle of May.
“ Mr Cuthbertson, Greendykes, East Lothian, farms a clay-
soil, which, although furrow-drained, and in very high condi¬
tion, is, according to old preconceived ideas, ill adapted for the
turnip husbandry; but by good management, few farmers suc¬
ceed better in obtaining heavy crops of turnips. Of late years
he has sown nothing but Skirving’s purple-top yellow at the
rate of five pounds per Scotch acre ; commencing the sowing
late in April, and finishing his whole break about the middle
of May, weather permitting. Early in September he com¬
mences drawing and storing a proportion of each field, leav¬
ing the remainder to be consumed on the ground by sheep,
which are folded on without delay; and the whole breadth
left for that purpose is consumed, and wheat sown throughout
November.
“ The leaves of the turnip are chopped off about one inch
from the bulb, and the tap-root is merely cleared of earth, par¬
ticular care being taken to store the turnip when quite dry and
free from frost. If it is necessary in clearing a field to cart off
the bulbs when wet with rain, they are stored in a separate
heap for early eating. Those carried in the above mentioned
good condition are stored in long heaps, 20 feet broad at the
base, and about 5|, or 6 feet high, and that in a roof-like fa¬
shion. The heaps are thatched with straw to the depth of about
10 inches, and secured with straw-ropes. The contents are
never disturbed until they are required for daily consumption.
The turnips are found to be excellent food for cattle, so late as
the beginning of June. This most excellent practice and its
happy results cannot be too widely known. Mr Cuthbertson
used to store his yellow turnips according to Mr Buist’s plan,
but prefers these enormous heaps.”
The difference both to the cattle and to the land betwixt
the plan of having turnips stored in dry weather without
poaching the fields and securing clean and fresh food in all
weathers, and the other of bringing in only a few days’ sup¬
ply at a time, and so being often compelled to go upon the
land when soaked with rain or bound with frost, and feed¬
ing the cattle with miry or frozen turnips, can scarcely be
computed. The careful farmer will never feel at ease until
his winter’s provision is safe in the store-heap. The portion Preserving
to be fed off by sheep must necessarily be treated in a dif-turniP for
ferent manner. What is to be used after Christmas can be sheeP feed'
very readily defended against frost, by earthing up in themg‘
drills with the common plough. But as what is to be con¬
sumed by the young sheep must be pulled and trimmed at s
any rate, in order to be sliced, the best way is to throw the
turnips into heaps at regular distances, and cover them first
with the greens, and then with a thin coating of earth. By
this means the turnips are kept from running to stems, and
the sheep get them clean and fresh whatever the state of the
weather.1 The same end is secured by opening a trench
by a bout of the common plough, into which the turnips from
two drills on either side are laid in regular order with their
tops uppermost, and the earth turned over upon them by re¬
versing the course of the plough. When wanted for use,
they are again unearthed by means of the plough. The
feeding qualities of turnips are so seriously impaired by ex¬
posure to frost, even when they escape actual destruction,
that the expense of securing them by one or other of these
methods, is always amply repaid. In very mild winters again,
storing is equally effective in preventing the virtues both of
the turnips and the soil from being wasted by the pushing
of the seed stems. Such precautions are so usually omitted,
During the unusually wet winter of 1852 3, we stored a large quantity of turnips and Swedes, intended for cattle food in this way.
he trimming and storing was carried on every dry day, and the carting postponed until the occurrence of frost or drought admitted of its
being done without injury to the land.
AGRICULTURE.
Root and the loss thereby sustained is so serious, that it would be
Crops. well for all who question the utility cf the practice to satisfy
themselves regarding it in some such way as this. Let two
portions of a turnip field, as equal in all respects as possible,
be selected, and let the crop from one of them be in De¬
cember put into small store heaps or buried in the earth,
and let the other remain on the ground untouched till the
middle of March. Let a lot of sheep which have received
the same previous treatment be then equally divided and fed
respectively on these several portions for three or four weeks,
and their weights ascertained before and after the trial. Let
both portions be afterwards sown with barley under like cir¬
cumstances, and the produce accurately ascertained. As¬
suming that an average amount of frost occurs, and that the
unstored turnips have begun to push their seed stems when
the sheep are put upon them, our personal experience war¬
rants us in anticipating a difference of at least six bushels of
barley per acre, and two lb. of mutton per sheep in favour
of the portion on which the turnips are stored.
Diseases. The turnip is liable in the early stages of its growth to the
attacks of various insects. The most formidable of these
enemies is the turnip beetle, which frequently settles upon
the plant so soon as they appear above ground, in such num¬
bers as totally to destroy the whole of them. The best way
of guarding against these nimble adversaries, is to endea¬
vour, by careful preparation of the soil, liberal manuring and
thick seeding to secure a thick plant and rapid growth, for
whenever the rough leaf is expanded, the risk from this
quarter is over. From time to time the young turnip plants
are assailed by the larvae of certain butterflies and moths,
which sometimes appear in such numbers as to cause serious
alarm, but ordinarily their attacks occasion but a slight check
to the growth of the crop.
“Finders A far more formidable evil is the disease called “fingers
and toes.” and toes,” which, although long known, seems to be steadily
extending, and has been wider spread and more virulent in
the turnip crop of 1851 than in any previous year. This
truly formidable disease sometimes shews itself by the time
that the plants are ready for thinning, but more usually it is
about the stage when the second hoeing is given that un^
mistakable indications of its presence are observed. The
crop appears in high health, and is making rapid growth,
when, suddenly under hot sunshine, numbers of the plants
are seen to droop with flaccid leaves; and examination being
made, it is found that the disease has already made serious
progress. In some cases it is chiefly confined to the tap¬
root, which is distorted with knobby excrescences. In others,
the roots present a thickened, palmated appearance, giving
rise to the popular name for the disease, “ fingers and toes,”
while in others the lateral roots expand into glandular-look¬
ing tubers, which frequently appear partially above ground
at distances of several inches from the central stem. For a
time all these forms of the excrescences present a smooth
healthy looking skin, yielding no trace of the presence of
insects of any kind, either externally or internally. By and
by the skin cracks over the excrescences, which speedily as¬
sume a gangrenous appearance. Indeed, the whole symp¬
toms present a striking analogy to cancer in the animal
system. By the time that the healthy plants are approach¬
ing near to maturity, the most diseased ones have usually
lost all resemblance to turnips, and there remains on the
land a substance like rotten fungus. In very bad cases,
whole acres together are found in this state, with here and
there a sickly distorted turnip still shewing a few green
leaves. At other times a few only of the plants are wholly
destroyed ; the field, to a casual observer, looking not much
amiss, though a closser inspection proves that the general
crop is of stunted growth, with few plants entirely free from
the disease. Such partially diseased roots are not absolutely
319
rejected by sheep, but they are evidently unpalatable and Root
innutritious, while the crop as a whole is more speedily con- Crops,
sumed than its general appearance would lead one to ex- Vs—
pect. When this disease appears on farms that have pre¬
viously been exempt from it, it is usually confined for a
year or two to small patches, which, however, in the ab¬
sence of remedial measures, steadily and rapidly extend,
not only on the recurrence of a turnip crop on the same
fields, but over the other parts of the farm. Indeed, there
are not wanting indications of its being propagated by con¬
tagion ; as, for instance, when tainted roots are carted into
pastures, and the disease shews itself most in those places
where they have been consumed, when, in course of rota¬
tion, the field comes afterwards to bear a turnip crop. \\ hen
they are consumed by cattle in fold-yards, the dung may be
the medium of contamination, on the supposition that tins
conjecture is well-founded. Ploughing land in a wet state
evidently aggravates the disease. We know of one instance
where a strip down the middle of a field was ploughed in
autumn while soaked by rain, on which wet ploughed por¬
tion the turnips were evidently more diseased than over the
rest of the field. In another instance which came under
our personal observation, a ditch running along part of the
top of a field, of upwards of 50 acres, was scoured in spring,
and the mud spread back over the headland, The whole
field was, in the same season, sown with turnips, which
proved an excellent crop, entirely free from “ fingers and Beneficial
toes,” with the exception of that portion of headland on which |'ffect8 of
the mud was spread, where every plant was diseased. Al- irae-
though wholly in the dark as to the nature and propagation
of this disease, it is well to know that the judicious applica¬
tion of lime is a certain remedy. In order, however, to its
efficacy, it must be applied in a powdery state after the au¬
tumn ploughing, and immediately incorporated with the soil
by harrowing ; or else as a compost with earth, spread on
the lea, before breaking up for oats. We know front ex¬
perience, that a very moderate dose (say four tons of un¬
slaked shells), applied in this way will suffice as a prevention
from this disease. It is on light soils that its ravages are
most frequently experienced, and to these heavy doses of
lime are unsuitable. Indeed, whether for promoting the
general fertility of soils, or for warding off the attacks of this
disease, moderate applications of lime every twelve years or
so, seem preferable to heavier dressings at longer intervals.
Beneficial effects are said to have been observed from the
use of salt when scattered on the surface early in spring, and
when applied in the drill in mixture with guano at the time
of sowing the turnips. Substituting potatoes or some other
crops for one round, so as to prolong the interval betwixt
the recurrence of turnips to eight years instead of four, is
said to be a certain remedy.
Mangel- WurzeL—This root has been steadily rising in esti¬
mation of late years. It is peculiarly adapted for those southern
parts of England where the climate is too hot and dry for the suc¬
cessful cultivation of the turnip. A competent authority de¬
clares that it is there easier to obtain thirty tons of mangel
than twenty tons of Swedes, and that it is not at all unusual
to find individual roots upwards of twenty lb. in weight. In
Scotland it is just the reverse, it being comparatively easy
to grow a good crop of Swedes, but very difficult to obtain
twenty tons of mangel. This plant is very susceptible oi
injury from frost, and hence in the short summer of Scotland
it cannot be sown so early nor be left in the ground so late
as would be requisite for its mature growth. These diffi¬
culties may possibly be got over, either by the selection of
hardier varieties or by more skilful cultivation. Its feeding
quality is said to be superior to that of the Swede, it is much
relished by live stock—pigs especially doing remarkably well
upon it—and it has the very important property of keeping
agriculture.
320
Root in good condition till midsummer if required. Indeed, it is
Crops, only after it has been some months in the store heap that it
becomes a palatable and safe food for cattle. It is moreover
exempt from the attacks of the turnip beetle. On all these
accounts, therefore, it is peculiarly valuable in those parts
of Great Britain where peculiarity of climate renders it
strong precisely where the turnip is defective.
Up to the act of depositing the seed, the processes of pre¬
paration for mangel are identical with those described tor
the turnip; winter dunging being even more appropriate
for the former than for the latter. The ridglets being
formed 28 inches apart, and charged with a liberal allow¬
ance of dung and guano, the seeds are deposited along the
top, at the rate of about 4 lb. per acre. The common
drilling machines are easily fitted for sowing its large rough
seeds. The after culture is also identical with that of the
turnip. The plants are thinned out at distances of not less
than 15 inches apart. Transplanting can be used for the
filling up of gaps with more certainty of success than in the
case of Swedes. Several varieties of the plant are cultivated,
such as, the yellow, the long-red, and the orange-globe.
The crop requires to be secured in store heaps as early in
autumn as possible, as it is easily injured by frost. The
following graphic description of this process by Mr Morton
of Whitfield, appeared in the Agricultural Gazette of 8th
November 1851:—
“ The mode of harvesting our root crop which we have
adopted for several years is this ; we let the lifting-cutting
off the leaves and the roots, and putting the roots into the
cart—at so much per acre, according to the weight of the crop,
to one man, who gets other men to join with him in the work
and share in the profits ; and the arrangement I require
to be adopted is, that the one-horse carts, which I employ
to haul the roots, shall be constantly employed, and I require
from 16 to 20 loads, or tons of roots, to be filled hourly. The
number of carts required is according to the distance of the
field from the store; thus the distance from the middle of
the field to the store being 15 chains, four carts are re¬
quired ; 22 chains require five carts; and 30 chains require
seven carts.
“ The mode of lifting the roots.—Five men are employed to
pull up the roots ; each man pulls up two rows ; standing be¬
tween the rows, he takes with his left hand a root from the row
on his left side, and with his right hand a root from the row'
on his right side, and pulling both up at the same time, places
them side by side, across the row where he pulled up the roots
with his right hand, so as to have the tops lying in the space
between the two rows he has pulled up ; the next man takes
the two rows at the right hand of the last two rows we have
just described, and he, with each of his hands, pulls up a row,
and places them on the line of the row which he has pulled mp
with his left hand, with the root end lying towards the root
end of the first row, so that we have now four rows of roots
lying close together in two rows, side by side, with their leaves
on the outside of each of these rows, and the roots of each row
nearly touching each other ; and every four rowrs, when grow¬
ing, are thus, when pulled, laid in two rows, root to root, oc¬
cupying not more than 27 inches. Now, as the next four rows
are lifted in the same way, and placed in like manner, we have
a space unoccupied of three times 27 inches, or 6 feet 9 inches
between each double row of roots, for the cart to go between
them (viz. this double row of bulbs after they have had the
leaves and roots cut off), to carry off the bulbs to the store.
After the five men who are pulling the roots, there follow ten
women or boys with knives, made of pieces of old scythes,
w'ho, with repeated blow's, cut off the leaves and roots, without
ever moving one of them with their hands ; this is constant,
but not hard work, and it requires ten active women or boys to
keep up with the five men pulling.
Immediately on the heels of the cutters follow the carts be¬
tween the two double rows of bulbs as they lie, having their
leaves and roots cut off; and a man, one of the principals of
the gang, and nine young active boys and girls throw up the
bulbs as fast as they can into the cart, the man speaking to Root
the horse to move forward, or stop, as they clear the ground; Urops.
when one cart is full, an empty one has been brought by one
of the boys who drive the carts, and placed immediately behind
the full one ; so that, as he moves off with the full cart, the
man calls the horse with the empty cart to move forward, and
they proceed to throw the roots into the cart as fast as they
did into the one that has just gone off the field.
“ The pulling of the roots and the filling of the carts being
the principal work, one of the leaders is in each of these de¬
partments of the work ; so that, by his example, he shows
those with him how he wishes them to work, and thus the
work proceeds with the utmost regularity and despatch; 20
cart-loads are hourly filled in the fields and delivered in the
store; 180 to 182 loads of 22 cwt. and 23 cwt. each in a day of
nine hours ; thus a cart-load is filled every three minutes by
10 pairs of hands, which are pulled by five pairs of hands, and
the leaves and roots cut off by 10 pairs of hands—in all 25 pairs
of hands, men, women, and boys; this has been repeatedly done
in a day.
“ The stores are made of posts and rails, enclosing a space
9 feet apart and feet high, and of any length, if the space
will admit, and as near to where they are to be consumed as
possible. The posts are 5 feet apart, let into the ground 18
inches, and feet above, with five rails above, 4 or 5 inches
wide, nailed to the inside of the posts; and each of these
stores is 3 feet apart. I have 14 of them about 70 feet long each,
which is sufficient to store from 1000 to 1200 tons of bulbs.”
The heaps are carefully thatched, and the spaces betwixt
them filled with straw to keep out frost. The expense, exclu¬
sive of the carting, Mr Morton shows to be 3s. 6d. per acre.
It is believed that in many cases crops of turnip and
mangel could be more cheaply stored by means of the por¬
table railway than by carts, and with less injury to the land.
This is especially the case with clay soils, and in such sea¬
sons as the autumn of 1852 has proved. In using it, eight
drills of roots are trimmed and laid in two rows, as Mr Mor¬
ton describes; the rails are shifted betwixt each of these
pairs of rows ; the roots pitched into light trucks, which a
man pushes before him to the headland, where the contents
are discharged by tipping. Being there heaped up and
thatched, the roots are carted to the homestead as required.
Carrots.—This root, though so deservedly esteemed
and universally grown in gardens, has not hitherto at¬
tained to general cultivation as a field crop. This is
owing chiefly to certain practical difficulties attending its
culture on a larger scale. Its light feathery seeds cannot
easily be sown, so as to secure their regular germination;
the tardy growth of the young plants, and the difficulty
of discriminating betwixt them and weeds makes the thin¬
ning a troublesome affair; the harvesting of the crop is
comparatively expensive; and it is only on sandy and
light loamy soils, or those of a peaty character that it can
be grown successfully. The increasing precariousness in
the growth of potatoes, turnips, and clover, and the con¬
sequent necessity for a greater variety of green crops en¬
title the carrot to increased attention as a field crop. Its
intrinsic qualities are, however, very valuable, especially
since the introduction of the white Belgian variety. On
light soils it is alleged that larger crops of carrots than of
turnips can be obtained, and with less exhaustion of theii
fertility, which is explained as arising from the greater depth
to which the carrots descend for their nourishment. This
root is eaten with avidity by all kinds of farm stock. Horses,
in particular, are very fond of it, and can be kept in work¬
ing condition with a considerably smaller ration of oats when
20 lb. of carrots are given to them daily. They can also be
readily kept to an advanced period of spring when stored
with ordinary care.
The mode of culture is very similar to that already de¬
scribed for mangel-wurzel. A usual practise is to prepare
AGRICULTURE.
Hoot the seed for sowing, by mixing it with moist sand, and turn-
Crops. jng tj-fg mass repeatedly for several days until germination
begins, when it is sown by hand at the rate of 6 lb. per acre
of the dry seeds, in a seam opened by the coulters of the
corn or turnip drill, according as it is wished to have it on
the flat or on ridglets. Some prefer merely to rub the mix¬
ture of seeds and sand or mould betwixt the palms, until the
seeds are thoroughly separated from each other, and so di¬
vested of their hairs, as when mixed with sand to run from
a drilling-machine. It is of the utmost importance to se¬
cure seeds of the previous year’s growth, as if older their
germination cannot be depended upon. Much care is also
needed in saving the seed only from selected roots, as car¬
rots have a decided tendency to degenerate. The white
Belgian variety is certainly the best for farm use, not only
from the weight of crop, but from its growing more rapidly
in its earliest stage than other approved sorts, and showing
a broader and deeper coloured leaf which can more easily
be discriminated from weeds, and thus admits of the earlier
use of the hoe. When the sowing and first hoeing and
thinning of the crop are got over successfully, the after cul¬
ture of the crop is very simple ; all that is needed being
the occasional use of the horse and hand-hoe to keep down
weeds. The fork must be used in lifting the crop. The
greens are then cut off and given to young stock or cows,
and the roots stored in long narrow heaps, exactly as mangel.
Fifteen tons per acre is an average crop, although on suit¬
able soils, with liberal manuring and skilful cultivation,
double the weight is sometimes obtained. Those who in¬
tend to cultivate this crop statedly, will do well to raise their
own seeds from carefully selected roots. Unless genuine
and fresh seed is sown, failure and disappointments can
scarcely be avoided.
Parsnip.—This plant bears so close a resemblance to
the carrot, and its culture and uses are so similar, that they
need not be repeated. It can, however, be cultivated suc¬
cessfully over a much wider range of soils than the carrot,
and, unlike it, rather affects those in which clay predomi¬
nates. It is grown extensively, and with great success, in
the Channel Islands. The cows there, fed on parsnips and
hay, yield butter little inferior, either in colour or flavour,
to that produced from pasture. About 10 lb. of seed are
required per acre. It requires, like that of the carrot, to be
steeped before sowing, to hasten germination, and the same
care is needed to have it fresh and genuine. It should be
sown in April. The roots, when matured, are stored like
carrots.
Jerusalem Artichoke.—This root, although decidedly in¬
ferior to the potato in flavour, is yet deserving of cultiva¬
tion. It grows freely in inferior soils, is easily propagated
from the tubers, and requires little attention in its cultiva¬
tion. When once established in the soil, it will produce
abundant crops for successive years on the same spot. It
is sometimes planted in woods to yield shelter for game, for
which purpose it is admirably fitted, as it grows freely under
the shade of trees, and yields both food and covert. In
properly fenced woods it might yield abundant and suitable
food for hogs, which might there root it at their pleasure,
without damage to anything. Where they had mast along
with these juicy tubers, they would undoubtedly thrive apace.
After they had grubbed up what they could get, enough
would be left to reproduce a crop for successive seasons.
Such a use of this esculent seems well deserving of careful
trial.
There are several crops which, under a strict classifica¬
tion, should be noticed among forage crops rather than here,
but which, in an agricultural point of view, are so closely
analogous to drilled root-crops, that we regard this as the
suitable place in which to notice them.
VOL. JI.
321
Cabbage.—On strong rich soils, large crops of very nu- Root
tritious food for sheep or cattle, and of a kind very accept- CroPs-
able to them, are obtained from the field culture of the
Drumhead cabbage. A seed-bed is prepared in a garden,
orchard, or other sheltered situation, in August, either by
sowing in rows, 12 inches apart, and thinning the plants about
3 inches, in the rows, or, what is better, sowing in a bed,
and transplanting them into narrow rows so soon as the
plants will admit of it. In April, the land to be occupied
with this crop is prepared as for turnips, in drills 27 to 30
inches wide, along the flattened top of which the cabbage-
plants are dibbled two feet apart, and afterwards kept clean
by horse and hand-hoeing. Another plan is to plough in
the dung in autumn, and in April, when the soil is dry
enough, to plough it and to dibble in the plants 30 to 36
inches apart each way in rectangular lines. A long line with
feathers inserted in it at the requisite spaces for the guid¬
ance of the planters, is stretched along and set at the proper
width ; and, by employing a sufficient force of planters, the
work proceeds simultaneously with the poughing,—a row of
cabbages being inserted at every three or four furrows, ac¬
cording to the distance betwixt plants that is fixed upon.
The advantage of this mode of planting is, that when accu¬
rately performed, the horse-hoe can be used in all directions,
lengthwise, across, and diagonally, thus simplifying the sum¬
mer culture. We have seen a crop of cabbages treated in
this way, and planted but one to each square yard, com¬
pletely closed in autumn. Cabbages are much in repute
with breeders of rams and prize sheep, which fatten rapidly
on this food. Cabbages are usually drawn off, and given
to sheep on their pastures, or to cattle in byres and yards ;
but they are also fed off, where they grow, by sheep, in the
same way as turnips. It is an exhausting crop when wholly
drawn off, and is sometimes grown with advantage on this
account on spots greatly enriched by irrigation with sewage
or otherwise, and where the succeeding grain crop is ex¬
pected to suffer from over-luxuriance, the cabbages being
grown, as the phrase goes, to “ take the shine out of it.” In
favourable circumstances, from 30 to 40 tons per acre of
this nutritious crop may be obtained. From what has been
said, it is evidently not adapted for extensive field culture ;
but on most farms a few acres might be grown annually
with great advantage. It is a peculiarly suitable food for
either sheep or cattle during the autumnal transition from
grass to turnips.
Rape.—This plant is peculiarly adapted for peaty soils,
and is accordingly a favourite crop in the fen-lands of
England, and on recently reclaimed mosses and moors
elsewhere. Its growth is greatly stimulated by the ashes
resulting from the practice of paring and burning. In
these cases it is sown broad-cast; but when such soils are
brought into a regular course of tillage, it is drilled, and
otherwise treated in the same manner as turnips. As we
have described its culture under the head of “ Oil-produc¬
ing plants,” we shall only say further here, that its highly
nutritious leaves and stems are usually consumed by fold¬
ing sheep upon it where it grows, and that there is no green
food upon which they fatten faster. Occasionally it is car¬
ried to the homestead, and used with other forage in car¬
rying out the system of soiling cattle.
Kohl-Rabi.—This plant has been frequently recom¬
mended to the notice of farmers of late years. Like man¬
gel, it is better adapted for strong soils, and dry and warm
climates, than the turnip. It may either be sown on
drills in the same manner as the turnip, or in a seed-bed,
and afterwards transplanted. The latter plan is expensive,
if it is desired to cultivate the crops to any extent; but is
commendable for providing a supply of plants to make good
deficiencies in the rows of other crops, or when a small
2 s
322
Herbage
and
Forage.
agriculture.
quantity only is wanted. By sowing a plot of ground in
March in some sheltered corner, and transplanting the ciop
early in May, it is more likely to prosper than in any other
way. Cattle and sheep are fond of it, and it is said not to
impart any unpleasant flavour to milk. We have seen a
few trials of it in Scotland as a field crop ; but, from w hat-
ever cause, the weight of food produced per acre was greatly
less than from the mangel and Swedes growing alongside
of it. For further information about this plant, the reader
is referred to the Book of the Farm, vol. ii. p. 87; Hewit
Davis’ Farming Essays, p. 90; Lawson’s Synopsis of the
Vegetable Products of Scotland, Div. ii. p. 109. Mr Ste¬
phens calls it “ turnip rooted cabbage,” which is a dis-
tinct and inferior plant. Lawson says that the pulp or flesh
of kohl has the same taste as the leaves of the cabbage, and
hence its adaptation as food for milch cows.
CHAPTER VIII.
HERBAGE AND FORAGE CROPS.
Under this general heading, we propose to include what
we have to say concerning the grasses, whether natural or
cultivated, and those other crops which are grown expressly
for the sake of the cattle food yielded by their leaves and
stems. This kind of farm-produce is either consumed where
it grows, by depasturing with live stock, or mown and given
to them in a green state under cover, or dried and stored for
after use. It thus embraces the cultivation of these crops,
and their disposal, whether by grazing, soiling, or haymaking.
Following this method, we shall first of all briefly describe
the cultivation of those pasture and forage crops which are
of best repute in British husbandry.
Tillage lands are now everywhere cropped according to
some settled rotation, in which the well recognised prin¬
ciples of the alternate husbandry are carried out accord¬
ing to the actual circumstances of each locality. With
rare exceptions, such lands at stated intervals bear a crop of
the clovers or cultivated grasses. As these are usually sown Herbage
in mixture, especially when intended for pasturage, the re- and
suiting crop is technically called “ seeds.” As it is of im- F°rage-
portance to have the land clean, and in good heart, when
such crops are sown, they usually follow the grain crop
which immediately succeeds the fallowing process. Being
for the most part of a lower habit of growth than white corn
crops, they can be sown and grow together without mutual
injury. When the latter are harvested, the former being
already established in the soil, at once occupy it, and grow
apace. By this arrangement, there is therefore secured an
important saving both of time and tillage. Barley being the
crop amongst which the seeds of the clover and grasses are
most frequently sown, and amongst which, upon the whole,
they thrive best, it is customary to sow these small seeds at
the same time as the barley, and to cover them in with a
single stroke of the common harrows. This is erroneous prac- gowin of
tice, both as regards the time and manner of sowing these cioverSand
small seeds. We have already mentioned, in the proper grasssee(is.
place, that barley should be sown as early in March as pos¬
sible. Now, if the clovers, &c., are sown as early as this,
they are almost certain to get so forward as both to rob the
barley of its due share of nourishment, and, when it is reap¬
ed, to bulk so largely in the sheaves, as to retard their dry¬
ing, and aggravate the risk of their being ill harvested. It
is found, moreover, that if there be but plants enough, the
clovers stand the winter better, and ultimately yield a better
crop, when but puny looking, than when very strong, at the
reaping of the grain crop. It is better, therefore, to delay the
sowing of the small seeds until April. As to the manner of
covering them in, we have to remark that the smallness of
these seeds, and their manner of germinating, alike requires
that they receive only the very slightest covering of soil.
This important fact is so well illustrated in the following
table, which exhibits the results of some carefully conduct¬
ed experiments, reported to the Highland Society by Mr
Stirling of Glenbervie, that we shall here quote it:—
“ Column I. contains the scientific names.
Column II. contains the average weight of the seeds per bushel in pounds.
Column HI. contains the average number of seeds in one ounce.
Column IV. shows, in inches, the depth of cover at which the greatest number of seeds brairded.
Column V. shows, in inches, the depth of cover at which only about half the number of seeds brairded.
Column VI. shows, in inches, the least depth of cover at which none of the seeds brairded.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
Agrostis stolonifera, 
vulgaris,  
Aira csespitosa, 
Alopecurus pratensis, 
Anthoxanthum odoratum,...
Arrhehatherum avenaceum,
Brachypodium sylvaticum,..
Cynosurus cristatus 
Dactylis glomerata, 
gigantea,  
Elymus arenarius, 
geniculatus,  
Festuca duriuscula, 
elatior, 
gigantea, 
heterophylla,   
gigantea, 
ovina, 
tenuifolia, 
pratensis, 
loliacea,  
rubra, 
Glyceria aquatica, 
fluitans, 
13
12
14
a
6
7
10
26
12
10
11
12
10
14
13
12
16
14
15
14
15
10
13
15
500,000
425,000
132,000
76,000
71,000
21,000
15.500
28,000
40,000
34,000
2,320
2,300
39,000
20.500
17.500
33,000
8,600
64,000
80,000
26,000
24,700
39,000
58,000
33,000
0 to 4
0 to ^
0 to i
0 to
ito !
0 to i
0 to 4
i "to H
0 to |
0 to £
0 to £
0 to £
0 to 4
0 to £
ib to J
A- to f
f to 1
1 tol£
1 toli
li to If
i to -J
| to 1
2 to 2J
3 to i
1 to I4
li to li
1 toli
| to 1
3 to 1
3 to 1
VI.
2i
2
4
2
2i
5
2i
23
3
23
23
23
A G R I C U L T U 11 E.
323
Herbage
and
Forage.
I.
II.
III.
iy.
y.
yi.
Holcus lanatus, 
mollis, 
Lolium italicum, 
perenne, 
Milium effusum,  
Phalaris arundinacea,.
Pkleum pratense,  
Poa nemoralis, 
„ sempervirens,
pratensis, 
trivialis, 
Psamma arundinacea,..
Trisetum flavescens, ...
Achillea Millefolium, 
Cichorium Intybus (chicory),...
Lotus corniculatus, 
major,  
Medicago lupulina,  
sativa,  
Onobrychis sativa, 
Petrosalinum sativum, 
Plantago lanceolata,   
Poterium Sanquisorba (burnet),
Trifolium filiforme,  
hybridum,  
pratense, 
,, perenne, 
repens,  
7
6
15
18 to 30
25
48
44
15
15£
13
15
15
30
32
62
64
63
60
26
41
52
25
65
63
64
64
65
95,000
85,000
27,000
15,000
80,000
42,000
74,000
173,000
133,000
243,000
217,000
10,000
118,000
200,000
21,000
28,000
51,000
16,000
12,600
1,280
12,800
15,600
3,320
54,000
45,000
16,000
16,000
32,000
ito £
0 to £
i to ^
£to £
0 to £
0 to J
0 to £
J tol
0 to J
J to ^
0 to £
0 to £
| to 1
J to £
ito |
0 to £
0 to J
0 to i
0 to i
0 to J
| to 1
I to li
II to If
1 to 1
| to 1
i to £
i ’to |
li to If
| to 1
i to |
ito i
2 to 2%
li to li
li to 1|
ito i
I to |
li to li
lito li
ito |
3i
3i
21
li
4
2
li
ii
i'i
i'i
2h
4
li
li
2
2
H
Herbage
and
Forage.
“ The results in the three last columns of the preceding
table were obtained by sowing the seed in finely sifted dark
loam, which was kept moist throughout the process of germi¬
nation, to which is attributable the circumstance of so many of
the sorts vegetating best—as shown in Column IV.—without
covering, and under full exposure to the light. The combina¬
tion of such favourable circumstances of soil and moisture, can,
however, seldom be calculated upon in field sowing, therefore
a covering of mould for the seeds, however slight, is always
advisable. But it will be seen, by the results in Column VI.,
that a great number of seeds must be inevitably lost from over¬
depth of covering, unless the ground be in all cases carefully
prepared and pulverised before sowing either the natural or
artificial grasses.”1
From this it is evident that to scatter these tiny seeds over
a cloddy surface, and then to harrow it, may more aptly be
called burying than sowing them. The following is a more
rational mode of proceeding. When these seeds are to be
sown among winter wheat, it is expedient to begin by using
the horse-hoe (supposing the wheat to have been drilled),
as well to loosen the surface and produce a kindly bed for
the seeds, as to destroy weeds. In the case of broad-casted
wheat, a turn of the harrows secures the same end. In the
case of the more recently-sown barley, all that is needed is
to smooth the surface with the one-horse roller. Over
the ground thus prepared, the small seeds are distributed
by a broad-cast sowing machine, which covers at once a ridge
of 15 or 18 feet in width. The covering in is then effected
by simply rolling with the smooth roller, or by dragging over
the surface Smith of Deanston’s chain-web, which may either
be attached to the sowing machine, or to a separate frame;
or by using Crosskill’s roller with a hurdle interlaced with
bushes tethered to it. On clay soils the chain-web is to be
preferred; but on loose soils Crosskill’s roller imparts a bene¬
ficial firmness, and with its tail-piece of bushes to fill up the
indentations, gives an accuracy of finish, which rivals the
neatness of a newly-raked garden plot. We have long re¬
garded this covering in of grass seeds as the most important
use to which Crosskill’s valuable implement is put. The
only drawback to it is, that it makes a heavy demand on the
horse-power of the farm at a pressing season. As it can only
be worked in dry weather, it is advisable, when the land is
in trim, to work it double tides by means of a relay of horses.
This mode of procedure is alike applicable to the sowing of
mixed clovers and grasses, and to that of the clovers alone;
and is the course usually pursued in sowing for one or two
years’ “ seeds.” When it is intended to lay down arable land
to grass for several years, or to restore it to permanent pas¬
ture or meadow, it is always advisable to sow the seeds with¬
out a corn crop. This doubtless involves an additional cost
at the outset, but it is usually more than repaid by the en¬
hanced value of the pasture thus obtained. To grow the
grasses well, the soil should be pulverised to the depth of 3 or
4 inches only, and be full of manure near the surface. There
is no better way of securing these conditions, than by first
consuming a crop of turnips on the ground by sheep folding,
and then to pulverise the surface by means of the grubber,
harrow, and roller, without ploughing it. Much diversity
of practice exists in regard to the kinds and quantities of
seeds used in sowing down with a grain crop. In Scotland
from 2 to 4 pecks of ryegrass seeds, with from 10 to 14 lb.
of those of red, white, and yellow clovers, in about equal
proportions, is a common allowance for an acre. A pound
or two of field-parsley is occasionally added, or rather sub¬
stituted, for an equal weight of clover seeds. The natural
grasses are seldom sown, and only when the land is to be
laid to permanent pasture. In England ryegrass is in much
less repute than in Scotland, the clovers being there very
generally sown unmixed, and always in larger quantities than
we have just named—20 lb. per acre being a common al¬
lowance. There can be little doubt that both of these plans Great va-
are faulty. When a good natural pasture is carefully ex- riety ot
amined, it is found to consist of an amazing number of dif- P^”^in
 —   —  pastures.
1 Morton s Cyclopedia of Agriculture—article “Grasses,” p. 999.
324
AGRICULTURE.
Herbage ferent grasses and other plants. We once plucked seventeen
and distinct species in an old pasture, taking only those that
Forage. C0U1(J be reached without stirring a foot; and as it was only
those that were in flower at the time, or which had escaped
the browsing of the cattle that could be discriminated, we
have no doubt that the list was far from complete. Not
only does a natural pasture contain a great variety of herb¬
age at any one time, but it has its plants which replace
each other at different seasons; and some also which are pro¬
minent only in wet years and others in dry ones. The pro¬
vision thus made for affording, at all times, such a variety of
food as is at once grateful and wholesome to the animals
which browse it, and for keeping the ground fully occupied
under every diversity of seasons and weather, is truly ad¬
mirable, and the study of it well-fitted to interest and instruct
the husbandman. The importance of this subject is begin¬
ning to be appreciated by agriculturists; as one proof of
which we now see our leading seedsmen regularly advertis¬
ing for sale a numerous list of grasses, and other pasture
plants. Most of them also, for the guidance of their custo¬
mers, point out the kinds and quantities per acre, which are
appropriate for diversity of soils and other circumstances.
We refer, as an example of this, to the manual of Messrs
Lawson of Edinburgh, who have devoted much attention to
this subject.
The following tables are from another source.
“ I.—For Alternate-Husbandry.
For 1 year’s
For 1 year’s Hay and
Hay. 1 year’s
Pasture,
lb. lb.
“ Lolium italicum  9 9
perenne  18 18
Dactylis glomerata  — 2
Phleum pratense  1 2
Medicago lupulina  —• 1
Trifoliuxn hybridum  1 2
pratense  8 4
pratense perenne — 2
repens  2 4
For 1 year’s
Hay and
2 years’
Pasture,
lb.
9
18
2
2
1
2
2
4
4
39 44 44
“ In certain cases, the following additions to Table II. may Herbage
be made, namely one to two lb. each of Festuca rubra and and
Poa pratensis on dry sandy soils ; one lb. of Achillea Mille- Forage.
folium, and one to two lb. of Petrosalinum sativum in sheep
pastures ; two lb. chicory (Gichorium Intybus) in cattle pas¬
tures, six or ten lb. of Onobrychis sativa and four to six lb.
of Poterium Sanguisorba (burnet) in dry calcareous soils.
When a crop of hay is taken the first year, both the rye¬
grasses (Lolium) may be increased by a third ; and two lb. of
Trifolium pratense added. Also one-half to one lb. per acre
of Anthoxanthum odoratum when occasional crops of hay are
to be taken.”1
Having described the means to be used for obtaining
good pastures, let us now consider how to use them pro¬
fitably. To the uninitiated the management of grass land
may seem much easier than that of arable land, although the
reverse is the case. After a lengthened practice, we, at
least, find it so in our own experience. Nothing, indeed,
can be more simple than to turn a quantity of live stock into
a pasture in spring, and leave them there to shift for them¬
selves until autumn; but such a procedure is simple in
more than one acceptation.
The art of grazing embraces the practical solution of two The art of
important problems, viz., \st, how to obtain the greatest grazing-
amount and best quality of herbage from any given pasture;
and, 2d, how to consume this herbage by live stock so as to
make the most of it. The grazier has ever to keep in view
what is best for his land, and what is best for his stock; and
must take his measures throughout the entire season with
an eye to both these objects. As regards the first of them,
experience yields the following maxims for his guidance:—
Never to stock his pastures in spring until genial weather
is fairly established, and the pasturage is abundant.
Never to allow the grasses to run to seed, nor parts of a
field to be eaten bare, and others to get rank and coarse.
Duly to spread about the droppings of the cattle; to re¬
move stagnant water, and to extirpate tall weeds.
Sometime in early autumn to make a point of having the
pasture eaten so close that no dead herbage or “ foggage”
shall be left on any part of it.
In what more immediately concerns the welfare of the
live stock he is in like manner taught in stocking his pas-
“ For sheep pastures, it will often be found advantageous to
add from two to four lb. per acre of parsley seed to the above
mixtures; and for pastures in certain upland districts, establish¬
ed practice will justify the introduction of an additional lb. or
two of yellow clover (Medicago lupulina), together with from
two to three lb. of ribgrass (Plantago lanceolata). And for
very heavy, as well as for peaty soils, one to one-and-a-half
lb. of Phleum pratense may be added advantageously, both
for hay and pasture.
“ II.—For Permanent Pasture, No. I.
lb.
“ Alopecurus pratensis  2
Dactylis glomerata  6
Festuca duriuscula  2
elatior  2
pratensis  2
Lolium italicum  (j
perenne   8
Phleum pratense  2
Poa nemoralis sempervirens  2
trivialis  3
Medicago lupulina  1
Trifolium pratense  1
perenne  3
repens  6
46
tures,—
To adapt the stock as regards breed, size, condition, and
numbers, to the actual capabilities of the pasturage.
To secure to the stock at all times a full bite of clean,
fresh grown, succulent herbage.
In moving stock from field to field to take care that it
be a change to better fare—not to worse.
Pasturage consists either of natural herbage or of “ seeds.”
In the lowlands of Scotland there is little good old grass:
all the really fertile soils being employed in arable hus¬
bandry, with the exception of small portions around the
mansions of landowners. The pasturage consists, there¬
fore, for the most part, of the cultivated clovers and grasses.
Comparatively few cattle are there fattened on grass; the
object of graziers being rather to stock their pastures with
young and growing animals, and to get them into forward
condition for being afterwards fattened upon turnips. The
grazing season is there also much shorter than in England:
old grass seldom affording a full bite for a well-conditioned
bullock before the middle of May, or later than the middle
of September. It is quite otherwise in England, various Rich old
parts of which abound with old grass lands of the very pastures of
richest description, on which oxen of the largest class can bngknd.
be fattened rapidly. These in many cases admit of being
stocked towards the end of April, and under judicious
1 Morton’s Cyclopedia of Agriculture—article “ Grasses,” p. 1000.
A G R I C U
Herbage management, continue to yield excellent pasturage for half
and the year. When stocked with cattle in fresh condition,
t orage. tw0 se(-s or “ runs” are not unfrequently fattened, in such
pastures, in the same season. These grass-fed cattle begin
to come to market early in July, and for four or five months
thereafter constitute the chief supplies of beef in our
markets.
Cattle Cattle, already well-fleshed, are alone suitable for turning
grazing, into these rich old pastures. When this is attended to, and
care taken not to stock the pastures until they yield a full
bite, the progress of the oxen will usually be very rapid. It
is now customary to hasten this progress by giving about
four lb. of oil-cake to each beast daily. The dust and
crumbs being sifted out, the bits of cake are strewn upon
the clean sward, from whence they are quickly and carefully
gleaned by the cattle. This is usually a profitable practice.
It brings the beasts forward rapidly, improves their appear¬
ance and handling, and, besides enriching the land, admits
of about twelve per cent, more numbers being fed upon a
given acreage. These choice old pastures are usually occu¬
pied in combination with others of inferior quality. The
most forward lot of cattle having been fattened and sold off
from the former, they are ready to receive a fresh stock. If
it is contemplated to get them also fattened before the ex¬
piry of the season, they are not put on the best land in¬
stantly on the first lot being sold; but a crowd of sheep or
store-beasts being turned upon it for a few days, the exist¬
ing herbage is cleared off, and the pasture {Anglice) “ laid
in” or {Scottice) “ hained,” until a fresh, clean growth fits
it for receiving a suitable number of the best cattle from
the other pastures. It is inexpedient to graze sheep pro¬
miscuously with cattle on these best lands, as they pick out
the sweetest of the herbage, and so retard the fattening of
the oxen. Neither do we approve of having horses among
such cattle; not so much from their interfering with their
pasturage, as from the disturbance which they usually cause
by galloping about. This does not apply to the draught-
horses of a farm, which are usually too tired and hungry
when turned out from the yoke to mind anything but food
and rest; but it is better thrift to soil them ; and frolicsome,
mischievous colts are unsuitable companions for sedate,
portly oxen. In favourable seasons, the grass often grows
more rapidly than an ordinary stocking of cattle can con¬
sume it, in which case they select the best places and allow
the herbage on some parts to get rank and coarse. If
these rank places are neglected until the herbage gets dry
and withered, the finer plants die out, the coarser-growing
grasses usurp the ground, and the pasturage is injured for
future years. To check this evil in time, these neglected
places should be mown, and the grass either brought to the
homestead for soiling, or left to dry where it grew; in which
state the cattle will eat up most of it, and be the better for
it, especially if their bowels are unduly relaxed by the suc¬
culence of the growing herbage. The remarks now made
apply equally to all old pastures employed for the fattening
of cattle, although not of the first quality. All that is re¬
quired is, to observe a due proportion betwixt the capabili¬
ties of the pasturage and the breed and size of the cattle.
A pasture that will fatten a fifty-stone ox may be quite in¬
adequate for one of seventy, and the hardy Galloway or
West Highlander will thrive apace where the heavier and
daintier short-horn could barely subsist.
Sheep With the exception of the best class of rich old pastures,
grazing, grass is usually consumed to greater profit by a mixed stock
of sheep and store cattle, than by one kind of animals only.
This holds true both as regards the natural herbage of pas¬
tures, and water meadows, and cultivated grasses, clovers,
and sainfoin. When old pastures and mixed “ seeds ” are
grazed chiefly by sheep, the same rules apply that have
L T U R E. 325
already been noticed in connection with cattle. The herb- Herbage
age should if possible be fully established in a growing state, and
and so far advanced as to afford a full bite, before the pas- ^ Forage. ^
ture is stocked in spring. If the sheep are turned into it
prematurely, their close nibbling hinders the plants from
ever getting into a state of rapid growth and productiveness,
and the necessity imposed upon the stock of roaming over
the whole field,* and keeping long afoot before they can
glean enough to appease their appetite, is prejudicial alike
to them and to their pasture. The prudent grazier endea¬
vours to avoid these evils by having his stores of Swedes or
mangels to last until the full time at which he may reckon
on having good pasturage. In distributing the flocks to
different fields, the best pasturage is allotted to those that
are in most forward condition. It is advantageous to have
the pastures so subdivided that one portion may be double
stocked while another is rested. By frequently removing
the stock from the one portion to the other the herbage of
each by turns gets time to grow and freshen, and is more
relished by the sheep, than when the whole is tainted by
their uninterrupted occupation of it. In the case of clover,
trefoil, sainfoin, and water-meadows, this principle is yet
more fully carried out by folding the flock and giving them
a fresh piece daily. The crop is thus eaten close off at once
in daily portions and the plants being immediately there¬
after left undisturbed, and receiving over the whole area
their due share of the excrements of the flock, grow again
more rapidly than when subjected to constant browsing
under a system of promiscuous grazing. This plan of fold¬
ing sheep upon such crops has the same advantages to re¬
commend it as soiling, only that it is cheaper to shift the
fold daily than to mow and cart home the forage and carry
back the manure. In the case of water-meadows it is the
practice to irrigate them afresh as each crop of grass is fed
off. This is attended with considerable risk of the sheep
getting tainted with rot, which must be guarded against as
much as possible. In the first place it is well to give them
a daily allowance of bran, beans, or cake, and salt; and be¬
sides this to put on this land only such sheep as are nearly
ready for the butcher. They will thus fatten very rapidly,
and be slaughtered before there is time for harm to ensue.
The modes of grazing which we have now described are
appropriate for sheep in forward condition. The poorer
pastures are usually stocked with nursing ewes and lean
sheep bought in from higher grazings. Lambs, both before
and after weaning, require clean pastures, and of course fre¬
quent changes. If kept on tainted pastures they are certain
to become subject to diarrhoea, to be stinted in their growth,
and to have their constitution so weakened that many of
them will die when afterwards put upon turnips. To avoid
these evils they must be frequently moved from field to field.
A sufficient number of store cattle must be grazed along
with them to eat up the tall herbage and rank places avoided
by the sheep. After the lambs are weaned, the ewes re¬
quire to fare rather poorly for a time, and can thus be made
use of to eat up the worst pasturage, and the leavings of the
young and fattening sheep. When the latter, with the ap¬
proach of autumn, are put upon aftermath, clover-stubbles,
rape, cabbages, or turnips, their previous pastures should in
succession be thickly stocked by the ewes and other store
stock so as to be eaten bare and then get leave to freshen
and get ready for the ewes by rutting time, when they re¬
quire better food. In depasturing sheep on poor soils it is
usually highly advantageous to give them a daily allowance
of grain or cake in troughs which must be shifted daily so
as to distribute the manure regularly over the land. By
means of this auxiliary food, sheep can be fattened on land,
the herbage of which would not alone suffice to do this. It
admits also of a larger number of sheep being kept per acre,
526 A G R I C U
Herbage and of the pasturage being fed off more closely than could
and otherwise be done. The produce of poor siliceous soils, both
Forage. jn grass and after crops, is much increased by the additional
^ manuring and treading which the consumption of such ex¬
traneous food upon them occasions.
It is always advantageous to have pastures provided with
a shed under which the stock can find shelture from sudden
storms, or from the attacks of insects, and the scorching rays
of the summer’s sun. When such sheds are regularly strew¬
ed with dried peat or burnt clay, much valuable compost
for top-dressing the pasture can be obtained. I he dung of
the cattle thus secured and applied benefits the pastures
more than that which is dropped upon it by the animals.
Such clots require to be spread about from time to time.
To carry out successfully the various details now referred
to, which constitute the art of grazing, there is required
much foresight, accurate observation, sound judgment, and
constant superintendence. Without all this it is impossible
to make the most of any given amount of live stock and
pasturage, and hence the extraordinary disparity in the re¬
sults obtained by different graziers from similar materials.
Soiling The temperate climate of Britain is so peculiarly favour-
versus ap]e to the growth of the grasses and other pasture plants, and
grazing. to ^ keepmg of live stock with safety in the open fields for a
large part of the year, that the practice of consuming these
crops by depasturing, as already described, has hitherto been
decidedly preferred to soiling. One consequence of this is,
that forage crops have been comparatively neglected. There
is now, however, a growing conviction among agricultural¬
ists that it is more convenient to keep neat-cattle and horses,
during summer, in yards or loose boxes, and to feed them
with succulent forage, mown and brought to them daily as
it is needed, than to turn them adrift to browse in the fields.
The pasturing plan is preferred by many because it involves
the least labour, and is alleged to be more healthful to the
animals. In behalf of the soiling plan, it is urged that a
given space of ground under green crop keeps nearly twice
as much stock, when its produce is mown and consumed
elsewhere, than when it is constantly nibbled and trodden
upon; that housed cattle being exempted from the vicissi¬
tudes of the weather, the attacks of insects, mutual disturb¬
ance, and the labour of gathering their food, eat less and
yet fatten more rapidly than they do at pasture ; that more
good is gotten of their excrements when mixed with litter,
and trodden down under cover, than when dropped about
in the open fields; and that land from which a green crop
has been mown, when ploughed up, is freer of weeds and
(other things being equal) bears a better corn crop than that
which has been pastured. It is a further recommendation
to the soiling plan that it admits of oil-cake or meal being
administered along with green food with a precision and
economy that is unattainable in the pasture fields. There
being so many, and such cogent reasons in favour of the
practice of soiling, we may warrantably anticipate that it
will in future be much more generally adopted. It is pro¬
per, however, to notice that the success of this system is
absolutely dependent on the following conditions. The
green food must be mown and brought home at least twice
a-day, owing to the rapidity with which it ferments when
put together; it must be given to the stock not less than
four times daily, and only in such quantity at each feed as
they can eat clean up in the interval betwixt meals ; they
must have constant and ample supplies of pure water and of
fresh litter; and, in particular, matters must be so arranged
that there shall be an unfailing supply of green forage of
the best quality, through the entire season. This is accom¬
plished either by successive cuttings of one kind of crop
from the same ground—as of irrigated meadow, or Italian
ryegrass—or by a combination of such crops as naturally
L T U R E.
come to maturity in succession, or are made to do so by a Herbage
sequence of sowings. From what has been said, it is obvious and
that soiling can only be canned out successfully with a mo- v ”rage-
derately good soil and climate, a liberal use of manure, and
skill and foresight on the part of the farmer. With these,
however, its results will usually be highly satisfactory. It
is peculiarly adapted for clay soils, on which the culture of
root crops is attended with much difficulty, and where there
is, therefore, abundance of litter for use in summer, and
much need for the soiling system to get it converted into
good manure.
In proceeding to notice the crops most usually cultivated
in Britain for green forage, we shall begin with Natural
Meadow Grass. In the south-western parts of England
abundant crops of grass are obtained by irrigation with
simple water. Our remarks shall here, however, be restrict¬
ed to those situations where sewage from towns or villages
is available. Wherever a few scores of human families are
congregated together, and have their dwellings properly
drained and supplied with water, there is an opportunity for
manuring a considerable extent of meadow with the sewage-
water accruing from them throughout the year. The cele¬
brated meadows in the environs of Edinburgh are interest¬
ing illustrations of the value of such water for irrigating
purposes, and of the astonishing bulk of rich herbage which
can be obtained in the course of a year from an acre of land
thus treated. From the thickness of the crop in these mea¬
dows, and the rank luxuriance of its growth, the grass must
be cut before it exceeds ten inches in height, as otherwise
the bottom gets blanched, and the grass rots out. The
mowing begins usually in April, and continues till Novem¬
ber, so that by fitly proportioning the head of stock to the
extent of meadow, and having the latter arranged in plots
to be mown in regular succession, soiling can be practised
throughout the season by means of the produce of the mea¬
dow alone. This practice is necessarily limited to situa¬
tions where sewage water is available. The following ex¬
cerpt from the Minutes of Information to the General
Board of Health, collected in the practical application of
Sewer Water and Town Manures to Agricultural Produc¬
tion, p. 65, will explain the system here referred to, and
exhibit its results:—
“ Craigentinney Meadows, situate about one mile and a
half south-east of Edinburgh, have been put under irrigation
at various times, the most recent addition being nearly 50 acres
laid out in the course of last year (1850) and the year previous,
which lying above the level of the rest are irrigated by means
of a steam-engine. The meadows first laid out are watered by
contour channels following the inequalities of the ground, after
the fashion commonly adopted in Devonshire ; but in the more
recent parts the ground is disposed in ‘ panes ’ of half an acre,
served by their respective feeders, a plan which, though some¬
what more expensive at the outset, is found preferable in prac¬
tice. The whole 260 acres take about fourteeen days to irri¬
gate ; the men charged with the duty of shitting the water from
one pane to another, give to each plot about two hours’ irriga¬
tion at a time ; and the engine serves its 50 acres in ten days,
working day and night, and employing one man at the engine
and another to shift the water. The produce of the meadows
is sold by auction on the ground, ‘ rouped,’ as it is termed, to
the cowfeeders of Edinburgh, the purchaser cutting and carry¬
ing off all he can during the course of the letting, which ex¬
tends from about the middle of April to October, when the
meadows are shut up, but the irrigation is continued through
the winter. The lettings average somewhat over L.20 the acre;
the highest last year having brought L.31, and the lowest L.9;
these last were of very limited extent, on land recently denuded
in laying out the ground, and consequently much below its na¬
tural level of productiveness. There are four cuttings in the
year, and the collective weight of grass cut in parts was stated
at the extraordinary amount of eighty tons the imperial acre.
A G R I C U
Herbage The only cost of maintaining these meadows, except those to
and which the water is pumped by the engine, consists in the em-
Forage. ployment of two hands to turn in and otf the water, and in the
expense of clearing out the channels, which was contracted for
last year at L.29, and the value of the refuse obtained was
considered fully equal to that sum, being applied in manuring
parts of the land for a crop of turnips, which, with only this
dressing in addition to irrigation with the sewage-water, pre¬
sented the most luxuriant appearance. The crop from present
indications, was estimated at from thirty to forty tons the acre,
and was expected to realise 15s. the ton, sold on the land.
From calculations made on the spot, we estimated the produce
of the meadows during the eight months of cutting, at the keep
of ten cows per acre, exclusive of the distillery refuse they
consume in addition, at a cost of Is. to Is. 6d. per head per
week. The sea-meadows present a particularly striking ex¬
ample of the effects of the irrigation ; these, comprising be¬
tween 20 and 30 acres skirting the shore between Leith and
Musselburgh, were laid down in 1826 at a cost of about L.700;
the land consisted formerly of a bare sandy tract, yielding al¬
most absolutely nothing; it is now covered with luxuriant
vegetation, extending close down to high-water mark, and lets
at an average of L.20 per acre at least. From the above
statement it will be seen how enormously profitable has been
the application in this case of town refuse in the liquid form ;
and I have no hesitation in stating, that, great as its advan¬
tages have been, they might be extended four or five fold by
greater dilution of the fluid.”
Italian Ryegrass can, however, be cultivated over as
wide a range of soils and climate as any forage crop which
we possess, and its value for soiling is every day getting to
be more generally appreciated. When first introduced,
and indeed until very recently, it was chiefly sown in mix¬
ture with other grasses and clovers for pasturage, a purpose
to which it is well adapted from its early and rapid growth
in spring. Its true function, however, is to produce green
food for soiling, for which purpose it is probably unrivalled.
It is in connection with the system of irrigation with liquid
manure, as practised at Myremill and elsewhere, that its
astonishing powers have been most fully developed. W hen
grown for this purpose it is sown in April, on land that has
borne a grain crop after turnips or summer fallow. If sown
with a grain crop and as thickly as is requisite, it gets nearly
as tall as the grain, and both are injured. A liberal dressing
of farm-yard dung is spread upon the stubble in Autumn, and
immediately ploughed in. In the end of March or begin¬
ning of April the land is prepared for the seed by being
stirred with the grubber and then well harrowed. The seed,
at the rate of four bushels per acre, is then sown in the way
already described for clover and grass seeds. When the
liquid manure system is practised, the crop is watered as soon
as the young plants are about an inch high, and so rapid is
its growth in favourable circumstances that a cutting of ten
tons per acre has in some cases been obtained six weeks
after sowing. When there is no provision for supplying
liquid manure, a top-dressing of guano, nitrate of soda,
soot, or the first two articles mixed, is applied by hand-sow¬
ing, taking care to give this dressing when rain seems at
hand, or has just fallen. A similar top-dressing is repeated
after each cutting, by which means three cuttings are ordi¬
narily obtained from the same space in one season. A very
great quantity of stock can thus be supported from a very
limited extent of ground. This grass is also found to be
very grateful to the palates of horses, cattle, and sheep,
which all thrive upon it. Though so very succulent, it does
not produce purging in the animals fed upon it. It is pe¬
culiarly suitable feeding for milch cows, as appears from the
published account at Canning park. Such results as those
obtained by Mr Kennedy and others, are not to be expected
unless under similar conditions; but on good loams, clean
and in good heart, and under such treatment as is described
L T U R E. 327
at the beginning of this section, as large crops of this grass Herbage
with at least equal feeding powers to red clover may be and
reckoned on, and with a degree of certainty which the farmer Forage.^
cannot now entertain in regard to the latter crop. If regu- ^
larly mown when the ear begins to shew, taking care never
to allow the seed to form, it is fully ascertained that this
grass will grow abundantly for a second year, with the ad¬
vantage of being ready for use very much earlier than in its
first season. It is sometimes sown in Autumn, but those
who have had the fullest experience in its cultivation give
a decided preference to spring sowing, either after a grain
crop which has followed a green crop or fallow, or at once
after turnips. It is of great importance to get fresh and
genuine seed. That directly imported from Italy yields the
best crop when otherwise good. As a proof of the fondness
of sheep for this grass, it has been observed that when it had
been sown in mixture with red clover and cut for hay, sheep,
on being turned into the aftermath, eat down the Italian
ryegrass in preference to the clover.
Crimson Clover, though not hardy enough to withstand
the climate of Scotland in ordinary winters, is a most valu¬
able forage crop in England. It is sown as quickly as possi¬
ble after the removal of a grain crop at the rate of 18 lb. to
20 lb. per acre. It is found to succeed better when only
the surface of the soil is stirred by the scarifier and harrow,
than when a ploughing is given. It grows rapidly in spring,
and yields an abundant crop of green food, peculiarly palat¬
able to live stock. It is also suitable for making into hay.
It may be sown in mixture with Italian ryegrass with great
propriety.
Red Clover.—This plant, either sown alone or in mixture
with ryegrass, has for a long time formed the staple crop
for soiling, and so long as it grew freely, its power of shoot¬
ing up again after repeated mowings, the bulk of crop thus
obtained, its palatableness to stock, and feeding qualities, the
great range of soils and climate in which it grows, and its
fitness either for pasturage or soiling, well entitled it to this
preference. Except on certain rich calcareous clay soils, it
has now, however, become an exceedingly precarious crop.
The seed, when genuine, which unfortunately is very often
not the case, germinates as freely as ever; and no greater
difficulty than heretofore is experienced in having a full plant
during autumn and the greater part of winter; but over most
part of the country, the farmer, after having his hopes raised
by seeing a thick cover of vigorous-looking clover plants over
his field, by March or April finds, to his dismay, that they
have either entirely disappeared, or are found only in capri¬
cious patches here and there over the field. No satisfac¬
tory explanation of this clover failure has yet been given,
nor any certain remedy, of a kind to be applied to the soil,
discovered. One important fact is, however, now well esta¬
blished, viz., that, when the cropping of the land is so
managed as that clover does not recur at shorter intervals
than eight years, it grows with much of its pristine vigour.
The knowledge of this fact now determines many farmers
in varying their rotation so as to secure this important end.
At one time there was a somewhat prevalent belief that the
introduction of beans into the rotation had a specific influ¬
ence of a beneficial kind on the clover when it came next
to be sown; but the true explanation seems to be, that the
beans operate favourably only by the incidental circumstance
of almost necessarily lengthening the interval betwixt the re¬
currences of clover. When the four-course rotation is fol¬
lowed, no better plan of managing this process has been yet
suggested than to sow beans, pease, potatoes, or tares, instead
of clover, for one round, making the rotation one of eight
years instead of four. The mechanical condition of the soil
seems to have something to do with the success or failure
of the clover crop. We have often noticed that head lands,
528 A G R I C U
Herbage or the converging line of wheel tracks near a gateway at
and which the preceding root crop had been carted from a
Forage. imve had a good take of clover when on the held
generally it had failed. In the same way a field that has
been much poached by sheep while consuming turnips upon
it, and which has afterwards been ploughed up in an un¬
kindly state, will have the clover prosper upon it, when it
fails in other cases where the soil appears in far better con¬
dition. If red clover can be again made a safe crop, it will
be a boon indeed to agriculture. Its seeds are usually sown
along with a grain crop any time from 1st February to May,
at the rate of 12 lb. to 20 lb. per acre when not combined
with other clovers or grasses.
Italian ryegrass and red clover are now frequently sown
in mixture for soiling, and succeed admirably. It is, how¬
ever, a wiser course to sow them separately, as by substitut¬
ing the Italian ryegrass for clover, for a single rotation, the
farmer not only gets a crop of forage as valuable in all re¬
spects, but is enabled, if he choose, to prolong the intervals
betwixt the sowings of clover to twelve years, by sowing, as
already recommended, pulse the first round, Italian ryegrass
the second, and clover the third.
These two crops, then, are those on which the arable-land
farmer mainly relies for green forage. To have them good,
he must be prepared to make a liberal application of man¬
ure. Good farm-yard dung may be applied with advantage
either in autumn or spring, taking care to cart it upon the
land only when it is dry enough to admit of this being done
without injury. It must also be spread very evenly so soon
as emptied from the carts. But it is usually more expedient
to use either guano, nitrate of soda, or soot for this purpose,
at the rates respectively of 2 cwt., 1 cwt., and 20 bushels.
If two or more of these substances are used, the quantities
of each will be altered in proportion. They are best also
to be applied in two or three portions, at intervals of fourteen
to twenty days, beginning towards the end of March, and
only when rain seems imminent or has just fallen.
When manure is broad-cast over a young clover field, and
presently after washed in by rain, the effect is identical with
that of first dissolving it in water, and then distributing the
dilution over the surface, with this difference, namely, that
the first plan costs only the price of the guano, &c., and is
available at any time and to every one, whereas the latter
implies the construction of tanks and costly machinery.
Vetches are another very valuable forage crop. Being
indigenous to Britain, and not fastidious in regard to soil,
they can be cultivated successfully under a great diversity
of circumstances, and are well adapted for poor soils. By
combining the winter and spring varieties, and making seve¬
ral sowings of each in their season, at intervals of two or
three weeks, it is practicable to have them fit for use from
May till October, and thus to carry out a system of soiling
by means of vetches alone. But it is usually more expedient
to use them in combination with grass and clover, beginning
with the first cutting of the latter in May, taking the winter
vetches in June, recurring to the Italian ryegrass or clover,
as the second cutting is ready, and afterwards bringing the
spring vetches into play. Each crop can thus be used when
in its best state for cattle food, and so as gratefully to vary
their dietary.
Winter Vetches.—There is no botanical difference be¬
twixt winter and spring vetches, and the seeds being iden¬
tical in appearance, caution is required in purchasing seed
to get it of the right sort. Seed grown in England is found
the most suitable for sowing in Scotland, as it vegetates
more quickly, and produces a more vigorous plant than that
which is home-grown. As the great inducement to culti¬
vate this crop, is the obtaining of a supply of nutritious green
food, which shall be ready for use about the 1st May, and
L T u R E.
so as to fill up the gap which is apt to occur betwixt the Herbage
root crops of the previous autumn, and the ordinary summer andr
food, whether for grazing or soiling, it is of the utmost im- v orage-
portance to treat it in such a way, that it may be ready for
use by the time mentioned. To secure this, winter tares
should be sown in August if possible, but always as soon as
the land can be cleared of the preceding crop. They may
yield a good crop though sown in October, but, in this case,
will probably be very little in advance of early sown spring-
vetches, and possess little, if any, advantage over them in
any respect. The land on which they are sown should be
dry and well sheltered, clean, and in good heart, and be
farther enriched by ploughing into it from 12 to 15 loads of
farm-yard manure. Not less than 3^ bushels of seed per
acre should be sown, to which some think it beneficial to
add half a bushel of wheat. Rye is frequently used for this
purpose, but it gets reedy in the stems, and is rejected by
the stock. Winter beans would probably succeed better
than either. The land having been ploughed rather deeply
and well harrowed, it is found advantageous to deposit the
seed in rows, either by a drilling-machine, or by ribbing.
The latter is the best practice, and the ribs should be at
least a foot apart and rather deep, that the roots may be
well developed before top-growth takes place. As soon in
spring as the state of the land and weather admits of it, the
crop should be hoed betwixt the drills, a top-dressing at the
rate of 40 bushels of soot, or 2 cwt. of guano per acre ap¬
plied by sowing broad-cast; and the roller then used for the
double purpose of smoothing the surface, so as to admit of
the free use of the scythe, and of pressing down the plants
which may have been loosened by frost. It is thus by early
sowing, thick seeding, and liberal manuring, that this crop is
to be forced to an early and abundant maturity. May and 1
June are the months in which winter vetches are used to
advantage. A second growth will be produced from the
roots if the crop is allowed to stand; but it is much better
practice to plough up the land, as the crop is cleared, and
to sow turnips upon it. After a full crop of vetches, land is
usually in a good state for a succeeding crop. When the
whole process has been well managed, the gross amount of
cattle food yielded by a crop of winter vetches, and the
turnip crop by which it is followed in the same summer will
be found considerably to exceed what could be obtained
from the fullest crop of turnips alone, grown on similar soil,
and with the same quantity of manure.
Spring Vetches, if sown about the first of March, will be
ready for use by 1st July, when the winter vetches are just
cleared off. To obtain the full benefit of this crop, the land
on which it is sown must be clean, and to keep it so, a much
fuller allowance of seed is required than is usually given in
Scotland. When the crop is as thick set as it should be, the
tendrils intertwine, and the ground is covered by a solid mass
of herbage, under which no weed can live. To secure this,
not less than four bushels of seed per acre should be used,
if sown broad-cast, or three bushels if in drills. The latter
plan, if followed by hoeing, is certainly the best; for if the
weeds are kept in check until the crop is fairly established,
they have no chance of getting up afterwards. With a thin
crop of vetches, on the other hand, the land is so certain to
get foul, that they should at once be ploughed down, and
something else put in their place. As vetches are in the
best state for use when the seeds begin to form in the pods,
repeated sowings are made at intervals of three weeks, be¬
ginning by the end of February, or as early in March as
the season admits, and continuing till May. With two sow¬
ings in autumn, and four in spring, a supply of this valuable
food can be had in good condition from May till October,
so that by means of vetches alone, if well managed, the in¬
terval betwixt the old and new crops of roots can be filled
AGRICULTURE.
Herbage up. There are, as we have seen, other forage crops, well
and worthy the attention of the farmer, but the vetch is less fas-
Forage. j-j(pous in regard to soil and climate than any of them, and
can be grown successfully on very poor soils. The usual
practice in Scotland has been to sow vetches on part of the
oat break, once ploughed from lea. Sometimes this does
very well, but a far better plan is to omit sowing clover and
grass seeds on part of the land occupied by wheat or barley
after turnips, and having ploughed that portion in autumn
to occupy it with vetches, putting them instead of “ seeds”
for one revolution of the course.
Folding When vetches are grown on poor soils, the most pro¬
sheep upon fitable way of using them is by folding sheep upon them,
vetches. A different course, must, however, be adopted than when
turnips are disposed of in this way. When sheep are turned
in upon a piece of tares, a large portion of the food is trodden
down and wasted. Cutting the vetches and putting them
into racks does not much mend the matter, as much is still
pulled out and wasted, and the manure unequally distributed
over the land. To avoid those evils, hurdles with vertical
spars, betwixt which the sheep can reach with head and neck,
are now used. These are set close up to the growing crop
along a considerable stretch, and shifted forward as the sheep
eat up what is within their reach. This requires the con¬
stant attention of the shepherd, but the labour is repaid by
the saving of the food, which, being always fresh and clean,
does the sheep more good. A modification of this plan is
to use the same kind of hurdles, but, instead of shifting them
as just described, to mow a swathe parallel to them, and fork
this forward within reach of the sheep as required, repeating
this as often during the day as is found necessary, and at night
moving them close up to the growing crop, so that the sheep
may lie for the next twenty-four hours on the space which
has yielded food for the past day. During the night they
have such pickings as have been left on the recently-mown
space, and so much of the growing crop as they can get at
through the spars. There is less labour by this last mode
than the other, and in practice it has been found to do well.
As spring-sown vetches are in perfection at the season
when pastures usually get dry and scanty, a common prac¬
tice is to cart them on to grass land and spread them out in
wisps, to be eaten by the sheep or cattle. It is, however, much
better either to have them eaten by sheep where they grow,
or to cart them to the homestead.
By means of the crops now enumerated, the practice of
soiling can be carried out in all cases where it is practicable.
There are other valuable crops of this kind, several of
which we shall now describe ; but their culture is either li¬
mited by their requirements in regard to soil and climate, or
attended with too great expense to admit of their competing
with those already described.
Sainfoin.—This very important forage plant would be
well entitled to a more prominent place in our list, but for
the circumstance that it is only on dry calcareous soils that
its excellences are fully developed; and to these accord¬
ingly its culture may be said to be confined. In all the
chalk districts of England, sainfoin occupies an important
place in the rotation of crops. Referring to the chalky downs
round Ilsley in Berks, Mr Caird says:—“ About a tenth
part of the land is kept under sainfoin, in which it remains
for four years, being each year cut for hay, of which it gives
an excellent crop. A farmer having forty acres of sainfoin,
sows out ten acres and breaks up ten acres annually. This
goes regularly over the whole farm, the sainfoin not return¬
ing on the same field for considerable intervals, and when
its turn comes round the field receives a rest of four years
from the routine of cultivation. It is then ploughed up in
spring, and sown with oats on one furrow, the crop of which
is generally excellent, as much as eighty bushels an acre not
vol. n.
329
being uncommon.” The seed, at the rate of four bushels Herbage
per acre, is drilled in immediately after barley or oats has and
been sown, working the drill at right angles to its course Forage-
when it deposited the grain. It is frequently pastured for one ^
or more years before being mown either for green forage or
for hay. It is sometimes allowed to stand for eight or ten
years, but the plan described in the above quotation is the
more approved one. A variety called giant-sainfoin has been
introduced by Mr Hart of Ash well, Herts. As compared
with the common sort it is more rapid in its growth in spring,
and still more so after the first and second cuttings. Three
cuttings for hay, and one of these ripening the seed, have
been yielded by it in one year, and a good eddish after all.
The yield from it in the first year, after sowing, is large in
comparison with the common sainfoin, from its attaining
maturity much sooner; but for the same reason it is thought
judicious to break it up after three years, while still in vigour.
Lucerne is much cultivated as a forage crop in France
and other parts of the continent of Europe, but has never
come into general use in Britain. It is, however, frequently
met with in small patches in districts where the soil is very
light, with a dry subsoil. Its thick tap-roots penetrate very
deeply into the soil; and if a good cover is once obtained,
the plants will continue to yield abundant cuttings of herb¬
age for eight or ten years, provided they are statedly top-
dressed, and kept free from perennial weeds. In cultivat¬
ing lucerne, the ground must first be thoroughly cleaned, and
put into good heart by consuming a turnip crop upon ft with
sheep. In March or April, the surface-soil having first been
brought to a fine tilth, the seed, at the rate of 10 lb. per
acre, is sown in rows at 15 to 18 inches apart. So soon as
the plants appear, they must be freed from weeds by care¬
ful hoeing and hand-weeding, repeated as occasion requires.
Little produce is obtained from them the first season, and
not a very heavy cutting the second ; but by the third year
it will yield two or more abundant crops of herbage, pecu¬
liarly suitable for horse-feed. It is the slow growth of the
plants at first, and the difficulty of keeping them free from
weeds on those dry soils which alone are adapted for grow¬
ing lucerne, that have deterred farmers from growing it
more extensively than has hitherto been done. We have
grown it successfully in Berwickshire on a muiry soil, rest¬
ing on sandstone rock, in an exposed situation, at an ele¬
vation of 400 feet. The time to cut it is, as with clover
and sainfoin, when it is in full flower.
Chicory, Lumet, Cow-Parsnip, and Prickly Comfrey,
all known to be palatable to cattle, and yielding a large
bulk of produce, have probably been less carefully experi¬
mented with than their merits deserve. Although they have
long figured in such notices as the present, or in occasional
paragraphs in agricultural periodicals, they have never yet,
that we are aware of, been subjected to such a trial as either
conclusively to establish their claim to more extended cul¬
ture, or to justify the neglect which they have hitherto ex¬
perienced.
Corse or Whin.—Notwithstanding its formidable spines,
the young shoots of this hardy evergreen yield a palatable
and nutritious winter forage for horses and cattle. To fit
it for this purpose, it must be chopped and bruised to destroy
the spines. This is sometimes done in a primitive and la¬
borious way by laying the gorse upon a block of wood, and
beating it with a mallet, flat at one end, and armed with
crossed knife-edges at the other, by the alternate use of
which it is bruised and chopped. There are now a variety
of machines by which this is done rapidly and efficiently,
and which are in use where this kind of forage is used to
any extent. The agricultural value of this plant has often
been over-rated by theoretical writers. In the case of very
poor, dry soils, it does however yield much valuable food at
agriculture.
33°
Herbage a season when green forage is not otherwise to be had. It
and is, on this account, of importance to dairymen ; and to them
Forage, it has this further recommendation, that cows fed upon it
give much rich milk, which is free from any unpleasant fla¬
vour. To turn it to good account, it must be sown in drills,
kept clean by hoeing, and treated as a regular green crop.
If sown in March, on land fitly prepared, and afterwards duly
cared for, it is ready for use in the autumn of the following
year. Only alternate rows should then be cut, and the
others left for another year’s growth. In this way a succes¬
sion of cuttings of proper age are obtained for several years
from the same field. It is cut by a short stout scythe, and
must be brought from the field daily; for when put in a
heap, after being chopped and bruised, it heats rapidly. It
is given to horses and cows, in combination with chopped
hay or straw. An acre will produce about 2000 faggots of
green two-year-old gorse, weighing 20 lb. each.
This plant is invaluable in mountain sheep walks. The
rounded form of the furze bushes that are met with in such
situations, shows how diligently the annual growth, as far as
it is accessible, is nibbled by the sheep. The food and
shelter afforded to them in snow-storms by clusters of such
bushes is of such importance, that the wonder is our sheep
farmers do not bestow more pains to have it inadequate quan¬
tity. Young plants of whin are so kept down by the sheep,
that they can seldom attain to a profitable size unless pro¬
tected by a fence for a few years.
Tussac Grass.—The tussac grass of the Falkland Islands
has, of late years, attracted considerable attention as a for¬
age plant. From its gigantic growth, even in those un-
genial regions, and the extraordinary relish manifested for
it by horses and cattle, sanguine hopes were entertained
that it was to prove a truly valuable addition to our present
list of forage plants. The attempts hitherto made to intro¬
duce it in Britain have not been of a very encouraging kind.
The only successful cases have been in the Orkneys and in
Lewis. Messrs Lawson of Edinburgh, who have given much
attention to it, say, “ Our own experience leads to the con¬
clusion, that localities within influence of the sea spray, the
soil being of a peaty nature, are, without doubt, the best
adapted for the growth of the tussac ; and in such places it
is likely to be of great service, as few other nutritive grasses
will exist there. In our own experimental grounds it does
not thrive well; which may, perhaps, he accounted for by
the nature of the soil, which is light and dry. Regarding
its value as a forage plant, we have before us an analysis
made, at our request, by Professor Johnston, the results of
which show that ‘ the tussac grass ought to be very nutri¬
tive.’ Propagation, in the absence of seed, is easily effected,
under favourable circumstances, by subdivision of the roots.”
We have thus noticed all the more important of our forage
crops of ascertained value. Additions will probably be made
to them from time to time, especially from the increased
attention now bestowed on green crops of all kinds. It has
lately been suggested that maize, although unfit for our
climate as a grain crop, might with advantage be tried as a
forage plant.
Haymaking.—Having spoken of the cultivation and use
in a green state of herbage and forage crops, it remains
to describe the process by which they are preserved for
use in a dry state, or made into hay. On every farm a
supply of good hay, adequate to the wants of its own live
stock is, or at least ought to be, statedly provided. This is,
no doubt, an expensive kind of food, but on the other hand
it is highly nutritious, and conduces much to the healthful¬
ness of the animals fed upon it. Many a valuable farm
horse is annually sacrificed to a false economy in feeding
him solely on innutritious straw or ill-gotten hay. The
owners of such stock would do well to consider that the
price of an annual dead horse, and the impaired health and Herbage
condition of the whole stud, more than counterbalance any an<i
saving that can be effected by using bad fodder instead Forage>
of good. But the great consumpt of hay is by the nume- "
rous horses constantly required in this country for other
purposes than farm labour. In the vicinity of towns hay is
therefore a staple agricultural product, and haymaking an
important branch of rural economy. It is one in the prac¬
tice of which English farmers generally excel their brethren
north of the Tweed. In the counties near the metropolis,
in particular, this process is conducted with admirable skill.
In converting the grasses and forage plants into hay the
object is to get quit of the water which they contain, amount¬
ing to n earl y two-th irds of their weight, with the least possible
loss of their nutritive qualities. In order to this the crops
must be mown at that stage of their growth when the great¬
est weight of produce with the maximum of nutritive value
can be obtained; and then so to conduct the drying pro¬
cess that the inspissated juices shall not be washed out and
lost by external wetting. A simple and sufficiently accurate
rule for determining the first point, is to mow when the
plants are in full flower. If this stage is exceeded both the
quality of the hay and amount of the foggage or aftermath
are seriously impaired. It follows from this, that mowing
should be commenced somewhat earlier than the stage in¬
dicated, otherwise before the whole can be cut, the last por¬
tion will have exceeded the proper degree of ripeness. By
cutting a part too soon a slight loss of weight is incurred,
which, however, is compensated for by a better aftermath,
whereas if part is allowed to mature the seeds, there is a loss
both of weight, quality, and aftermath. Haymaking, to be
done well, must be done quickly, and, in order to this a
full supply of labourers is indispensable. As a good mower
can cut, on the average, an acre in a day, as many must
be engaged as can overtake the extent of crop while it
is in the best state for cutting. It is of great importance,
too, to have the grass cut close by the ground. A loss of
from five to ten per cent, on the gross produce is fre¬
quently incurred by unskilful or careless mowers leaving
the sward too high. To admit of accurate and expeditious
mowing, care must be taken, at the proper season, to re¬
move all stones and other obstructions, and to make the
surface smooth by rolling. Confining our attention, in the
first place, to natural meadow grass, let us glance at the
process as conducted by those who are most proficient in it.
The mowers having commenced their work at sunrise, the
haymakers, in the proportion of two men and three women
to each mower, so soon as the dew is off, shake out the
swaths evenly over the whole ground, until they have over¬
taken as much as they can get into cocks the same day. Phis
quantity they now turn and toss about as frequently as pos¬
sible, getting it, before evening, either into a compact wind¬
row, or forming it into very small cocks. Next day these
cocks are again opened out, and as much more of the grass
in swath as can be overtaken, all of which is anew sub¬
jected to the same repeated turnings, and again, as evening
approaches, secured from dew and rain by windrowing and
cocking; that which is driest being put into larger cocks
than on the previous day. If the weather is hot and parch¬
ing, that which was first cut is by the fourth day ready for
the stack, and is immediately carried. A large rick-cloth
is drawn over the incipient stack until more hay is in con¬
dition to be added to it, and then, if weather favour, the
whole process, from mowing to stacking, for a time goes on
simultaneously, and is speedily completed. As the building
of the stack proceeds, its sides are, by pulling, freed from
loose hay and straightened; and, when completed, it is
thatched with the least possible delay. If the weather proves
showery, the grass is left untouched in the swath until it be-
AGRICULTUR E.
331
Haymak-
ing ma¬
chinery.
gins to get yellow on the under side, in which case it is
usually turned over without opening out until weather again
favour. To produce fine hay, care must be taken to secure
it from dew or rain by cocking, before nightfall, all that
has been spread out during the day,—never to touch it
until dew or wet is off,—to shake all out so thoroughly as
that the whole may be dried alike,—and never to suffer it,
after being tedded out, to lie so long as to get scorched on
one side. When these operations are conducted success¬
fully, the hay is of a fine, light-green colour, delightfully
fragrant, and retains its nutritious matter unimpaired. To
accomplish this in our variable climate, much skill and en¬
ergy, and an ample command of labour, are necessary. The
cost and labour of this process are now, indeed, much re¬
duced by the use of machinery, consisting of haymakers
and horse-rakes, by means of which a lad and horse can, in
a day, break out from the swath, turn, and draw together
into rows, as much grass as could be overtaken in the same
time by fifteen people. The hay-tedder, moreover, shakes
out the grass more thoroughly than it can be done by hand.
After the hay is gathered into rows, horse labour is also
sometimes employed to thrust it into heaps by means of a
sweep, that is, a piece of plank with a rope attached to each
end of it, by which a horse draws it along on edge, while two
lads hold it down, and the hay is thus pushed forward in
successive portions, which are then, by hand labour, made
into orderly cocks. The yield of meadow hay ranges from
one to two tons per acre, and the cost of making it about
10s. per ton. In London, hay is brought to market in
trusses, each weighing 56 lb. and 36 of which are called a
load. In cutting up a stack these trusses are removed from
it in compact squares, which are then neatly secured by
bands of twisted hay.
In converting the cultivated forage crops, such as clover
(either pure or mixed with ryegrass), sainfoin, lucerne, or
vetches, into hay, the procedure varies considerably from
that pursued with the natural grasses. A considerable part
of these plants consists of broad, tender leaves, which, when
scorched by the sun, become so dry and brittle that, on the
least rough handling, they fly into dust, and are totally lost.
These crops, therefore, do not admit of being shaken asun¬
der, and tossed about like the natural grasses, a circum¬
stance which unfortunately forbids the use of machinery
and horse labour in getting them. The swaths are ac¬
cordingly left untouched until they have got slightly wither¬
ed on the upper side, after which they are turned several
times, with as little breaking up as possible; made up first
into small cocks—opened out again—gently turned, and
made into larger cocks, which, as speedily as possible, are
carried and stacked. These crops can be stacked with
safety in a very green state by mixing with them frequent
layers of clean dry straw, by which the redundant juices are
absorbed, and injurious heating prevented. The straw thus
impregnated acquires a flavour which renders it palatable to
cattle ; but it is advisable, when this practice is adopted, to
cut the whole into chaff before using it as fodder.
The following system of making clover and ryegrass into
hay is practised in several districts:—
“ So soon as the surface is dry, a portion, about a yard in
length, of the swath is taken, and the surface folded inwards,
and the whole rolled into a kind of cone. A piece of ryegrass
is pulled out of the top, and tied round the head of the ‘ ruckle,’
as it is called, and set in rows to admit of being easily carted.
Thus, while the sun and air thoroughly dry the whole mass,
the rain, should it come, descends over the inclined surface of
the cone, and as the large mass of leaves the clover possesses
renders it peculiarly liable to injury from the wet, this process
is most valuable, and in few places is it secured in better con- Crops of
dition. In a dry time it is carted directly from the ‘ ruckles’ limited
to the stack; in a damp one, they are sometimes to pull down cultiva-
before they are carted off, and made into ‘ pikes,’ or small tion.
heaps, of from two to three cart-loads each; here the clover
is allowed to ferment, and in a week or two, put into the
stack.”1
When it is desired to save the seeds of Italian or common Saving the
ryegrass, the crop after being sown is allowed to lie for a seeds of
day or two in swath, and is then neatly gathered into sheaves, ryegrass.
bound and stocked precisely like a crop of oats. When
sufficiently dried, the seed is either thrashed out in the field,
the straw stacked like other hay, and the seed spread thinly
over a granary floor, and turned several times daily until it
is dry enough to keep in a bin or in sacks; or the sheaves
are built into small round stacks, which stand until the seed
is wanted, when it is thrashed out by machinery like grain.
Much has been said and written about the wastefulness Defects in
of the system of haymaking annually practised in Scotland. Scottish
To a considerable extent these animadversions are merited, kaymak-
although those who make them usually overlook the causes lD®‘
which account for, and to some extent palliate, the faults
complained of. The facts of the case are simply these. In
many parts of England, hay is both an important marketable
commodity and the principal winter food of the live stock
of the farm. In Scotland it is neither, its place being there
more than supplied by the turnip crop, to which accordingly
the farmer devotes his chief attention. Not only so, but
from the nature of the climate, these two crops demand in¬
stant attention at precisely the same time ; the hay needing
to be made just when the turnips are urgently in want of
thinning. The more important crop of course gets the pre¬
ference, and the other is comparatively neglected. Add to
this that it is but seldom that the Scottish farmer can com¬
mand extraneous labour to help him in this dilemma, and
it will be seen that it is not from mere ignorance or sloven¬
liness that his hay crop is usually so sadly mismanaged.
This lack both of leisure and labour might be somewhat
remedied by the use of haymaking machinery; but as it is
almost exclusively “ seeds ” that are mown in Scotland, this
resource is scarcely available. Still it might be cheaper to
lose some weight of hay by the rough handling of the
machinery than, as at present, by over-ripeness and exposure
to the weather. Perhaps, also, some aid may by and by
arise by the application of horse labour to the preliminary
thinning of turnips, and thus enable the hands to be spared
for the haymaking. While we think it due to truth to
make these statements, we are far from thinking that they
justify the present state of matters. It would be better
to have no hay at all, than to ruin both crop and land, as is
often done, by delaying to mow until the crop is little else
than ripened seeds and woody fibre, and then to bleach it,
and leave it afield in pikes, for weeks or even months before
stacking. Such barbarity as this is of frequent occurrence,
and is utterly inexcusable. We are but too well aware of
the difficulty of doing anything like justice to a hay crop
with a turnip one competing with it for attention ; but yet,
with favouring weather, their rival claims can be so far ad¬
justed, as we find it practicable in our own case, to have
good green hay in about /bw years out offive.
CHAPTER IX.
CROPS OP LIMITED CULTIVATION.
Under this head we shall notice a variety of crops which,
however valuable in themselves, and important to the far-
Royal Agricultural Society's Journal, vol. ix. p. 507.
332
AGRICULTURE.
Crops of
limited
cultiva¬
tion.
Flax.
Hin¬
drances to
its general
cultiva¬
tion.
Soils adap¬
ted for its
growth.
Sowing of
flax.
Pulling of
flax.
mers of particular localities, are, from one cause or other,
not adapted for general cultivation.
Flax is probably the most important of them. Indeed,
from the rapid growth of our linen trade, the growing de¬
mand for linseed and its products, and the fitness of the soil
and climate for the successful growth of flax, it is not with¬
out cause that its more extended cultivation has been so
strenuously urged upon our farmers, and that influential
societies have been organised for the express purpose of
promoting this object. Viewed merely as an agricultural
crop, the cultivation of flax is exceedingly simple, and could
be practised as readily and extensively as that of the cereal
crops. The difficulty is, that before it can be disposed of
to any advantage, it must undergo a process of partial manu¬
facture ; thus there is required not only an abundant supply
of cheap labour, but such an amount of skill and personal su¬
perintendence on the part of the farmer, as is incompatible
with due attention to corn and cattle husbandry. If a ready
and remunerative market were available for the fibre in its
simple form of flax straw, this, in combination with the value of
the seed for cattle feeding, would at once hold out sufficient
motive to our farmers to grow it statedly, and to any re¬
quired extent. Until this is the case its culture cannot ex¬
tend in the corn-growing districts of Great Britain. In
Ireland, and parts of the Highlands of Scotland, where there
is a redundant population much in want of such employment
as the flax crop furnishes, and where the climate is suited
for its growth, it is highly desirable that its culture should
extend, and probable that it will do so. Flax prospers most
when grown upon land of firm texture resting upon a moist
subsoil. It does well to succeed oats or potatoes, as it re¬
quires the soil to be in fresh condition without being too rich.
Lands newly broken up from pasture suit it well, as these
are generally freer from weeds than those that have been
long under tillage. It is usually inexpedient to apply man¬
ure directly to the flax crop, as the tendency of this is to
produce over-luxuriance, and thereby to mar the quality
of the fibre, on which its value chiefly depends. For the
same reason it must be thickly seeded, the effect of this
being to produce tall slender stems, free from branches.
The land having been ploughed in autumn, is prepared for
sowing, by working it with the grubber, harrow, and roller,
until a fine tilth is obtained. On the smooth surface the
seed is sown broad-cast by hand or machine, at the rate of
three bushels per acre, and covered in the same manner as
clover seeds. It is advisable immediately to hand-rake it
with common hay-rakes, and thus to remove all stones and
clods, and to secure a uniform close cover of plants. When
these are about three inches long the crop must be carefully
hand-weeded. This is a tedious and expensive process, and
hence the importance of sowing the crop on land as free as
possible from weeds of all kinds. To obtain flax of the very
finest quality the crop must be pulled so soon as the flowers
fall, but in the improved modes of steeping, whether by
Schenck’s or Watt’s patent, the value of the fibre is not
diminished by allowing the seeds to mature. It must not,
however, be allowed to become dead ripe, but should be
pulled whenever the seeds appear, on opening the capsule,
to be slightly brown coloured. The pulling requires to be
managed with much care. It is performed by men or wo¬
men, who seize a small quantity with both hands, and pull
it by a slight jerking effort. The important point to be at¬
tended to, is to keep the butts even, as successive quantities
are seized and twitched from the ground. When a con¬
venient handful has been pulled it is laid on the ground,
and the next parallel to it at a foot or so apart. The next
handfuls are laid across these, and so on until a small pile is
made, after which another is begun. After lying in this
position for a few days, the seed-vessels or bolls are sepa¬
rated from the flax by lifting each handful separately and
pulling the top through a ripple or iron comb, fixed upon a
piece of plank. As many of these handfuls as will make a
small sheaf are then laid very evenly together, and bound
near both ends with bands formed of a few stems of flax.
These sheaves are set up in stooks, and when dry enough
to keep without heating, are stacked and thatched until an
opportunity occurs of disposing of the flax straw. Some¬
times the flax is bound into sheaves and stocked as it is
pulled, and treated exactly like a grain crop. In this case
the seed is separated from the straw by passing the head
of each sheaf betwixt iron rollers. The only objection to
this plan is that the bolls of separate sheaves get so entan¬
gled in each other, as to render it exceedingly difficult to
handle them in carrying the crop, building, and taking down
the stacks, without disarranging the sheaves and wasting
much straw and seed.
It would be tedious to enter here into a minute detail of
the ordinary method of separating the flax fibre from the
woody part of the stem. Suffice it to say that in the ordi¬
nary practice the sheaves or beets of flax straw are immersed
in a pit or pool filled with clear soft water. The sheaves Retting,
are kept under water by laying boards upon them loaded
with stones to keep them down. Here the flax undergoes
a process of fermentation by which the parts are separated.
About nine or ten days are usually required for this purpose,
but this is much influenced by the temperature. A good
deal of skill and close watching is required to know exactly
when it has been watered enough. The flax is now taken
from the pit and evenly spread upon a smooth, clean, re¬
cently-mown meadow, where it lies for about ten days more,
receiving several turnings the while. When the retting, as
it is called, is perfected, the flax is carefully gathered up
when perfectly dry, and again tied into sheaves, in which
state it is stored under cover until the breaking and scutch¬
ing can be overtaken.
All this necessarily requires much skilful watching and
nice manipulation,—more, as we have already said, than is
compatible with the other avocations of an extensive farmer.
There are, however, improved modes of accomplishing this
preliminary manufacture of flax, which, wherever established,
pave the way for the growth of flax as an ordinary field
crop. The first of these is known as Schenck’s process, Schenck’s
which is thus described in a report by “ The Royal Society retting
for the Promotion and Improvement of the growth of Flax process,
in Ireland—
“ The tenements containing the vats and drying-shelves, are
simple wooden sheds, of cheap construction. In one end of the
building are four vats, set parallel to each other, the length of
the house. They are made of inch deal, in the form of a
parallelogram, fifty feet long, six broad, and four deep. There
are false bottoms, perforated with holes. Underneath these
are introduced the steam-pipes, crossing the vats, and having
stop-cocks at their entrance, by which the steam can be let on
from the main pipe, as required. The steam is generated in
a small boiler, which also serves to turn two hydro-extractors,
—a patent apparatus used to drive off a portion of the water
with which the flax is saturated, on being taken from the vats.
The flax is packed into the empty vats, on the butt ends, in a
half sloping position, precisely as in the case of a steep-pool,
only one layer being the depth. The water is then let in, and
a frame fastened over the top of the flax, answering the end
of stones and straw, or sods, in the steep-pools—the prevention
of the rising of the flax in the course of fermentation.
“ The steam is then let into the pipes by turning the stop¬
cocks, and the water is some eighteen or twenty hours in be¬
coming heated to the required point—85° to 90°. The fermen¬
tation then commences, and no further steam is required, the
action going on until the flax is thoroughly retted, which is in
forty hours afterwards, being sixty from the time of the ad¬
mission of the water. It is worthy of remark, that, if the
Crops of
limited
cultiva¬
tion.
Watt’s
process of
retting.
AGKICULTUEE.
333
water be heated before the flax is put into the vats, or if the
heat be raised above 90°; the process is not in the least
hastened, but, on the contrary, the fermentation is rather re¬
tarded. The footsteps of nature must be followed, and the
heat gradually communicated to the water; otherwise the uni¬
formity of watering, and the preservation of quality and colour,
cannot be fully realised. At the end of the sixty hours, the
flax is taken out, the water allowed to run otf, and the vat'
permitted to cool. The same process is then repeated, with
fresh water and fresh flax. When taken from the water, the
flax is packed into the hydro-extractor, which is a round vessel
of iron, made to revolve by steam-power with great velocity,
the water being driven out of the flax on the principle of cen¬
trifugal force. Thirty beets or small handfuls are placed on
this machine at a time, and about twenty pounds of water are
extracted in three to five minutes. A few hours suffice for the
contents of a vat, each vat containing two tons of flax straw.
The hydro-extractor only separates a portion of the water; the
flax now remains to be thoroughly dried. In summer, or, in¬
deed, for six months in the year, this can be accomplished, as
usual, by spreading on grass land in the open air. During
winter, however, it is necessary to find other means of drying.
A shed has therefore been erected communicating by doors
with the vat house, filled with ranges of shelves, composed
simply of railings of lathwood, in five or six tiers. The flax
is spread lightly along these shelves by women, and the house
is heated by steam-pipes. This house is capable of drying the
full of one vat jper diem. The flax, when dried, is made up
in small beets or handfuls, of a size suited for feeding into the
breaking-rollers of the mill.
“ About ten vats per week can be steeped in this establish¬
ment—say twenty tons weight of straw, and producing, say
two-and-a-half to three tons of fibre. Thus, in one year, such
an establishment would be capable of turning out 120 to 150
tons of flax for market, being the produce of 400 to 500 statute
acres. The fuel used for the boilers is principally ‘ shoves,’
with a small quantity of turf. Mr Bernard estimates the cost
of steeping, drying, heating, aud scutching the flax, at L.lOto
L.ll per ton, which is L.3 per statute acre. Subtracting
say lOd. per stone, or 6s. per cwt. for scutching, the cost of
steeping and drying would thus appear to be about 24s. per
acre—a sum certainly less than the usual estimates of these
operations, as commonly performed by farm labour.”1
More recently what is believed to be an improvement on
this plan has been introduced by Mr Watt. It is thus de¬
scribed in the Annual Report of the Royal Society for the
Promotion and Improvement of the growth of Flax in Ire¬
land :—
“ The flax straw is delivered at the works by the grower, in
a dry state, with the seed on. The seed is separated by metal
rollers, and afterwards cleaned by fanners. The straw is then
placed in close chambers, with the exception of two doors,
which serve the purpose of putting in and discharging the
straw; the top, which is of cast-iron, serves the double purpose
of a top and condenser. The straw is then laid on a perforated
false bottom of iron, and the doors being closed and made
tight by means of screws, steam is driven in by a pipe round
the chamber and between the bottoms, and, penetrating the
mass, at first removes certain volatile oils contained in the
plant, and then is condensed on the bottom of the iron tank,
descending in a continuous shower of condensed water, saturat¬
ing the straw, and forming, in fact, a decoction of the extrac¬
tive matters which attach the fibrous and non-fibrous portions
of the plant. This liquid is drawn off from time to time, and
the more concentrated portions are used for feeding; the pro¬
cess is shortened by using a pump, or such arrangements as
will repeatedly wash the mass with the water allowed to accu¬
mulate. In about eight to twelve hours, varying with the
nature of the straw, it is removed from the chambers, and
having been robbed of its extractive matter without decompo¬
sition, it is then passed through the rollers for the purpose of
removing the epidermis or outer skin of the plant, of discharg- Crops of
ing the greater part of the water contained in the saturated limited
straw, and while in the wet and swollen state, splitting it up cultiva-
longitudinally. The straw being free of all products of de- tion.
composition, is then easily dried, and is in a few hours ready v—
for scutching.” 2
The growth of flax has greatly increased in Ireland of late
years. In the Irish Agricultural Return for 18o2, it is
stated that the extent of the flax crop in 1850 was 91,040
acres, which in 1851 had increased to 140,536 acres.
Hemp, although at one time very generally cultivated in
Great Britain, is now so rarely met with, that it is unneces¬
sary to enter into details of its management.
Hops.—The hop is, however, an important crop in several
of the southern counties of England. We glean from Mor¬
ton’s Cyclopaedia, and from the Journal of the Hoyal Agri¬
cultural Society, the following information regarding it. Al¬
though an indigenous plant, it was originally brought into
England for cultivation from Flanders in 1525. It is culti¬
vated to a considerable extent in Belgium, Bavaria, in the
United States of America, and more recently in Australia.
The duty now paid on home-grown hops is 17s. 7^d. per
cwt.; that on those imported, is L.2, 5s. per cwt. Before
the alteration of the tariff in 1846 it was L.4, 5s., and some
years previous to that L.8, 8s., which in practice was a pro¬
hibitory duty. Hops, as is well known, are chiefly used for
preserving and imparting a peculiar flavour to beer. Pro¬
bably the only parts of the hop flower which enter into the
composition of the beer, are the seeds, and the yellow glutin¬
ous matter which surrounds the outer integuments of the
seed, and lies at the bottom of the petals. This yellow mat¬
ter (technically termed the condition of the hop) has an in¬
tensely bitter taste, and emits a peculiar and very agreeable
aroma, which, however, is extremely volatile ; and hence the
necessity for close packing as soon as possible after the hops
are dried. When kept over a year, much of this aroma flies
off, and hence new hops are indispensable in brewing the
first kinds of beer. Several varieties of the hop are culti¬
vated in England. Of these the Farnham and Canterbury
whitebines, and goldings are esteemed the finest. These
are tall varieties, requiring poles of from fourteen to twenty
feet. The grapes, so called from growing in clusters, and
of which there are several varieties of various quality, requires
poles from ten to fourteen feet long. Jones’s, adapted for
lighter and inferior land, requires these but eight to ten feet.
The colegates are a hardy and late ripening variety which
grow best on stiff soils,—and the Flemish redbine only cul¬
tivated from its less liability than the other to be attacked by
the aphis or black blight.
The hop is a very exhausting crop for the land, requiring
to be planted only on the most fertile soils, and to have them
sustained by frequent and large dressings of manure rich in
nitrogen. Flops are principally cultivated in the counties of
Kent, Sussex, Surrey, Hants, Worcester, and Hereford, and
to a more limited extent in Essex, Suffolk and Nottingham.
The best quality of hops are grown at Farnham in Kent, upon
the outcrop of the upper greensand formation, from whence
the phosphoric nodules or coprolites, now so well known in
the manure market, are obtained. The greatest extent of
land under this crop in any one year during the present cen¬
tury was in 1837, when it amounted to 56,323 acres. Owing
to lower prices, and consequent less profitable returns, the ex¬
tent in 1849 was reduced to 42,798 acres.
In forming a new plantation, the ground soon after
Michaelmas is trenched to the depth of eighteen inches, if
it has previously been in meadow or old pasture, taking care
1 Morton’s Cyclopaedia of Agriculture, article “ Flax.’
North British Agriculturist, 10th November 1852.
334
A GRIG U L T U R E.
Crops of not to bury the surface-soil above half that depth. Subsoil-
limited ploughing will suffice with land that is in tillage. If the land
cultiva- jg we^ (1,-aing are ma(le from four to five feet deep, laid with
tlQIU j pipes, and a foot of broken stones over them, to prevent the
* roots of the hops from obstructing the pipes. The frequency
of the drain is determined by the necessities of each case.
Perfect draining is essential to the success of the crop ; and
the hops are planted in squares or triangles at equal dis¬
tances, varying from six to seven feet, according to the fer¬
tility of the soil, and the greater or less luxuriant habit of
growth of the variety selected. The plants are raised by
cutting off the layers or shoots of the preceding year, which
are bedded out during the month of March, in ground pre¬
viously prepared, and in the succeeding autumn become
what are called nursery plants or bedded sets. Early in
November these are planted; one, two, or three being used
for a hill, according to the strength of the plants. Care
must be taken to introduce a sufficient number of male
plants, six hills to the acre being deemed sufficient. The
presence of these is found to induce earlier maturity, and to
improve both the quality and weight of the crops. The
ground must at all times be kept free from weeds, and have
a good depth of pulverised soil. From the first, a stick six
feet high or so, is placed to each hill, to which all the young
bines, as they shoot out during summer, must be tied. A
liberal dressing of superphosphate of lime and guano is in
June hoed in around each hill, which is repeated in July,
under which treatment, two or three cwt. of hops is obtained
the first year, besides growing a crop of mangel, turnips,
or potatoes, in the intervals betwixt the hills. On newly
broken up ground, lime is applied the following spring.
When a plantation has been established, the annual routine
of culture begins in autumn, as soon as the crop has been
gathered, when the haulm is stripped from the poles, and
stored away as a substitute for straw. The poles are stacked
or piled in quantities of 400 or 500, at regular distances on
the ground. During winter they are sorted, and repointed
when required, and new ones substituted for those that are
broken or decayed; this work and the carrying on of manure
being accomplished in frosty weather. The ground is dug
over by the fork at this season. In March the earth is re¬
moved from the plants by a beck or pronged hoe till the
crown is exposed, that the plant may be pruned. Imme¬
diately after this the poles are set, the length and number of
these for each hill depending upon the kind of hops and
amount of growth anticipated. They are fixed into holes
made for them by a hop-bar. As the season advances, the
ground is hoed and again dug or stirred by a nidget or
scarifier drawn by a horse. Early in May, the bines or
young shoots, as soon as long enough, are, by women, tied
to the poles with rushes or bast. This tying is repeated
several times as the bines get higher, and has even to be
done by step-ladders. In June, the hops are earthed up or
hilled, at which time weak plants get a dressing of guano.
Throughout the summer weeds are destroyed as they ap¬
pear, and the soil kept loose by the nidget or the hand-hoe.
If poles are blown over by high winds, they are constantly
replaced.
The picking of the hops usually begins about the second
week in September, and furnishes ample employment for
several weeks to the entire population of the districts, and
to a large influx of strangers, men, women, and children,
all engaging in it. In favourable years, a labourer with his
wife and several children can earn from L.6 to I..8 during
the hop-picking season. The hop-pickers are arranged into
companies, and are supplied with baskets or bins, holding
seven or eight bushels each, and which are gauged with
black lines inside to save the trouble of measuring. Each
company is under the superintendence of a hop bailiff', who
keeps an account of the earnings, &c. Under him are seve¬
ral men called pole-pullers, whose duty it is to supply the
pickers with poles of hops, and to assist in carrying the
picked hops to the carts. They use an iron lever called a
hop-dog, in pulling up the poles. The hops are picked, one
by one, into the bins, care being taken that no bunches nor
leaves, nor mouldy hops are included. The price paid for
picking ranges from l^d. to 3d. per bushel, although in
blighted seasons it may be as high as 6d. The hops are
dried in kilns or oast-houses, on floors of haircloth. Great
improvements have been made of late years in the con¬
struction of these oasts. Much nice discrimination is re¬
quired in managing the drying, so as to produce the best
quality of hops. As soon as they are removed from the kiln
they are packed into pockets, which, during the process, are
suspended from a hole in the floor, and the hops trodden
into them by a man. This is now done more accurately by
machines, in which a piston presses the hops into the pockets.
Hop-growing is a hazardous speculative business, the return
at times being very great, and at other times not covering
expenses. This arises from the liability of the hop to the
attacks of insects, but more especially to blight and mould.
The blight is caused by innumerable hordes of the aphis
humuli, which sometimes destroy the plants altogether. The
mould is a parasitical fungus. It is believed that a means
has at last been discovered of checking the ravages of these
assailants, by enveloping each plant separately in a light
covering, and subjecting it to the fumes of tobacco in the
case of blight, and to a cloud of powdered brimstone in the
case of mildew. The charges attendant upon the cultiva¬
tion of an acre of hop-ground are estimated, including rent,
tithes, interest on capital and duty, at from L.50 to L.60;
and as 10 cwt. is considered an average crop, and L.5 per
cwt. a frequent price, it is evident that the business is a very
precarious one. In blight years it usually happens, that
some grounds altogether escape, in which case the returns
from them are enormous, owing to the enhanced price.
Sugar-Beet.—“ During the wars of the French revolu¬
tion, the high price which colonial sugar obtained on the
continent induced the manufacture of sugar in large quan¬
tities from beet-root. This has become so large in France
that since the restoration of peace the French government
have felt compelled to protect the beet-root sugar makers
by the imposition of prohibitory duties on colonial sugars.
“ Some years since, the manufacture of sugar from beet¬
root began to be attempted, and not without success, in
England. The absence of any excise duties, and an exist¬
ing considerable import duty on colonial sugars seemed to
offer a kind of premium to the English makers. The go¬
vernment naturally took the alarm ; a revenue on imported
sugars, which in 1850 yielded about L.4,130,000, could not
be allowed to be endangered. Parliament therefore inter¬
fered; and by the 1st Viet. c. 57 (1837), a duty of 24s. per
cwt. was imposed on all sugar made from beet-roots in the
United Kingdom. The manufacture was placed under the
management of the Commissioners of Excise, and the en¬
tire process must now be carried on under the regular sur¬
vey of their officers. Four hours’ notice must be given be¬
fore any maker can begin to rasp, or grind, or mash any
beet-root, for the purpose of sugar-making, and other re¬
strictions are directed. In 1840, by the 3d and 4th Viet,
c. 57, the same duty was imposed upon sugar made from
potatoes, rice, and other materials, in the United Kingdom.
In 1845, however, by the 8th Viet. c. 13, the amount of
this duty was reduced to 14s.”1
Crops of
limited
cultiva¬
tion.
1 Farmers Magazine, vol. i. p. 481.-(June 1852).
AGRICULTURE.
335
Crops of
limited
cultiva¬
tion.
The matter has again been taken up in good earnest,
and a company formed, by whom the process of manufac¬
turing beet-sugar is in actual operation at Mount Meillick,
in Queen’s County, Ireland. By this operation the fact has
already been established, that the climate and soil of Ire¬
land are exceedingly favourable to the sugar-beet, and that
the quality of the roots is equal, if not superior, to those of
France or Belgium. By recent improvements in the man¬
ner of conducting the manufacture, it is said that the sugar
obtained from beet amounts to 8 per cent, of the gross
weight of the roots, instead of 5 per cent., as at first. “ That
this is a question of national importance is beyond all doubt;
and to shut our eyes to the undisputed advantages which
home-made sugar promises, is to reject a benefit which our
continental neighbours have long turned to good account.
At the earliest period of this manufacture in France, great
mechanical and chemical difficulties had to be overcome.
The English manufacturer goes to his task with all the ex¬
perience at his command which the continent has acquired.
In France, for these reasons, the progress was slow at the
commencement, but once having taken root was never given
up.
“We subjoin an historical sketch of the gradual progress
of this branch of industry in France from 1820 to 1840:—
Year.
Production
of
Inland Sugar.
Foreign Sugar
entered for
Consumption.
Total
Consumption
of Sugar.
1820
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
1831
1832
1833
1834
1835
1836
1837
1838
1839
Kilogrammes.
50,000
100,000
300,000
500,000
800,000
1,000,000
1,600,000
2,000,000
2,700,000
4,400,000
5,500,000
7,000,000
9,000,000
12,000,000
20,000,000
30,000,000
40,000,000
45,000,000
50,000,000
55,000,000
Kilogrammes.
44,416,795
41,502,749
49,328,057
37,590,270
56,048,430
48,546,683
64,407,342
50,797,139
61,987,771
62,160,175
54,647,941
67,750,207
62,642,643
57,874,877
65,643,511
64,095,647
56,276,475
64,167,840
63,251,965
62,731,995
Kilogrammes.
44,416,795
41,502,649
49,328,057
38,590,270
56,048,439
49,546,683
65,407,342
52,797,139
64,987,771
66,160,175
60,647,941
74,750,207
71,642,643
69,874,876
85,643,511
94,095,647
96,276,475
109,167,840
113,251,965
117,731,095
Within the last ten years the augmentation has been less
rapid. In 1851, the production was 60,000 tons, or 60,000,000
of kilogrammes, notwithstanding the repeated prophecies
that the beet-sugar would not compete with the cheap sugar
of Brazil, Java, and Manilla.
In Germany, the manufacture of sugar is of more recent
date than in France. Its progress of late has been,—
Beet-root Sugar made in
the Zollverein.
1848  26,000 tons.
1849  34,000 „
1850  40,000 „
1851  43,000 „
Foreign Sugar imported.
1848  60,500 tons.
1849  54,000 „
1850  48,000 „
1851  45,000 „
In the Austrian empire 8000 tons were made in 1848, and
in 1851, 15,000 tons. Russia is said to have contributed Crops of
25,000 tons in the year 1851. limited
It does not at all follow that sugar made in England is to cultiva-
drive our colonial sugar out of the market. There is more tl0n‘
foreign sugar imported than we could hope to see replaced ^
in many years. In 1851, it exceeded 45,000 tons, of which
but a small portion was re-exported. To this figure we may
therefore push our efforts ; and most gratifying it is to be
able to reflect, that while slave-labour must inevitably grow
dearer, every mechanical and scientific improvement can
but enhance the powers of the European producers, and en¬
sure their ultimate victory over the slave-owner. Samples
have been shewn in the city of beet-sugar from the Rhine,
quite equal to “ white Havanna, and refined sugar made
from the same that could not be distinguished from West
Indian.”1
It has also been ascertained that excellent beer can be
made from the juice of the beet. The refuse from the sugar
manufacture is said to be available for feeding cattle and
pigs, and as a manure.
The cultivation of the Silesian white-beet, which is the
variety of this plant most in repute for yielding sugar, differs
in no respect from that of mangel-wurzel, which we have
already described.
Chicory for its roots.—The very extensive and constantly
increasing consumption of the roots of chicory, as a substi¬
tute for coffee, renders it now an agricultural crop of some
importance. The soils best adapted for its growth are deep
friable loams. The process of cultivation is very similar to
that required for the carrot, excepting only that it is not
sown earlier than the first week of May, lest the plants should
run to seed. When this happens, such plants must be
thrown aside when the crop is dug, else the quality of the
whole will be injured. About four pounds of seed is the quan¬
tity to sow per acre, either broad-cast or in rows. The lat¬
ter is undoubtedly the best mode, as it admits of the land
being kept clean, and yields roots of greater weight. The
crop is ready for lifting in November. A long stout fork
is the best implement for this purpose. In using it, care
must be taken to get out the roots entire, not only for the
sake of the roots, but to lessen an inconvenience attendant
on the culture of this plant, namely, that the fragments left
in the soil grow amongst the after crops, and are as trouble¬
some as weeds. The roots, when dry, are carefully washed,
cut into thin slices, and kiln-dried, when they are fit for the
coffee-grinder. From 1 to tons per acre of the dried
root is an average produce. A few years ago, from L.20
to L.30 per ton was a current price for good samples, but
like other crops of limited consumption, it has been grown
too extensively—the market has been glutted, and the price
reduced to L.6.
Oil-yielding Plants.—Various plants are occasionally cul¬
tivated in Britain for the sake of the oil which is expressed
from their ripened seeds. We have already noticed the
value of flax-seed for this purpose, although the fibre is the
product which is chiefly had in view in cultivating it. The
plants most commonly sown expressly as oil-yielding crops
are, rape (Brassica napus), colsa (Brassica campestris),
gold of pleasure {Camelina sativa), and the poppy (Papa-
ver somniferum). Rape is the plant most frequently and
extensively grown for the production of oil. The colsa or
B. campestris is said to yield better crops of seed than the
other species. This plant is much cultivated in Flanders
for this purpose. In Great Britain it seems rather on the
decline. It is chiefly on rich alluvial soils that this crop is
grown. For a seed crop rape is sown in June or July pre-
1 Farmer's Magazine, pp. 558, 559.
336
Crops of
limited
cultiva¬
tion.
AGRICULTURE.
cisely in the manner already described for turnips. The
young plants are thinned out to a width of six or eight
inches apart, and afterwards kept clean by hoeing. 1 he fo¬
liage may be eaten down by sheep early in autumn, without
injuring it for the production of a crop of seed. In spring
the horse and hand hoe must be used, and the previous ap¬
plication of one or two cwt. of guano will add to the pro¬
ductiveness of the crop. It suits well to lay down land to
clover or grass after a crop of rape or turnip seed, and for
this purpose the seeds are sown at the time of giving this
spring culture. The crop must be reaped as soon as the
seeds are observed to acquire a light-brown colour. _ The
reaping is managed precisely as we have described in the
case of beans. As the crop after being reaped and deposited
in separate handfuls on the ground very soon gets dry enough
for thrashing, and as the seed is very easily shed after this is
the case, this process must be performed as rapidly as pos¬
sible. Sometimes it is conveyed to the thrashing-mill on
harvest-carts, on which a cloth is stretched to save the seeds
knocked out in the loading and unloading, but more usually
the flail is used on temporary thrashing-floors, provided in
the field by spreading down large cloths. The crop is gently
lifted from the ground and placed heads innermost, on a
blanket which two persons grasp by the corners, and carry
to the thrashing-floors. A great number of people are re¬
quired to push this process through rapidly, for unless the
crop is quickly handled, a great loss of seed ensues. The
seed is immediately spread thinly upon a granary floor, and
frequently turned until dry enough to keep in sacks, when
it is cleaned and disposed of. On good soil, and in favour¬
able seasons the yield sometimes reaches to forty bushels per
acre. The haulm and husks are either used for litter, or
burned, and the ashes spread upon the land. It makes good
fuel for clay burning.
Seeds of Agricultural Crops.—In the case of seed-
corn it is customary for farmers either to select from the
best of their own growth, to exchange with or purchase
from neighbours, or, if they wish a change from a different
county, to employ a commission-agent to buy for them. In
all districts there are careful farmers, who, by occupying
land that produces grain of good appearance, and being at
pains to have good and pure sorts, are stated sellers of seed-
corn, and manage in this way to get a few shillings more
per quarter for a part of their produce. It is therefore only
in the case of new and rare varieties that professional seeds¬
men ordinarily deal in seed-corn. There are, however, other
field crops, such as clovers, grasses, turnip, mangel, carrots,
winter vetches, &c., the seeds of which, to a large extent,
pass through the hands of seedsmen, and the growing of
which is restricted to particular districts, and is in the hands
of a limited number of farmers. In general, a good soil and
climate, and a considerable amount of skill and minute per¬
sonal attention on the part of the farmer are indispensable,
in order to produce these seeds of good quality. These
seed crops are sometimes very remunerative to the grower;
but are hazardous ones for farmers to attempt at their own
risk. The only safe course is to grow them at a stipulated
price, to the order of some thoroughly respectable seedsman,
and to hold to the production of the particular kind or kinds
which he requires. This applies, in a less degree, to the
clovers, and to the more commonly cultivated grasses than
to the other seeds just referred to. Such an arrangement is
beneficial to all concerned. The grower having a fixed price,
and certain market, knows exactly what he is doing, the seeds¬
man purchasing only from selected growers, to whom he usual¬
ly supplies a choice stock of the article to be raised by them,
can vouch for the genuineness and freshness of his seeds ;
and his customers knowing the guarantee against disappoint¬
ment and loss which this mode of conducting his business
affords to them, give him a full price, and find it true eco- Crops of
, ° limited
nomy to do so. cultiva
We have already described the mode of saving the seeds tion '
of Italian or common ryegrass; and as other grasses are i a
managed in the same way. it is unnecessary to say more re¬
garding them.
It is only in the southern parts of England that clover is Clover
grown for the sake of its seeds. When it is meant to take seed,
a crop of seed, the clover is fed off with sheep, or mown
early in the season, and then allowed to produce its flowers,
and ripen its seeds. This preliminary eating or cutting over
causes the plants to throw up a greater number of seed-
stems, and to yield a fuller and more equally ripening crop.
The crop is mown when the seeds are seen to be matured.
In the case of white clover the cutting takes place while the
dew is upon the crop, as working amongst it when dry
would cause a loss of seed. After mowing and turning the
crop, the ground is raked with close-toothed iron rakes, to
catch up loose heads. The thrashing is a twofold process ;
first the separation of the heads or cobs from the stem, call¬
ed “ cobbing,” and then of the seeds from the husks, called
“ drawing.” This was formerly accomplished by a laborious
and tedious process of thrashing with flails, but it is now
done by machinery. In favourable seasons, the yield is about
five or six bushels (of 70 lb. each) per acre.
Turnip Seed is the next most important crop of this Turnip
kind. From the strong tendency in the best varieties ofseed-
turnips and Swedes to degenerate, and the readiness with
which they hybridise with each other, or with any member
of the family Brassica, no small skill and pains are needed
to raise seed that can be depended upon to yield roots of
the best quality. Turnip seed is saved either from selected
and transplanted roots, or from such as have been sown for
the express purpose, and allowed to stand as they grow.
The first plan, if the selection is made by a competent judge,
is undoubtedly that by which seed of the purest quality is
obtained. But it is an expensive way, not only from the
labour required in carrying it out, but from the yield of seed
being generally much less than from plants that have not
been disturbed. Professional seed-growers usually resort
to a compromise, by which the benefit of both plans is se¬
cured, viz. by selecting with great care, and transplanting
a limited number of bulbs, and saving the seed obtained
from them to raise the plants which are to stand for their
main seed crop. The latter are carefully examined when
they come into bloom, and all plants destroyed the colour
of whose flowers varies from the proper shade. Turnips
that are to bear seed are purposely sown much later in the
season than when intended to produce cattle food, as it is
found that bulbs about 1 lb. weight are less liable to be in¬
jured by frost, or to rot before the seed is matured, than
those of larger size. The management of a turnip-seed crop,
both as regards culture and harvesting, is identical with that
of rape for its seeds, which has already been described.
Mustard.—Both the white and brown mustard is culti¬
vated to some extent in various parts of England. The
former is to be found in every garden as a salad plant; but
it has of late been coming into increasing favour as a forage
crop for sheep, and as a green manure, for which purpose it
is ploughed down when about to come into flower. The
brown mustard is grown solely for its seeds, which yield the
well-known condiment. When white mustard is cultivated
for its herbage, it is sown usually in July or August, after
some early crop has been removed. The land being brought
into a fine tilth, the seed, at the rate of 12 lb. per acre, is
sown broad-cast, and covered in in the way recommended
for clover seeds. In about six weeks it is ready, either for
feeding off by sheep, or for ploughing down, as a prepara¬
tive for wheat or barley. White mustard is not fastidious
Crops of
limited
cultiva¬
tion.
. Garden
seeds.
AGRICULTURE.
337
Crops of
limited
cultiva¬
tion.
ous parts of Great Britain an important department of farm¬
ing—for the scale on which it is conducted allies it quite as
much to agriculture as to horticulture. We learn from Mr
Cuthill,1 that in the counties contiguous to London above ^ y
12,000 acres are occupied in growing vegetables, and about J*
5000 more in producing fruit. About 35,000 people find
employment in these market gardens. The system of culti- °
vation pursued in them is admirable. The soil is trenched
two spits deep for nearly every crop ; it is heavily manured
and kept scrupulously clean by incessant hoeing. When¬
ever a crop is removed, some other suited to the season is
instantly put in its place, and not an inch of ground is suf¬
fered to be unproductive. A young farmer bent on knowing
his business thoroughly, could not well occupy a few months
to better purpose than by placing himself under one of these
clever market gardeners.
Kent has long been peculiarly celebrated for its orchards.
The best of them are on the borders of the greensand forma¬
tion, or ragstone as it is provincially called. Apples, pears,
plums, cherries, and nuts are produced in immense quantities.
The filbert plantations alone are said to occupy 5000 acres.
An abundant and cheap supply of fruit and vegetables for
the inhabitants of our towns is undoubtedly an important
object, and is likely to occupy increased attention wherever
a suitable soil and exposure with facility of carriage by rail-
wav are combined.
in regard to soil. When grown for a seed crop, it is treated
in the way about to be described for the other variety. For
this purpose either kind requires a fertile soil, as it is an ex¬
hausting crop. The seed is sown in April, is once hoed in
May, and requires no further culture. As soon as the poos
have assumed a brown colour the crop is reaped and laid
down in handfuls, which lie until dry enough for thrashing
or stacking. In removing it from the ground, it must be
handled with great care and carried to the thrashing-floor
or stack on cloths, to avoid the loss of seed. The price de¬
pends much on its being saved in dry weather, as the qua¬
lity suffers much from wet. The yield varies from twenty
to thirty bushels per acre, and the price from 10s. to 20s.
per bushel. It is chiefly grown on rich alluvial soils in the
south-eastern counties of England. This great evil attends
its growth, that the seeds which are unavoidably shed in har¬
vesting the crop remain in the soil, and stock it permanently
with what proves a pestilent weed amongst future crops.
Canary Seed {Phalaris canariensis) is cultivated to
some extent in Essex and adjoining counties, for the sake
of its grain, which is used exclusively for feeding cage-birds.
In an agricultural point of view, it is exceedingly similar to
our staple corn crops, and in practice is sown instead of
wheat or barley. It is drilled in February, at the rate of
two gallons per acre, on land that has been ploughed the pre¬
vious autumn, and stirred by the grubber immediately be¬
fore sowing. It requires hoeing, to protect it from weeds
during the first stages of its growth. It is late in ripening,
and requires to be thoroughly dried before being stacked.
It is recommended to stack it on frames, to guard it from
the attacks of mice, which manifest a peculiar fondness for
it. Its yield and weight per bushel are similar to those of
wheat. Its price fluctuates exceedingly, but averages from
50s. to 60s. per quarter.
Coriander and Caraway are noticed together, not only
because thev are used for similar purposes, but because they
are frequently grown in mixture. Both are cultivated for
the sake of their seeds, which are used by confectioners, and
for medicinal and other purposes. The coriander being an
annual and the caraway a biennial, the former yields a crop
the first year, and then leaves the latter in possession of the
ground. At one time a third crop, viz. the teazel, was also
sown with them, but owing to improvements on the machi¬
nery for dressing cloth it has become obsolete. Lhe cori¬
ander being also less grown than formerly, the caraway is
frequently drilled amongst wheat. After the latter is har¬
vested, the stubble and weeds are cleared away by horse
and hand hoeing. Beans or dwarf pease are also sometimes
grown betwixt the rows of caraway during the first and
unfruitful year of its growth. The mode of harvesting both
of these crops is the same. They are reaped and deposited
in handfuls until dry enough for thrashing, and are then
carried with great care on cloth-covered sledges to a tempo-
rary thrashing-floor where the seeds are beaten out by flails.
About ten cwt. of coriander and five of caraway per acre, is
an average yield. The price of the former ranges from 10s.
to 20s. per cwt., that of the latter from 35s. to 45s. per cwt.
The cultivation of these crops for sale is nearly confined to
the county of Essex; but plots of caraway are to be met with
in farm and cottage gardens in all parts of Great Britain.
In Essex and Kent no inconsiderable extent of land is
annually occupied in growing the seeds of the staple crops
of our kitchen and flower gardens. Wholesale seedsmen
contract with farmers to grow these seeds for them at a
stipulated price. , , . .
The growth of fruits and of culinary vegetables is in van-
CHAPTER X.
LITE STOCK.
The breeding and rearing of domesticated animals has
ever been a favourite pursuit in Great Britain, and has been
carried to greater perfection than any other department of
rural affairs. In no other country of similar extent can so
many distinct breeds of each class of these animals be found;
most of them excellent of their kind, and admirably adapted
to the particular use for which they are designed. Observ¬
ing the usual order, we notice first—
Horses.—In doing so we shall confine our attention to
those breeds which are cultivated expressly for the labours
of the farm; for although the breeding of saddle-horses is Saddle
chiefly carried on by farmers, and forms in some districts an horses,
important part of their business, it does not seem advisable
to treat of it here. It is a department of husbandry requir¬
ing such a combination of fitness in the soil, climate, and
enclosures of the farm, of access to first-class stallions, and
of taste and judgment on the part of the farmer, that few
indeed of the many who try it are really successful. The
morale too of the society into which the breeding of this
class of horses almost necessarily brings a man, is so un¬
wholesome, that none can mingle in it freely without ex¬
periencing to their cost that “ evil communications corrupt
good manners.” We have noted it as a fact of peculiar sig¬
nificance, in this connection, that of the few men who really
make money by this business, scarcely one desires to see it
prosecuted by his sons.
Breeds.—The immense size and portly presence of the
English black horse, entitle him to priority of notice. This
breed is widely diffused throughout England, though found
chiefly in the Midland Counties. It is in the fens and rich ^™don
pastures of these counties, that the celebrated London dray
horses are bred and reared. “ These ponderous animals are
frequently seventeen hands high, and their sleek and glossy
appearance as they move majestically through the streets of
the metropolis, presents one of the most striking sights to the
eye of the foreigner.” These horses are too slow and heavy
v YOL. n.
1 See Market Gardening round London, by James Cuthill, Camberwell, 1851.
2 u
338 AGRICULTURE.
Livestock, for ordinary farm-work, and would not be bred but for the
high prices obtained for them from the great London brew¬
ers, who pride themselves on the great size, majestic bear¬
ing, and fine condition of their team horses. It is alleged
indeed, that it is only such massive animals that can cope
with the heavy loads of coals, timber, and merchandise of all
kinds, requiring to be conveyed over jolting pavements from
wharves and similar places. But in reality these heavy horses
are destroyed by their own weight, few of them being free
from ring-bone and other diseases of the feet and pasterns.
Smaller but more muscular and energetic horses, especially
if yoked singly in carts, instead of by teams in great wag-
g0ns,—would perform more work at less expense, and with
less fatigue to themselves. The breeders of these horses
employ brood mares and young colts exclusively for their
farm-work. The colts are highly fed, and worked very
gently until four years old, when they are sold to the Lon¬
don brewers, often at very great prices. The same breed
is largely used in England for ordinary farm labour, although
not found of such gigantic proportions as in those districts
where they are bred for the special destination just referred
to. Although very docile, their short step, sluggish gait,
large consumption of food, and liability to foot lameness,
render them less profitable for ordinary farm-work than the
breeds about to be mentioned.
The Suffolk Punch is a well-marked breed which has long
been cultivated in the county from which it takes its name.
These horses are, for the most part, of a sorrel, bay, or chest¬
nut colour, and are probably of Scandinavian origin. They
are compact, as their name imports, hardy, very active, and
exceedingly honest pullers. These horses at one time were
very coarse in their form, and rather slow; but they have
now been so much improved in form and action, that we
find them the chief prize-takers at the recent exhibitions of
the Royal Agricultural Society.
The Cleveland Bays are properly carriage-horses; but
still, in their native district, they are largely employed for
field work. Mr Milburn says, “ The Cleveland, as a pure
breed, is losing something of its distinctiveness. It is run¬
ning into a proverb, that ‘ a Cleveland horse is too stiff for a
hunter, and too light for a coacher;’ but there are still
remnants of the breed, though less carefully kept distinctive
than may be wished by advocates of purity. Still the con¬
tour of the farm-horses of Cleveland has the lightness, and
hardiness, and steadiness of the breed in outline; and it is
singular that while the lighter soils have horses more calcu¬
lated for drays, the strong-land farmer has the compact and
smaller, but comparatively more powerful animal.”
In the north-eastern counties of England, and the adja¬
cent Scottish borders, compact, clean-legged, active horses,
of medium size, with a remote dash of blood in them, are
generally preferred to those of a heavier and slower kind.
One needs only to see how such horses get along at turnip¬
sowing, or with a heavy load in a one-horse cart, to be con¬
vinced of their fitness for the general work of a farm.
The Clydesdale Horses are not excelled by any cart
breed in the kingdom for general usefulness. They belong
to the larger class of cart-horses, 16 hands being an average
height. Brown and bay are now the prevailing colours. In
the district whose name they bear, the breeding of them for
sale is extensively prosecuted, and is conducted with much
care and success. Liberal premiums are offered by the
local agricultural societies for good stallions. Many admir¬
able specimens of this breed of horses were brought forward
at the Highland Society meeting at Glasgow in 1850; not
the least interesting of which were those which competed for
the premiums offered for the best cart-horses statedly em¬
ployed on the streets of that city, attended by their usual
drivers and mounted with their usual harness. Horses of
this breed are peculiarly distinguished for the free step Live Stock,
with which they move along, when exerting their strength
in cart or plough. Their merits are now so generally ap¬
preciated, that they are getting rapidly diffused over the
country. Many small farmers in Clydesdale make a business
of raising entire colts, which they either sell for stallions, or
send into distant counties to serve for hire in that capacity.
In the Highlands of Scotland, a breed of hardy and very
serviceable ponies, or “ Garrons,” as the natives call them, are Highland
found in great numbers. In their native glens they are em- an<l Welsh
ployed in tillage, and although unable for stated farm-work Ponies-
in the low country, are even there often used in light carts
for work requiring despatch, rather than great power. Simi¬
lar ponies abound in Wales.
Breeding.—In breeding cart-horses, regard must be had
to the purpose for which they are designed. If the farmer
contemplates the raising of colts for sale, he must aim at
larger frame than if he simply wishes to keep up his own stock
of working cattle. These considerations will so far guide him
as to the size of the mares and stallions which he selects to
breed from; but vigorous constitutions, perfect freedom from
organic disease, symmetrical form, and good temper, are
qualities always indispensable. Nothing is more common
than to see mares used for breeding, merely because, from
lameness or age, they have ceased to be valuable for labour.
Lameness from external injury is, of course, no disqualifica¬
tion ; but it is mere folly to expect valuable progeny from
unsound, misshapen, ill-tempered, or delicate dams, or even
from really good ones, when their vigour has declined from
age. A farmer may grudge to lose the labour of a first-rate
mare for two or three months at his busiest season; but if
he cannot make arrangements for doing this, he had better
let breeding alone altogether; for it is only by producing
horses of the best quality that it can be worth his while to
breed them at all. In the case of horses it is always desirable
that both sire and dam should have arrived at maturity be¬
fore being put to breed.
The head of the cart-horse should not be large, at least
not heavy in the bones of the face and jaws, nor loaded with
flesh. Full development of brain is, indeed, of great im¬
portance, and hence a horse somewhat wide betwixt the
ears is to be preferred. Prick ears and narrow forehead
have by some been reckoned excellences, but we have so
invariably noticed such horses to be easily startled, given
to shying, and wanting in courage and intelligence, that
we regard such a form of head as a defect to be avoided.
The eye should be bright, full, and somewhat prominent, the
neck inclining to thickness, of medium length, and slightly
arched, and the shoulders oblique. Upright shoulders have
been commended as an advantage in a horse for draught,
it being alleged that such a form enables him to throw his
weight better into his collar. It should be remembered,
however, that the horses which display the greatest power
in drawing heavy loads, are characterised by muscular vigour
and nervous energy, rather than mere weight of carcase;
and these qualities are more usually found in connection
with the oblique shoulder than the upright one—not to men¬
tion that this form is indispensable to that free and full step
so necessary in a really useful farm-horse.
“ The back should be straight and broad, the ribs well arched,
and the false ribs of due length, so as to give the abdomen ca¬
pacity and roundness. The tail should be well set out, not too
drooping, and the quarters should be full and muscular. The
horse should girth well, and have his height in his body rather
than in his legs, so as to look less than measurement proves
him to be. The forelegs should be strong, and flat below the
knee, and by no means round and gummy either before or be¬
hind, neither should they have white hair about them, nor
much hair of any colour. The hocks should be broad in front,
AGRICULTURE. 339
Live Stock, and neither too straight nor too crooked, nor yet cat-hammed.
All diseases of this joint, whether curbs, spavins, or thorough-
pins, are sufficient grounds for rej ecting a horse. The feet are a
matter of very much importance. The tendency of many heavy
horses is to have thin horn and flat feet. A stallion possessing
such feet is exceedingly objectionable. Plenty of horn is a re¬
commendation, and the feet had better be too large than too
small. The brood mare should possess as many of the points
now enumerated as possible. If the mare is small, but symme¬
trical, we may very properly select a large stallion, provided
he has good action. If, on the other hand, the mare is large,
and has a tendency to coarseness, we should select a middle-
sized horse of symmetrical appearance.”1
Sixteen hands is a good height for a farm-horse. Except
for very heavy land, we have always had more satisfaction
from horses slightly below this standard than above it.
We have repeatedly put a well-bred saddle mare to a
cart-horse, and have invariably found the produce to prove
excellent farm-horses. The opposite cross, betwixt a cart-
mare and blood stallion, is nearly as certain to prove un¬
gainly, vicious, and worthless. These horses are generally
much stronger than their appearance indicates, have great
powers of endurance, and can be kept in prime working
condition at much less cost than bulkier animals. We have
often noticed that village carters, who perform cartage for
hire, invariably purchase small horses, and yet carry loads
with them which farmers would consider too much for their
best cattle. It is on muscular power, and nervous energy,
that the strength of animals depends, and this, therefore,
should be sought after in the farm-horse, rather than mere
bulk.
Time when Cart-mares should not foal earlier than May. So that they
should foal are n0t unt^y pushed nor put to draw heavy loads, they
s ou oa . may kepj. aj- work almost up to their time of foaling, and
are thus available for the pressing labours of spring. It is
of importance, too, that the pasture should be fresh, and the
weather mild, ere their nursing duties begin. Mares seldom
require assistance in bringing forth their young, and al¬
though it is well to keep an eye upon them, when this event
is expected, they should be kept as quiet as possible, as they
are impatient of intrusion, and easily disturbed in such cir¬
cumstances. The new-born foal not unfrequently has some
difficulty in getting suck, and also in voiding the first faeces.
Treatment Both these matters must be attended to, and assistance
of foals. given if necessary. If it is observed to strain without void¬
ing the tough excrement which is in its bowels at birth,
greasing the passage, by pushing in a tallow candle, will
usually afford it instant relief. A sheltered paddock with
good grass, and where there are no other horses, is the most
suitable quarters for a newly foaled mare. There must be no
ditch or pond in it, as young foals have a peculiar fatality for
getting drowned in such places. A mare, in ordinary condition,
receives the stallion on the ninth or tenth day after foaling,
and with a greater certainty of conceiving than when it is
delayed until she is again in heat. If the mare’s labour can
at all be dispensed with, it is desirable to have her with her
foal for two months at least. She may then be put to easy
work with perfect safety, so that she is not kept away from
the foal longer than two or three hours at a time. When
the foal has got strong enough, it may even be allowed to
follow its dam at her work, and to get suck as often as it
desires it. Towards the end of September, foals are usually
weaned, and are then put under cover at night, and receive
a little corn, along with succulent food. If the dam has
been put to work before weaning, she will have been al¬
lowed a feed of oats, in which case the foal will already have
got a liking for this food by tasting a little along with her.
This is a great advantage, as when put on its own resources, Live Stock,
it takes at once to the generous fare which it ought always —y-—^
to be allowed at this stage. Good hay, bran, carrots, or
Swedes, and a few oats, must be given regularly during the
first winter, with a warm shed to lie in, and an open court
for exercise. At weaning it is highly expedient to put a
cavasin on colts, and lead them about for a few times. A Impor-
few lessons at this early age, when they are easily controlled,tance of.
saves a world of trouble afterwards. Before being turned ®ar^ytrain'
to grass in spring, they should, on the same principle, be 1Dd'
tied up in stalls for a week or so. It is customary to cas¬
trate colts at a year old. Some, indeed, advise its being
done a few weeks after birth, when, of course, the pain to the
animal, and risk of death, are less. It must, however,
be borne in mind that this early emasculation will probably
ensure a skranky neck, whereas a natural tendency to
this defect can in good measure be remedied by deferring
the operation. We have seen a puny colt much improved
in figure by being left entire until he was two years old.
By giving good pasture in summer, and a liberal allowance
of hay, roots, and oats in winter, colts may, with safety,
and even benefit, be put to moderate work in their
third spring. Some time before this is done, they should
be put through a short course of training, to use them to the
bit, and make them quiet and handy. Many good cart¬
horses are ruined for want of a little timeous attention in
this way. When they have got familiar with the harness,
they should be yoked to a log of wood, and made to draw
that up and down the furrows of a fallow field, until they
become accustomed to the restraint and exertion, after
which they may with safety be put to plough alongside a
steady and good-tempered horse, and what is of equal con-
quence, under the charge of a steady good-tempered plough¬
man. As they should not have more than five hours’ work
a day for the first summer, it is always an advantage to have
a pair of them to yoke at the same time, in which case they
take half-day about, and do a full horse’s work betwixt them.
With such moderate work and generous feeding their growth
will be promoted. By midsummer, the throng of field la¬
bour being over, it is advisable to turn the striplings adrift,
and let them enjoy themselves in a good pasture until after
harvest, when they can again be put to plough. Horses
should not be required to draw heavy loaded carts until they
are five years old. When put into the shafts earlier than
this they frequently get strained and stiffened in their joints.
On every farm requiring four or five pairs of horses, it is
highly expedient to have a pair of young ones coming in
annually. This enables the farmer to be provided against
contingencies, and to have his stable occupied at all times
with horses in their full vigour; which go through their
work with spirit, and never falter for a little extra pushing
in emergencies.
Feeding and General Management.—As there is true
economy in employing only the best quality of horses, and
these in their prime, so also is there in feeding them uni¬
formly well, and looking to their comfort in all respects.
The following quotation from the report of a discussion on
the feeding of farm-horses, at a monthly meeting of the
Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, published in
the Transactions for October 1850, describes the practice
of some of our most experienced farmers in this particular.
“ The system of feeding I adopt is as follows :—From the
middle of October till the end of May, my horses get one feed
of steamed food, and two feeds of oats daily, with the best oat
or wheat straw for fodder. I never give bean straw, unless it
has been secured in fine condition, having often seen the bad
1 Morton’s Cyclopaedia of Agriculture—article “ Horse.’
340
AGRICULTURE.
Livestock, effects of it, partly owing, I think, to its long exposure to the
weather. In our variable climate, and from the quantity of
sand which adheres to it, I use it generally for litter. The
steamed food used is well washed Swedish turnips and potatoes
in equal proportions, mixed with sifted wheat-chaff. In those
years when we had a total loss of potatoes, Swedish turnip alone
was used, hut not with the same good effects as when mixed
with potatoes. This year having plenty of diseased potatoes
in a firm state, I give a larger proportion of potatoes than
turnip, and never upon any occasion give oat husks, com¬
monly called meal-seeds, having often seen their injurious
effects. At five o’clock in the morning each horse gets 6 lb.
weight of bruised oats, at noon the same quantity of oats, and
at half-past seven p.m., 47 lb. weight of steamed food. I find
that it takes 62 lb. weight of unsteamed potatoes and turnip
to produce 47 lb. steamed ; to each feed of steamed food, 4 oz.
of common salt are added, and mixed up with one-fourth part
of a bushel of wheat-chaff, weighing about 1£ lb., a greater
quantity of wheat-chaff than this having generally too laxative
an effect. Each horse eats from 14 lb. to 18 lb. of fodder dur¬
ing the twenty-four hours, besides what is required for litter.
In spring I sometimes give a mixture of bruised beans and oats,
instead of oats alone; from June to the middle of October, those
horses that are required for the working of the green crop,
driving manure, and harvest-work, are fed with cut grass and
tares in the house ; and about 7 lb. of oats each day, given at
twice, increasing or decreasing the quantity according to the
work they have to do; and I turn out to pasture only those
horses that are not required until the busy season. I disap¬
prove of horses that are regularly worked being turned out to
grass, and exposed to all the changes of our variable climate,
as I believe it to be the origin of many diseases. The expense
of this mode of feeding, at present prices in this district, for
each horse per annum, is as follows:—1
12 lb. of oats per day, for 30 weeks, is 71 qrs. of 42 lb. per bushel.
71b. of do. do. 22 do. 31 do. do.
lOf qrs. at 17s. L.9 0 7
145 stones straw consumed, at 4d. per stone of 22 lb. 2 8 4
Each horse consumes 5 tons 16 cwt. of turnips and po¬
tatoes in 30 weeks.
58 cwt. potatoes, at Is. 6d  4 7 0
58 cwt. turnips, at 9d  2 3 6
53 lb. salt, Is. 8d., 52 bushels wheat-chaff, 4s. 4d.... 0 6 0
22 weeks on cut grass and tares, at 9d. per day   5 15 6
L.24 0 11
For the thirty weeks, the keep of each horse per day is 7d. for
oats, 7!d. for steamed food, and 2!d. for fodder, or Is. 5d. per
day ; for the twenty-two weeks, the keep is, grass 9d., oats 4d.,
or Is. Id. per day. The expense of preparing the steamed
food, including coals, is Is. 2d. per day for each horse. 260
stones of straw will be required tor litter for each horse during
the year; for this no charge is made, as it is left in manure.
By this mode of feeding, the horses are always in fine sleek
condition, and able for their work. I have acted upon this sys¬
tem for the last fifteen years; have always had from sixteen
to twenty horses, and during that period I have only lost seven
horses, three of them from accidental causes ; and I attribute
this, in a great measure, to the mode of feeding, and in par¬
ticular, to the steamed food.”
Berwick- The general treatment of horses in Berwickshire differs
Shire sys- somewhat from that now detailed. They are usually turned
tem of to pasture so soon as the mildness of the weather and the
feeding, forwardness of the pasture admit of it. While employed in
carrying the crop, their fodder consists largely of tares, from
whence until Martinmas they are fed on hay. From this
date until 1st March, oat and bean straw are substituted,
when, with the recurrence of harder labour, hay is again
given until the return of the grazing season. During three-
fourths of the year, they receive about 16 lb. of oats per
diem, in three separate feeds. From the close of turnip¬
sowing until harvest, oats are either withheld or given only
when a harder day’s work occurs. The practice of bruising
the whole of the oats given to horses, and also of chopping Live Stock,
their hay, is now very prevalent. By giving a few pounds
of chopped hay with each feed of bruised oats, and oat-straw
in the racks, during the whole of the winter half-year, horses
are kept in better condition, and at no more expense, than
by giving them straw alone for half the period, and hay alone
the other half. We are persuaded, also, that unless horses
are stripped of their shoes and turned adrift altogether for a
summer’s run, that soiling in boxes, or sheds with an open
yard, is preferable to grazing. The supper of cooked roots
and chaff described in the Mid-Lothian practice, is pro¬
bably preferable to the use of raw Swedes or potatoes, fre¬
quently given in other parts of Scotland. Hay and oats
ought undoubtedly to constitute the staple fare of farm-
horses. Without a liberal allowance of suitable and nourish¬
ing food, it is impossible that they can perform the full
amount of work of which they are capable, or be sustained
for any length of time in robust health. When alleged very
cheap plans of feeding horses are inquired into, it is usually
found that the amount and quality of the work performed
by them is in fitting proportion. In this, as in so many
other things, cheapness and economy are not convertible
terms. The true way to economise the horse-labour of a
farm is to have only good and well-fed cattle, and to get the  
greatest possible amount of work out of them.
CATTLE.
As our limits do not admit of even a brief notice of all
those breeds of cattle for which Great Britain is so famous,
we shall restrict our remarks to some of the most important
of them. Without entering upon curious speculations as to
the origin of these breeds, we proceed to notice them in that
order which is suggested by their relative importance in
practical agriculture. The large lowland cattle thus claim
our first attention, and amongst them we cannot hesitate in
assigning the first place to the
Short-horns.—It appears that from an early date the valley Short-horn
of the Tees possessed a breed of cattle which, in appearance breed,
and general qualities, were probably not unlike those quasi
short-horns which abound in various parts of the country at
the present day. By the time that the Messrs Colling came
upon the field, it is evident that there were many herds
around them in which considerable improvement had al¬
ready been effected, and that they commenced their me¬
morable efforts in cattle-breeding with exceedingly hopeful
materials to work upon. But in their masterly hands these
materials seemed at once to acquire an unwonted plasticity;
for in an incredibly short time their cattle exhibited, in a
degree that has not yet been excelled, that combination of
rapid and large growth with aptness to fatten, of which their
symmetry, good temper, mellow handling, and gay colours,
are such pleasing indices and accompaniments, and for
which they have now acquired a world-wide celebrity. It
was by judicious selection in the first instance, and then by
coupling animals of near affinity in blood, that they so de¬
veloped and stereotyped these qualities in their cattle, as to
entitle them at once to take rank as the progenitors of a
new and well-marked breed. These Durham, Teeswater,
or Short-horn cattle, as they were variously called, were
soon eagerly sought after, and spread over the whole coun¬
try with amazing rapidity. For a time their merits were
disputed by the eager advocates of other and older breeds,
some of which (such as the long-horns, once the most nu¬
merous breed in the kingdom) they have utterly supplanted,
while others, such as the Herefords, Devons, and Scotch
polled cattle, have each their zealous admirers, who still
maintain their superiority to the younger race. But this
controversy is meanwhile getting practically decided in fa¬
vour of the short-horns, which constantly encroach upon
AGRICULTURE.
Live Stock, their rivals even in their headquarters, and seldom lose
ground which they once gain. Paradoxical as the state¬
ment appears, it is yet true that the very excellence of the
short-horns has in many cases led to their discredit. For
many persons desiring to possess these valuable cattle, and
yet grudging the cost of pure-bred bulls, or being ignorant
of the principles of breeding, have used worthless cross¬
bred males, and so have filled the country with an inferior
race of cattle, bearing, indeed, a general resemblance in
colour, and partaking in some measure of the good qualities
of short-horns, but utterly wanting in their peculiar ex¬
cellencies. By ignorant or prejudiced persons the genuine
race is nevertheless held answerable for the defects of the
mongrels which usurp their name, and for the damaging
comparisons which are made betwixt them, and choice spe¬
cimens of other breeds. That the short-horn breed should
spread as it does, in spite of this hindrance, is no small proof
of its inherent excellence, and warrants the inference that
whenever justice is done to it, it will take its place as the
one appropriate breed of the fertile and sheltered parts of
Great Britain. This desirable consummation has hitherto
been retarded by the scarcity and high price of pure-bred
Bull- bulls. We are quite aware that bull-breeding, as hitherto
breeding, conducted, is a hazardous and unremunerative business, not¬
withstanding the great prices sometimes obtained for first-
class animals. We are of opinion, however, that it might
be conducted in such a way as to be safer and more profit¬
able to the breeder, and more beneficial to the country at
large than it has hitherto been. There is at present a large
and growing demand for good yearling short-horn bulls, at
prices ranging from L.20 to L.30. With a better supply,
both as to quality and numbers, this demand would steadily
increase, for we have long observed that there is no want of
customers for really good animals at such prices as we have
named. When higher prices than these are demanded, far¬
mers who breed only for the production of beef feel that they
are beyond their reach, and are fain to content themselves
with lower-priced and inferior animals. What we desire is,
to see this business taken up by parties who, avoiding all need¬
less expense, diminishing the risk of abortion and barren¬
ness in their cows by never overfeeding them, and bestowing
more pains to have their cows good milkers, would look for
their profit from the sale of large numbers at moderate
prices, rather than of few at exorbitant ones. The por¬
traits of short-horn cattle appended to this treatise afford a
good illustration of the prominent features of the breed.
Herefords. As already hinted, the Hereford is the breed which, in
England, contests most closely with the short-horns for the
palm of excellence. They are admirable grazier’s cattle,
and when of mature age and fully fattened, present exceed¬
ingly level, compact, and massive carcases of excellent beef.
But the cows are poor milkers, and the oxen require to be
at least two years old before being put up to fatten, defects
which, in our view, are fatal to the claims which are put
forward on their behalf. To the grazier who purchases them
when their growth is somewhat matured they usually yield a
good profit, and will generally excel short-horns of the same
age. But the distinguishing characteristic of the latter is
that, when properly treated, they get sufficiently fat, and at¬
tain to remunerative weights at, or even under, two years
old. If they are kept lean until they have reached that age
their peculiar excellence is lost. From the largeness of
their frame they then cost more money, consume more food,
and yet do not fatten more rapidly than bullocks of slower
growing and more compactly formed breeds. It is thus that
the grazier frequently gives his verdict in favour of Here¬
fords as compared with short-horns. Even under this mode
of management short-horns will usually yield at least as
good a return as their rivals to the breeder and grazier con¬
341
jointly. But if fully fed from their birth so as to bring into Livestock,
play their peculiar property of growing and fattening simul-
taneously, we feel warranted in saying that they will yield
a quicker and better return for the food consumed by them
than cattle of any other breed. Unless, therefore, similar
qualities are developed in the Herefords, we may expect to
see them more and more giving place to the short-horns.
These remarks apply equally to another breed closely allied
to the Herefords, viz. the
North Devons, so much admired for their pleasing colour, Devons,
elegant form, sprightly gait, and gentle temper, qualities
which fit them beyond all other cattle for the labour of the
field, in which they are still partially employed in various
parts of England. If it could be proved that ox-power is
really more economical than horse-power for any stated part
of the work of the farm, then the Devons, which form such
admirable draught oxen, would be deserving of general cul¬
tivation. We see, however, that duly as agriculture reaches Ox-power
a certain stage of progress, ox-labour has been found inade- verms
quate to the more rapid and varied operations that are called horse-
for, and has been superseded by that of horses. But sup- Power>
posing the ox-team to be everywhere laid aside, is this beau¬
tiful breed of cattle not worthy of being cherished for the
purposes of the dairyman or the grazier? Now, although
the milk of the Devon cows is very rich, it is too scanty,
and they go too soon dry to admit of their being selected
for strictly dairy purposes, or by the breeder who desires to
rear several calves by the milk of each cow; and, although
the oxen of this breed, when their growth is matured, can
be fattened more quickly and on less food than short-horns
of the same age, they do not yield so good a return as the
latter for the whole food consumed by them respectively
from birth to maturity. We consequently infer that they
will, like other cherished breeds, either be superseded by the
short-horns or amalgamated with them.
Until a comparatively recent period the Long-horns wereLong-
the prevailing breed of our midland counties, as they still horns,
are of many parts of Ireland. Bakewell applied himself with
his characteristic skill and success to the improvement of this
breed ; but at best they were so decidedly inferior to short¬
horns that they have now everywhere given place to them.
Even in Lancashire, where they lingered longest, they have,
within these few past years, nearly disappeared.
Scotland possesses several indigenous breeds of heavy Scotch
cattle, which, for the most part, are black and hornless, such polled
as those of Aberdeen, Angus, and Galloway. These are all breeds,
valuable breeds, being characterised by good milking and
grazing qualities, and by a hardiness which peculiarly adapts
them for a bleak climate. Cattle of these breeds, when they
have attained to three years old, fatten very rapidly, attain to
great size and weight of carcase, and yield beef which is not
surpassed in quality by that of any cattle in the kingdom.
The cows of these breeds, when coupled with a short-horn
bull, produce an admirable cross-breed, which combines
largely the good qualities of both parents. The great saving
of time and food which is effected by the earlier maturity of
the cross-breed has induced a very extensive adoption of this
practice in all the north-eastern counties of Scotland. Such
a system is necessarily inimical to the improvement of the Cross-
pure native breeds: but when cows of the cross-breed are breeds,
continuously coupled with pure short-horn bulls, the progeny
in a few generations become assimilated to the male parent,
and are characterised by a peculiar vigour of constitution,
and excellent milking power in the cows. With such native
breeds to work upon, and this aptitude to blend thoroughly
with the short-horn breed, it is much more profitable to in¬
troduce the latter in this gradual way of continuous crossing
than at once to substitute the one pure breed for the other.
The cost of the former plan is much less, as there needs but
342
AGRICULTURE.
Dairy
breeds.
Live Stock, the purchase from time to time of a good bull; and the risk
is incomparably less, as the stock is acclimated from the first,
and there is no danger from a wrong selection. The greatest
risk of miscarriage in this mode of changing the breed is
from the temptation to which the breeder is exposed, on a
false view of economy, of rearing a cross-bred bull himself,
or purchasing a merely nominal short-horn bull from others.
From this hurried review of our heavy breeds of cattle it
will be seen that we regard the short-horn as incomparably
the best of them all, and that we anticipate its ultimate re¬
cognition as the breed which most fully meets the require¬
ments of all those parts of the country where grain and green
crops are successfully cultivated.
The dairy breeds of cattle next claim our attention, for
although cattle of all breeds are used for this purpose, there
are several which are cultivated chiefly, if not exclusively,
because of their fitness for it. Dairy husbandry is prose¬
cuted under two very different and well-defined classes of
circumstances. In or near towns, and in populous mining
and manufacturing districts, it is carried on for the purpose
of supplying families with new milk. In the western half
of Great Britain, and in many upland districts, where the
soil and climate are more favourable to the production of
grass and other green crops than of corn, butter and cheese
constitute the staple products of the husbandman. The town
dairyman looks to quantity rather than quality of milk, and
seeks for cows which are large milkers, which are long in
going dry, and which can be readily fattened when their
daily yield of milk falls below the remunerative measure.
Large cows, such as short-horns and their crosses, are accord¬
ingly his favourites. In the rural dairy, again, the merits of
a cow are estimated by the weight and quality of the cheese
or butter which she yields, rather than by the mere quantity
of her milk. The breeds that are cultivated expressly for
this purpose are accordingly characterised by a less fleshy
and robust build than is requisite in graziers’ cattle. Of
these we select for special notice the Ayrshire, the Jersey,
and the Suffolk-dun breeds.
The Ayrshires, by common consent, now occupy the very
first rank as profitable dairy cattle. From the pains which
have been taken to develop their milk-yielding power it is
now of the highest order. Persons who have been conver¬
sant only with grazing cattle cannot but be surprised at the
strange contrast betwixt an Ayrshire cow in full milk, and
the forms of cattle which they have been used to regard as
most perfect. Her wide pelvis, deep flank, and enormous
udder, with its small wide-set teats, seem out of all propor¬
tion to her fine bone and slender forequarters. As might
be expected, the breed possesses little merit for grazing pur¬
poses. Very useful animals are however obtained by cross¬
ing these cows with a short-horn bull, and this practice is
now rather extensively pursued in the west of Scotland by
farmers who combine dairy-husbandry with the fattening of
cattle. The function of the Ayrshire cattle is however the
dairy. For this they are unsurpassed, either as respects the
amount of produce yielded by them in proportion to the food
which they consume, or the faculty which they possess of
converting the herbage of poor exposed soils, such as abound
in their native district, into butter and cheese of the best
quality.
The county of Suffolk has for centuries been celebrated
for its dairy produce, which is chiefly obtained from a polled
breed of cattle, the prevailing colour of which is dun or pale
red, from whence they are known as the Suffolk Duns. They
have a strong general resemblance to the Scotch polled
cattle, but nevertheless seem to be indigenous to Suffolk.
They are ungainly in their form, and of little repute with
the grazier, but possess an undoubted capacity of yielding
a large quantity of milk in proportion to the food which they
Ayrshire
breed.
Suffolk
Duns.
consume. They are now encroached upon, and will pro-Live Stock,
bably give place to the short-horns, by which they are de-
cidedly excelled for the combined purposes of the dairy and
the fattening stall.
The breeds already referred to are those to which profes-Jersey
sional dairymen give the preference, but the cattle of thetreed-
Channel Islands, of which the Jersey may be regarded as
the type, are so remarkable for the choice quality of the cream
and butter obtained from their rather scanty yield of milk,
that they are eagerly sought after for private dairies, in which
quality of produce is more regarded than quantity. The
rearing of heifers for the English market is of such import¬
ance to these islands, that very stringent regulations have
been adopted for insuring the purity of their peculiar breed.
These cattle in general are exceedingly ungainly in their
form, and utterly worthless for the purposes of the grazier.
The choicer specimens of the Jerseys have a certain deer¬
like form which gives them a pleasing aspect. The race,
as a whole, bears a striking resemblance to the Ayrshires,
which are alleged to owe their peculiar excellencies to an
early admixture of Jersey blood.
The mountainous parts of Great Britain are not less fa- Mountain
voured than the lowlands in possessing breeds of cattle pecu- breeds,
liarly adapted to the exigencies of the climate.
The Kyloes or West Highland cattle are the most pro- Kyloes.
minent of this group. They are widely diffused over the
Highlands of Scotland, but are found in the greatest perfec¬
tion in the larger Hebrides. Well-bred oxen of this breed,
when of mature growth, and in good condition, exhibit a
symmetry of form and noble bearing which is unequalled by
any cattle in the kingdom. Although somewhat slow in
arriving at maturity, they are contented with the coarsest fare,
and ultimately get fat, where the daintier short-horns could
barely exist. Their hardy constitution, thick mellow hide,
and shaggy coat peculiarly adapt them for a cold humid
climate and coarse pasturage. Fewer of these cattle are
now reared in the Highlands than formerly, owing to the
lessened number of cottars and small tenants, and the ex¬
tension of sheep husbandry. Large herds of cows are how¬
ever kept on such portions of farms as are unsuited for sheep
walk. The milk of these cows is very rich, but as they
yield it in small quantity, and go soon dry, they are unsuited
for the dairy, and are kept almost solely for the purpose of
suckling each her own calf. The calves are generally housed
during their first winter, but after that they shift for them¬
selves out of doors all the year round. Vast droves of these
cattle are annually transferred to the lowlands, where they
are in request for their serviceableness in consuming profit¬
ably the produce of coarse pastures and the leavings of
daintier stock. Those of a dun or tawny colour are often
selected for grazing in the parks of the aristocracy, where
they look quite as picturesque as the deer with which they
are associated. Indeed, they strikingly resemble the so-
called wild cattle that are carefully preserved in the parks
of several of our nobility, and like them are probably the
descendants of the cattle of the ancient Britons. This view
is confirmed by the strong family likeness borne to them by
the
Welsh cattle, which is quite what might be expected from
the many features, physical and historical, which the two
provinces have in common. Although the cattle of Wales,
as a whole, are obviously of common origin, they are yet
ranged into several groups, which owe their distinctive fea¬
tures either to peculiarities of soil and climate, or to inter¬
mixture with other breeds. The Pembrokes may be taken Pembrokes
as the type of the mountain groups. These are hardy cattle,
which thrive on scanty pasturage and in a humid climate.
They excel the west highlanders in this respect, that they
make good dairy cattle, the cows being peculiarly adapted
AGRICULTURE.
343
Live Stock, for cottagers’ purposes. When fattened they yield beef of
v—excellent quality. Their prevailing and most esteemed
colour is black, with deep orange on the naked parts. The
Anglesea cattle are larger and coarser than the Pembrokes,
and those of Merioneth and the higher districts are smaller
and inferior to them in every respect. The county of Gla¬
morgan possesses a peculiar breed, bearing its name, which
has long been in estimation for combined grazing and dairy
purposes. It has latterly been so much encroached upon
by Herefords and short-horns that there seems some likeli¬
hood of its becoming extinct, which will be cause for regret
unless pains are taken to occupy their place with cattle not
inferior to them in dairy qualities. We conclude this rapid
review of our native breeds by noticing the most singular
of them all, viz.
The Shetland cattle, which are the most diminutive in the
world. The carcase of a Shetland cow when fully fattened
scarcely exceeds in weight that of a long-woolled wedder.
These little creatures are however excellent milkers in pro¬
portion to their size, they are very hardy, are contented with
the scantiest pasturage, they come early to maturity, are easily
fattened, and their beef surpasses that of all other breeds
for tenderness and delicacy of flavour. These miniature
cows are not unfrequently coupled with short-horn bulls,
and the progeny from such apparently preposterous unions
not only possess admirable fattening qualities, but approxi¬
mate in bulk to their gigantic sires. These curious and
handsome little creatures, apparently of Scandinavian origin,
are so peculiarly fitted to the circumstances of their bleak
and stormy habitat, that the utmost pains ought to be taken
to preserve the breed in purity, and to improve it by judi¬
cious treatment.
We cannot leave this part of our subject without remind¬
ing the reader of the singular richness of our country in
cattle, not merely as regards numbers, but variety of breeds,
endowed collectively with qualities which adapt one or other
of them to every diversity in its soil and climate. So great
is this diversity, and so complete that adaptation, that the
requirements of each district are met, and the country as a
whole enriched with every benefit that the domestic ox is
capable of rendering to mankind.
We shall now endeavour to describe the farm manage¬
ment of this valuable animal, under the several heads of
breeding, rearing, ax\di fattening. What is peculiar to dairy
management will be found treated of in a separate article.
The breeding and rearing of cattle—subject to the excep¬
tion just intimated—is prosecuted almost exclusively for
the production of beef. The proceedings of those engaged
in it are however largely determined by the character of the
soil and climate of particular districts and farms. The oc¬
cupiers of all comparatively fertile soils carry forward to ma¬
turity such animals as they breed, and dispose of them di¬
rectly to the butcher. Those who are less fortunately cir¬
cumstanced in this respect, advance their young cattle to
such a stage as the capabilities of their farms admit of, and
then transfer them to others by whom the fattening process is
conducted. The ultimate object of both these parties being
essentially the same, their practice, as far as it goes, ought
undoubtedly to be also similar. In practice, this, we regret
to say, is very far from being the case. The principles upon
which this branch of husbandry should be conducted are in¬
deed little affected by diversity of situation. This may and
ought to determine the particular breed of cattle to be selec¬
ted, but it is everywhere alike important to have a breeding
stock of the best quality, to keep their produce uniformly in
good condition, and to dispose of them whenever they cease
to improve on such food as the farm affords. It cannot be
too strongly impressed upon those who engage in this busi¬
ness that it never can be profitable to breed inferior cattle;
Farm ma¬
nagement
of cattle.
Breeding
of cattle.
or (however good their quality) to suffer their growth to be Live Stock,
arrested by cold or hunger; or to sell them in a lean state.
In selecting a breeding stock of cattle, the qualities to be
aimed at are, a sound constitution and a symmetrical form,
aptitude to fatten, quiet temper, and large milk-yielding
power in the cows. As all these qualities are hereditary,
cattle are valuable for breeding purposes not merely in pro¬
portion as they are developed in the individuals, but accor¬
ding to the measure in which they are known to have been
possessed by their progenitors. A really good pedigree adds
therefore greatly to the value of breeding-stock. It is doubt¬
less important to have both parents good; but in the case
of ruminants, the predominating influence of the male in de¬
termining the qualities of the progeny is so well ascertained,
that the selection of the bull is a matter of prime importance.
We are able to state, from ample personal experience, that
by using a bull that is at once good himself, and of good de¬
scent, a level and valuable lot of calves can be obtained
from very indifferent cows. In Berwickshire it is the prac¬
tice to employ chiefly married labourers who reside upon
the farm, and one part of whose wages is the keep of a cow.
These labourers usually give the preference to small cows,
and—so that they are healthy, and yield milk plentifully—
care little about their breed or other qualities. A good judge
of grazier’s cattle could not easily imagine a more unpromis¬
ing breeding-stock than is furnished by these cottager’s cows;
and yet when they are coupled with a really good short-horn
bull, it is truly surprising to see what admirable cattle are ob¬
tained from them. It is indeed miserable economy to grudge
the price of a good bull. Coarse, mis-shapen, unthrifty cat-Wasteful-
tie cost just as much for rearing and fattening as those ofness of
the best quality, and yet may not be worth so much by L.3 ^r®ec|ing
or L.4 a-head, when they come ultimately to market. The J.attle°r
loss which is annually sustained from breeding inferior cattle
is far greater than those concerned seem to be aware of.
It is impossible to estimate this loss accurately, but from
careful observation and inquiry, we feel confident that it
amounts to not less than 50s. a-head, on one half of the fat
cattle annually slaughtered in Great Britain. If this be so,
it follows that without expending a farthing more than is
done at present on food, housing, and attendance, the profit
which would accrue from using only the best class of bulls
would be equivalent to an advance of Is. per stone in the
price of beef as regards half of the fat bullocks brought to
market. This profit could moreover be secured by a very
moderate outlay; for if properly gone about, the best class
of bulls might be employed without adding more than 3s.
or 4s. a-head to the price of each calf reared. We may
surely anticipate that such a palpable source of profit will
not continue to be neglected by the breeders of cattle.
There are many instances in which landlords would find it
much for their interest to aid their tenantry in at once pro¬
curing really good bulls. Cattle-shows and prizes are use¬
ful in their way as a means of improving the cattle of a dis¬
trict, but the introduction of an adequate number of bulls
from herds already highly improved is the way to accomplish
the desired end cheaply, certainly, and speedily. We must
here protest against a practice by which short-horn bulls are
very often prematurely unfitted for breeding. Their ten¬
dency to obesity is so remarkable that unless they are kept
on short commons they become unwieldy and unserviceable
by their third or fourth year. Instead, however, of counte¬
racting this tendency, the best animals are usually “ made
up” as it is called, for exhibition at cattle-shows, or for os¬
tentatious display to visitors at home, and the consequence
is that they are ruined for breeding purposes. We re¬
joice to see that the directors of our national agricultural
societies are resolutely setting their faces against this per¬
nicious practice. It is needful certainly that all young ani-
AGRICULTURE.
344
Live Stock, mals, although intended for breeding stock, should be well
fed, for without this they cannot attain to their full size and
development of form. But when this is secured, care should
be taken in the case of all breeding animals never to exceed
that degree of flesh which is indispensable to perfect health
and vigour. The frequent occurrence of abortion or barren¬
ness in high-pedigreed herds seems chiefly attributable to
overfeeding. The farmer who engages in cattle-breeding
with the view of turning out a profitable lot of fat beasts
annually, will take pains first of all to provide a useful lot of
cows, such as will produce good calves, and if well fed while
giving milk will yield enough of it to keep two or three
calves a-piece. That he may be able to obtain a sufficient
supply of good calves, he will keep a really good bull, and
allow the cottagers residing on the farm or in its neighbour¬
hood to send their cows to him free of charge, stipulating
only that when they have a calf for sale he shall have the
first offer of it. When cows are kept solely for the purpose
of rearing calves, it becomes a matter of prime importance
to have an adequate and seasonable supply of them from
some source that can be relied upon both as regards their
quality and numbers. We have long observed that calves
produced in the early and late months of the year thrive
better than those that are born about midsummer. Cottagers
and others who keep cows in rural districts usually find it
most suitable to have them to calve in spring, that they may
be in full milk when pasturage is at its best. On the other
hand, dairymen who provide milk for the supply of large
towns, usually try to have a set of cows to calve in autumn,
as it is in the winter months that their produce is most valu¬
able. When a farmer has access to both these sources of
supply, he can, by having his own cows to calve chiefly in
spring, avail himself of both, and thus rear four or five
calves annually, by the milk of each cow which he keeps,
and, at the same time, allow her to go dry for two or three
months before again calving. Cows are an expensive stock
to keep, and it is therefore of importance to turn their milk
to the best account. It is poor economy, however, to attempt
to rear a greater number of calves than can be done justice
Treatment to. Seeing that they are to be reared for the production of
of young beef, the only profitable course is to feed them well from
calves. birth to maturity. During the first weeks of calf-hood the
only suitable diet is unadulterated milk, warm from the cow,
given three times a-day, and not less than two quarts of it
at each meal. By three weeks old they may be taught to
eat good hay, linseed cake, and sliced Swedes. As the lat¬
ter items of diet are relished and freely eaten, the allowance
of milk is gradually diminished until about the twelfth week,
when it may be finally withdrawn. The linseed cake is
then given more freely, and water put within their reach.
For the first six weeks calves should be kept each in a sepa¬
rate crib ; but after this they are the better of having room
to frisk about. Their quarters, however, should be well shel¬
tered, as a comfortable degree of warmth greatly promotes
their growth. During their first summer, they do best to
be soiled on vetches, clover, or Italian ryegrass, with from
1 lb. to 2 lb. of cake to each calf daily. When the green
forage fails, white or yellow turnips are substituted for it.
A full allowance of these, with abundance of oat straw, and
not less than 2 lb. of cake daily, is the appropriate fare for
them during their first winter. Swedes will be substituted
for turnips during the months of spring, and these again will
give place in due time to green forage, or the best pastur¬
age. The daily ration of cake should never be withdrawn.
It greatly promotes growth, fattening, and general good
health, and in particular is a specific against the disease called
blackleg, which often proves so fatal to young cattle. Young
cattle that have been skilfully managed upon the system
which we have now sketched, are at 18 months old already
of great size, with open horns, mellow hide, and all those hive Stock,
other features which indicate to the experienced grazier that
they will grow and fatten rapidly. This style of manage¬
ment is not only the best for those who fatten as well as rear;
but is also the most profitable for those who rear only. We
cannot better illustrate this statement, than by referring to
a set of contemporaneous sales of young cattle which re¬
cently came under our personal observation. In June 1851 Bad effects
we happened to purchase in Kelso market at L.6, 18s. aof s|arving
head, a lot of fifty two-year-old short-horn steers from a dealer ca e'
who had just brought them from Yorkshire. A fortnight
before this a lot of yearlings (steers and heifers), bred and
reared in the heart of the Lammermuirs, were sold in a
neighbouring market at L.8, 8s. each. About the same
time a friend of ours in Roxburghshire who annually rears
a large lot of cattle, having noticed one of his calves affected
with giddiness, forwarded him to Newcastle market, where
he was sold to a butcher for L.8, being then not quite eight
months old, and not a better animal than many of his lot.
Now, these cases are the more valuable, because none of
them were extreme ones; but just fair average examples of
the fruits of the systems to which they respectively belong.
They show conclusively that of a number of persons en¬
gaged contemporaneously in the business of cattle-rearing,
and bringing their stock to the same markets, those who
adopted the generous system of feeding, realised handsome
profits, while those who, for thrift, starved their cattle must
have done so at a loss to themselves. Nor are the evils of
the starving system limited to the breeder. The grazier
who purchases cattle that have been hunger-bitten in their
youth, finds to his cost that he can only fatten them by an
extra expenditure of time and food, and that after all they
are worth less—weight for weight—than such as have never
been lean.
We have already stated that, in Scotland, comparatively The fatten-
few cattle are fattened on pasturage. An increasing num- ing of
ber of fat beasts are now prepared for market during thecattle-
summer months by soiling on green forage; but it is by
means of the turnip crop, and during the winter months,
that this branch of husbandry is all but exclusively con¬
ducted in the northern half of Great Britain. But a few
years ago, the fattening of cattle on Tweedside, and in the
Lothians, was conducted almost exclusively in open courts,
with sheds on one or more sides, in which from two to
twenty animals were confined together, and fed on turnips
and straw alone. Important changes have now been intro¬
duced, both as regards housing and feeding, by means of
which a great saving of food has been effected. Under the
former practice, the cattle received as many turnips as they
could eat; which, for an average-sized two-year-old bullock,
was not less than 220 lb. daily. The consequence of this
enormous consumption of watery food was, that for the first
month or two after being thus fed, the animals were kept in
a state of habitual diarrhoea. Dry fodder was, indeed, al¬
ways placed within their reach ; but as long as they had the
opportunity of taking their fill of turnips, the dry straw was
all but neglected. By stinting them to about 100 lb. of
turnips daily, they can be compelled to eat a large quantity
of straw, and on this diet they thrive faster than on turnips
at will. A better plan, however, is to render the fodder so
palatable as to induce them to eat it of choice. For this
purpose the straw is mixed with a third part of hay, and cut
up into f-inch lengths, by a chaffing machine. A large
wooden trough or bin with a lid to it being provided, the
chaff, at the rate of three pecks for each beast, is put into
it in layers, over each of which meal is sifted at the rate of
2 lb. to 4 lb. a head, and intermingled by stirring with a
fork. Over the whole as much boiling water, with a little
salt dissolved in it, is poured as will moisten the entire mass.
AGRICULTURE. 245
Livestock. The lid is then closed for a short time, and the mess there-
after served out to the cattle. The meal may be that of
barley, oats, beans, or, in short, whatever is cheapest at the
time, including all the inferior grain of the farm, with the
addition of t? lb. of ground linseed for each animal. An
appropriate mode of administering the food is to give 50 lb.
of sliced turnips early in the morning, the cooked mess
about noon, and as much more turnips in the afternoon. A
little oat straw is also given to them daily. For a few
weeks before the completion of the fattening process, it is
usually remunerative to give 4 or 5 lb. of linseed cake, and
6 lb. of good hay to each beast daily ; the cake in combina¬
tion with the cooked mess, and the hay in lieu of the oat-
straw. From the peculiar structure of the digestive organs
of the ox—which are adapted for disposing of bulky and but
moderately nutritious food—this plan of inducing him to eat
a considerable quantity of straw promotes his health and
comfort, and economises the more costly food. The Rev.
Mr Huxtable has pointed out a still cheaper way of accom¬
plishing the same end. He shreds his turnips by a machine,
analogous to a bark-mill, and then mixes them with cut
straw, so that the cattle must eat both together. His opi¬
nion is, that he not only gains the element of bulk in this
way, but that, from the straw and turnips being swallowed
together, the hurtful chilling effect of the latter is avoided.
He finds that 70 lb. of turnips thus administered is a suffi¬
cient daily ration for a fattening bullock.1
Best mode A better appreciation of the effects of temperature on the
of housing animal economy has of late years exerted a beneficial influ-
cattle. ence Up0n t]le treatment 0f fattening cattle. Observant
farmers have long been aware that their cattle, when kept
dry and moderately warm, eat less and thrive faster than
under opposite conditions. They accounted for this in
a vague way by attributing it to their greater comfort in
such circumstances. Scientific men have now, however,
shewed us that a considerable portion of the food consumed
by warm-blooded animals is expended in maintaining the
natural heat of their bodies, and that the portion of food thus
disposed of is dissipated by a process so closely analogous to
combustion, that it may fitly be regarded as so much fuel.
The fat which, in favourable circumstances is accumulated
in their bodies, may in like manner be regarded as a store of
this fuel laid up for future emergencies. The knowledge
of this fact enables us to understand how largely the profit,
to be derived from the fattening of cattle, is dependent upon
the manner in which they are housed, and necessarily forms
an important element in determining the question whether
yards, stalls, or boxes, are best adapted for this purpose. A
really good system of housing must combine the following
conditions:—•
\st, Facilities for supplying food and litter, and for remov¬
ing dung with the utmost economy of time and labour.
2d, Complete freedom from disturbance.
Zd, A moderate and equal degree of warmtb.
Ath, A constant supply of pure air.
5th, Opportunity for the cattle having a slight degree of
exercise; and
Q>th, The production of manure of the best quality.
We have no hesitation in expressing our opinion that the
whole of these conditions are attained most fully by means
of well-arranged boxes. Stalls are to be preferred where the
saving of litter is an object; and yards for the rearing of
young cattle, which require more exercise than is suitable
for fattening stock.
But however excellent the system of housing and feeding
which is adopted, a successful result will, in every instance,
be much dependent upon the viligant superintendence of the
owner, and his skill in so managing the commissariat, as to Live Stock,
secure throughout the year a sufficiency of suitable food for
the stock on hand. Unless this is attended to, he may find
himself necessitated to sell his cattle before they are fat, and
when markets are glutted. Whenever they have attained
to what is technically called ripe fatness, and prices are at
their average rate, it is generally more profitable forthwith
to dispose of them, than to speculate upon a rise in the
markets.
SHEEP. o*
When Fitzherbert so long ago said, “ Sheep is the most
profitablest cattle that a man can have,” he expressed an
opinion in which agriculturists of the present day fully con¬
cur. But if this was true of the flocks of his time, how much
more of the many admirable breeds which now adorn the
rich pastures, the grassy downs, and heath-clad mountains
of our native country. Their flesh is in high estimation with
all classes of the community, and constitutes at least one-
half of all the butcher meat consumed by them. Their
fleeces supply the raw material for one of our most flourish¬
ing manufactures. They furnish to the farmer an impor¬
tant source of revenue, and the readiest means of maintain¬
ing the fertility of his fields. The distinct breeds, and sub-
varities of sheep found in Great Britain are very numerous.
We have no intention of noticing them in detail, but shall
rather confine our observations to those which, by common
consent, are the most valuable for their respective and appro¬
priate habitats. They may be fitly classed under these three
heads, viz. the heavy breeds of the low country, those found
on our downs and similar localities, and the mountain breeds.
Of the first class, the improved Leicesters are still the Leicester
most important to the country. They are more widely dif- breed,
fused in the kingdom than any of their congeners. Al¬
though, from the altered taste of the community, their mut¬
ton is less esteemed than formerly, they still constitute the
staple breed of the midland counties of England. Leicester
rams are also more in demand than ever, for crossing with
other breeds. It is now about a century since this breed
was produced by the genius and perseverance of Bakewell,
in whose hands they attained a degree of excellence that
has probably not yet been exceeded by the many who have
cultivated them since his day. The characteristics of this
breed are extreme docility, extraordinary aptitude to fatten,
and the early age at which they come to maturity. The
most marked feature in their structure is the smallness of
their heads, and of their bones generally, as contrasted with
their weight of carcase. They are clean in the jaws, with a
full eye, thin ears, and placid countenance. Their backs
are straight, broad, and flat, the ribs arched, the belly carried
very light, so that they present nearly as straight a line
below as above, the chest is wide, the skin very mellow,
and covered with a beautiful fleece of long, soft wool,
which weighs on the average from 6 to 7 lb. On good
soils, and under careful treatment these sheep are currently
brought to weigh from 18 to 20 lb. per quarter at 14 months
old, at which age they are now usually slaughtered. At
this age their flesh is tender and juicy; but when carried
on until they are older and heavier, fat accumulates so un¬
duly in proportion to the lean meat, as to detract from its
palatableness and market value.
Lincolns.—These were at one time very large, ungainly Lincoln
animals, with an immense fleece of very long wool. By breed,
crossing them with the Leicesters the character of the breed
has been entirely changed, and very greatly for the better.
It is now, in fact, a subvariety of the Leicester, with larger
frame and heavier fleece than the pure breed. Sheep of
2 x
vol. n.
1 See “ Present Prices” by Rev. A. Huxtable. Ridgway. London, 1850.
346
AGRICULTURE.
New Ox¬
fords.
Live Stock, this kind are reared in immense numbers on the wolds and
heaths of Lincolnshire, and are sold in the wool, and in very
forward condition, when about a year old, to the graziers of
the fens and marshes, who ultimately bring them to very
great weights.
Cotswolds.—These also are large and long-woolled sheep,
with good figure and portly gait, but somewhat coarse in
in the bone, and in the quality of their flesh. They are
found in the district whose name they bear. A variety of
the Cotswold, obtained, we presume, by crossing with the
Leicester, has acquired considerable reputation of late years,
under the name of New Oxfords. These are large, heavy,
rapid-growing sheep, very docile, with a fleece analogous
to the Leicester, which breed, in fact, they resemble in their
leading characteristics, save that they want their symmetry
and fine flesh. They are bred in Oxfordshire and neigh¬
bouring districts. Both of these last-named breeds suit ad¬
mirably for crossing with short-woolled sheep, and are likely
to be in increasing demand for this purpose.
Teeswaters.—This breed, found formerly in the vale of
the Tees, used to have the reputation of being one of the
largest and heaviest of our native breeds. They had lighter
fleeces than the old Lincolns, but greater aptitude to fatten.
Like them, however, they have been so blended with Lei¬
cester blood, as to have lost their former characteristics.
As now met with, they constitute simply a subvariety of
the latter breed.
The Kents, or Romney Marsh Sheep, are another dis¬
tinct long-woolled breed, which have much in common with
the old Lincolns, although they never equalled them either
in the weight or quality of their fleece. They, too, have
been much modified by a large infusion of Leicester blood ;
but as their distinctive qualities fit them well for a bleak
and humid habitat, there is now an aversion to risk these
by further crossing. As they now exist they are a great
improvement upon the old breed of the Kentish marshes ;
and this, in the first instance at least, was the result of
crossing rather than selection.
The breeds peculiar to our chalky downs, and other pas¬
tures of medium elevation, next claim our notice.
South Downs.—Not long after Robert Bakewell had begun
with admirable skill and perseverance to bring to perfection
his celebrated Leicesters, which, as we have seen, have either
superseded, or totally altered the character of, all the heavy
Improved breeds of the country; another breeder, Mr John Ellman
by Mr E11' of Glynde, in Sussex, equal to Bakewell in judgment, per¬
severance, and zeal, and wholly devoid of his illiberal pre¬
judice and narrow selfishness, addressed himself to the task
of improving the native sheep of the downs, and succeeded in
bringing them to as great perfection, with respect to early
maturity and fattening power, as they are perhaps susceptible
of. Like Bakewell, he early began the practice of letting
out rams for hire. These were soon eagerly sought after,
and the qualities of this improved flock being rapidly com¬
municated to others, the whole race of down sheep has more
or less become assimilated to their standard. These im¬
proved south downs have, in fact, been to all the o\Aforest, and
other fine-woolled breeds, what the Leicesters have been to
their congeners. Many of them have entirely disappeared,
and others only survive in those modifications of the im¬
proved south-down type, which are to be found in particular
localities. These down sheep possess certain well-marked
features, which distinguish them from all other breeds. They
have a close-set fleece of fine wool, weighing, when the ani¬
mals are well-fed, about four pounds ; their faces and legs
are of a dusky brown colour, their neck slightly arched, their
limbs short, their carcase broad and compact, their offal light,
and their buttocks very thick and square behind. They are
less impatient of folding, and suffer less from a pasture being
thickly stocked with them than any other breed. It is in Live Stock,
connection with this breed that the practice of folding as a
means of manuring the soil is so largely carried out in the
chalk districts of England. It is well ascertained that the Evils of
injury done to a flock by this practice exceeds the benefit fol(iing-
conferred on the crops. Now that portable manures are so
abundant, it is to be hoped that this pernicious practice
of using sheep as mere muck machines will be everywhere
abandoned.
These sheep are now usually classed as Sussex downs and
Hampshire downs, the former being the most refined type
of the class, both as regards wool and carcase, and the latter,
as compared with them, having a heavier fleece, stronger
bone, and somewhat coarser and larger frame. These breeds
are peculiarly adapted for all those parts of England where
low grassy hills occur, interspersed with, or in proximity to,
arable land. In such situations they are prolific, hardy, and
easily fattened at an early age. It is to their peculiar adap¬
tation for crossing with the long-woolled breeds, that they
are indebted for their recent and rapid extension to other
districts.
Dorsets.—This breed has, from time immemorial, been
naturalised in the county of Dorset, and adjacent parts.
They are a whitefaced, horned breed, with fine wool, weigh¬
ing about four pounds per fleece. They are a hardy and docile
race of sheep, of good size, and fair quality of mutton. But
the property which distinguishes them from every other
breed in Great Britain is the fecundity of the ewes, and their
readiness to receive the male at an early season. They have
even been known to yean twice in the same year. Being,
in addition to this, excellent nurses, they have long been in
use for rearing house-lamb for the London market. For this
purpose the rams are put to them early in June, so that the
lambs are brought forth in October, and are ready for mar¬
ket by Christmas. But for this peculiarity, they would ere
now have shared the fate of ro many other native breeds,
which have given place either to the Leicesters or south
downs, according to the nature of the pastures. So long,
however, as the rearing of early house-lamb is found profit¬
able, there is a sufficient inducement to preserve the Dorset
breed in its purity, as they are unique in their property of
early yeaning.
Cheviots.—As we approach and cross the Scottish border
we find a range of hills covered with coarser herbage than
the chalky downs of the south, and with a climate consider¬
ably more rigorous. Here the south-down sheep have been
tried with but indifferent success. This, however, is not to
be regretted, seeing that the native Cheviot breed rivals
them in most of their good qualities, and possesses, in addi¬
tion, a hardihood equal to the necessities of the climate.
This breed, besides occupying the grassy hills of the border
counties, is now found in great force in the north and west
Highlands of Scotland. In the counties of Sutherland and
Caithness, where they were introduced by the late Sir John
Sinclair, they have thriven amazingly, and in the hands of
some spirited breeders have attained to as great perfection
as in their native district. During the last thirty years,
this breed has undergone very great improvement in size,
figure, weight of fleece, and aptitude to fatten. In proof
of this, it is enough to mention that Cheviot wedder lambs are
now in the border counties brought to market when weaned,
and are transferred to the low country graziers, by whom
they are sent fat to the butcher at sixteen months old, weigh¬
ing then from 16 to 18 lb. per quarter. This is particularly
the case in Cumberland, where Cheviot lambs are preferred
by the low country farmers to all other breeds, and by whom
they are managed with great skill and success. It is not at
all unusual with them to realise an increase of from 20s. to
25s. per head on the purchase price of these lambs, after a
AGRICULTURE.
Live Stock, twelvemonth’s keep. This fact is peculiarly interesting from
the proof which it affords of a hitherto unsuspected capacity
in Cheviots, and probably in other upland breeds, to attain
to a profitable degree of fatness and weight of carcase, at
almost as early an age as the lowland breeds, when the same
attention and liberal feeding is bestowed upon them. Such
a system is moreover greatly more profitable both for breeder
and grazier than the old one. It is every way better for the
farmer to occupy his pastures with breeding stock only, and
to get quit of his lambs as soon as they are fit for weaning.
It is better for the grazier to get hold of them when full of
their lamb flesh, as by transferring them at once to good
keep, he can carry them forward without a check to the
earliest stage, at which he can realise with a profit. Very
great pains are now bestowed on the improvement of this
breed; in proof of which it may be mentioned, that at the
autumn fairs, such as Hawick, Moffat, &c., where great
numbers of rams are presented for sale, L.10 a head is not
unffequently paid to the more noted breeders for their
choicest animals. In August 1851 Mr Brydon of Moodlaw,
whose flock of Cheviots has long enjoyed the reputation of
being one of the very best in the country, sold 148 rams by
public auction, at an average price of L.7, 9s. per head.
The competition for these choice specimens of Cheviot sheep
was so keen that one was sold for L.37, and several more
from L.20 to L.30. There is no breed equally well adapted
for elevated pastures, consisting of the coarser grasses, with
a mixture of heath ; but whenever, from the nature of the
soil or greater elevation, the heaths unmistakeably predo¬
minate, a still hardier race is to be preferred, viz.
The Blackfaced or Heath Breed.—They are accordingly
found on the mountainous parts of Yorkshire, Lancashire,
Cumberland, and Westmoreland; over the whole of the
Lammermuir range ; the upper part of Lanarkshire ; and
generally over the Highlands of Scotland. Both male and
female of this breed have horns, which, in the former, are
very large and spirally twisted. The face and legs are black,
with an occasional tendency to this colour on the fleece ; but
tfrhre is nothing of the brown or russet colour which distin¬
guishes the older fine-woolled races. The choicest flocks of
these sheep are found in Lanarkshire and in the Lammer-
muirs, where considerable pains are now bestowed on their
improvement. Their chief defects are coarseness of fleece,
and slowness of fattening until their growth is matured. In
most flocks the wool, besides being open, and coarse in the
staple, is mixed with hemps or hairs which detract from its
value. Rams with this defect are now carefully avoided by
the best breeders, who prefer those with black faces, a mealy
mouth, a slight tuft of fine wool on the forehead, horns flat,
not very large, and growing well out from the head; with
a thickset fleece of long, wavy, white wool. Greater atten¬
tion is now also being paid to their improvement in regard
to fattening tendency; in which respect we do not despair
of seeing them brought nearer to a par with other improved
breeds. Whenever this is accomplished we shall possess in
the breeds now enumerated, and their crosses, the means of
converting the produce of our fertile plains, grassy downs,
rough upland pastures, and heathclad mountains, into wool
and mutton of the best quality, and with the utmost economy
of which the circumstances admit.
A branch of this family of the heath breeds called Herd-
wicks, having its headquarters in Cumberland, although found
also in Westmoreland and Lancashire, is frequently much
extolled. We are of opinion, that in all their good qualities
they are excelled by the best style of pure blackfaced sheep
as met with in Tweeddale and the Lammermuirs.
Cross-breeds.—We have thus enumerated the most impor¬
tant of our pure breeds of sheep, but our list would be defec¬
tive, were we to omit those cross-breeds which are acquiring
347
increased importance every day. With the extended culti-Live Stock,
vation of turnips and other green crops there has arisen an
increased demand for sheep to consume them. Flock-mas¬
ters in upland districts, stimulated by this demand, happily
bethought them of putting rams of the improved low-coun¬
try breeds to their smaller ewes, when it was discovered that
the lambs produced from this cross, if taken to the low-
country as soon as weaned, could be fattened nearly as quickly,
and brought to nearly as good weights, as the pure low-
country breeds. The comparatively low prime cost of these
cross-bred lambs is a farther recommendation to the grazier,
who finds also that their mutton, partaking at once of the fat¬
ness of the one parent, and of the juiciness, high flavour, and
larger proportion of lean flesh of the other, is more generally
acceptable to consumers than any other kind, and can always
be sold at the best price of the day. The wool, more¬
over, of these crosses being at once long and fine in the
staple, is peculiarly adapted for the manufacture of a class of
fabrics now much in demand, and brings in consequence the
best price of any British-grown wool. The individual fleeces,
from being close set in the pile, weigh nearly as much as
those of the pure Leicesters. On all these accounts, there¬
fore, these sheep of mixed blood are rapidly rising in public
estimation, and are produced in ever increasing numbers.
This is acccomplished in several ways. The occupiers of
uplying grazings in some cases keep part of their ewe flock
pure, and breed crosses from another part. They sell the
whole of their cross-bred lambs, and get as many females
from the other portion as keeps up the number of their
breeding flock. This system of crossing cannot be pursued
on the highest class of farms, as ewes bearing these heavier
crossed lambs require better fare than when coupled with
rams of their own race. The surplus ewe lambs from such
highlying grazings are an available source of supply to those
of a lower range, and are eagerly sought after for this pur¬
pose. Others, however, take a bolder course. Selecting a
few of the choicest hill-country ewes which they can find,
and puting these to a first-rate Leicester ram, they thus
obtain a supply of rams of the first cross, and putting these
to ewes, also of the first cross, manage in this way to have
their entire flock half-bred and to go on continuously with
their own stock without advancing beyond a first cross.
They, however, never keep rams from such crossed parent¬
age, but always select them from the issue of parents each
genuine of their respective races. We know several large
farms on which flocks of crosses betwixt the Cheviot ewe
and Leicester ram have been maintained in this way for
many years with entire success ; and one at least in which
a similar cross with south down ewes has equally prospered.
Many, however, prefer buying in females of this first cross,
and coupling them again with pure Leicester rams. In one
or other of these ways cross-bred flocks are increasing on
every side. So much has the system spread in Berwick¬
shire, that whereas, in our memory, pure Leicesters were
the prevailing breed of the county, they are now all but
confined to a few ram-breeding flocks.
GENERAL MANAGEMENT.
As the management of sheep is influenced mainly by the
nature of the lands upon which they are kept, we shall first
describe the practice of Lowland flock-masters, and afterwards
that pursued on Highland sheep-walks.
On arable farms, where turnips are grown, and a breed¬
ing stock of sheep regularly kept, it is usual to wean the
lambs about the middle of July. When this has been done,
the aged and faulty ewes are drafted out, and put upon
good aftermath, or other succulent food, that they may be
got ready for market as soon as possible. In many districts
it is the practice to take but three crops of lambs from each
348
AGRICULTURE.
Hutting
season.
Live Stock, ewe. A third part of the breeding flock, viz. the four-year
old ewes, is thus drafted off every autumn, and their places
supplied by the introduction of a corresponding number of
the best of the ewe-lambs of the preceding year’s crop.
These cast or draft ewes are then sold to the occupiers of
richer soils in populous districts, who keep them for another
season to feed fat lambs. Such parties buy in a fresh stock
of ewes every autumn, and, as they phrase it, “ feed lamb
and dam.” In other cases the ewes are kept as long as
their teeth continue sound, and after that they are fattened
and sold to the butcher directly from the farm on which
they have been reared. When the ewes that are retained
for breeding-stock have been thus overhauled, they are
put to the worst pasture on the farm, and run rather thickly
upon it. Attention is necessary, for some days after wean¬
ing, to see that none of them suffer from gorging of the
udder. When it appears very turgid in any of them, they
are caught and partially milked by hand; but usually the
change to poorer pasturage, aided by their restlessness and
bleating for want of their lambs, at once arrests the flow of
milk. The time of admitting the ram is regulated by the
purpose for which the flock is kept, and by the date at
which fresh green food can be reckoned upon in spring.
When the produce is to be disposed of as fat lambs, it is of
course an object to have them early ; but for a holding stock,
to be reared and fattened at fourteen to sixteen months old,
from 20th Sept, to 20th Oct., according to the climate of
the particular locality, is a usual time for admitting rams to
ewes. A fortnight before this takes place the ewes are re¬
moved from bare pasture, and put on the freshest that the
farm affords, or better still, on rape, failing which one good
feed of white turnips per diem is carted and spread on their
pastures, or the ewes are folded for part of the day on grow¬
ing turnips. The rams are turned in amongst them, just
when this better fare has begun to tell in their improving
appearance, as it is found that in such circumstances they
come in heat more rapidly, and with a greatly increased
likelihood of conceiving twins. On level ground, and with
moderate sized inclosures, one ram suffices for sixty ewes.
Sometimes a large lot of ewes are kept in one flock, and
several rams, at the above proportion, turned among them
promiscuously. It is better, however, when they can be
placed in separate lots. The breasts of the rams are rub¬
bed with ruddle, that the shepherd may know what they are
about. Those who themselves breed rams, or others who
hire in what they use at high prices, have recourse to a dif¬
ferent plan, for the purpose of getting more service from
each male, and of knowing exactly when each ewe may be
expected to lamb; and also of putting each ewe to the ram
most suitable to her in point of size, figure, and quality of
flesh and fleece. The rams in this case are kept in pens in a
small inclosure. What is technically called a teaser is turned
among the general flock of ewes, which, on being seen to be
in heat, are brought up and put to the ram that is selected
for them. They are then numbered, and a note kept of the
date, or otherwise a common mark, varied for each succes¬
sive week, is put on all as they come up. The more usual
practice is to mark the breast of the ram with ruddle, as al¬
ready described, for tbe first seventeen days that they are
among the ewes—that being the time of the periodic recur¬
rence of the heat—and then to use soot instead. When
lambing-time draws near, the red-rumped ewes, or those
that conceived from the first copulation, are brought into
the fold, and the remainder after the lapse of the proper in¬
terval. If all goes on well, six weeks is long enough for
the rams to remain with the flock. The ewes are then put
to more moderate fare, taking care, however, not to pinch
them, but to preserve the due medium betwixt fatness and
poverty. Under the first-mentioned extreme, there is great
risk of losing both ewe and lamb at the time of parturition ; Livestock,
and under the second, of the ewe shedding her wool, and
being unable to nourish her lamb properly either before its
birth or after. When there is a considerable breadth of
grass-land, the grit or inlamb ewes are run thinly upon it,
so long as the weather continues moderate. As the pas¬
turage fails, or winter weather sets in, they receive a daily
feed of turnips or hay, or part of both. In districts where
the four-course rotation is pursued, and wheat sown after
seeds, there is a necessity for keeping the ewes wholly on
turnips and chopped hay or straw. In this case they are
made to follow the fattening sheep, and to eat up their
scraps, an arrangement which is suitable for both lots. The Lambing
period of gestation in the ewe is twenty-one weeks. No season,
lambs that are born more than twelve days short of this pe¬
riod survive. Before any lambs are expected to arrive, a
comfortable fold is provided, into which either the entire
flock of ewes, or those that by their markings are known to
lamb first, are brought every night. This fold, which may
either be a permanent erection, or fitted up annually for the
occasion, is provided all round with separate pens, or cribs,
of size enough to accommodate a single ewe, with her lamb
or pair. The pasture or turnip fold to which the flock is
turned by day is also furnished with several temporary but
well-sheltered cribs, for the reception of such ewes as lamb
during the day. It is of especial consequence that ewes
producing twins be at once consigned to a separate apart¬
ment, as, if left in the crowd, they frequently lose sight of
one lamb, and may refuse to own it, when restored to them,
even after a very short separation. Some ewes will make a
favourite of one lamb, and wholly repudiate the other, even
when due care has been taken to keep them together from
the first. In this case the favourite must either be sepa¬
rated from her, or be muzzled with a piece of network, to
prevent it from getting more than its share of the milk in
the shepherd’s absence. Indeed the maternal affection seems
much dependent on the flow of milk, as ewes with a well-
filled udder seldom trouble the shepherd by such capricious
partialities. So soon as the lambs have got fairly afoot, their
dams are turned with them into the most forward piece of
seeds, or to rape, rye, winter-oats, or water-meadow, the
great point being to have abundance of succulent green
food for the ewes as soon as they lamb. Without this they
cannot yield milk abundantly; and without plenty of milk
it is impossible to have good lambs. It is sometimes neces¬
sary to aid a lamb that has a poor nurse with cow’s milk.
This is at best a poor alternative; but if it must be resorted
to, it is only the milk of a farrow cow, or at least of one that
has been calved six months, that is at all fit for this purpose.
To give the milk of a recently calved cow to a young lamb
is usually equivalent to knocking it on the head. Ewe milk
is poor in butter, but very rich in curd, which is also known
to be, in a measure, the character of that of cows that have
been long calved, and are not again pregnant. We have found
the Aberdeen yellow bullock turnip the best for pregnant
and nursing ewes. Mangel-wurzel is much approved of by
the flock-masters of the southern counties for the same pur¬
pose. It is of importance, at this season, to remove at once
from the fold and pens all dead lambs, and filth of every
kind, the presence of putrefying matter being most hurtful
to the flock. Should a case of puerperal fever occur, the
shepherd must scrupulously avoid touching the ewe so
affected; or if he has done so, some one should take his
accoucheur duties for a few days, as this deadly malady is
highly contagious, and is often unconsciously communicated
to numbers of the flock by the shepherd’s hands. Unne¬
cessary interference with ewes during parturition is much
to be deprecated. When the presentation is all right, it is
best to leave them as much as possible to their natural ef-
AGRICULTURE.
Livestock, forts. When a false presentation does occur, the shepherd
must endeavour to rectify it by gently introducing his hand
after first lubricating it with fresh lard or olive-oil. The
less dogging or disturbance of any kind that ewes receive
during pregnancy, the less risk is there of unnatural pre¬
sentations. As soon as lambs are brought forth, the shep¬
herd must give them suck. When they have once got a
bellyful, and are protected from wet or excessive cold for
two or three days, there is no fear of their taking harm from
ordinary weather, provided only that the ewes have plenty
of suitable food. Lambs are castrated, docked, and ear¬
marked, with least risk when about ten days old. Ewes with
lambs must have good and clean pasturage throughout the
summer. For this purpose they must either be run thinly
among cattle, or have two or more inclosures, one of which
may always be getting clean and fresh for their reception, as
the other gets bare and soiled. We have not found any ad¬
vantage in allowing lambs yeaned in March to run with their
dams beyond 20th July. A clover edish, or other perfectly
clean pasture, is the most suitable for newly weaned lambs.
Such as abound in tath, as it is called in Scotland, that is,
rank herbage growing above the droppings of sheep, or
other animals, are peculiarly noxious to them. Folding upon
rape or vetches suits them admirably, so that fresh supplies
Salving or are given regularly as required. All sheep are liable to be
bathing, infested with certain vermin, especially by “ fags,” or “ kaids,”
and by lice. To rid them of these parasites, various means
are resorted to. Some farmers use mercurial ointment,
which is applied by parting the wool, and then with the
finger rubbing the ointment on the skin, in three or four
longitudinal seams on each side, and a few shorter ones on
the neck, belly, legs, &c. Those who use this salve dress
their lambs with it immediately after shearing their ewes,
and again just before putting them on turnips. More fre¬
quently the sheep are immersed, all but their heads, in a
bath, in which arsenic and other ingredients are dissolved.
On being lifted out of the bath, the animal is laid on spars,
over a shallow vessel, so placed that the superfluous liquor,
as it^ifc wrung out of the fleece, flows back into the bath.
If this is done when the ewes are newly shorn, the liquor
goes farther than when the process is deferred until the
lambs are larger and their wool longer. It is good practice
to souse the newly shorn ewes, and indeed the whole flock
at the same time, in a similar bath, so as to rid them all of
vermin.
The object being to bring these young animals to early
and profitable maturity, every pains must be taken not only
to preserve their health, but to insure their rapid and unin¬
terrupted progress. For this end it is necessary to provide
ample supplies of food suitable for the particular season. As
turnips constitute their staple winter fare, it is necessary to
have a portion of these sown in time to be fit for use in
September. Young sheep always show a reluctance to take
Patting to this very succulent food, and should therefore be put
hoggets to Upon it so early in autumn that they may get thoroughly
turnips. reconciled to it while the weather is yet temperate. Rape
or cabbages suit admirably as transitionary food from grass
to turnips. When this transference from summer to winter
fare is well managed, they usually make rapid progress dur¬
ing October and November. Some farmers recommend to
give the hoggets, as they are now called, a daily run off from
the turnip fold to a neighbouring pasture for the first few
weeks after their being put to this diet. We have found it
decidedly better to keep them steadily in the turnip fold
from the very first. When they are once taught to look for
this daily enlargement, they become impatient for it, and do
not settle quietly to their food. If possible not more than
200 should be kept in one lot. The youngest and weakest
sheep should also have a separate berth and more generous
349
treatment. Turnips being a more watery food than sheep Livestock,
naturally feed upon, there is great advantage in giving them ^
from the first, along with turnips, a liberal allowance of Benefit of
clover hay cut into half-inch chaff. When given in this giving dry
form in suitable troughs, and in regular feeds, they will eatfood along
up the whole without waste, and be greatly the better for w.ltl1 tur'
it. To economise the hay, equal parts of good oat straw mps'
may be cut up with it, and will be readily eaten by the
flock. A liberal supply of this dry food corrects the injuri¬
ous effects which are so often produced by feeding sheep on
turnips alone, and at the same time lessens the consumption
of the green food. We believe also that there is true
economy in early beginning to give them a small daily al¬
lowance, say ^ lb. each, of cake or corn. This is more
especially desirable when sheep are folded on poor soil.
This extraneous food both supplies the lack of nutrition in Slicing
the turnips, and fertilises the soil for bearing succeeding turniPs f°r
crops. An immense improvement has been effected in the sheeP*
winter feeding of sheep by the introduction of machines for
slicing turnips. Some careful farmers slice the whole of
the turnips used by their fattening sheep, of whatever age;
but usually the practice is restricted to hoggets, and only
resorted to for them when their milk-teeth begin to fail. In
the latter case the economy of the practice does not admit of
debate. When Mr Pusey states the difference in value be¬
twixt hoggets that have had their turnips sliced and others
that have not, at 8s. per head in favour of the former from
this cause alone, we do not think that he over-estimates
the benefit. Those who slice turnips for older sheep, and
for hoggets also as soon as ever they have taken to them,
are, we suspect, acting upon a sound principle, and their ex¬
ample is therefore likely to be generally followed. There
is no doubt of this, at least, that hoggets frequently lose part
of the flesh which they had already gained from the slicing
of the turnips being unduly delayed. By 1st December,
their first teeth, although not actually gone, have become so
inefficient, that they require longer time and greater exer¬
tion to fill themselves than before ; and this, concurring with
shorter days and colder weather, operates much to their
prejudice. When the slicing is begun, it is well to leave a
portion of growing turnips in each day’s fold, as there are
always some timid sheep in a lot that never come freely to
the troughs; and they serve moreover to occupy the lot
during moonlight nights, and at other times when the
troughs cannot be instantly replenished. As the sheep have
access to both sides of the troughs, each will accommodate
nearly as many as they are feet in length. There should
therefore be provided at least as many foot-lengths of
trough as there are sheep in the fold. These troughs are
usually placed on low cross feet, with a top-rail to keep the
sheep from getting into them. It is better to raise them
about 18 inches from the ground on feet standing well out,
to prevent them from being overturned. This preserves
their food from being dirtied and wasted, better than a top-
rail. When corn or cake is given, it is best to use separate
troughs for it of smaller dimensions, and to turn them over
after each feed, to keep them clean and dry.
Much discussion has taken place of late years, as to Sheepfeed-
whether sheep can be fattened more economically in the ing-
open field or under cover. When the soil is at all dry, the
preponderance of evidence is in favour of the former prac¬
tice. There can be no doubt, however, of the propriety of
providing some temporary shelter for fattening sheep against
severe winter weather. This is done to some extent by
forming the whole or part of the fold fence of wattled hur¬
dles. A double row of common hurdles, set about a foot
apart, and having the interstices daily stuffed with fresh
straw, forms at once a screen from the weather, and a rack
for dry fodder. In very inclement weather, a rude shed can
AGRICULTURE.
350
LiveStock.be constructed with stout double hurdles, stuffed between
with litter, and having others laid across them, similarly-
covered with spadefuls of earth thrown on here and there
to prevent the straw from being blown away. We have al¬
ready, when treating of turnip culture, pointed out the ad¬
vantage of having all that are to be consumed after Christ¬
mas secured in some way against bad weather and running
to seed. To clear the ground in time for the succeeding
grain crop, a portion of the turnip crop is usually stored on
some piece of grass or fallow where the flock is folded until
the pastures are ready to receive them. As the date of this
varies exceedingly, it is well to lay in turnips for a late sea¬
son, and rather to have some to spare than to be obliged to
stock the pastures prematurely. If corn or cake has been
given in the turnip field, it must be continued in the pas¬
ture. Hoggets that have been well managed will be ready
for market as soon as they can be shorn, and may not re¬
quire grass at all. They usually, however, grow very
rapidly on the first flush of clovers and sown grasses, espe¬
cially when aided by cake or corn. When the soil is of
poor quality, it is expedient to continue the use of such extra
food during summer. The best sheep are generally sent to
market first, and the others as they attain to a proper de¬
gree of fatness. Store sheep or cattle are then purchased
to occupy their places until the next crop of lambs is
weaned.
Management of Mountain Sheep.—We have already
taken notice of the extent to which Cheviot sheep have of
late years been introduced in the Highlands of Scotland.
Many of the immense grazings there are rented by farmers
resident in the south of Scotland, who only visit their High¬
land farms from time to time, and entrust the management
of their flocks and shepherds, which rival in numbers those
of the ancient patriarchs, to an overseer, whose duty it is to
be constantly on the grounds, to attend in all respects to
the interests of his employer, see his orders carried into
effect, and give him stated information of how it fares with
his charge. We are happy at being enabled to submit to
the reader the following account of Highland sheep-farm¬
ing, with which we have been favoured by a gentleman who
is extensively engaged in this business.
‘ ‘ The hills in the north of Scotland are mostly stocked with
Cheviot sheep, except in the shires of Perth and Argyll, where
the blackfaced breed are still considered the most suitable ; and
a considerable quantity of cattle also are reared. The farms
in the high districts are often of great size, some of the largest
extending even to 50,000 or 60,000 acres. The land, however,
some few valleys excepted, is of a very barren description,
much broken with rocks and large stones, or else, as in some
parts of Sutherland, extending in vast ranges of moss, covered
with the different heaths. It requires generally about three
acres to keep a sheep through the season; they never get hay
or any foreign feeding during winter, but some of the highest
hirsels have sometimes to be. driven off to lower ground in severe
storms. As the sheep lie scattered over such a great extent of
ground, their management entails much more fatigue on the
shepherd than in more fertile districts. Many of these shep¬
herds have been brought from the border counties; their wages
are from L.16 to L.18, with house, two cows’ grass, ground for
potatoes, and 65 stones of oatmeal. The natives of the district
get something less. In some cases the grazing of 60 or 70
sheep is given instead of money, but on account of the trouble
they cause at sortings, wages in cash are now generally pre¬
ferred. The number of sheep in a hirsel is about 500, but in
some cases twice that number are under the charge of one man.
_ One of the most trying seasons for the shepherd is lambing-Live Stock,
time, which begins about 20th or 25th April. The number of v ■-
lambs reared on Mr Sellar’s farm1 is much above an average.
Low-lying sheltered districts may commonly rear 15 or 16
lambs for every 20 ewes put to the tup; but on the high grounds,
although the ewes there are much more careful of their lambs,
yet from exposure to the weather and various casualties, there
are seldom produced more than 13 or 14 lambs for every 20
ewes. On account of the difficulty of rearing lambs in these
high districts, the farmers there find it more profitable to keep
most of their land under wedders, and purchase what lambs
they require from the low-lying farms near the coast, many of
which are now under a ewe stock ; there are not yet, however,
enough of wedder lambs bred to supply this demand, as large
lots are annually driven north from the border markets. The
sale wedders (almost all of which are three years’ old) are
clipped as early as possible, say about the middle of June, the
ewes, &c., in the beginning of July. Plenty of clippers are to
be had from the villages at Is. per day with victuals. The
weight of the fleeces varies much ; the average may be about
4 lb. of smeared wool. A great part of the wool and sheep of
the northern counties is sold at the Inverness and Fort-Wil¬
liam markets, or consigned to commission-agents in Liverpool.
The highest prices for both are obtained by the Sutherland
farmers. Everything is sold by character, no stock or samples
of any kind are shewn; and it is said that no lawsuit has oc¬
curred from any disputed bargain. The principal lots of sheep
are bought into Dumfries, Cumberland, and other western
counties, and there has been an increasing demand of late years
from Ireland. Those unsold are driven to Falkirk, travelling
there from the most northern farms in about four weeks, at an
expense of Is. 6d. per head; some few lots have of late years
been sent south by the west-coast steam-boats.
“ Few Highland farms, like Mr Sellar’s, contain any arable
land ; and one of the greatest difficulties the farmer has to con¬
tend with is getting the lambs wintered. The ewe-lambs are
thought hardier than the wedders ; it is also of consequence to
have them thoroughly inured to the pasture and climate; so
they are commonly kept at home, and either placed on the
most suitable hirsels, or left following their mothers through
the whole season; the loss during winter amounting to from
4 to 6 out of every 20. Great part of this loss is caused by
braxy, which prevails over the whole Highlands, and is often
worst in those places which, from their lowness and richness,
are most suitable for wintering lambs. No preventive has yet
been found.2 Poverty and casualties make up the rest of the
loss. About the beginning of November, all the wedder lambs
are driven off to turnips grown on the east coasts (a few lots of
them go to sheltered grazings). They are taken there from
great distances, even from Lewis, and often suffer much from
bad weather and fatigue during the journey. The expense of
wintering them there is from Ifd. to 2d. per week, but the
loss seldom exceeds 2 out of every 20. They return to the hills
again in March and April. The average loss of old sheep
during a season may be about 2 out of every 20.
“ There are some fine lots of tups bred in Sutherland, which
have taken prizes in every district; large numbers also are
taken every year from the border counties. In some wide-
lying hirsels one tup is required for every 30 ewes ; 45 being
about the average number. All the sheep are smeared with
tar and butter, at a cost of 4Jd. or 5d. each ; no substitute has
yet been found for it, and attempts to keep them white have
not been successful. The rents vary from 2s. to 2s. 9d. per
sheep; on some low rich farms they are still higher. The
capital required of late years has been 20s. or 25s. for each
sheep kept.”
The following remarks are from another extensive High¬
land sheep-farmer:—
“ The management of flocks in the Highlands is much the
1 See Farm Reports, or Accounts of the Management of Select Farms. Sutherland. By Patrick Sellar.
" e11ll^ve ljeen jnframed by a gentleman who has recently entered upon sheep farming in the west of Ireland on a large scale, that
the small farmers in his neighbourhood regularly shear their lambs in August, and assign as their reason for this apparently barbarous
practice, that hoggets so treated stand the winter better, and are more exempt from braxy and other diseases than those that are allowed
to retain their lamb s wool. The limited experiments hitherto made by our informant and several graziers of his acquaintance, have so
far confirmed the propriety of this strange treatment.
AGRICULTURE.
351
Livestock, same as on high and exposed farms in the higher districts of
Roxburghshire, Dumfriesshire, and Selkirkshire, as regards
the ewe hirsels; the ewe lambs either not being weaned, or
that only for eight or ten days, so that they may continue to
follow their mothers. The wedder lambs are sent to the wed-
der-ground about the beginning of August, and herded on the
part of it considered most adapted for their keep, till about the
middle of October, when they are sent to turnips mostly in
Ross-shire, where they remain till the middle of March or be¬
ginning of April. This is one of the heaviest items of expense
in Highland farming, amounting to fully 4s. per head; and
thus, upon a farm equally stocked with ewes and wedders, adds
just about one-third to the rental of the farm. On the return
of the wedder hogs, they are put to particular parts of the
wedder ground, at large amongst the other ages of wedder
stock, where they remain until drawn out when three years’
old at the usual season to send to market; with this exception,
that the year following (when they are dinmonts), the smallest
of them, those that are not considered capable of wintering at
home, say to the extent of two or three to the score, are again
drawn out and sent with the hogs to turnips.
“ Mr Sellar, in his Report of the County of Sutherland, gives
a very minute and detailed account of the mode of manage¬
ment as practised on his farms. This, however, does not apply
to extensive West Highland farms, which have no arable
farms attached, no fields to bring in the diseased or falling-off
part of the stock to, nor is it ever practicable to shift any part
of the stock to different parts of the farm from that on which
they have been reared.”
The farms occupied by Cheviot sheep on the hills inclos¬
ing the valley of the Tweed and its tributaries, and many
similar localities elsewhere, usually include a portion of
arable land, which is chiefly valued for the opportunity which
it affords of providing a supply of turnips on which the ewes
and young sheep are partially fed for six weeks or so imme¬
diately preceding the lambing season. The practice is to
admit the flock to the turnip fold for four or five hours daily,
and then turn them off to some neighbouring piece of hea¬
ther or rough ground. On such farms the pastures are more
devoid of nourishing herbage of any kind during the months
of February and March than even in midwinter. A daily
feed of turnips at this season, when the sheep are in reduced
condition from previous privation, is therefore invaluable.
The sown grasses on such farms are usually made into hay,
which supplies the flock with fodder during snow-storms.
The aftermath is also of great service in aiding late lambs,
and other weakly sheep. As the culture of grain crops on
such elevated grounds is usually anything but remunerative,
the farmer may actually be at more expense in growing tur¬
nips at home than if he were to board his flock for the same
length of time in some low-country farm. He is compen¬
sated, however, by having his flock less disturbed, and bet¬
ter attended to than if they were sent from home.
It is not at all unusual for one farm to be stocked partly
with Cheviots, and partly with blackfaced sheep. The low¬
est and grassiest grounds are assigned to the pure Cheviots,
and if there are enclosed fields of tolerably good grass, a
portion of the ewes—the oldest class—are taken to breed
crosses from the Leicester ram. The medium grounds,
consisting partly of rough herbage mixed with heather, and
partly of higher portions producing heather alone, are stocked
with blackfaced ewes which are crossed with Leicester rams,
while, on the highest and bleakest parts, covered chiefly with
heather, pure blackfaced sheep are bred.
We begin our description of the management of such
flocks with autumn, and assume that the yearly cast of lambs
and aged ewes has been disposed of, only so many of the
ewe-lambs being retained as are required to keep up the
breeding stock. A former practice was to keep these ewe-
lambs or hoggets by themselves on the best portions of the
respective walks, or rakes as they are called on the borders.
Now, however, they are kept apart from their dams only so
long (eight or ten days) as suffices to let the milk dry up; Livestock,
whereupon they are returned to the flock or hirsel to which
they belong, and at once associate again, each with its own
dam. The hoggets, under the guidance of the ewes, are
thus led about over the ground, according to varying sea¬
sons, and under the promptings of an instinct which far sur¬
passes the skill and care of the best shepherd. The latter,
indeed, restricts his interference chiefly to keeping his flock
upon their own beat, and allows them to distribute them¬
selves over it according to their own choice. When thus left
to themselves each little squad usually select their own
ground, and may be found—the same individuals, about the
same neighbourhood—day after day. This plan of grazing
the hoggets and ewes together has been attended with the
best results. There are far fewer deaths among the former
than when kept separate, and being from the first used to
the pasturage and acquainted with the ground, they get in¬
ured to its peculiarities, and grow up a healthy and shifty
stock, more easily managed and better able to cope with
trying seasons than if nursed elsewhere, and brought on to
the ground at a more advanced age. Each hogget and its
dam may be seen in couples all through the winter and
spring, and with the return of summer it is a pretty sight to
see these family groups grown into triplets by the addition
to each of a little lamb. As the autumn advances, the flock-
master makes his preparations for smearing or bathing. The
smearing material is a salve composed of tar and butter,
which is prepared in the following manner:—Six gallons of
Archangel tar and 50 lb. of grease-butter are thoroughly
incorporated, and as much milk added as makes the salve
work freely. This quantity suffices for 100 sheep. This
salve destroys vermin, and by matting the fleece is supposed
to add to the comfort and healthiness of the sheep. It adds
considerably to the weight of the fleece, but imparts to it
an irremediable stain, which detracts seriously from its value
per lb. A white salve introduced by Mr Ballantyne of
Hollylee, is now in repute on the borders. It is prepared
as follows:—30 lb. butter, 14 lb. rough turpentine, and 3
lb. soft soap are melted and mingled in a large pot; 2 lb.
soda, and £ lb. arsenic are then dissolved in a gallon of boil¬
ing water, and this along with 12 gallons more of cold water
is intimately mixed with the other ingredients, and yields
enough for dressing 100 sheep, at the rate of a quart to each.
Some persons believing the arsenic an unsafe application,
substitute for it the juice from 10 lb. of tobacco-paper. In¬
stead of the rough turpentine, some also use half-a-gill of
spirit of tar for each sheep ; this ingredient being mixed in
each quart-potful at the time of application.
In applying these salves, the sheep are brought to the
homestead in daily detachments, according to the number of
men employed, each man getting over about sixty in a day.
A sheep being caught and laid upon a stool, the wool is parted
in lines running from head to tail, and the tar salve spread
upon the skin by taking a little upon the fingers and drawing
them along. The white salve is kept in a semifluid state by
occasionally placing the large kettle in which it is concocted
upon a slow fire, or by adding as needed a small quantity of
boiling water. Each shepherd has a boy assistant who pours
the liquid salve from a tin pot with a spout, while he holds
the wool apart. This white salve destroys vermin, and is
believed to nourish the wool and to promote its growth. It
does not, however, cause the fleece to adhere like the tar
ointment; and hence, the better to defend the hoggets from
wet and cold, some flock-masters after salving them put a
piece of coarse woollen cloth over the back of each, and sew
it to the fleece all round the edges with worsted thread.
This “ brat ” as it is called prevents the wool from parting
over the spine, and protects the animal from wet and cold
far more effectually than smearing the fleece w ith tar-salve.
352
AGRICULTURE.
Livestock. Where the bratting plan has been adopted, the usual rate
of mortality has been reduced, and the vigour of the flock
increased. This salving and bratting must all be accom¬
plished before the 20th November, about which time the
rams are admitted to the flock. Before this is done another
preliminary is required. As the ewe hoggets graze with the
flock, it is necessary to guard them from receiving the male,
for which purpose a piece of cloth is sewed firmly over their
tails, and remains until the rams are withdrawn. This is
called breeking them. On open hilly grounds about forty
ewes are sufficient for each ram. To insure the vigour
and good quality of the flock it is necessary to have a fre¬
quent change of blood. To secure this by purchasing the
the whole rams required would be very costly, and therefore
each flock-master endeavours to rear a home supply. For
this purpose he purchases every autumn, often at a high
price, one or two choice rams from some flock of known
excellence, and to these he puts a lot of his best ewes care¬
fully selected from his whole flock. These are kept in an
enclosed field until the rutting season is over, and after re¬
ceiving a distinctive mark are then returned to their respec¬
tive hirsels. From the progeny of these selected ewes a
sufficient number of the best male lambs are reserved to
keep up the breeding stock of the farm. The rams are with¬
drawn from the flock about 1st January, and are then kept
in an enclosed field where they receive a daily feed of tur¬
nips. Except in heavy falls of snow and intense frosts, the
flocks subsist during the entire season on the natural pro¬
duce of their pastures. It is necessary, however, to be pro¬
vided for such emergencies both as regards food and shelter.
For this purpose each shepherd has at suitable parts of his
beat several stells or artificial shelters such as are described
at p. 358, and beside each of them a stack of hay from which
to fodder the flock when required. So long as the sheep
can get at heather or rushes by scraping away the snow with
their feet, they will not touch the hay, but when the whole
surface gets buried and bound up, they are fain to take to
it. The hay is laid out in handfuls over the snow, twice a-
day, at the rate of 22 lb. to each score of sheep. Much
vigilance, promptitude, and courage are required on the part
of shepherds in these wild and stormy districts, in getting
their flocks into places of safety on the breaking out of sud¬
den snow-storms. Where turnips are grown they are re¬
served for spring use, and are given to the ewes as already
mentioned, for a few weeks before the lambing season com¬
mences, so as to encourage a flow of milk. This indulgence
is bestowed only upon the Cheviots ; the hardier blackfaces
not only not requiring this artificial aid, but in general doing
better without it. If the supply of turnips is ample, the
whole of the Cheviot ewes get a daily feed, but if this in¬
dulgence cannot be afforded to the whole flock, the shear¬
ling ewes and such older ones as are in poorer condition
than the average of the flock are drawn out from the general
hirsel, and receive the benefits of the succulent food for the
full period named above; the older and stronger ewes being
kept upon the hill until near the lambing time. This tur¬
nip fare not only benefits the flock while they receive it, but
their usual pasture in the meantime gets clean, and freshens
against their return to it, which takes place as soon as lambs
begin to drop. The flock-master usually endeavours to store
a portion of his turnip crop, and to retain it for daily distri¬
bution, in a convenient enclosure, to such of the flock as
stand in need of such indulgence, after the flock at large
Lambing have been replaced on their respective rakes. The lambing
season. season is one of much anxiety to the master: and to his
shepherds and their faithful sagacious dogs one of incessant
toil. They must be a-foot from “ dawn till dewy eve,” visit¬
ing every part of their wide range several times a-day, to
see that all is right, and to give assistance when required.
The ewes of these hardy mountain breeds seldom require Live Stock,
man’s assistance in the act of parturition, but still cross-pre-
sentations and difficult cases occur even with them. Deaths
occur also among the newly-dropt lambs, in which case the
dam is brought home, and a twin lamb (of which there are
usually enough to serve this purpose) put in the dead one’s
place. The dead lamb’s skin is stript off, and wrapt about
the living one, which is then shut up beside the dam in a
small crib or parik, by which means she is usually induced
in a few hours (and always the sooner the more milk she
has) to adopt the supposititious lamb. As the lambing sea¬
son draws to a close, each shepherd collects the unlambed
ewes of his flock into an enclosure near his cottage, and ex¬
amines them one by one to ascertain which are pregnant.
To the barren ones he affixes a particular mark, and at once
turns them again to the hill, but the others are retained close
at hand until they lamb, by which means he can attend to
them closely with comparatively little labour. The lambs
are castrated and docked at from 10 to 20 days old. For
this and for all sorting and drafting purposes an ample fold
and suite of pens, formed of stout post and rail, is provided
on some dry knoll convenient for each main division of the
flock. To this the flock is gently gathered, and penned off
in successive lots of 10 or 12, taking care that each lamb
has its own dam with it before it is penned, and to do this
with as little dogging and running as possible. The male
lambs of the pure blackfaced breed when designed to be
kept as wethers are not castrated until they are eight or ten
weeks old, partly because when done sooner their horns have
a tendency to get so crumpled as to grow into their eyes,
and partly because a bold horn is thought to improve the
appearance of an aged wether.
On these elevated sheep-walks, shearing does not take Shearing,
place until July. It cannot, in fact, be performed until the
young wool has begun to grow or rise, and so admit of the
shears working freely betwixt the skin and the old matted
fleece. The sheep are previously washed by causing them
to swim repeatedly across a pool with a gentle current flow¬
ing through it. They are made to plunge in from a bank
raised either naturally or artificially, several feet above the
surface of the water. This sousing and swimming in pure
water cleanses the fleece far more effectually than could be
supposed by persons accustomed only to the mode pursued
in arable districts. Shearing takes place three or four days
after washing, and in the interim much vigilance is required
on the part of the shepherd to prevent the sheep from rub¬
bing themselves under banks of moss or earth, and so un¬
doing the washing. To diminish the labour to the shepherd,
and disturbance to his flock, consequent on frequent gather¬
ing, each hirsel is if possible shorn in one day. For this end
the shepherds from neighbouring farms assemble, and by
turns assist each other. Abundance of good cheer is pro¬
vided for them by the masters on such occasions, which are
usually characterised by much hilarity and keen discussion
of the merits of their respective flocks. Each man usually
shears about sixty sheep a-day. It is neither practicable nor
expedient to shear these mountain sheep so closely as the
fat denizens of lowland pastures. At these great clippings
each shearer is provided with a low-legged sparred stool,
having a seat at one end, or with a bench built of green turf,
which are arranged in a row close in front of a pen, in which
the unshorn sheep are placed. The shearers being seated,
each astride his stool or bench, with their backs to the pen,
a man in it catches and hands over a sheep to each of them.
The sheep is first laid on its back upon the stool, and the
wool shorn from the under parts, after which its legs are
bound together with a soft woollen cord, and the fleece re¬
moved first from the one side and then from the other, by a
succession of cuts running from head to tail. The fleeces
AGRICULTURE.
Livestock, are thrown upon a cloth and immediately carried to the wool-
room, where, after being freed from clots, they are neatly
wrapped up and stored away by young women. Before the
shorn sheep are released, each receives a mark or buist by
dipping the owner’s cypher in melted pitch, and stamping it
upon the skin of the animal. To discriminate different ages
and hirsels, these marks vary in themselves, or are affixed to
different parts of the sheep. Once or twice a year all stray
sheep found upon the farms of a well-defined district are
brought to a fixed rendezvous, where their marks are ex¬
amined by the assembled shepherds, and each restored to its
proper owner.
Weaning. Weaning takes place in August or early in September.
A sufficient number of the best ewe lambs of the pure breeds
are selected for maintaining the flock, and are treated in the
way already noticed. With this exception, the whole of the
lambs are sold either to low-country graziers, or as fat lambs
to the butcher. The wedder lambs usually go to the former,
and the ewe lambs of the cross betwixt blackfaced ewes and
Leicester rams to the latter. These ewes, being excellent
nurses, make their lambs very fat in favourable seasons, in
which case they are worth more to kill as lambs than to rear.
Immediately after the weaning, the ewes which have at¬
tained mature age are disposed of generally to low-country
graziers, who keep them for another year, and fatten lamb
and dam. To facilitate the culling out of these full-aged
ewes, each successive crop of ewe lambs receives a distinc¬
tive ear-mark, by which all of any one age in the flock can
be at once recognised.
Wool is such an important part of the produce of our
flocks, that it seems proper to offer a few remarks upon it
before leaving this section. We here insert with much
pleasure the following communication from John Barff, Esq.
of Wakefield, with which we have been favoured:—
“ I willingly give you a reply to your various inquiries re¬
garding wool as far as I am able. As to the kinds grown in
the various counties of the United Kingdom, this I cannot fully
answer, as timre are some counties’ wools which have not come
much under my inspection ; but generally I may remark that
wherever the turnip can be cultivated and has been introduced,
the Leicester, Lincolnshire, Coteswold. and the half-breds
from Down and Cheviot are to be found; and in the same coun¬
ties, in several instances, you have several kinds, if we except
Lincolnshire, and Leicestershire, which have entirely the long-
wool sheep. The great bulk also of York, Warwick, Oxford,
Cambridge, Gloucester, Northampton, and Nottingham shires,
have this description of sheep, but they have also Downs and
half-breds. Kent has its own sheep called Kents; the wool
being much finer than the reallongwool sheep, running in qua¬
lity and weight of fleece between these latter and the Down,
something like your half-breds from Cheviot ewes by Leices¬
ter rams. They have somewhat of a similar sheep in Devon,
Cornwall, Hereford, and Shropshire, but the quality in the two
former counties scarcely so fine as the two latter, or the Kent
wools. Norfolk has the original Down and the half-bred ; Sur¬
rey, Suffolk, Essex, Sussex, and Hampshire, are nearly all Down
wools, though in these counties, upon some of their best lands,
where they can cultivate the turnip, the half-bred are being in¬
troduced; and I need to you scarcely say, the Leicester sheep,
as well as half-breds and Cheviots are to be found in Durham,
Northumberland, Berwickshire, Roxburghshire, Lothians, and
other parts of Scotland where the turnip is cultivated, and in
those parts where it is not, and on the hills, the Cheviot and
blackfaced prevail. The blackfaced are used for low padding
cloths, carpets, and horse-rugs. The Down wools were formerly
all used for cloths and flannels ; but now from the improvement
in worsted machinery, one-third is used for worsted yarns, and
goods; and as the portion suitable for combing purposes is
more valuable for this purpose than for cloths or flannels, the
grower aims at getting it as deep-stapled as possible; and this
has led to a great increase in the weight of the fleece, but at
the same time a deterioration in the quality. The Leicester,
vol. n.
353
Lincolnshire, half-bred, and Coteswold, as well as the Kents Livestock.
and Devons are entirely used for worsted yarns and goods ; and ^ r J
a very small portion of the wools imported come in competition
with them. The nearest approach is a little imported from
Holland and Denmark; but they partake more of your cross
from a blackfaced ewe by a Leicester ram. The Irish wools
are either the longwoolled sheep, similar to the Leicester, the
mountain sheep similar to your Cheviot, or the small Welsh
sheep. The Irish wools are generally open haired, and have
not the richness of the Leicester or our English ; and are not
so much esteemed or valuable as English wool of apparantly
the same quality by Jd. to Id. per lb. Richness of handle is
now very desirable, as there is a demand for what are called
glossy yams, which wools fed on pasture or good new seeds can
only produce, and cannot be obtained from the wools grown on
chalk or hard lands, such as our midland counties, viz., Oxford,
Bedford, and Northampton generally produce.
“ In every fleece of wool there are two or three qualities,
not more than two or three in the blackfaced, four to five in
the longwoolled sheep, five or six in the half-bred, and seven
or eight in a Down fleece, and I may say every fleece undergoes
this sorting or separation, before being put into any process of
manufacture. Of course the more there is of the best quality
in any fleece, the more desirable and valuable the fleece is; in
blackfaced, to be free from dead hair or kemps ; and we find
in all the other wools, that the closer the staple and purly the
wool, the more it yields of the finer qualities, whilst the open¬
haired makes more of the lower quality. The breeder should,
therefore, in selecting his tups with a view to good wool, choose
them with a close purly staple. A great deal of the excel¬
lence, however, of wool depends upon the nature of the soil on
which the sheep are fed. Upon the chalk and sandy hard lands,
we always find the worst qualities of wool of its kind, whilst
the best comes from the rich good lands, where there is plenty
of old grass or seeds. Thus the wools of Roxburghshire, as a
general rule, are better than Berwickshire or Lothian; Leices¬
ter, Lincolnshire, Nottingham and Warwickshire, superior to
Oxford, Cambridge, Bedford, or Northampton ; and, in Downs
Sussex and Surrey better than Essex and Norfolk, from their
downs being more grassy and the land better. The principal
quality required in wool is a rich soft handle, as such is al¬
ways found to improve in every process it is put through in
the various stages of its manufacture, whilst the wools grown
on chalk or hard lands, and which have a hard bristly handle,
get coarser as they progess in the manufacture.
“ With regard to the salves or baths used for destroying
vermin, we do not know what kinds are used in the different
localities, but of those used with you we dislike the spirit of
tar and tobacco. Wilson of Coldstream’s dip appears to an¬
swer, and one called Ballantyne’s used in Selkirkshire ; but in
all these a great deal depends upon their being properly at¬
tended to, and being put on at the proper season. If put on
in the autumn, we don’t perceive that they have been used,
and whenever we have to make a complaint on this head, we
find it arises from the baths having been used in spring.”
To the above interesting information we add the follow¬
ing items from Mr Southey’s valuable pamphlet:—
‘ ‘ The manufacture of wool, besides being our oldest branch
of in-door industry, may justly be considered as characteristic
of the British Isles, and it has now reached an amount, as well
as acquired a degree of importance, by no means duly appre¬
ciated. It is also more generally diffused throughout the
country, although it flourishes most in the West Riding of
Yorkshire ; but, at the same time, other English counties have
a proportionate share, and in Scotland it equally forms a pro¬
minent feature in the industrial enterprise of the inhabitants.
To meet the growing demand for a continuous supply, conse¬
quently requires a large, and indeed, as fashions go, a varied
producing power, and this fortunately we possess within our¬
selves, without being dependent, as in reality we are for cot¬
ton, upon foreign sources.
“ When the manufacture of woollens commenced among us,
the chief reliance of the undertakers was upon home produc¬
tion, but being once fairly started, this supply was found to be
beneath the actual requirements. Parties concerned were thus
2 Y
354
AGRICULTURE.
Live Stock, compelled to call in foreign aid, and among other expedients
v J resorted to, we became a kind of tributary to Spain, whence in
1815 we imported 6,927,934 lb. of wool, besides 3,137,438 from
Germany; but in 1849 our importations of the same article
from Spain dwindled down to 127,5591b., and in the interval
we ourselves became extensive exporters of certain qualities to
Germany; notwithstanding we thence still continue to receive
some supplies of the most marketable kind. To illustrate this
striking change in the sources of our external supply, I beg to
subjoin the following comparative statement of wools, imported
at a remote and recent period:—
1815. 1849.
lb. lb.
“ Spain  6,927,934 127,559
Germany  3,137,438 12,750,011
Other parts of Europe 3,416,132 11,432,354
South America  45,838 6,014,525
Cape of Good Hope... 23,363 5,377,495
British India  ... 4,182,853
Australian Colonies... 73,171 35,879,171
Other Parts  10,291 1,004,679
13,634,167 76,768,647
“ In 1699 it was computed that there were twelve millions of
sheep in England and Wales, valued besides the skin at 7s. 4d.
each, and the wool yearly shorn, worth, at 3s. 4d. per fleece,
L.2,000,000, at which amount our exportation of woollens was
then rated. This subject was afterwards much neglected, nor
had we any satisfactory elucidations upon it till Mr Luccock
published his Treatise on English Wools, drawn up with great
diligence and research, and at the time entitled to much respect,
but owing to the want of materials, evidently defective in many
of its parts.
“ Mr Luccock estimated that the total produce of our flocks
in 1800 was 384,000 packs of 240 lb. each, or 92,544,000 lb.;
and Mr James Hubbard, an experienced and extensive wool-
stapler of Leeds, when the subject was before the memorable
committee of the House of Lords, and a searching inquiry going
on, satisfactorily demonstrated, that supposing Mr Luccock’s
estimate to have been tolerably correct at the time it was made
in 1828, the period to which his own researches were imme¬
diately directed, our total production of wool could not be less
than 463,169 packs, being only an increase of 20 per cent, and
corresponding in the aggregate to 111,623,729 lb. Belying
upon these data, and taking into account the high price which
this commodity subsequently attained, as well as the greater
weight of both fleece and carcase, thus yielding to the farmer
more profit than at any former period, Mr M'Culloch, writing-
in 1846, came to the conclusion that the total production of wool,
in the British Isles, was then not less than 540,000 packs,
or 130,140,000 lb.
“ Considering that these data, however respectable, did not
afford any just conception, under our altered circumstances,
either of the increased number of sheep among us, or the ad¬
vantage gained through the additional weight of fleece, I ad¬
dressed letters of inquiry upon these two points to some of our
most eminent breeders in the kingdom, and at the same time
caused others to be forwarded, and to the same effect, to every
part of the country, by long-established staplers and practical
men, who readily volunteered to join me in so useful and reason¬
able a research.
“ From all the evidence before me, founded upon information
gathered from authentic sources, two important facts result,—
1st, That our flocks in England, Wales, and Scotland, have gra¬
dually increased within the last twenty years; and 2d, That
the fleece throughout is materially improved in weight.
“ As far as I can judge, we annually clip forty millions of
sheep, while the fleeces of fifteen millions more, slaughtered,
pass through the hands of fellmOngers to the consumer. Hence
it would follow that we have the yearly fleeces of fifty-five
millions of domestic sheep to work upon, averaging, it may
be safely admitted, 5 lb. each. The basis of our manufac¬
tures, as far as regards home-grown wool, would thus be about
275,000,000 lb., which little more than confirms my Bradford cor- Live Stock,
respondent’s estimate, and to these are to be added seventy-seven
millions of pounds more imported. From these two amounts
are to be deducted,—Is#, 4,000,000 lb. of British wool exported,
and 2d, 12,500,000 lb. of Colonial re-exported, thus leaving the
balance annually consumed in our looms and for domestic pur¬
poses at about 335,000,000 lb., or nearly one-half of the total
amount of the cotton which we import,”1
GOATS.
Goats never occupied an important place among the do¬
mesticated animals of the British Islands, and, with the ex¬
ception of Ireland, their numbers have been constantly di¬
minishing. By the statistical returns it appears that in 1849
there were 1,777,111 goats in Ireland, which in 1850 had
increased to 1,876,096. This increase is said to be “ entirely
owing to the impoverished state of the country, which has
obliged persons to sell their cows, and to replace them with
goats, on whose milk they subsist instead of that of cows.”
The value of goat’s milk, as a source of household economy,
is much greater than is usually supposed. This is so well
shown by Cuthbert W. Johnston, Esq., in the Farmer's Ma¬
gazine for April 1852, that we shall quote from his article :
“ The comfort derived by the inmates of a cottage from a
regular supply of new milk, need hardly be dwelt upon. Every
cottager’s wife, over her tea, every poor parent of a family of
children fed almost entirely on a vegetable diet, will agree with
me, that it is above all things desirable to be able to have new
milk as a variation to their daily food of bread and garden vege¬
tables. The inhabitant of towns and of suburban districts, we
all know, is at the mercy of the milk dealer; the milk he procures
is rarely of the best quality, and under the most favourable cir¬
cumstances he receives it with suspicion, and his family con¬
sume it with sundry misgivings as to its wholesomeness.
“ Having personally experienced these difficulties, and hav¬
ing about three years since commenced the attempt to supply
my family with goat’s milk, and as our experience is cheering,
I desire in this paper to advocate the claims of the milch goat
to the attention of the cottager, and the other dwellers in the
suburban and rural districts.
“ Few persons are perhaps aware of the gentleness and play¬
fulness of the female goat—how very cleanly are its habits,
how readily it accommodates itself to any situation in which it is
placed. Confined in an outhouse, turned on to a common or
into a yard, tethered on a grass plat, it seems equally content. I
have found it readily accommodate itself to the tethering system,
fastened by a leathern collar, rope, and iron swivel, secured by
a staple to a heavy log of wood. The log is the best (and this
with a smooth even surface at the bottom), because it can be
readily moved about from one part of the grass plat to another.
The goat too uses the log as a resting place in damp weather.
The goat should be furnished with a dry sleeping place, and
this, in case of its inhabiting open yards, can be readily fur¬
nished ; any thing that will serve for a dry dog-kennel will be
comfortable enough for a goat.
“The milk of the goat is only distinguishable from that of
the cow by its superior richness, approaching, in fact, the thin
cream of cow’s milk in quality. The cream of goat’s milk, it is
true, separates from the milk with great tardiness, and never
so completely as in the case of cow’s milk. This, however, is
of little consequence, since the superior richness of goat’s milk
renders the use of its cream almost needless. The comparative
analysis of the milk of the cow and goat will show my readers
how much richer the latter is than that of the former; 100 parts
of each, according to M. Begnault, gave on an average,—
Cow. Goat.
“ Water 84-7 82-6
Butter  4,0 4’5
Sugar of milk and soluable salts ... 5‘0 4-5
Caseine (cheese), albumen, and in¬
soluble salts   3'6 9-0
1 The Rise, Progress, and Present State of Colonial Sheep and Wools, by Thomas Southey. London, 1850.
AGKICULTURE.
355
Livestock. “ So that, while the milk of the cow yields 12-6 per cent, of
solid matters, that of the goat produces 17'10 per cent, goat’s
milk yielding rather more butter, rather less sugar of milk, but
considerably more caseine (cheese) than that of the cow.
“ It mustnot be supposed that the taste of the milk of the goat
differs in any degree from that of the cow ; it is, if anything,
sweeter, but it is quite devoid of any taste which might very rea¬
sonably be supposed to be derivable from the high-flavoured
shrubs and herbs upon which the animal delights to browse.
“ The amount of the milk yielded by the goat varies from two
quarts to one quart per day ; it is greatest soon after kidding
time, and this gradually decreases to about a pint per day,—a
quantity which will continue for twelve months. This is not a
large supply, it is true ; but still it is one which is available
for many very useful purposes; and, be it remembered, that
when mixed with more than its own bulk of lukewarm water,
it is then, in every respect superior to the milk supplied by the
London dairymen.
“ In regard to the best variety of goat to be kept, I would re¬
commend the smooth-haired kind, which are quite devoid of
beards or long hair. In this opinion I am confirmed by an ex¬
perienced correspondent, Mr W. H. Place of Hound House
near Guildford, who remarked, in a recent obliging communi¬
cation,—‘ I found that the short-haired goats with very little
beards were the best milkers ; but from these I seldom had
more than four pints a-day at the best (I should say three pints
were the average), and this quantity decreases as the time for
kidding approaches (the goat carries her young 21 to 22 weeks).
They should not be fed too well near the time of kidding, or
you will lose the kids. In winter I gave them hay, together
with mangel-wurzel, globe, and Swedish turnips, carrots, and
sometimes a few oats, and these kept up their milk as well as
anything, but of course it was most abundant when they could
get fresh grass. The milk I always found excellent, but I never
had a sufficient quantity to induce me to attempt making butter
except once, as an experiment: my cook then made a little,
which was easily donq in a little box-churn ; the butter, proved
very good. I found the flesh of the kids very tender and deli¬
cate.’
“ I can add little to Mr Place’s information as to their food ;
mine have generally fed out of the same rack as a Shetland
pony, with whom they are on excellent terms. The pony
throughout the summer is soiled with cut-grass, and I notice
that the goats pick out the sorrel, sow thistle, and all those
weeds which the pony rejects.
“ In the garden (if they are, by any chance, allowed to
browse), I notice that they select the rose-trees, common laurels,
arbutus, laurestinas, and the laburnum. Of culinary vegeta¬
bles they prefer cabbages and lettuces; they also bite pieces out
of the tubers of the potato. They carefully pick up the leaves,
whether green or autumnal, of timber trees ; of these they pre¬
fer those of the oak and elm, and delight in acorns and oak-
apples. We are accustomed to collect and store the acorns for
them against winter; spreading the acorns thinly on a dry floor,
to avoid the mouldiness which follows the sweating of acorns
laid in a heap. As I have before remarked, none of these as¬
tringent substances affect the taste of their milk; and I may
here observe, that with ordinary gentleness, there is no more
difficulty, if so much, in milking a goat than a cow.
“ The he-goat engenders at a year old. The she-goat can
produce when seven months old. She generally yeans two
kids. The manure of the goat is perhaps the most powerful
of all our domestic animals.
“ Such are the chief facts which I have deemed likely to be
useful in inducing the extended keeping of the milch-goat. It is
an animal that, I feel well assured, may be kept with equal ad¬
vantage by the cottager and the dwellers in larger houses. It
is useless to compare it with the cow, or to suppose that the
goat can supplant it in situations where the cow can be readily
kept; but in the absence of pastures, and in places where there
is too little food for cows, I feel well convinced that, with ordi¬
nary care and attention, and a moderate firmness in overcom¬
ing the prejudices of those unaccustomed to the goat (and with¬
out these are found in the owner, live stock never are profita¬
ble) , the value and the comfort of a milch-goat are much greater
than is commonly known.
“ The waste produce of a garden is exceedingly useful in the
keep of a goat. By them almost every refuse weed, all the Livestock,
cuttings and clearings which are wheeled into the rubbish yard, v , /
are carefully picked over and consumed. To them the trim- /
mings of laurels and other evergreens, pea-haulm, and cabbage
stalks, &c. are all grateful variations of their food. In winter
a little sainfoin, hay, or a few oats, keeps them in excellent
condition. In summer, the mowings of a small grass-plot,
watered with either common or sewage water, as described in
the following little account, will, with the aid of the refuse gar¬
den produce, keep a goat from the end of April until October.”
HOGS.
Although occupying a less prominent place in the estima¬
tion of the farmer than the ox and sheep, the hog is never¬
theless an animal of great value. He is easily reared, comes
rapidly to maturity, is not very nice as to food, consuming
offal of all kinds, and yields a larger amount of flesh in propor¬
tion to his live weight, and to the food which he has con¬
sumed than any other of our domesticated animals whose
flesh is used for food. To the peasantry he is invaluable,
enabling the labouring man to turn the scraps even from his
scanty kitchen, and from his garden or allotment to the best
account. On such fare, aided by a little barley or pollard,
he can fatten a good pig, and supply his family with whole¬
some animal food at the cheapest possible rate. The breeds
of swine in Great Britain are numerous, and so exceedingly
blended that it is often impossible to discriminate or classify
them properly. The original breeds of the country seem to
be two, viz. “ The old English hog,” tall, gaunt, very long
in the body, with pendant ears and a thick covering of bris¬
tles. The representatives of this old breed are found chiefly
in the western counties of England, especially in Lancashire,
Yorkshire, and Cheshire, where hogs of immense size are
still reared, but greatly improved as compared with their
ancestry. Their bones are smaller, their hair finer and
thinner set, their skin thinner and with a pink tint, the ears
still pendulous but much thinner, the carcase much thicker,
and their propensity to fatten greatly increased. This large
breed is exceedingly prolific, and the sows are excellent
nurses, it being quite common for them to farrow and rear
from 12 to 18 pigs at each litter. They are somewhat tardy
in arriving at maturity, and do not fatten readily until that
is the case. After sixteen months old, they, however, lay on
flesh very rapidly, grow to very great weights, and produce
hams of excellent quality, with a large proportion of lean flesh
in them. The Berkshire and Hampshire hogs seem origi¬
nally to have been from the same stock, but by some early
cross acquired the thicker carcase, prick-ears, shorter limbs,
and earlier maturity of growth, by which they are charac¬
terised. The other native breed is found in the Highlands
and Islands of Scotland. They are very small, of a dusky
brown colour, with coarse bristles along the spine, and prick-
ears. They are exceedingly hardy and subsist on the poorest
fare, being often left to range about without shelter, and sup¬
port themselves as they best can on the roots of plants, shell¬
fish, seaweed, and dead fish cast up by the tide.
The improved breeds now so abundant have been ob¬
tained by crossing these old races with foreign hogs, and
chiefly with the Chinese and Neapolitan. Our modern white
breeds, with prick-ears, short limbs, fine bone, delicate white
flesh, and remarkable propensity to fatten at an early age,
are indebted for these qualities to the Chinese stocks. The
improved black breeds, of which the Essex may be selected
as the type, and which possess the qualities just enumerated
in even a greater degree, are a cross from the Neapolitan.
They are characterised by their very small muzzle, fine bone,
black colour, and soft skin nearly destitute of hair. They
can be brought to profitable maturity at from eight to twelve
months old, the white breeds at from twelve to sixteen months.
Both kinds are peculiarly suitable for producing small pork
to be used fresh, or for pickling. The flesh of these smaller
356
AGRICULTURE.
Livestock, breeds produces, however, excellent bacon when used in that
manner, and at less cost than that of the larger breeds, for
this reason, that it is only from the flesh of a hog that has
reached maturity that bacon of the first quality can be pro¬
duced ; and as these have reached that point at an age when
the others are but ready for beginning the fattening process,
it follows that the carcase of the former, in a state fit for
curing, is produced at less cost than that of the latter. Sows
of the Neapolitan breed and its crosses are better mothers and
nurses than the Chinese. Both kinds require peculiar care,
to prevent the pregnant sow from becoming hurtfully fat.
Unless kept on poor and scanty fare they inevitably become
useless for the purpose of breeding. The Berkshire hog
combines the good qualities of the larger and smaller breeds
already referred to so happily, that he deservedly enjoys the
reputation of being as profitable a sort for the farmer as can
be found. With proper treatment he arrives at maturity
about sixteen months old, yields a good weight of carcase for
the food which he has consumed, and his flesh is well adapted
for being used either as fresh meat, pickled pork or bacon,
according to the age at which he is slaughtered. A very
profitable hog is also obtained by coupling sows of the larger
breeds with males of some of the smaller races.
It too frequently happens that less care is bestowed on the
breeding of pigs than of the other domesticated animals.
From the early age at which they begin to breed, there is
need for constant change of the male, to prevent the inter¬
mingling of blood too near akin. These animals, too, are
exceedingly sensitive to cold, and often suffer much from
the want of comfortable quarters. Whether for fattening
hogs, or sows with young pigs, there is no better plan than
to lodge them in a roomy house with a somewhat lofty
thatched roof, the floor being carefully paved with stone or
brick, and the area partitioned off into separate pens, each
furnished with a cast-iron feeding-trough at the side next
the dividing alley, and with adequate drainage, so that the
litter in them may be always dry. The period of gestation
with the sow is sixteen weeks, and as her pigs may be wean¬
ed with safety at six weeks old, she usually farrows twice in
the year. In this climate it is desirable that her accouche¬
ment should never occur in the winter months. It is a com¬
mon arrangement to have a pig-shed so placed that the store
pigs lodged in it can have access to the cattle-courts, where
they grub amongst the litter, and pick up scattered grains
that have escaped the thrashing-mill, and fragments of
turnips and other food dropped by the cattle. On such
pickings, and the wash and offal from the farm kitchen, aided
by a few raw potatoes, Swedes, or mangel, and in summer
by green vetches, a moderate number of store pigs can be
got into forward condition, and afterwards fattened very
quickly, by putting them into pens and improving their fare.
There is no cheaper way of fattening hogs than by feeding
them on boiled or steamed potatoes, mashed and mixed with
a portion of barley or pease meal. When barley-meal alone
is used, it should be mixed with cold water, and allowed to
soak for twelve hours before being given to the hogs. A
few morsels of coal should be frequently thrown into their
troughs. These are eaten with evident relish, and conduce
to the health of the animals.
An interesting account of the most approved methods of
cutting up, curing, and disposing of carcases of pork, is given
in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, vol. xi.
p. 585.
RABBITS.
It has been usual, in agricultural works, to take some no¬
tice of rabbits. We have so often witnessed the destruc¬
tion of crops, and consequent vexation and quarrels caused
by these creatures, that we regard them only as noxious ver¬
min. It may be true that there are, in various parts of the
country, tracts of sand so barren that it is more profitable Live Stock,
to stock them with rabbits than anything else. Those who ^
choose, whether for pleasure or profit, to keep such stock,
ought, however, to be compelled to restrain them within
the hutch or warren; for certainly they are intolerable any¬
where else. A more useful and manageable class of live-
stork claims our attention, viz.
POULTRY,
which we consider worthy of more attention than farmers
generally bestow upon it. There are, indeed, few farm-yards
untenanted by fowls of some sort, and few homesteads
without a place called a poultry-house. It is rare, however,
to meet with an instance where the breeding and manage¬
ment of poultry is conducted with the care and intelligence
so frequently bestowed on other kinds of live stock. Now, if
poultry is kept at all, whether for pleasure or profit, it is surely
worth while to use rational means for securing the object in
view. To have good fowls, it is necessary to provide a dry,
warm, well-ventilated house, in which they may roost and
deposit their eggs. This house must be kept clean, and its
tenants regularly supplied with abundance of suitable food.
Constant and careful attention is also absolutely indispen¬
sable. On farms of the lesser sort, this duty is usually under¬
taken by the farmer’s wife or daughters. It will, however,
in most cases, be better to entrust the entire charge of the
poultry to some elderly female-servant, who shall give her
undivided attention to it. As unremitting attention and
trustworthiness are the qualities chiefly required in a hen-
wife, and the actual work connected with the office is not
very heavy, it affords a fitting opportunity for pensioning a
faithful domestic, or the widow of some esteemed farm-la¬
bourer, who is getting too old for heavier labour.
The kinds of poultry most suitable for a farm-yard are
the common fowl, geese, and ducks. Turkeys and guinea-
fowl are difficult to rear, troublesome to manage, and less
profitable than the other sorts. Of the common fowl there
are now many excellent and distinct breeds. The Cochin-
China or Shanghae is the largest breed we have. They
are hardy and very docile ; their flesh is of good quality;
their eggs, of a buff colour, are comparatively small, but ex¬
cellent in flavour, and are produced in great abundance.
The hens resume laying very soon after hatching a brood;
sometimes so soon as three weeks. They are the more va¬
luable from the circumstance that their principal laying sea¬
son is from October to March, when other fowls are usually
unproductive. The Dorkings, of which there are several
varieties, as the speckled, the silver, and the white, are not
excelled by any breed for general usefulness. The hens
are peculiarly noted for their fidelity in brooding, and their
care of their young. The Spanishfowls are very handsome
in their plumage and form, have very white and excellent
flesh, and lay larger eggs than any other breed. The Pol¬
ish and Dutch every-day layers, are peculiarly suitable where
eggs rather than chickens are desired; as the hens of both
these breeds continue to lay for a long time before showing
any desire to brood.
A competent authority recommends that, except in situa¬
tions where 2s. can be got for a good chicken, the return
should be sought for chiefly in eggs. He gives the follow¬
ing statement of the cost and produce of a given number of
fowls:—
“ The following is the weekly consumption of food, and the
average produce of eggs of four hens of the Dutch every-day
laying variety:—
s. d.
IT gallons of barley, at 20s. per quarter 0 6
26 eggs, at Is. per score 1
Profit 0
AGRICULTURE. 357
Live Stock, being upwards of 150 per cent. The consumption of food in
^ j-m ■> this case is very great, being upwards of l|d. each per week.
We are at present trying experiments with the Spanish breed.
We find that three hens and a cock consume in a week—
^ gallon of oats, at 14s. per quarter 1-3125
£ stone of barley-meal, at 8d. per stone 4-
5-3125
or rather more than l|d. each per week. If the fowls had a
free range, we would calculate on keeping them on one-fourth
of this amount.”1
A suitable stock of fowls being selected, pains must be
taken to preserve their health and other good qualities by
breeding only from the best of both sexes, and these not
too near akin. A very simple plan for securing this is to
select a cock, and not more than six or eight hens, of the
best that can be got, to entrust these to the care of some
neighbouring cottager, whose dwelling is sufficiently apart to
prevent intercourse with other fowls, and then to use only
the eggs from these selected fowls for the general hatching.
There are many advantages in such a course. The whole
stock of fowls can thus be had of uniform character, and
superior quality. If it suit the fancy or object of the owner,
his fowls may be of several distinct breeds without any risk
of their intermingling; the select breeding stocks can be
kept up by merely changing the cock every second year,
and not more than one cock to thirty hens need be kept for
the general stock, as it is of no consequence whether their
eggs are impregnated or no. Besides having the run of the
barn-door, cattle courts, and stack-yard, fowls are greatly
benefited by having free access to a pasture or roomy grass-
plot. If the latter is interspersed with evergreen shrubs, so
much the better, as fowls delight to bask under the sunny
side of a bush, besides seeking shelter under it from sudden
rain. Their court should also be at all times provided with
clean water, and a heap of dry sand or coal-ashes, in which
they wallow, and free themselves from vermin. To keep
them in profitable condition, they require, besides scraps
from the kitchen, and refuse of garden stuffs, &c., a daily
feed of barley or oats at the rate of a fistful to every three
or four fowls. In cold weather, they are the better of hav¬
ing some warm boiled potatoes thrown down to them, as
also chopped liver or scraps of animal food of any kind.
There is an advantage in having the poultry-house adjoin¬
ing to that in which cattle-food is cooked in winter, as, by
carrying the flue of the furnace up the partition-wall, the
fowls get the benefit of the warmth thus imparted to their
roosting-place. Saw-dust, dried peat, or burnt clay, are suit¬
able materials for littering poultry-houses, and are prefer¬
able to straw. By strewing the floor with such substances
two or three times a week, each time carefully removing
the previous application, and storing it with the mingled
droppings of the fowls under cover, a manure little inferior
to the best guano can be secured. When 100 common
fowls, a score of geese, and a dozen or two of ducks, are kept,
the quantity and value of the manure produced by them, if
kept by itself and secured from the weather, will surprise
those who have not made trial of such a plan.
Within the past two or three years, the breeding of poul¬
try has in various parts of the kingdom become quite a pas¬
sion. Not only have many separate treatises been published
entirely devoted to this subject, but every agricultural peri¬
odical now bears evidence to the popularity of this pursuit.
Our national agricultural societies, and many of the provin¬
cial ones, now offer numerous and liberal prizes to poultry.
It is in connection -with these shows that the public have
been made aware of the extraordinary enthusiasm with which
a numerous portion of the community have engaged in Live Stock,
poultry-breeding. At the Birmingham show, held in De- ^
cember 1852, no less than 1200 pens of poultry were ex¬
hibited. A pen of Spanish fowls, consisting of a cock and
four hens, was claimed by a purchaser, although the reserve
price put upon it by the owner was fifty guineas. For a
single Cochin China cock L.25 was refused. But the im¬
portance of the show is best shown by the receipts in money,
which were—
For admission of visitors L.1842 19 0
Sale of catalogues  279 4 0
Do. of poultry  1636 15 6
L.3758 18 6
Similar results occurred in connection with the more re¬
cent metropolitan show, when 695 pens of poultry were
brought forward. On the first day of exhibition, each visi¬
tor was charged 5s., and yet, at this rate, several hundreds
sought admission. Next day, at Is. each, there were up¬
wards of 5000 visitors, a greater number the following day;
and on the fourth and last day of the show, they reached
nearly to 12,000. The prize Cochin China cock and hen
were sold for forty-seven guineas; a hen and pullet of the
same breed brought eighteen guineas each; another pair
twenty-five guineas ; a pen of Poland fowls twelve guineas;
and several pens of Aylesbury ducks from L.10 to L.14.
The whole sales on this occasion realised upwards of L.1000.
It is known that even these extraordinary prices have since
been exceeded ; a prize Cochin China cock having actually
been sold for L.100. Not a few farmers who were fortunate
in early securing good specimens of the popular breeds of
poultry, have found the breeding of them more remunerative
than that of bullocks. This will, of course, last only until
the present poultry-mania abates; but, in the mean time,
greatly improved breeds of this interesting and useful kind
of live stock have been diffused over the country; more
judicious modes of treating them than were formerly prac¬
tised have been made known, and our markets will hence¬
forward be more fully supplied with eggs and fowls of supe¬
rior quality.
Treatment of LiveStock under Disease.—Time was when
every such treatise as the present was expected to contain
a description of the diseases to which the domesticated ani¬
mals are most subject, and instructions for their treatment
under them. But now that farriery is discarded, and ve¬
terinary medicine is taught in colleges, the handling of such
a subject is obviously beyond the province of a practical
farmer. A few general observations is all therefore that we
offer regarding it. The province of the stock-master ob¬
viously is to study how to prevent disease, rather than how
to cure it. For this end let him exercise the utmost care,
first, in selecting sound and vigorous animals of their respec¬
tive kinds, and then in avoiding those errors in feeding and
general treatment, which are the most frequent causes of
disease. When cases of serious disease occur, let the best
professional aid that is available be instantly resorted to; but
in all those cases which farmers usually consider themselves
competent to treat, we advise that they should trust rather
to good nursing, and to the healing power of nature, than
to that indiscriminate bleeding and purging which is so com¬
monly resorted to, and which, in the majority of cases, does
harm instead of good. Those farmers who have the most
implicit faith in their phlemes and physic balls, must admit
that their treatment often fails, and that even when their
patients do recover, they appear to have suffered more from
the depletion than from the disease. We have proved this
system fully, and know but too well its pernicious effects.
1 Essay on the Rearing and Management of Poultry, by William Trotter; in Royal Agricultural Society's Journal, vol. xii. p. 198.
358
AGRICULTURE.
Waste We are glad, therefore, to be able to direct the attention of
Lands, owners oflive stock to a safer and better one. Five years
ago, at the urgent recommendation of a friend, we obtained
a copy of Gunther’s Manual of Homoeopathic Veterinary
Medicine, and a supply of the medicines there prescribed.
Ever since doing so, we have relied upon this system alone,
in treating such cases of disease as have occurred amongst
our live stock. These have been both numerous and varied,
including not a few of pleuro-pneumonia in cattle ; and the
success has exceeded our most sanguine expectations. We
shall not attempt to discuss the merits of a system of medi¬
cine, which is at present so keenly controverted by members
of the medical profession. We have simply to state, that
we have had ample proof in our personal experience of the
power of minute (but appreciable) doses of a variety of me¬
dicines, when administered on the principle, that “ like cures
like,” to arrest and cure disease in the lower animals ; and we
earnestly recommend to veterinary surgeons, and to the own¬
ers of live stock, to give this system a full and impartial trial.
CHAPTER XIII.
WASTE LANDS.
Notwithstanding the great progress which agriculture has
made, and the immense amount of capital, energy, and skill,
which for generations have been brought to bear upon the
improvement of our soil, there are still large portions of the
surface of our country lying in their natural state, and
usually classed under the head of Waste lands, in contra¬
distinction to those which are under tillage, or have at some
time been subjected to the plough. Of this (so called)
waste land, but a limited portion is absolutely unproductive.
Much of it is capable of being converted into arable land,
and doubtless wall in course of time be so dealt with, but,
in the mean time, this class of waste lands, and very much
more that will never be tilled, is of great and steadily in¬
creasing value as sheep walks. Even for this purpose most
of it is susceptible of great improvement, and would well
repay for it. These lands are comprised under the follow¬
ing descriptions ; \st, Those hilly and mountainous parts of
Great Britain which, from their steep and rugged surface
and ungenial climate, are unfit for tillage ; 2d, Those which
lie uncultivated owing to natural poverty of soil, its wetness,
or the degree to which it is encumbered with stones ; 3d,
Bogs and mosses; Ath, Lands so near the sea-level as to be
more or less liable to be submerged; and 5th, Blowing sands.
High lying The lands referred to under the first of these heads are
sheep pas- of very great extent, embracing the whole of the mountain-
tin es. ous parts of Scotland and Wales, and much of the high
grounds in the north of England and south of Scotland.
These high grounds afford pasturage for innumerable flocks
of sheep of our valuable mountain breeds. The business of
sheep-farming has received a great stimulus of late years
from the ever-growing demand for sheep to consume the
green crops of arable districts. These upland sheep-walks
are accordingly rising in value, and their improvement is
becoming every day of increasing importance. The im¬
provement of these hill grazings embraces these leading
Drainage, features, viz. drainage, shelter, and enclosure. Until of
late years our hill flocks were peculiarly liable to rot and
other diseases arising from the presence of stagnant and
flood water upon their pastures. Many grazings that had
at one time an evil reputation on this account now yield
sound and healthy sheep, solely from the care with which
they have been drained. To guard against the perni¬
cious effects of flooding, the courses of brooks and run¬
nels which in heavy rains overflow their grassy margins,
are straightened, deepened, and widened, to such an extent
as is required to carry off all flood water without allow- Waste
ing it to overflow. Some grounds are naturally so dry, Lands,
that this is all that is required to render them safe. But,
in general, the slopes and hollows of hilly grounds
abound with springs, and deposits of peat, and with flats
on which water stagnates after rain. On well-managed
grounds such places are covered with a network of open
drains or shallow ditches, about 30 inches wide at top, and
half as many deep, by which superfluous w'ater is rapidly
carried off. The cutting of these drains cost from 6s. to 8s.
per 100 roods (of six yards each). In pastoral districts there
are labourers who are skilled in this kind of work, and to whom
the laying out of the lines is frequently entrusted, as well as
the execution of the work. Where the ground slopes con¬
siderably, they are careful to avoid a run directly down the
declivity, as a strong current of water in such circumstances
gutters the bottom of the drain, and chokes those below
with the debris thus produced. In cutting these drains,
two men work together. After ripping the turf on either
side at the proper width, one man, by means of a large trian¬
gular spade, nearly of the same width and depth as the drain,
and having a cross handle to the shaft, which he grasps
with both hands, cuts out, sod after sod, by first striking it
down to the full depth, and then using it as a lever, while
his assistant pulls out the pieces by striking a dung-drag
into them, and deposits them in a regular row, green side
uppermost, along one side of the drain. The bottom is
afterwards cut even and shovelled out. When such drains
have been properly made, it is necessary to have them
statedly overhauled and kept in good order.
Next in importance to drainage is good and sufficient Shelter,
shelter. This, in the absence of natural coppices of birch
or hazel, is provided by means of clumps and belts of fir
plantation. These should always be of such extent that the
trees may shelter each other as well as the sheep. Trees
planted in a mass always shoot up faster than in narrow
strips, and restrain the snow-drift which passes through the
latter. A shepherd who knows the ground well should
always be consulted about the sites of such plantations. The
conditions requisite are, that the soil be such as trees will
grow in ; that it be so far removed from any brook, ravine,
or bog, as to be accessible to the flock from all sides ; that
there be rough herbage, such as heather, gorse, or rushes
near at hand, which the sheep may be able to get at in deep
snow; that it be contiguous to the sheep-walk; and placed
so as to afford defence against the most prevalent winds. A
less costly shelter is formed by building what are called stells,
which consist of a simple dry-stone wall, enclosing a circular
space, twenty yards or so in diameter, with an opening on
one side ; or forming a cross, in one angle of which the sheep
find shelter from whatever point the .wind blows. A hay¬
stack is a necessary adjunct to such defences.
It is a further point of importance to have such grazings Enclosure
surrounded with a ring fence, consisting either of dry-stone march
walls, turf walls with wire a-top, or a simple wire fence. fences‘
This prevents trespass; and the sheep having freedom to
range, without watching, up to the boundary, more of them
can be kept on the ground than when they are ever and
anon turned back by the shepherd. These needful and in¬
expensive improvements are now generally attended to over
the wide pastoral districts of the Scottish border counties.
In the remote Highlands they are still much neglected.
There are few agricultural improvements which yield so
quick and certain a return as these.
The improvement of the second class of these unre-Eedaim-
claimed lands is now much facilitated by the readiness with go.j
which portable manures can be obtained for them. Drain- muiry 801 •
ing and enclosing here necessarily demand the first atten¬
tion. In some cases the land is so encumbered with stones,
AGRICULTURE.
Waste that careful trenching of the whole surface is the only way
Lands. 0f getting rid of them. In Aberdeenshire, many thousands
of acres, formerly useless, have been converted into valuable
arable land by this means.
In nearly all parts of the country, there are extensive
tracts of this muiry soil producing only a scanty and coarse
herbage, which are susceptible of remunerative improve¬
ment. We are happy at being able to submit to the reader
the following detailed account of a recent and successful
instance of this, which has been kindly furnished to us by
George A. Grey, Esq. of Millfield Hill, Northumberland.
THE RESULT OP PARING AND BURNING MOORLANDS.
Paring and “ It is said that ‘ necessity is the mother of invention.’ I
burning, was told by some of my friends that I had given too high a
price for this estate, and that it would be a dearer farm to
me now than when I rented it from Lord Grey. To over¬
come this opinion or fact, I thought of several plans of
making it more remunerative, and decided on that which I
am now about to describe,—
“ On the high part of the farm, at an elevation of from
400 to 500 feet above the sea, I had upwards of 100 acres
of moorland of a poor description, which had never been
under plough. This consisted of short heath, bilberry
bushes, and dry white bent grass, and a soft dry deep moss,
delightful as a Turkey carpet under foot, and excellent ex¬
cursive ground for old hunters, with a small portion of spratty
grass and rushes in the damp hollows. The soil is of a free
turnip and barley loam on the rotten whinstone. By plant¬
ing on the west side, and in some places suitable for shelter,
I reduced the quantity to about 100 acres. This I divided
into three fields of about 33 acres each.
“ My great dread was the length of time which such a
rough dry surface would require to decompose sufficiently to
allow of cultivation, having seen heathery moors in many
parts of Scotland lying for two, three, and four years before
crops could be obtained, owing to the great cover of coarse
vegetation preventing the furrow from lying over, and keep¬
ing the land so open and dry through summer that if a
braird of corn or green crop was obtained, it would wither
away in dry weather.
“ I had heard of paring and burning, but knew nothing of
the process. I, however, obtained the necessary information
very much from Mr Langlands of Bewick, who had prac¬
tised it to a considerable extent. With what I saw there
I was so much pleased, that I determined to proceed at once.
“ I also saw Mr Langlands’ work done by a paring-plough,
such as is used in the south of England, with a wide plate
to cut a furrow of 10 or 12 inches in width. On the point
of this is an upright piece of steel which cuts and divides
the heath,—the mould-board turns the furrow over flat on
its back, and from end to end of the landing the furrows lay
side by side like planks from a saw-mill, and were about
half an inch in thickness.
“ I must, however, remark, as a caution to others against
falling into the same error as I did, that this land had been
in tillage at some former time, and was in ridges with a re¬
gular surface, so that when the plough was set, it cut the
whole furrow at a uniform depth, and was drawn by two
horses with ease, and at an expense of about eight shillings
per acre.
“ I got this plough and gave it a fair trial, but from my land
never having been laid smooth, it cut one part as thin as
was wished, and the next yard, perhaps, six or twelve inches
thick, which caused a great extra expense in drying, lifting,
and burning, and wasted more soil than was necessary or
desirable. Also my land having a great deal of small whin-
stone below the turf, the steel plate frequently got injured
and broken. It was therefore with great reluctance laid
359
aside, and the ordinary method of paring by hand adopted, Waste
which is slower and much more expensive, but very perfect. Lands.
It saves soil, and cheapens the burning operation, the paring
being so thin when the heath, &c. was divided, that light
could be seen through the sod, which was only held to¬
gether by the roots and fibres.
“I began to No. 1 field in July 1849. I let the paring
and burning to a company at 25s. per acre, but they made
low wages, and after getting more than their work came
to, gave up the job. I then got some experienced hands to
pare, and paid them the usual wages at that time, 9s. per
week, and gave them their food, say 13s. per week, the
work being very hard. The total cost of this averaged me
24s. 9d. per acre. A portion of the top part of No. 1 was
left undone owing to the lateness of the season. This was
dry benty turf. It was ploughed in the common way and
grew no oats in 1850. It was again ploughed and much
harrowed and rolled, and sown with the remainder of the
field in 1851 with rape, and has grown only a few plants at
wide distances. It is still in such a dry undecomposed state,
that although it is on the high part of the field where sheep
draw to lie, I do not expect that it will grow a crop of
corn next year ; while a portion which was pared down the
middle of it grew good corn and rape.
“A portion of No. 2 field was also ploughed in the ordinary
way. This was moist land, growing shorter and sweeter
grass than any other. It grew a very thin irregular crop of
oats in 1850, not within four bolls per acre of the pared land,
but is now (1851) bearing a good crop of oats, that field
being a second time in oat crop. To return:
“I had a fair crop of rape in the autumn of 1849 on a con¬
siderable portion of No. 1, where it was sown in tolerable
season during all August, after that it appeared to be too late.
All was, however, ploughed up at once to secure the ashes,
and was well harrowed and sown with oats in the spring of
1850. The pared land turned out to be much too thickly sown
at four bushels per acre. Corn tillers so much on such land,
that in some parts it prevented it from coming to maturity.
I have since sown much thinner, say three bushels per acre,
and even in some degree I find the same fault, there being
from five to eight stems from one root. My crop of 1850
turned out to be 30 bushels per acre, but it was on the point
of being cut when the high wind in August devastated this
district, and that lying high and fully exposed to the wind,
suffered most severely. I should say it was not below si&
quarters per acre, and the quality of the grain good.
“ In June and July 1850,1 pared No. 3 by the same hands
who finished my work the previous year. I let the burning
of it to an Irishman at 2s. 6d. per acre, binding him to burn
it closely piled up in good-sized heaps like hay-cocks to pre¬
vent the escape of the ashes in the shape of smoke into the
atmosphere.
“ This, with the paring, cost me on 36 acres 19s. 6d. per
acre. I got 20 acres of it ploughed and sown with white
turnips, broadcast in July and August. I had a close nice
crop, though the roots were small, which kept a large flock
of sheep for several weeks. This had the good effect of
treading down the land and making it plough up better for
oats.
“ Nos. 1 and 2 were limed at the rate of 7 loads per acre.
In June 1851, No. 1 was sown broadcast with rape, by
mixing 4 lb. of rape-seed with one bushel of oat shellings for
an acre, and sowing them out of a grass-seed machine. The
crop is very close and fine, and has kept twenty scores of
sheep from an early day in August to this date (September
27th).
“ No. 2 in 1851 was again sown with oats, which are a very
fine crop, as is also No. 3. My men think them nine quarters
per acre. They are very thick and tall, and have very long
360
AGRICULTURE.
Waste large heads; and the grain is plump and good, the stalks
Lands. i)eing strong, the crop is not lodged so as to injure the
yield. I estimate it at certainly quarters per acre, but
shall calculate it at 6 quarters.
“ I sow on that land the sandy oat, being early, not liable
to lodge nor to shake in moderately high winds, although it
was not proof against that of 1850.
“ Previously to breaking up, I drained with pipes all the
land which required drying, of which I shall give a state'
ment, along with the expenses and profits of the whole.
“ The result shows, that if I had some years ago, when
prices of grain were good, done as a, tenant what I have
done now, I should have been amply repaid by the first or
second crops, and have had my farm for the remainder of
a twenty-one years’ lease worth fully L.100 a-year more
than when I began.
“ The result of my experience is, that I neither agree with
the generality of Scotchmen nor with many Southerns ; the
former of whom are of opinion that burning wastes the vege¬
table matter, which should be kept to decompose and enrich
the soil, not considering that at once the land receives a
rich dressing of ashes quite equal to two quarters of bones,
or 4 or 5 cwt. of the best guano ; and that, during the seve¬
ral years which such a slow process would require to take
place, the land might be much more enriched by growing,
and having eaten upon it fine crops of rape and turnip, and
by producing heavy corn crops which would in a much
shorter space be returned to it in the shape of manure, and
also that, by the process of burning, the land is freed from
the larvae of insects, such as grubs, slugs, wireworms, &c.
&c., which are engendered among the rough grass, and fos¬
tered for a length of time under the rough, dry, undecom¬
posed turf. To say nothing of the length of time which the
speculator is kept out of a large amount of capital and inte¬
rest, instead of having the former returned with the latter
after the first or at most the second year.
“ And the latter of whom (the Englishmen) are too much
in the habit of repeating the operation of burning, even
after the land has lain in grass only for a few years, when it
might as well be ploughed and cultivated without such ex¬
pense, thereby unnecessarily reducing the soil, there not
being the same difficulties to be overcome, nor the same
advantage to be gained from it.
“ I should certainly burn all land with a rough harsh sur¬
face, and should as certainly plough and sow all land with
a sweet grassy face upon it.
“ In my opinion there are few farms in this country which
do not contain certain portions of land capable of remune¬
rative improvement, and I have shown that such improve¬
ment is quite within the scope of a tenant with a lease,
without which no man can farm well, at least in the North¬
umbrian system. Would it not be better, then, for land¬
lords, tenants, and the country generally, were tenants to
employ labourers on works so speedily remunerative to
themselves, rather than run to their landlord whenever they
feel the screw, and ask for abatement of rent, or to be
allowed to plough out some piece of valuable old grass, or
otherwise cross crop their land with a view of obtaining
some temporary advantage, but in the end to the inevitable
injury of all concerned ?
Brought forward,
Draining, where required, 3
feet deep, 27 feet apart,
with two-inch pipes, &c.
cost about L.3,10s. per acre
2J years’ rent lost, at 5s. per
acre per annum  
Seed oats (1850), 33 acres, with
4 bush, per acre, at 13s. per
boll  
Harvesting (1850)—67 acres
cut by two Irishmen, per
acre averaging Is. 6d. per
day, and food, say 2s. 3d.
per day  L.O
^ binder, 3s  0
L.14 8 0
Waste
Lands.
27 1 0
20 12 6
14 6 0
4 6
1 6
L.O 6 0
No. 1. Proportion of 67 acres cutting,
at 6s. per acre  9 18 0
Carting, six carts per set,
three days, at 8s. per day
each     L.7 4 0
Porker 3s., stacker 3s., boy
Is  110
No. 1. Proportion of total carting... L.8 5 0 4 1 4
Thrashing nine stacks—
9 bolls coals—say  L.O 4 0
Carting of do  0 2 0
2 men at Is. 6d. per day  0 3 0
Women—
high barn 2
low do 1
straw do 3
at stack  1
chaff-house ... 1
—8, at 8d. 0 5 4
2 boys and horses at stack,
at 3s. 6d  0 7 0
Cost of thrashing per day ... L.l 1 4
No. 1. Proportion of 3 days’ thrash¬
ing, at L.l, Is. 4d. per
day, L.3, 4s  L.l 11 6
Rape seed (1851)   1 4 0
 2 15 6
Total Expenses, L.193 2 4
Returns:—
No. 1. (1850) 33 acres, at 5 bolls per
acre, or 165 bolls, at 13s.
per boll L.107 5 0
No. 1. Proportion of straw to infield
lands not to return to new
lands, 67 acres, at 15s. .., 25 9 9
8 sc. ewes 7 weeks on rape, at
6d. per week  28 0 0
12 sc. dinmonts and gimmers
7 weeks, at 5d. per week 35 0 0
12 sc. ewes (put to turnips) 8
weeks, at 6d. per week ... 48 0 0
A quantity of meat left and
spring eatage not counted 0 0 0
Total returns,  
243 14 9
EXPENSES OF FAKING, BURNING, &C.
No. 1. 33 acres pared and burned, at
25s. per acre  L.41 5 0
33 acres limed, 7 loads per
acre, at 3s. 4d. per load... 38 10 0
Cartage of ditto, at 3s  34 13 0
Carry forward, L.114 8 0
L.50 12 5
No. 2. 34 acres paring and burning,
at 25s.    L.42 10 0
34 acres limed, 7 loads per
acre, at 3s. 4d. per load ... 39 13 4
Cartage of do  35 14 0
Draining as in No. 1  104 9 1
Carry forward,  L.222 6 5
AGRICULTURE.
361
Brought forward, L.222
2 years’ rent lost, at 5s. per
acre per annum   L.17 0 0
(1850) Proportion of harvest¬
ing as in No. 1  10 4 0
Carting proportion as in No. 1 4 3 8
Thrashing proportion as in
No. 1   1 12 6
(1851) 70 acres cut
by three Irishmen
per acre averaging
ls.6d.per day, and
food, say 2s. 3d L.O 6 9
binding  0 16
6
5
“ P.S.—I have not charged for spreading the lime, but Waste
charged all the carting as if it had been hired, whereas most Lands-
of it was carted by my own carts, which carry much larger
loads than hired carts, and the difference will more than
outbalance the cost of laying on.
“ I credit the land with the straw, as the dung will not
be returned to that land, it being sufficiently rich with the
ashes and lime, &c., to grow turnips and rape crops without
manure, and those being eaten on, will make it almost too
rich for corn crops.
“ Any further information I shall be glad to give to the
best of my power. (Signed) “ G. A. Grey.
“ Milljield Hill, Dec. 1. 1851.”
No. 2. Proportion of cutting
70 acres, at L.O 8 3 14 0 6
 L.47 0
Seed oats, 34bolls (for 2 years),
at 13s. per boll  L.22 2 0
No. 2. Proportion of (1851) carting,
6 carts per set, 8 days at
8s. each, forker 3s., stacker
3s., boy Is  10 13 8
No. 2. Proportion of thrashing (1851) 4 13 3
•  73 8
Total outlay, L.306 16
Return :—
(1850) 34 acres, 5 bolls per
acre, at 13s L.110 10 0
(1850) Proportion of straw as
in No. 1   26 5 3
(1851) 34 acres, 8 bolls per
acre, at 15s. per boll   204 0 0
No. 2. Proportion of (1851) 70 acres
straw, at 30s. per acre  51 0 0
 L.391 15
L.84 19
8
11
~0
3
3
No. 3. 36 acres pared and burned, at
19s. 6d. per acre  L.35 2
36 acres limed, 7 loads per
acre, at 3s. 4d. per load ... 42 0
Cartage of do. at 2s. 6d, per
load   31 10
Draining as above   93 19
Seed oats, 3 bush, per acre,
at 13s. per boll  H 14
11 year’s rent lost, at 5s. per
acre per annum   13 10
Harvesting proportion as in
No. 2     14 17
Cartage proportion as in
No. 2   v. 11 6
Thrashing proportion as in
No. 2  4 18
Outlay,
Return :—
3. (1850) 8 scores gimmers on
turnips 6 weeks, at 4d. per
week  L.16 0
12 scores ewes 3 weeks, at 4d. 12 0
36 acres oats, 8 bolls per acre,
at 15s  216 0
Straw proportion as in No. 2 54 0
Return,   
Return of No. 1
Return of No. 2,
Return of No. 3.
Fencing  
Total return,
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
4
9
-L.258 17 3
0
0
0
0
- 298 0 0
L.39 2 9
L.50 12 5
84 19 3
39 2 9
L.174 14 5
. 35 0 0
L.139 14 5
The reclamation of extensive bogs, or deposits of peat, is Bogs,
a more arduous undertaking, requiring a considerable expen¬
diture of capital and longer time before a return is obtained
from it. The extent of land of this description in Great
Britain and Ireland is very great. Very exaggerated state¬
ments of the profits to be derived from its improvement have
often been published, and not a few persons have incurred
serious loss by rashly undertaking this kind of work. On
the other hand, when bogs are favourably situated with re¬
ference to a command of marl or other calcareous matter to
assist in their decomposition and consolidation, and of manure
to enrich them, their reclamation has proved a very profit¬
able speculation. The well-known instance of Chat Moss Chat Moss,
in Lancashire affords so interesting an example of this that
we shall here quote from a recent description of it.
“ Chat Moss, well known as that black barren swamp between
Liverpool and Manchester, contains 6000 acres, one-half of
which is in the township of Barton, and the remainder in the
townships of Bedford, Astley, and Worsley.
“ The principal part of this moss which lies in Barton town¬
ship, belongs to the Trafford family, and is entailed, but the
ancestor of the present Sir Thomas de Trafford, appears to have
obtained, at the latter end of the last century, an Act of Parlia¬
ment to grant a ninety-nine years’ lease of 2500 acres to a Mr
Wakefield, who about the year 1805 disposed of his interest in
it to the late William Roscoe of literary celebrity, who spent
a large sum in a fruitless endeavour to improve it, failing in
which, the lease was sold in 1821 to other parties. J. A. Brown,
Esq. of Woolden Hall, brought 1300 acres ; the late Edward
Baines, M.P. for Leeds, purchased the remaining 1200 acres.
The most extensive and successful efforts at improving this
moss, have been made on a part of the 1200 acres bought by
Mr Baines, who, besides occupying the part operated upon by
Mr Roscoe, improved a considerable breadth himself, and let
several portions to other parties, who have made considerable
progress in improving small portions. The most extensive
operations, however, upon the whole, have been carried out by
a company to whom Mr Baines, in 1828, granted a lease of
550 acres for 68 years, the remainder of the original term, at
a nominal rent for the first year, increasing gradually, till at
the end of five years the rent attained its maximum of L.165
per annum, for the 550 acres. This company which was formed
at the time the Liverpool and Manchester Railway was in pro¬
gress of being made on the property, consisted, amongst others,
of some practical farmers, and originated with William Reed,
who for the three first years was the manager, and resided on
this farm, which they called Barton Moss farm. During that
period I had the pleasure of paying my friend Reed a visit,
and of witnessing the skill and success attending his enterprise
and various experiments.
“ Travelling by the railway from Liverpool towards Man¬
chester the Barton Moss farm is on the right hand, excepting
a narrow strip of about six acres which is on the left, and abuts
on the line for a quarter of a mile on each side of the Barton
Moss station, which is seven miles from Manchester. The long
narrow belts of fir and other trees and the quick-thorn hedges
which run north and south, give it an appearance that would
lead a casual observer to suppose that it was sound land, or at
least that the moss was not so deep under it, as on the other
2 z
VOL. II.
AGRICULTURE.
362
Waste parts over which the railway passes ; its depth, however, is the
Lands, same, and an iron rod may be thrust down by the hand to the
depth of eighteen feet in almost any part of it.
“ The first operation, that of draining, had been effected by
opening side drains at intervals of fifty yards, into which were
laid covered ones six yards apart, at right angles with, and
emptying into the open side drains.
“ The moss being in a semifluid state, it was necessary to
proceed slowly with draining, taking out only one graft or depth
at a time, allowing it to remain a week or a month, according
to the state of the weather, before taking out the second graft;
this admitted of the sides becoming consolidated, and of the
second graft being taken out without the moss closing in. It
was again allowed to remain as before, till sufficiently dry to
admit of the third being removed.
“ The open drains were made 3 feet wide and 3 feet 6 inches
deep, and the covered drains 16 inches wide and 3 feet deep;
the last graft of the latter being only about 6 inches wide at
the top, tapering to 4 inches at the bottom, and being taken
out of the middle of the cut, left a shoulder on each side. The
sod or graft first taken out had by this time become tough and
dry, and was placed with the heath side downwards in the
shoulder, thus leaving the narrow spit at the bottom open for
a depth of about 14 inches ; the other square sod being put on
the top completed the drain.
“ The cost of this mode of draining, including the side drains,
was about 38s. per acre. The drains first put in required to
be renewed in a few years, in consequence of the moss becom¬
ing so much consolidated and reduced in height that the plough,
as well as the horses’ feet, broke through the roof, although the
horses were shod with “ pattens ” or boards of about 10 inches
square, with the angles taken off. The second draining, how¬
ever, was more permanent, and would probably not have re¬
quired renewing for many years, but for the moles, which have
been very troublesome in working down to the drains, and
filling them up in various places; so that the operation of
draining has required to be partially renewed in every field,
and in many of them entirely so ; and thus, these little animals
have been the cause of a very considerable increase in the cost
of labour. It has subsequently been found advisable to put
the under drains in at 4 yards, instead of 6 yards asunder, and
the advantage in one crop has been quite sufficient to pay the
extra cost. A two-horse engine was erected, which drives the
thrashing machine, straw cutter, and crushing mill; and the
escape-steam from it steams the horses’ food.
“ The buildings were erected principally of timber, covered
with asphalted felt.
“ After draining, making roads, and burning off the heath
plant, the land was scarified lengthwise of the fields, by an im¬
plement, with knives shaped like coulters, reversed, sharp on
the convex side, fixed in two bars, and drawn by three horses
yoked abreast.
“ The tough surface was by this means cut at every four
inches; the land was then ploughed across the scarifying; a
roller, surrounded with knives, was next passed across the
ploughing; after this the land was well harrowed till sufficiently
reduced.
The next operation was that of marling, for which pur¬
pose a railway was constructed, at the joint expense of Mr
Baines and the company, from the river Irwell on the south,
running through a bed of marl, and through Mr Baines’ farm,
as well as the Barton Moss farm, to the Liverpool and Man¬
chester railway, with which it is connected at the Barton Moss
station. The length of this railway is about a mile and three
quarters ; it affords the opportunity of getting manure from
Manchester, either by the river or by the railway, as well as
the supply of marl or gravel. Further, to facilitate their ope¬
rations, the company constructed also a moveable railway, to
be laid down along the cross roads and on the fields, upon
which about a cubic yard of marl was taken on each waggon,
directed to the very spot where it was wanted: thus the marl¬
ing could be proceeded with in all weathers, and much more
rapidly than perhaps such work ever was done before, or could
now be done, except by similar means.
“ The iron for the rails was rolled expressly for the purpose,
and weighed 14 lb. per yard. It was fitted longitudinally on
the apex of a triangular wooden sleeper.
“ The permanent way cost L.520 per mile, and the move- Waste
able one L.280. The latter was in twelve feet lengths, and Lands,
the pair of rails, with the sleepers and cross ties, weighed 1 cwt. ^ v —, J
3 qrs. It was shifted from place to place on the land by two
men at a cost of 2s. 6d. per acre.
“ From 60 to 100 cubic yards of marl were put on an acre,
and in the following summer the land was manured, also by
means of the moveable railway, at the rate of fifty tons of black
Manchester manure per acre, and planted with potatoes, which
were followed by wheat, sown with red clover and rye-grass,
for mowing for one or two years ; then oats and potatoes, &c.
as before. These were all flourishing crops, the wheat in par¬
ticular looked bright and beautiful. The potatoes were sold
for L.25 and L.30 per acre, which more than paid the whole
cost of improvement. Mr John Bell, resident bailiff, has made
many valuable experiments relative to the improvement of raw
moss, one of which has resulted in a discovery likely to be of
considerable importance, which is, that a mixture of lime and
salt applied a while before seeding, with the addition of a good
dressing of guano, in the proportion of four tons of lime and
five cwt. of salt per acre, qualifies it to produce a crop of pota¬
toes or oats equal to that after the application of 60 yards of
marl per acre. It is essential that the mixture should be
spread while it is hot. Mr Evans (one of the proprietors) is
convinced that the peat on the surface ought never to be burned;
he has always found that, when the heath sod is turned down
to decay, much better crops have been obtained than when it
has been burnt off, or than when the top has been taken away
either for fuel or other purposes. What are termed moss-fal¬
lows, that is parts which have had the moss taken off for fuel,
will never bear so good a crop as the upper surface, however
deep the moss may be underneath.”—(See Notes on the Agri¬
culture of Lancashire, with Suggestions for its Improvement,
by Jonathan Binns.)
Nearly a century ago the late Lord Kames, on becoming Blair-
proprietor of the estate of Blair-Drummond, in the county Drum-
of Perth, began the improvement of a large tract of worth- mond moss,
less moss, by a totally different process from that now de¬
tailed. In this case the moss had accumulated upon a good
alluvial clay soil. Instead, therefore, of attempting to im¬
prove the moss itself, it was floated off piecemeal into the
neighbouring Frith of Forth. The supply of water required
for this purpose was obtained from the river Teith,from which
it was raised to the requisite height by a powerful water
wheel. Being conveyed through the moss in channels, suc¬
cessive layers of peat were dug and thrown into these chan¬
nels, which were shifted as occasion required, until the whole
inert mass wras removed. A thin stratum next the clay was
burnt, and the ashes used as manure. An immense extent
of moss has thus been got rid of on that estate, and on others
in the neighbourhood, and “ an extensive tract of country,
where formerly only a few snipes and muirfowl could find
subsistence, has been converted, as if by magic, into a rich
and fertile carse of alluvial soil, worth from L.3 to L.5 per
acre.”
We next notice the fen lands of England. “ In popular Fen lands,
language, the v/or A fen designates all low wet lands, whether
peat-bog, river alluvium, or salt marsh ; but in the great
Bedford level, which, extending itself in Cambridgeshire and
five adjoining counties, is the largest tract of fen land in the
kingdom, the farmer always distinguishes, and it is thought
conveniently and correctly, between fen land and marsh
land. By the former they mean land partly alluvial, and
formed by river floods, and partly accumulated by the growth
of peat. Such lands are almost invariably of a black colour,
and contain a great per-centage of carbon. By marsh lands
they mean low tracts gained from the sea, either by the gra¬
dual silting up of estuaries, or by artificial embankments.”
Low-lying peat occurs in small patches in nearly every mari¬
time county of Britain, being usually separated from the sea
or from estuaries by salt marsh or alluvium. There is a
large extent of such land in Somersetshire, yet but partially
drained, and a still larger breadth in Lancashire where its
AGRICULTURE.
Pen Lands, improvement makes steady progress. In Kent, on the sea-
v—> board of Norfolk, on both shores of the Humber, and stretch¬
ing along the sides of its tributaries, there are immense tracts
of this description of land. But these are all exceeded in
Great level importance by the “ great level of the fens, which occupies
of the the south-eastern quarter of Lincolnshire, the northern half
fens. of Cambridgeshire, and spreads also into the counties of Nor¬
folk, Suffolk, Huntingdon, and Northampton. Its length is
about 70 miles, its breadth from 3 or 4 to 30 or 40 miles, the
whole area being upwards of 1060 square miles, or 680,000
acres. On the map the fens appear like an enlargement of
the Wash, and in reality have the aspect of a sea of land,
lying between that bay and the high lands in each of the
above named counties, which seem to form an irregular
coast line around it.” This fen country has for centuries
been the scene of drainage operations on a stupendous scale.
The whole surface of the great basin of the fens is lower
than the sea, the level varying from four to sixteen feet be¬
low high-water mark in the German Ocean. The difficulty
of draining this flat tract is increased, from the circumstance
that the ground is highest near the shore, and falls inland
towards the foot of the slope. These inland and lowest
grounds consist of spongy peat, which has a natural ten¬
dency to retain water. The rivers and streams which flow
from the higher inlands, discharge upon these level grounds,
and originally found their way into the broad and shallow
estuary of the Wash, obstructed in all directions by bars
and shifting sand-banks. These upland waters being now
» caught at their point of entrance upon the fens, are confined
within strong artificial banks, and so guided straight sea¬
ward. These waters are thus restrained from flooding the
low grounds, and by their concentration and momentum,
assist in scouring out the silt from the narrow channel to
which they are confined. The tidal waters are at the same
time fenced out by sea-banks, which are provided at pro¬
per intervals with sluice doors, by which the waters escape
at ebb-tide. To show the extent of these operations, it
may be mentioned that the whole sea-coast of Lincolnshire,
and part of Norfolk, a line of at least 130 miles, consist of
marsh lands lower than the tides, and is protected by barrier
banks, besides which there are hundreds of miles of river
embankments. When this does not provide such a drain¬
age as to admit of cultivation, the water is lifted mechani¬
cally by wind or steam mills into the main aqueducts. The
number of windmills formerly at work on the whole of the
fens between Lincoln and Cambridge, probably exceeded
700; at present there are about fifty mills in the Lincoln¬
shire part of the level, and perhaps 170 in the Bedford level
and adjacent fens, or a total of 220. The number of steam-
engines may be estimated at sixty. They lift the water (al¬
most universally by scoop-wheels, not pump) from six to
sixteen or twenty feet, and the area of land thus drained may
be computed at not less than 222,000 acres.
Use of the The first use of steam-engines for the purpose of draining
steam-en- was Deeping fen, where, in 1824-5, two, of eighty and
dr a in in o- sixty horse-power respectively, were erected. By means
the fens? °f these two engines upwards of 20,000 acres have now a
good drainage, whereas formerly, forty-four wind-mills, with
an aggregate power of 400 horses, failed to keep them suffi¬
ciently dry. The scoop-wheel of the larger engine is twenty-
eight feet in diameter, and the float-boards are five feet wide.
It was intended to have a “ dip” of five feet, but the land
has subsided so much in consequence of the draining that
it seldom has a dip of more than two feet nine inches. The
water is lifted on an average seven feet high. When both
engines are at work they raise 300 tons weight of water
per minute.
The soil of the fens consists for the most part of dark
coloured peat, from one to eight or ten feet in depth. The
363
surface in general is not pure peat, but is mixed with silt or Marsh
other soil. Under this there is in general a stratum of brown Lands,
spongy peat, which sometimes rests upon gravel, but for the
most part upon clay, which usually contains a portion of cal¬
careous matter. The removal of the water has, of course,
been the primary improvement; but subsidiary to this, the
rapid amelioration and great fertility of the fen lands is
largely due to this fortunate conjunction of clay and peat.
The early practice of the fen farmers was to pare and burn
the surface, grow repeated crops of rape, oats, wheat, &c.,
and burn again. The subsidence of the soil, subsequent to
the draining and repeated paring and burning, brought the
surface nearer to the subjacent clay, which the cultivators claying
by and by, began to dig up and spread over the surface, fen lands.
This practice is now universal, and its continued use, to¬
gether with careful cultivation and liberal manuring, has
changed a not very productive peat into one of the most
fertile soils in the kingdom. Nowhere in our country has
the industry and skill of man effected greater changes than
in the fens. What was once a dismal morass, presenting
to the view in summer a wilderness of reeds, sedges, and
pools of water, among which the cattle waded, and in winter
almost an unbroken expanse of water, is now a fertile corn
land. The fen men, who formerly lived upon the adjacent
high lands, and occupied themselves with fishing, fowling,
and attending to their cattle, have now erected homesteads
upon the fen lands, divided them by thorn hedges, and
brought them into the highest state of cultivation.
We referred at the outset to the distinction betwixt/<?« Marsh
land and marsh land. In the district called Marsh land inlands-
Norfolk, extending between the Ouse and the Nen; in that
called South Holland, in Lincolnshire, stretching between
the Nen and the Welland; northward of Spalding, and
also north-east of Boston, there is a considerable tract of
marine clay soil. In Marsh land this is chiefly arable-land,
producing large crops of wheat and beans ; but in Lincoln¬
shire it forms exceedingly fine grazing land. This tract
lies within the old Roman embankment, by which the dis¬
trict was first defended from the ocean. Outside this bar¬
rier are the proper marsh lands, which have been reclaimed
in portions at successive periods, and are still intersected in
all directions by ranges of banks. The extraordinary fea¬
ture of this tract is, that the surface outside the Roman bank
is three or four feet higher than that in the inside, and the
level of each new enclosure is more elevated than the pre¬
vious one. The land rises step by step, as the coast is ap¬
proached, so that the most recently reclaimed land is often
twelve or even eighteen feet higher than the lowest fen
land in the interior, the drainage from which must never¬
theless be conveyed through these more elevated marshes
to the sea.
The extent of this kind of land already rescued from the Schemes
sea is very great, and is constantly augmenting. The whole for re-
Wash may, in fact, be regarded as a broad expanse of marsh claiming
in course of formation. A considerable portion of it is al-”10re land
ready so much raised as to be left bare at low water. Thes™m the
“ Norfolk Estuary Scheme,” now in progress, contemplates
the enclosure of a large tract of these sands, and the “ Vic¬
toria Level,” if ever executed, will confine the waters to a
channel four miles wide, running down the centre of the
Wash, and add 150,000 acres to our territory. This would
not be all, for if these works are accomplished, they will
lower the water in all the fen rivers, and afford a natural
drainage to the whole of the great level.
Lands, such as some of those which we have just been Warping,
describing, are often greatly improved, or rather may be
said to be made by means of a peculiar mode of irrigation,
called “ warping.” It is practicable only in the case of land
lying below the level of high tide in muddy rivers. It is
AGRICULTURE.
364
Marsh little more than a century since it was first practised in
i ^ands‘ j England, the first instance of it being near Howden, on the
banks of the Humber. But although the practice is com¬
paratively new in Britain, it has long been in use on the
Continent of Europe, particularly in Italy, and is thus de¬
scribed by Mr Cadell:—“ In the Val de Chiana, fields that
are too low are raised and fertilised by the process called
colmata, which is done in the following manner:—The
field is surrounded by an embankment to confine the water.
The dike of the rivulet is broken down so as to admit the
muddy water of the high floods. The Chiana itself is too
powerful a body of water to be used for this purpose; it is
only the streams that flow into the Chiana that are thus
used. This water is allowed to settle and deposit its mud
upon the field. The water is then let off into the river at
the lower end of the field, by a discharging course called
scolo, and in French canal d’ecoulement. The water-course
which conducts the water from a river, either to a field for
irrigation or to a mill, is called yora. In this manner afield
will be raised 5^ and sometimes feet in ten years. If
the dike is broken down to the bottom, the field will be
raised to the same height in seven years; but then in this
case, gravel is also carried in along with the mud. In a field
of 25 acres, which had been six years under the process of
colmata, in which the dike was broken down to within 3
feet of the bottom, the process was seen to be so far ad¬
vanced, that only another year was requisite for its comple¬
tion. The floods, in this instance, had been much charged
with soil. The water which comes off cultivated land com¬
pletes the process sooner than that which comes off hill and
woodland. Almost the whole of the Val di Chiana has been
raised by the process of colmata”1
This process of warping is now systematically practised
on lands adjoining the Humber and its tributaries, and by
means of it vast tracts of sterile, sandy, and peaty soils are
yearly converted into arable land of the very best quality.
The warping of such lands has this farther advantage, that
it raises their level, and thus admits of their more perfect
drainage. The operation is conducted thus :—
“ The first step in the process is to erect a sluice on the
bank of the Trent, or other tidal channel, and cut a main
drain to the fields which are to be flooded. The sluice-doors
point outwards, so as to exclude the tides, except when held
open by rods and staples provided for the purpose, and the
drain ought to have an area equal to three times that of the
sluice, in order to prevent any considerable resistance to the
flow of water. The land is then surrounded by an embank¬
ment of variable altitude, according to the level of the sur¬
face, and from two to three feet wide at the top, the usual
slope of the banks being from 15 to 18 inches on each side
for every 12 inches perpendicular rise. The tide flows
rapidly in, and meeting with no obstruction to detain its cur¬
rent, holds in suspension the particles of sediment with
which it is loaded; but directly it leaves the narrow chan¬
nel, and spreads itself over the broad surface, the rapidity
of motion is lost, and the atoms of warp, no longer project¬
ed forward, sink quietly to the bottom. A deposit is thus
formed greatest near the mouth of the drain, and in order
to equalize the amount of warp over the whole ground,
the water is conducted to different parts of the compart¬
ments by smaller drains called ‘ inlets.’ When the deposit is
raised sufficiently high next to the end of these channels,
the current is carried forward by extending the banks of
the inlets in different directions, and thus, by a skilful and
careful guiding of the water, the whole of the land is
warped to an equal height. The water is conducted by a
temporary drain, first to the further side of the plot, and, General
when the deposit there is sufficiently high, is allowed to Observa-
escape at intervals along the side of this drain until the tions-
whole area is equally raised. The tide having thrown down
much of its mud, returns by the warping-drain into the river,
scouring out the sediment which might have accumulated
in the drain.” . “ Generally sneaking, the spring-
tides only are used, as they have s .ffiv '-bat volume of back¬
water to keep the warping-drains clear and open. The
land is raised from one to three feet in one or two years.”
 “ The expense of warping is very variable:
Where the cost of the large drains and other works is in¬
cluded, the calculation would probably be L.12 to L.20per
acre ; but on lands contiguous to the public warping-drains
the expense of flooding is only about L.2, 2s. Within the
last thirty years all the peat-lands within three miles of the
Trent (in the isle of Axholme) have been warped, the drain¬
age greatly improved, and the soil, from being almost worth¬
less, made worth from L.60 to L.100 per acre.” Taking
both sides of Trent, about 16,000 acres have, since the year
1800, been covered with the richest soil to an average depth
of two feet, and the process is still extending. (See Prize
Report on the Farming of Lincolnshire, by John Algernon
Clarke, in vol. xii. of Royal Agricultural Society’s Journal,
from which, and from article on “ Fen Lands,” by the same
gentleman, in Morton!s Cyclopaedia of Agriculture, the fore¬
going information has been gleaned or quoted).
On many parts of our sea-coasts, and especially in the Blowing
Hebrides, there occur extensive tracts of blowing sands, 8ands-
which are naturally not only sterile themselves, but a source
of danger to better lands adjoining them, which in some in¬
stances have been quite ruined by the sand deposited upon
them by the winds. This mischief is effectually prevented,
by a process beautifully simple and useful, namely, planting
the sand-banks with sea bent-grass (Arundo arenaria), the Use of sea
matting fibres and stems of which not only bind the sand, bent'grass
but clothe it with a herbage which is relished by cattle, and ^n^XmS
which being able to resist the severest winter weather, fur¬
nishes a valuable winter forage in those bleak situations.
This bent-grass can be propagated by seed, but in exposed
situations it is found better to transplant it. This operation
is performed betwixt October and March, as it succeeds
best when the sand is moist, and evaporation slow.
CHAPTER XIV.
GENERAL OBSERYATIONS.
According to the method proposed at the outset, we now
offer a few observations on several topics connected with
our subject.
Of the Tenure of Land.—The extent of land in Great
Britain occupied by its owners for agricultural purposes
bears a very small proportion to the whole area. The yeo¬
man class is still numerous in several parts of England, but
must have diminished greatly from that continuous amalga¬
mation of small estates into large ones which has formed a
marked feature in our social history for the past 50 years.
This change, although to be regretted on public grounds,
has had a favourable influence on the cultivation of the soil,
for it almost invariably happens, that a larger produce is ob¬
tained from land when it is occupied by a tenant than when
it is cultivated by its proprietor. As a matter of fact, the
land of the country is now, with trifling exceptions, let out
to professional farmers in quantities varying from the rood-
allotment of the village labourer to the square miles of the Size of
Highland grazier. Farms of all sizes are usually to be found *ai-ITls.
1 Journey in Carniola, Italy, and France, by W. A, Cadell, Esq., F.K.S.
AGRICULTURE.
365
General in any district, and most important it is that this should be
Observa- the case; but the extent of farms is chiefly determined by
u°ns. the amount of hired labour employed upon them, and the
~ measure of personal superintendence on the part of the
tenant which the kind of husbandry pursued upon them calls
for. We accordingly find that in very fertile tracts, in the
vicinity of towns, and in dairy districts, they seldom exceed
200 acres ; where the ordinary alternate husbandry is prac¬
tised, the average ranges from 300 to 400. In more ele¬
vated tracts, where a portion of natural sheep-walk is occu¬
pied along with arable land, it rises to 800 or 1000 ; while
that of the sheep-grazings of our hills and mountains is li¬
mited only by the capital of the tenant. About a century
ago there occurred, in various parts of Great Britain, a simi¬
lar amalgamation of small holdings into farms of the sizes
which we have now referred to, as is at present in progress
in Ireland. This enlargement of farms, and the employ¬
ment of increased capital in their cultivation, insures a more
rapid reclamation of waste lands, and general progress of
agriculture up to a certain point, than would otherwise take
place. But as every step in advance beyond this point im¬
plies an increase of acreable outlay, and the need for closer
superintendence, it seems likely that, in future, the size of
arable farms will not further increase, but may rather be
expected to approximate to that which at present obtains in
suburban districts.
Farms are held either by yearly tenancy, or under leases
for a specified number of years. The latter plan is that
upon which nearly the whole lands of Scotland are let;
and it obtains also to a considerable extent in the northern
counties of England, in West Norfolk, and in Lancashire.
But with these and other exceptions, amounting altogether
to about a tenth part, the farms of England are held by
Tenancy- yearly tenancy, which can be terminated by either of the
at'"ll!' contracting parties giving to the other a six-months’ notice to
that effect. This precarious tenure has been attended by
far fewer changes than a stranger could suppose, owing to
the highly honourable conduct for which English proprietors
as a class have long been noted. On all the large estates it
is quite common to find families occupying farms of which
their ancestors for generations, or even centuries, have been
tenants. The mutual esteem and confidence which usually
subsists betwixt such landlords and tenants is undoubtedly
much to the credit of both, but not the less has the system,
as a whole, operated unfavourably for all concerned; for
however numerous and striking the exceptions, it is yet the
fact that under this system of tenancy-at-will, less capital
has been invested in the improvement of farms, less labour
has been employed, and less enterprise displayed in their
ordinary cultivation, less produce has been obtained from
them by the occupiers, and less rents have been received
for them by the owners, than in the case of similar lands
when let on leases for a term of years. These diverse re¬
sults ensue, not because tenants with leases are abler men
or better farmers than their neighbours who are without
them, but solely because the one system recognises certain
important principles which the other ignores. It is con¬
trary to human nature to expect that any body of men will
as freely invest their capital, whether in the shape of money,
skill or labour, in a business yielding such slow returns as
agriculture, with no better guarantee than the continued
good-will of existing proprietors, or those who any day may
succeed them, that they or their families shall reap the fruits
of it, as they will do with the security which a lease for a
term of years affords. It does, therefore, seem strange that
a majority of the farmers of Great Britain should be tenants
at will, and still more strange that they should be so of
choice. It is nevertheless true, that a considerable portion
of the tenantry of England are even less disposed to accept
of leases than their landlords are to grant them. The latter
cling to the system because of the greater control which
they thereby retain over their estates, and the greater poli¬
tical influence with which it invests them ; the former do
so because low rents are one of its accompaniments. Since
the removal of restrictions on the importation of foreign
agricultural produce, there are indications that neither land¬
lords nor tenants are so well satisfied with this system of
tenancy-at-will as they once were. Not only is the grant¬
ing of leases becoming more common than it has hitherto
been, but there is a growing desire on the part of tenants to
obtain the benefit of that guarantee for the realising of their
capital which tenant-right affords to enterprising farmers T.eRant‘
who may have unexpectedly to quit their farms. In certain r,”"t
districts of England this claim, called tenant-right, has been
recognised so long, that apart either from written stipula¬
tion or statutory enactment, it has, by mere usage, attained
to something like a legal standing. In Lincolnshire, an
away-going tenant can, by virtue of this usage, claim from
his landlord or successor repayment, in certain definite pro¬
portions, of the cost of such ameliorations of a specified kind
as he may have made during the last years of his occupancy,
and the benefits of which his removal hinders him from
realising in the natural way.
Tenant-right is certainly a valuable adjunct to tenancy-Benefit of
at-will, but still it does not meet the real exigencies of theleases'
case. There are feelings inherent in man’s nature which
cause him to recoil from exertions the fruits of which are as
likely to be enjoyed by a stranger as by himself or his family.
This repugnance, and its paralysing influence, is not to be
removed by a mere “ right” to pecuniary compensation. It
is certainty of tenure—so far at least as human arrangements
can be certain—which will really induce a farmer to throw
his whole heart into his business. It is accordingly to this
principle, that leases owe their excellence, and by it also that
the only weak point in them is to be accounted for. The
first years of a lease are usually characterised by an ener¬
getic performance of various improvements, whereas, to¬
wards its close, there is usually such a withdrawing even
of ordinary outlay, as is unfavourable to the interests of
either landlord or tenant. There is at present a very gene¬
rally entertained opinion that this inconvenience would be
obviated by engrafting the system of tenant-right upon that
of leases. A proposal to this effect would probably be well
entertained by the holders of existing leases ; but we believe
that it would be anything but popular with in-coming ten¬
ants. This view of the matter is confirmed by the expe¬
rience which we have of the effects of having the straw and
dung produced on farms steel-bow—that is the property of
the landlord, and transferred by him free of charge to enter¬
ing tenants on condition that they leave them so to their suc¬
cessors. This arrangement is generally admitted to be better
for all parties, than when away-going tenants have a “ right”
to claim payment for these commodities from their successors,
or to sell them off the farm if they prefer to do so. Scot¬
tish experience is therefore unfavourable to the system of
tenant-right, in the only instance of it which obtains there.
We know of no practicable remedy for the injurious lower¬
ing of the condition of farms at the close of leases, but in the
parties renewing their contract in time to prevent it.
It seems to be generally admitted, that twenty one years Duration
is the proper duration for an agricultural lease. Such aof leases-
term suffices to give confidence to the tenant in embarking
his capital, and secures to the landlord his legitimate con¬
trol over his property, and due participation in its varying
value. It is generally felt by tenants that the lease, or do¬
cument in which their agreement with their landlord is en¬
grossed, might, with advantage, be much shortened, as well
as simplified in its terms. When treating of the succession
366
AGRICULTURE.
General
Observa¬
tions.
Capital re¬
quired for
working a
farm.
Education
of farmers.
of crops, we have already expressed our views regarding
those restrictive clauses which usually occupy a prominent
place in such writings. Such restrictions are, of course, in¬
troduced with the view of guarding the property of the land¬
lord from deterioration. But when he is so unfortunate as
to meet in with incompetent or dishonest tenants they en¬
tirely fail to secure this object, and yet are a hindrance and
discouragement to enterprising and conscientious ones. It
is probable that the existence of the law of distraint, or hy¬
pothec, which gives to landlords a lien over the effects of
their tenantry in security for the payment of the current
year’s rent, has had its influence in adding to the number
and stringency of these clauses, and has encouraged the
practice of letting lands by tender to the highest offerer. For
the law in question, by rendering landlords to a considerable
extent independent of the personal character and pecuniary
circumstances of the occupiers of their land, has a direct ten¬
dency to render them less cautious who they deal with, than
they otherwise would be ; and to induce them, when tempted
by the promise of high rents, to trust more to this legal se¬
curity than to the moral character, business habits, profes¬
sional skill, and pecuniary competency, of candidates for
their farms.
The amount of capital that is required in order that the
business of farming may be conducted advantageously, is
largely determined by the nature of the soil, Sec., of each
farm, the system of management appropriate to it, the price
of stock and of labour, and the terms at which its rents are
payable. In the case of land of fair quality, on which the
alternate husbandry is pursued, and when the rents are pay¬
able as the produce is realised, L.5 per acre may be regarded
as an amount of capital which will enable a tenant to prose¬
cute his business with advantage and comfort. In letting a
farm, a landlord not only does a just and prudent thing for
himself, but acts as a true friend to his proposed tenant, when
he insists upon being shown that the latter is possessed of
available funds to an amount adequate to its probable require¬
ments.
The importance of the topics to which we have thus re¬
ferred, is happily expressed by Mr Pusey, when, after enu¬
merating various agricultural desiderata, he says, “ In some
degree none of us carry out all that is in our power; but
want of capital, or want of confidence in the tenure of farms
are, I suppose, the two principal causes of this omission.”
But the mere possession of capital does not qualify a man
for being a farmer, nor is there any virtue inherent in a lease
to insure his success. To these must be added probity,
knowledge of his business, and diligence in prosecuting it.
These qualifications are the fruits of good Education (in the
fullest sense of that term), and are no more to be looked for
without it than good crops without good husbandry. Com¬
mon-school instruction will, of course, form the groundwork
of a farmer’s education ; but to this should be added, if pos¬
sible, a classical curriculum. It has been the fashion to ask,
“ Of what use are Greek and Latin to a farmer ? ” Now,
apart from the benefit which it is to him, in common with
other men, to know the structure of language, and to read
with intelligence the literature of his profession which more
and more abounds in scientific technicalities, we believe that
no better discipline for the youthful mind has yet been de¬
vised than the classical course which is in use in our best
public schools. Of this discipline we desire that every future
farmer should have the advantage. But the great difficulty
at present lies in finding appropriate occupation for such
youths betwixt their fifteenth and twentieth years. In many
cases the sons of farmers are during that period put to farm
labour. If they are kept statedly at it, and are made pro¬
ficient in every kind of work performed on a farm, it is a
good professional training as far as it goes. The more com¬
mon one—at least as regards the sons of the larger class of General
farmers—which consists of loitering about without any stated Observa-
occupation, attending fairs and markets, and probably the tions-
race-course and hunting-field, is about the most absurd and
pernicious that can well be imagined. Such youths are truly
to be pitied; for they are neither inured to bodily labour,
nor afforded the benefits of a liberal education. It need not
surprise any one that such hapless lads often prove incom¬
petent for the struggles of life, and have to yield their places
to more vigorous men who have enjoyed the benefit of
“ bearing the yoke in their youth.” Unless young men are
kept at labour, either of mind or of body, until continuous
exertion during stated hours, confinement to one place, and
prompt obedience to their superiors have ceased to be irk¬
some, there is little hope of their either prospering in busi¬
ness, or distinguishing themselves in their profession. Owing
to the altered habits of society, there is now less likelihood
than heretofore of such young persons as we are referring to
being subjected to that arduous training to bodily labour
which was once the universal practice; and hence the ne¬
cessity for an appropriate course of study to take its place.
Many Scottish farmers endeavour to supply this want by
placing their sons for several years in the chambers of an
attorney, estate-agent, or land-surveyor ; partly in order that
they may acquire a knowledge of accounts, but especially
for the sake of the wholesome discipline which is implied in
continuous application and subjection to superiors. It is also
common for such youths to be sent to Edinburgh for a winter
or two to attend the class of our accomplished professor of
Agriculture, and perhaps also that of Chemistry and the
Veterinary College. This is well enough in its way; but
yet there is wanting in it an adequate guarantee that there
is real study—the actual performance of daily mental work.
The agricultural college at Cirencester appears to come more
fully up to our notion of what is needed for the professional
training of farmers than any other institution which we yet
possess. We shall rejoice to see such opportunities of in¬
struction as it affords multiplied in Great Britain. After
enjoying the benefits of such a course of training as we have
now indicated, young men would be in circumstances to de¬
rive real advantage from a residence with some experienced
practical farmer, or from a tour through the best-cultivated
districts of the country. We are well aware that what we
have now recommended will appear sufficiently absurd to
the still numerous class of persons who believe that any one
has wit enough to be a farmer. But those who are compe¬
tent to judge in the case can well afford to smile at such
ignorance. They know that agriculture is at once an art, a
science, and a business ; that the researches of naturalists,
chemists, geologists, and mechanicians are daily contributing
to the elucidation of its principles and the guidance of its
practice ; and that while its pursuits afford scope for the
acutest minds, they are relished by the most cultivated ones.
As a business it shares to the full in the effects of that vehe¬
ment competition which is experienced in every other branch
of industry, and has besides many risks peculiar to itself.
The easy routine farming of the olden time is gone for ever ;
and without a good measure of tact, energy, and industry
no man can now obtain a livelihood by it. It were well
that all this were better known ; for nothing has been more
common than for parents who have sons that are too dull for
scholars, or too indolent for trade, to put them to farming;
or than for persons who have earned a competency in some
other calling, to covet the (supposed) easy life of a farmer,
and to find it to their sorrow a harassing and ill-requited one.
The agriculture of a country must ever be largely affected Farm
by the condition and character of the peasantry by whom its labourers,
labours are performed. An acute observer has recently
shown that in England a poor style of farming and low
AGRICULTURE. 307
General wages—good farming and high wages usually go together;
Observa- and that a low rate of wages is significantly associated with
^ tions. > a high poor-rate. The worst paid and worst lodged labourers
are also the most ignorant, the most prejudiced, the most
reckless, and insubordinate. The eminence of Scottish agri¬
culture is undoubtedly largely due to the moral worth and
intelligence of her peasantry. For this she is indebted to
the early establishment of her parochial schools, and to the
sterling quality of the elementary education, based upon the
Bible, which the children of her tenantry and peasantry have
for generations received in them together. These schools are
unfortunately now inadequate to the increased population ;
but still in the rural districts of the Scottish lowlands it is a
rare thing to meet with a farm labourer who cannot both
read and write. Apart from higher benefits the facilities
which the services of such a class of labourers have afforded
for the introduction and development of improved agricul¬
tural practices, the use of intricate machinery, and the keep¬
ing of accurate accounts cannot well be overrated. It is an
interesting testimony to the value of a national system of
Christian education that our Scottish peasantry should be in
such request in other parts of the kingdom, as bailiffs, gar¬
deners, and overseers. Let us hope that this inestimable
blessing wall speedily be enjoyed by our entire population.
Evil fruits The pernicious influence of the present law of Settle-
of the law ment and Removal upon the English labourer, is now at-
men^ e* tracting that attention which it so urgently demands. The
proprietors and tenants of particular parishes in various
parts of England, at present combine to lessen their own
share of the burden of the poor-rate, by pulling down cot¬
tages and compelling their labourers to reside out of their
bounds. The folly and cruelty of such short-sighted policy
cannot be too strongly reprobated. These poor people are
thus driven into towns, where their families are crowded
into wretched apartments, for which they must pay exor¬
bitant rents, and where they are constantly exposed to
moral and physical contamination of every sort. From
these comfortless abodes the wearied and dispirited men
must trudge in all weathers to the distant scene of their
daily labours. One cannot conceive of a prosperous agri¬
culture co-existing with such a system; nor feel any sur¬
prise that thieving, incendiarism, and burdensome rates
should be its frequent accompaniments. It is pleasant to
contrast with this close-parish policy the conduct of some
of our English nobility, who are building comfortable cot¬
tages and providing good schools for the whole of the
labourers upon their princely estates.
What the The further progress of our national agriculture is un-
egislature floubtedly to be looked for from the independent exertions
for Agri- ot t*lose immediately engaged in it; but important assist-
culture. ance might and ought to be afforded to them by the legis¬
lature, chiefly in the way of removing obstructions. What
we desiderate in this respect is the repeal, or at least the
important modification, of the law of distraint; the commu¬
tation of the burdens attaching to copyhold lands; the
reformation of the law of settlement; the removal of the
risk and costs which at present interfere with the transfer¬
ence of land; the establishment of a really national system
of Christian education; the endowment of an adequate
number of agricultural colleges, with suitable museums,
apparatus, and illustrative farms; the authoritative collec¬
tion and publication of agricultural statistics; and the com¬
pulsory adoption of a uniform standard of weights and
measures. We desire also to see the arterial or trunk-
drainage of the country undertaken by government. Until
this is done, vast tracts of the most fertile land in the king¬
dom cannot be cultivated with safety and economy, nor
attain to the productiveness of which they are capable. Our
national interests surely require that its agriculture should
be freed from such obstructions as these, and that it should General
receive the benefit of a fair share of such public provision Observa-
as is made for training youths for the learned professions, tions.
and for the public service ; and of such grants as are given
in aid of scientific research, for the encouragement of the
fine arts, and for the furtherance of manufactures and com¬
merce.
On carefully comparing the present condition of British
agriculture with what it was twenty years ago, the change
for the better is found to be very great indeed. But on all
hands indications are to be found, which warrant the antici¬
pation, that the progress of discovery and improvement in
future will be more steady, more rapid, and more general
than it has hitherto been. There is not only a wider-spread
and more earnest spirit of inquiry; but practical men in¬
stead of despising the aids of science, seek more and more
to conduct their investigations under its guidance. Experi¬
ments are made on an ever-widening scale, and upon well-
concerted plans ; their results are so recorded and published,
that they at once become available to all, and each fresh
investigator, instead of wasting his energies in re-discover¬
ing what (unknown to him) has been discovered before, now
makes his start from a well-ascertained and ever-advancing
frontier. Hitherto the knowledge of the husbandman con¬
sisted very much of isolated facts, and his procedure often
little better than a groping in the dark. As the rationale
of his various processes is more clearly discovered, he will
be enabled to conduct them with greater economy and pre¬
cision than he can do at present. A clearer knowledge of
what really constitutes the food of plants, and of the various
influences which affect their growth, will necessarily lead to
important improvements in all that relates to the collection,
preparation, and use of manures. We appear to be at pre¬
sent on the very eve of a great revolution in agricultural me¬
chanics. We noticed in its proper place the benefits which
have already ensued from the use of improved implements
and machines, but especially from the application of steam-
power to much of the heavy work of the homestead. It is
known, however, that zealous endeavours are being made
by various parties, to render this power available for the
tillage of the soil. Some persons are attempting to do this by
applying it to the traction of the common plough, or rather
of apparatus in which its principle is retained. Of these the
Marquis of Tweeddale appears to be the most successful.
Others, such as Mr Usher of Edinburgh, are attempting to
solve this problem by attaching to a locomotive engine a
rotating apparatus, by which the soil is at one operation so
broken up and comminuted, as without more ado to be fit
for a seed-bed. Mr Samuelson of Banbury has recently
brought out what he calls a digging machine, adapted to
work by means of horse-power, and of the efficacy of which
the most encouraging reports have already appeared. If the
improvements which Mr Usher announces that he has made
upon his locomotive engine are verified on trial, these gentle¬
men have only to combine their respective inventions, and
“ cultivation by steam” is an accomplished fact.
Ihe plough, the sickle, the flail, and the quern claim, we
believe, an equal antiquity. We have seen the two last of
these venerable compeers entirely superseded by steam-pro¬
pelled mills. Who will say for how much longer the two
first are to retain their time-honoured place as the insignia
of agriculture ? With such machines before him as Fowler’s
draining apparatus, Samuelson’s digger, Usher’s steam-culti¬
vator, and Bell’s reaper, a sober-minded man may warrantably
expect that at no very distant day our fields will be drained,
tilled, sown, and reaped by the same potent agency which
already thrashes our crops, and prepares them tor the use of
man and beast. In speculating upon the future of our na¬
tional agriculture, we do certainly cherish the anticipation
368 AGRICULTURE.
Report on that, by the time another edition of the Encyclopaedia Bri-
L i.st Lo- tannica is called for, the writer (for it) of the article “ Agri-
Rhon. cu]ture» i)e apie to point to far greater achievements,
an(| a more prosperous state of matters than has fallen
to the lot of any of his predecessors.
Appendix A.
We have already directed attention to the most impor¬
tant features in the progress of British agriculture dur¬
ing the period which has elapsed since the publication of
the last edition of this Encyclopcedia; but with the view
of presenting the results of this progress in a more defi¬
nite and interesting form, we have much pleasure in sub¬
mitting to the reader the following report on the farming of
East Lothian, which has been kindly furnished to us for
this purpose by Mr Patrick Sherriff, formerly of Mungos-
wells:—
ON THE AGRICULTURE OF EAST LOTHIAN.
“ Haddingtonshire, or East Lothian, has long been celebrated
as a grain-producing district, and this leading feature of its
rural economy may perhaps have originated from the dry and
early climate of the district. Here many practices which have
distinguished Scotch husbandry were first introduced; and the
farmers, profiting by the fortuitous circumstances under which
they have been placed, are not slow in adopting discoveries
which are likely to promote their interests. Accordingly, in
this progressive age, the recent changes in the agricultural
system have been very striking, and may be well illustrated by
what has taken place in the parish of Dirleton since 1836, when
the Rev. John Ainslie wrote an excellent description of the
parish, and which forms a part of the new Statistical Account
of Scotland.
“ The parish of Dirleton is situated on the shores of the Firth
of Forth, and in soil and climate may be considered a fair spe¬
cimen of the parishes in the county which are bounded by the
sea. The surface embraces soils of every texture from adhe¬
sive clay to drift sand; the latter, which exists to a considerable
extent along the whole line of coast, is consigned to permanent
pasture, and chiefly stocked with rabbits. The land under cul¬
tivation extends to between 5000 and 6000 acres. Since 1836,
when the new Statistical Account of Scotland was published,
no land has been reclaimed, in the common acceptation of the
term, neither has any permanent pasture been subjected to
the plough; and as the surface may be considered unchanged in
extent as well as in aration, the increase of disposable produce
which has since taken place must be regarded as the results of
improved farming.
“From a statistical report of the parish of Dirleton for
1627, it appears that farms were then held by leases of consi¬
derable length, and at corn-rents. Afterwards rents payable
in money seem to have been introduced; and in the early part
of the present century, nearly all the land in the parish was so
rented. During this period, when the lease of a farm expired,
the increase of rent was great; generally keeping pace with,
and often exceeding, the rise which had taken place in the price
of agricultural produce during the war with France. The fall
of prices which followed the return of peace and the passing of
Peel’s currency bill, joined to deficient crops for a succession
of years, commencing with 1826, involved the occupiers of land
in severe distress. Many individuals were unable to meet their
liabilities, fell into arrears of rent, and ultimately became un¬
able to cultivate the land in a proper manner for want of capi¬
tal. This crisis brought about a return to corn-rents, payable
in money at fiars prices; and at present there is only one farm
in the parish differently rented. The change from money to
corn rents took place subsequent to 1830, and the new arrange¬
ments having been made with liberality and kindness on the
part of landowners, and carried out with energy by the ten¬
antry, the results have proved beneficial to the contracting
parties as well as to the public. Ferrygate, one of the best
farms in the parish, was held in 1836 at a mitigated rent of
406|- quarters, was re-let in 1852 at 525 quarters of wheat,
payable in money at fiars prices. The farm of Chapel having Report on
been leased in 1814, was rented in 1832 at L.1150, and re-let in East Lo-
the following year at 260 quarters of wheat, the landlord en- thian.
gaging to drain the farm; and in 1852 the farm was again re-let
at a rent understood to be 180 quarters of wheat and L.495 of
money, with the addition of 4 per cent, upon any outlay which
may be required for draining. Assuming 40s. per quarter as
the price of wheat, this would indicate an advance of 64 per
cent, upon the previous letting. This farm had been unusu¬
ally low rented in 1832, in consequence of a panic that then
prevailed among farmers.
“ In 1836 Mr Ainslie states, ‘ now there is hardly one open
field in the parish.’ The original fences chiefly consisted of
thorn hedges, there being few stone walls, with a ditch to carry
off water. The hedges had been so long neglected, that, with
their wide-spreading branches, they often resembled a row of
trees; and a considerable portion of ground remained unculti¬
vated under the branches of the hedges, as well as on the mar¬
gin of the ditch opposite to the hedge. Within these sixteen
years past, the ditches have been transformed into covered
drains, and the straggling hedge into a straight line, the roots
being regularly dug and freed from weeds. The hedge and
ditch of 1836, with the uncultivated land on their margins,
often occupied a space 18 feet in width; the fences of the pre¬
sent time seldom exceed 2 feet wide. Taking the fields of the
parish, which were bounded by hedge and ditch, to average 25
acres in size, more than two per cent, has been added to
their arable surface of late years, and perhaps the fences of
the present day do not occupy more than one-half per cent, of
the surface.
“ Mr Ainslie states, that ‘ the drainage of the parish is in
the course of being made very complete. Springs have long
since been laid dry, and tiles are now extensively employed to
carry off the surface water. On the soft muirish land, a drain
is made every second furrow or 36 feet asunder. ’ This drain¬
age was soon found to be insufficient for drying the land, and
in consequence drains were placed 16 or 18 feet distant; and
on this scale the drainage of nearly all of the wet soils has
been completed. About the time Mr Ainslie wrote, tiles were
occasionally brought a considerable distance by sea for the
purpose of draining, but soon afterwards two works for the
manufacturing and sale of tiles were erected within the parish;
and on the draining of the neighbourhood being completed,
they have been removed, and the ground on which they stood
restored to fertility. Such has been the progress of know¬
ledge in respect to draining, that a farmer in the parish who
asked and obtained from his landlord a grant of L.300 to com¬
plete the drainage of the lands which he occupied, and which
had been previously drained on the system of deep cross cuts,
actually expended this sum, and upwards of L.2000 of his own
capital in furrow-draining the farm.
“ Mr Ainslie mentions, that in 1835 a few bones and about
100 tons of rape cake were used within the parish. The
manures brought into the parish and applied to crop 1851, con¬
sisted of about 1600 tons of street manure, 277 tons of guano,
33 tons of rape cake, 30 tons of charcoal, 5 tons of sulphate of
ammonia, 5 tons of bones, 2 tons of superphosphate of lime,
and 2 tons of nitrate of soda. There were also 150 tons of oil¬
cake, and 37 tons of grain used in fattening animals, and which,
like extraneous manures, increase the productiveness of the
farm.
“ In 1836, the parish contained nine stationary steam-engines
for thrashing grain ; in 1852 the number had increased to four¬
teen.
“ The statistical account of 1836 shows, that there were about
468 cattle and 2000 sheep fed within the parish, both kinds
of stock being chiefly bred in other districts. The turnip and
grass crops of 1850, aided by oil-cake and grain, fatted 779
cattle and 4070 sheep. When it is considered that permanent
pasturage is unchanged in all respects, and that the home con¬
sumption of grass and turnip by milch cows and farm horses
is nearly the same, the increase of animal food since 1836 re¬
sulting from improved farming may be taken to exceed 100
per cent.
‘ ‘ The buildings connected with farms have generally been
enlarged and improved since 1836. In several instances they
AGRICULTURE.
Report on have been entirely re-built, and in general they embrace sub-
East Lo- stantial accommodation for the machinery and animals essen-
thian. tial to high farming. In alluding to the peasantry, Mr Ainslie
states, that ‘ their cottages have also been materially improved
in comfort and cleanliness. The pigsty and dunghill form no
longer the foreground decorations ; and in many places, espe¬
cially in the village of Dirleton, have been supplanted by roses
and evergreens. In some of the late-built cottages there are
two rooms, an example well worthy of imitation, as eminently
conducive to the morality, no less than to the comfort and
health of the people.’ The dwellings of two apartments, so
properly commended by Mr Ainslie, were soon followed by
houses of three rooms; and more recently, cottages of one story
have been built for farm-servants, containing a kitchen, three
sleeping apartments, dairy and scullery, with a sink and rain¬
water pipe. Each cottage has a garden, pigsty, and other
conveniences ; and there is a pump-well and bleaching-green
common to all. In Somerville’s Survey of East Lothian,
published in 1812, the dimensions of a labourer’s cottage are
stated to be 20 feet by 17, with walls 7 feet high, and the area
undivided. The dimensions of a good cottage of the present
time are 21 feet by 31, outside measure, with walls 8 feet high,
and the area divided into four or more compartments. The im¬
provement of the cottages has led to improved habits of per¬
sonal cleanliness in the families of the labourers, as well as to
improved floral taste. To ‘ the roses and evergreens ’ of Mr
Ainslie’s time, have been added fuchsias and the most choice
creepers, while more tender plants growing in pots are dis¬
played inside of the large-sized windows. In one instance the
buildings connected with a farm of moderate size must have
cost in erecting between L.4000 and L.5000, exclusive of the
haulage of materials. Such accommodation cannot fail of be¬
ing favourable to the health of the indweflers, rational and ir¬
rational, of making farmers and labourers discharge their re¬
spective duties more cheerfully, and of increasing the rentals
of landholders.
“ The alternate system of white and green crop continues to
be followed ; but of late years summer fallow has been dimi¬
nished in extent, and the growth of turnips increased. Less
land is devoted to clover and ryegrass, in consequence of pas¬
turing being generally restricted to one year; while the bean
and pea have, to a considerable extent, been supplanted by the
potato.
“The assistance which nature has of late years received
from drainage and extraneous manures, combined with im¬
proved implements, increased skill and industry amongst far¬
mers and labourers, have produced important results on the
productiveness of the parish. We have ascertained by enu¬
meration, that the production of meat has been doubled in fif¬
teen years; and although this mode of estimating quantity is not
practicable with all the other products of the parish, there is no
doubt of the increased productiveness being great. On some
farms where nearly the whole of the surface is annually dressed
with extraneous fertilizers supplementary to the ordinary man¬
ure of the farm, where the home consumption is taken from the
home produce, and where the growing of potatoes has been
extensively substituted for the bean and pea, the marketable
produce has been increased fourfold. High farming has not,
however, been universally practised, and therefore it cannot
be said that the disposable produce of the whole parish has
been more than doubled in the time specified.
‘ ‘ The inhabitants are either employed in the cultivation of
the soil, or are chiefly dependent for employment on those con¬
nected with agriculture. By the census of 1841 the population
of the parish was 1497, and in 1851 the inhabitants numbered
1646. At the present time there is an increasing demand for
agricultural labour; but the addition to the number of in¬
habitants does not show forth all the increased employment
arising from the improved state of agriculture since 1836.
Many people residing beyond the parish must be employed in
preparing and bringing forward the extraneous fertilizers and
fattening auxiliaries now so extensively used, in the transport
and manufacturing of the increased disposable produce of the
land, as well as in the production and distribution of commo¬
dities required by the increased numbers and the improved
condition of the resident population.
VOL. H.
369
“ The progress of agriculture in the land-bound parishes has Report on
been similar to what has been detailed in connection with Dirle- East Bo-
ton. Throughout the whole of the county the improvement of thian.
cottages, farm buildings, and fences can be traced. Furrow-
draining has been extensively practised, the application of ex¬
traneous fertilizers and the use of fattening auxiliaries generally
carried out. The application of lime to the soil has long been
decreasing. With the exception of a few spots being reclaimed
on the slopes of the Lammermuir hills, lime is now seldom used
in agriculture.
“ Within these last sixteen years little difference is observ¬
able in the breeds of sheep fatted within the county, with the
exception of the introduction of a few South-downs; but a
striking change has taken place with regard to cattle. For the
fine and mature-aged animals from the northern counties of
Scotland, which formerly graced the feeding courts during win¬
ter, have been substitued young and inferior descriptions of
short-horns from Ireland and the north of England. This
change has perhaps been owing to more of the northern cattle
being now fatted where they are bred, and sent direct for the
English shambles ; but there is no reason for supposing that the
farmers of East Lothian have sustained a loss by this change
of breeds, as the young short-horn is considered to grow more
in size while under the fatting process. In the modes of fatten¬
ing animals changes have recently crept in. With cattle there
has been introduced box feeding and an extended use of auxi¬
liary foods. Sheep are fatted in July, August, and September
by folding off winter and spring tares approaching ripeness,
with addition of oil-cake ; and also from the middle of August
onwards by means of early sown turnips. The cultivation of
winter tares upon a considerable scale has hitherto been con¬
fined to the neighbourhood of Ormeston where they were suc¬
cessfully grown by Mr Wight 130 years ago.
‘ ‘ The improvement in implements and machinery has hi¬
therto been slow ; but a spirit of inquiry has lately been di¬
rected towards this department of agriculture. The thrashing
machine, which was first invented in this country in 1786, con¬
tinues to be used with some of its defects uncorrected. With¬
in fourteen years, as a substitute for the scutching drum, the
American peg drum has been tried and laid aside ; and very
recently the English bolting drum has been introduced. The
bolting drum and concave, from acting by a union of beating
and rubbing, preserves the straw nearly unbroken, facilitates
the shaking and winnowing processes, extracts the corns from
the ears whatever may be the position of the sheaf on entering
the machine, and is easily propelled. From combining so many
good properties the bolting drum and concave is likely to super¬
sede Meikle’s scutching drum.
“The first properly authenticated attempt to construct a
thrashing machine was made in this country in 1732, by Mr
Michael Menzies; and the machine now in use was introduced
by an inhabitant (Mr Andrew Meikle) in 1786. No individual
has laid claim to the invention of the rubbing drum and con¬
cave now so generally found in the southern parts of England,
and there is every reason to believe that they originated with
Mr (afterwards Sir Francis) Kinloch of Gilmerton in this
county. Evidence of this fact may be obtained in the Survey
of East Lothian, by Mr Buchan Hepburn, in 1794, and in a
letter from George Bennie, Esq., of Phantassie, published in
the Farmer’s Magazine for 1811.
“ No change deserving of notice has lately taken place with
regard to ploughs and harrows. Scoullar’s and Tennant’s grub¬
bers, both recent inventions, are much esteemed. In some
instances they have supplanted Finlayson’s harrow, which
has been the favourite grubber in the county since 1826.
“ Several improvements in corn drills have lately been effected
by Hunter of Samuelston, and Sheriff1 of Westbarns, in this
county ; but the drilling of corn crops is far from being gene¬
ral in East Lothian. The practice has not increased of late
years, a belief existing amongst farmers that drilling affords
no increase of produce unless the ground is hoed when infested
with annual weeds. Garret’s and Sheriff’s horse-hoes for
drilled corn crops are used by a few farmers.
“ After reaping machines having engaged the attention of
some of the inhabitants of this county for nearly half a cen¬
tury, the harvest of 1852 brought into the field six or seven of
3 A
AGRICULTURE.
370
Report on Hussey’s American reapers manufactured by Crosskill; all of
East Lo- which were laid aside after the first trial, with exception of one,
thian. the owner of which successfully persevered throughout thehar-
vest. Bell’s reaping machine was also exhibited at work with¬
in the county, and met with general approbation, after having
been neglected for nearly a quarter of a century. The cutting
of crops by machinery having been publicly demonstrated,
there is reason to believe that reaping machines will be much
used in time to come. Hitherto the extensive harvests of East
Lothian have been chiefly cut down by people from other dis¬
tricts, enticed by the hope of high wages, and who return to
their homes when the harvest is over. The recent increase of
commercial and manufacturing employment, resulting from
freedom of trade and consequent improved state of the lower
classes, joined to an extensive and extending emigration of la¬
bourers, also the result of free trade, has so diminished the
number of itinerating harvesters, that, in future, East Lothian
farmers must either employ reaping machines or allure assist¬
ing hands by extravagant wages.
“ Within these last sixteen years no striking advance has
perhaps been made in improving the implements of the farm ;
but considerable changes are taking place in the uses to which
they are applied. Of late years the plough and the roller are
seldomer, and the grubbers areoftener, employed in preparing
soils for green crops, and in extracting root-weeds from them,
whether the cleaning process is performed in spring or in
autumn. It frequently happens that clay soils, which were
formerly ploughed four or five times, and received perhaps as
many harrowings and rollings to fit them for a turnip-crop,
are now prepared by one ploughing: natural agencies being
more effectual than the implements of man in pulverizing such
soils.
“ Hunter’s, Hopetoun, and Fenton wheats all originated in
East Lothian ; and at the present time are the standard wheats
of the county. Many new varieties of the different grains are
introduced from time to time, and generally find a short-lived
reputation ; but although no very marked improvement of
agricultural plants has lately taken place, there are no signs of
degeneracy in the oldest kinds of grain. At the shows of seed
corn under the auspices of the East Lothian Agricultural So¬
ciety, in the case of the mentioned wheats the prizes are occa¬
sionally carried off by parcels grown upon the farms where the
variety was first propagated, and where it has been since cul¬
tivated without a change of seed from the time of discovery ;
proving beyond question that, when soil and climate are con¬
genial to the wheat plant, change of seed is unnecessary. Vast
and increasing quantities of seed corn are annually sent from
East Lothian to other districts. With turnips, Skirving’s
purple-top yellow has supplanted, in many instances, the
white globe and the Swede, having been found to answer well
both for early and late consumption.
“ In the rotations of cropping, or in the relative extent which
one description of crop bears to another, the chief change has
taken place with the turnip and the potato; the one having
supplanted the bean, and the other naked fallow. The in¬
creased growth of these plants is chiefly owing to drainage,
and the application of extraneous manures—the one having
supplied nourishment, and-the other a fitting condition of soil.
Without a union of these improvements, the cultivation of such
crops could not have been successfully extended.
“ The potato disease which has been so prevalent of late years
throughout Britain, and more especially on its western shores,
has been comparatively little felt in East Lothian, and hence
the extended growth of this root. Whatever may be the cause
of the potato being less affected by disease in East Lothian
than in the surrounding districts, the fact is unquestionable.
So fine has been the quality of this root, that large quantities
of potatoes have been annually sent to the markets of England,
Ireland, and Wales.
“ Amongst the recent changes affecting agriculture, railways
ought not to be forgotten. The North British Railway and its
branches intersect East Lothian, and afford a cheap and an
expeditious conveyance for manures and farm produce, whether
in a raw or manufactured state, and more especially for the
potato, which is one of the most perishable and cumbrous
commodities of the farm..
“ However great the advances of East Lothian agriculture Report, on
may have been of late years, its future progress is likely to be East Lo-
still more rapid. Without placing undue reliance on the dis- thian.
coveries which the intelligence and enterprise of the age are
likely to effect, there is much to be expected from what is now
at command. Unrestricted competition, which has been found
so beneficial with other classes, will urge agriculturists to adopt,
and energetically to employ, all agencies within their reach.
Naked summer fallow, which at one time was considered so
beneficial, that a monument was proposed to be erected to John
Walker, who first practised it in East Lothian, must be en¬
tirely laid aside. The occupiers of clay soil, by substituting
the grubber for the plough, and early for late green crops, will
vie with the possessors of light land in the fattening of animals,
without diminishing the corn crops which such soils are so pre¬
eminently calculated to yield. By an extended use of portable
manures, combined with early sowing of early varieties, much
of the uplands, now yielding scanty returns, will equal soils
near the level of the sea in the production of butcher meat and
grain, with an increase of sustenance for the breeding flocks,
which constitute the staple commodity of such districts. In
the genial climate of East Lothian, annual applications of fer¬
tilisers to the whole arable surface of the farm could not fail
of proving advantageous. And with the adoption of the
changes enumerated the disposable produce of the county would
be vastly increased in a few years.
“ It will be found that the state of the population connected
with farming is often affected by the security of tenure granted
to, and the amount of rent paid by, the occupiers of the soil.
Leases have long been general in East Lothian, and in some
cases the rents of farms have always been quantities of corn
either delivered in bulk or payable in money at fiars prices.
The money-rents contracted previous to 1830 were soon after¬
wards generally changed into quantities of corn payable at
fiars prices, and nearly all the corn-growing farms of the dis¬
trict are held at such rents. The succession of deficient crops
formerly noticed, and consequent distress amongst farmers, ex¬
tended over the county generally, and arose from the severe
drought of 1826, followed by the ravages of the wheat fly for
several consecutive years, when the yield of wheat on some of
the best farms did not reach* 16 bushels per statute acre ; and
in 1828 the wheat crop on the farm of Wintonhill was offered
to and refused by the incoming tenant at 12 f bushels, exclu¬
sive of the expense of harvesting and marketing the crop.
About that time many farmers were impoverished, and with¬
out security of tenure from being in arrears of rent. With a
view of meeting their pressing liabilities, retrenchment was
carried into every department of the farm. The productive
powers of the soil were drawn upon, fewer people were
employed, the wages of labour fell, and depression over¬
shadowed the industrial classes connected with agriculture.
The change of money-rents into quantities of corn payable at
fiars prices, coupled with the return of more productive sea¬
sons, altered the prospects and policy of farmers. Knowing
that, under the altered terms of their contracts, security of
tenure was restored, and that all the proceeds of augmented
crops would not be absorbed in paying rent; and having ex¬
perienced the evils of parsimonious management, they set
about increasing the productiveness of their farm by every
available means. To accomplish this object, soils were
deepened, drained, and enriched, by employing more capital
and labour; better crops were obtained, and the working-classes
became enabled to purchase with the wages of labour a greater
share of farm-produce.
“ From what has been experienced in East Lothian, it would
appear that when landowners for a length of time exacted too
much rent, farmers employed little capital and labour, inferior
crops were reaped, and the state of cultivation retrograded.
On the other hand, when a moderate rent was paid, much
capital and labour were employed, augmented crops were ob¬
tained, and agriculture was progressive.
“ In the metayer system which prevails in some countries, the
miserable crops are equally divided between the owner and oc¬
cupier of the soil; and other parties are but little interested in
the division. With an improved state of agriculture, such as
now' exists in East Lothian, matters became very different; and
AGRICULTURE.
Farm it is the province of the farmer to distribute the produce, or
Buildings, rather its money value, amongst the parties entitled to it.
Every individual who aids the productive powers of the soil by
his labour, or otherwise, becomes entitled first to be paid; and
the landowner ought to receive as rent only what remains after
disbursing the legitimate expenses of production. Much of the
augmented produce of the present time goes to the non-agri-
cuitural population—such as ingenious mechanics and manure
merchants. The results of high farming form a large fund for
rewarding many classes of the community, and with a good
understanding existing between the owners and occupiers of
the soil, that fund will progressively increase.
“ Viewing the farmer simply as a distributor of the fruits of
the earth, it may appear that he has no pecuniary interest in
the quantity gathered or the division of it beyond what falls
to his own share. He will, however, find as a general rule,
that without large crops his portion will be small, and that the
larger the produce distributed amongst the number of indivi¬
duals aiding in producing the crop, the greater will be the
happiness diffused amongst the population.”
Appendix B.
371
ployed in a temporary way as a guano or potato house. The Farm
poultry-house has a yard, part of which can, as occasion may Buildings,
require, be staked off as an exterior area for an invalid v v— y
beast requiring fresh air. The saddle-horse stable and gig-
house may be simply referred to in concluding the description.
This steading thus embraces within a comparatively compact
circle, all the conveniences required for a farm of the size
specified ; and it is not the least recommendation to it that the
farmer can see almost at a glance, in any part of the interior,
all his 10 or 12 horses, his 50 stall cattle, his 60 shed cattle,
and his 30 or more calves ; and from the position of, and ready
access to them all, he can at once see how they are supplied
with food and litter. The whole homestead with its contents,
live and dead stock, are in fact as much within the visible
scope of its owner, and manual access of the servants, as any¬
thing of the kind can, or requires to be.1
“ The plan, Plate XV., is that of a farm on the small pro¬
perty of Calvennan, in Wigtownshire. It was built last sea¬
son at a cost of about L.500. It has three roofs, and the ar¬
rangements, which are similar to those in the plan just de¬
scribed, will be understood by a reference to the accompanying
plan and sections.”
After the foregoing article was partly put to press, we
became aware that the two gold medals offered by the High¬
land and Agricultural Society of Scotland, for the best plans
of farm-buildings for large and small farms, had been
awarded to Mr James Cowie, Mains of Haulkerton. From
the novelty of the principle adopted by Mr Cowie, and the
skilful manner in which he has worked it out, we felt desirous
to include an illustration of it in the present treatise. This
he has kindly enabled us to do by placing at our disposal the
specifications and descriptions of plans. (Plates XIV., XV.,
and XVI.)
“ The plan, Plate XIV., is calculated for a farm of 400
acres, and can be erected at a cost of about L.1200, exclusive of
carriages. I have given full sections and elevations along with
a ground plan of it, accompanied by full specifications, which
will enable readers to understand it fully, and in fact to make it
available and ready for tradesmen to work by, if required.
Notwithstanding, to those not accustomed to judge of buildings
from drawings, a few explanations may not be unacceptable,
as leading to a more ready understanding of the arrangements.
It will be seen that the two granary lofts, upper and lower, are
attached to the sheaf-loft and corn-room. The division between
them can be made to shift, so as one can be lessened or enlarged
as may be required. The adjacent house has, in the ground-
floor, a boiling-house and hay or grass shed, which may ex¬
tend above the water-wheel to the corn-room wall. The floor
above can be occupied as an auxiliary sheaf-loft or granary,
or for erecting machinery for bruising corn or other food, &c.
The straw barn is placed in the centre of the building, and al¬
lows two kinds of straw to be deposited separately. The hay
shed and infirmary, when not occupied, can serve as a store for
straw or chaff if need be. The turnip sheds are placed quite
adjacent to the cattle, which can be fed from a small waggon on
a,railway, by the arrangement adopted here, in nearly half
the time required by employing the common wheel-barrow.
The sheds or boxes for the loose cattle are placed four feet be¬
low the level of the rest of the interior, and are immediately
behind the stalls, so as to admit of the dung being removed from
the tied-up cattle with the least labour. The cow-byre is in a
separate division, and the calves-house is in proximity to it.
The stable, which has two doors opening externally for more
ready access to the horses, is conveniently situated as regards
proximity to the boiling-house, corn-room, straw-barn, dung-
shed, and cart-sheds ; and there is a room provided over the
turnip-shed for a sleeping apartment for the persons in charge
of the cattle and horses. There are two large loose boxes, car¬
penter’s shop, pig-sties, an ample tool-house, and an enclosed
shed, which is capable of containing two carts, or can be em-
“ SPECIFICATION FOR STEADING OF FARM-OFFICES.
“ Mason Work.
“ All necessary excavations will be performed by the tenant.
“ The walls will be founded at the depth shown by the sec¬
tions, or as much more as will insure a firm and solid founda¬
tion. The contractor must satisfy himself as to the extent of
the necessary depths, as no addition will be allowed for extra
building.
“ The foundation course of the walls are to be laid with large
flat-bedded stones laid close together, and their joints hard
packed with stone-shivers and lime mortar, and having a toe
or ledge from 3 to 4 inches broad, projecting beyond the thick¬
ness of the walls on each side. The walls are to be of good coursed
and well banded and packed common rubble work. The stones
composing the outside courses are to be well axe-dressed on the
face, and to have beds of not less than 7 inches of breadth, and
not to exceed 12 inches in height, having headers laid in each
course at from 5 to 6 feet apart, extending at least two-thirds
the thickness of the walls, and the whole to be particularly
snecked on the outside, and back-snecked. All corners, out-
band door and window rybats, to be 26 inches in length, and
squared on the ends; and inband rybats to go through the
walls; and the whole to have heads not less than 8 inches
broad. The rybats of the large doors will have checks l,] inches
by 2§ inches on the outside all round. All other doors open¬
ing to the outside will have checks 1| inch by 2| inches ; and the
other door and window rybats will have checks 2 inches deep,
and one inch check on the lintels. All the comers of the
buildings, door and window rybats, soles, and lintels, tabling
and put stones, and arch stones, are to be well droved and
jointed, and the pillars of the cart sheds are to be close jointed,
and all rybats to have a margin of 3 inches round the outside
faces, and on each of the external corners. The heel-posts of
the byres are to be of stones 8 inches square, to be well droved,
and to have a groove cut in each T£ inch square, for the travis-
boards, and to be well sunk in the ground, 2 feet at least, and
to stand 3| feet above the saddles as shown.
“ The feeding-troughs of the byres are to be raised above the
causewaying 6 inches, and bottomed with well droved and
jointed stones; and the wooden posts of the stable and byres
are to have proper stone bases. The urine under drains are
to be laid with glazed socket-pipes to communicate with the
urine tank, as shall be pointed out.
_ “ The internal walls of the corn-room, sheaf-loft, and grana¬
ries are to have one good coat.of plaster, and the walls of the
same are to be beam filled between the couples.
“ Such of the houses and passages as shall be pointed out for
causewaying shall be done in a proper and sufficient manner
by the contractor at the rate of threepence per yard.
1 In Plate XIV. the plan of an ark for a water-mill is given, but should a steam-engine be required the erections for it can be made in
place of the ark in the same situation.
372
Farm
Buildings.
Lintels.
Joists.
Trimmers.
Mill-
beams.
Roofs.
Slate-lath.
Gutters.
Lufferwin
dows.
Windows.
Doors.
AGRICULTURE.
“The foundation of the underground walls of the ark are to
he laid with large flat-bedded stones, all well laid and packed,
and the whole of the water walls are to be of well-sized stones
squared up, axed on the face and well jointed, to have full beds,
and built in courses, and every third stone to be a header of at
least 2 feet in length. All openings are to have squared up
scuncheons. There will be a projecting course laid at centre
9 inches thick, and at least 1 foot 9 inches in breadth, well
droved and jointed. The bottom of the ark is to be slabbed
with good quarry stones, and the tail race through an arched
opening 3 feet square, the thickness of the wall. The size and
form of the stones for hanging the machinery, and all the ne¬
cessary cuttings, boring, and levellings, &c., must be executed
at the sight, and to the satisfaction of the mill-wright or in¬
spector.
“ All the lime for the building is to be of the best English
shells, well slaked and made into a stong composition of mortar
with clean sharp sand, and all the joints of the outside work
are to be well ripped out and pointed with Scotch lime mortar,
in a proper season, and the ark is to be pointed with Roman
cement.
“All necessary raggles are to be made, window frames bedded
and pointed in, and the lead and the running in of the hinge
crooks of the doors, also the laying of the urine-pipes, and all
inferior jobs necessary for the completion of the mason-work,
must be done at the sight, and to the satisfaction of the in¬
spector without any additional charge.
“ Carpenters’ Work.
“ Safe lintels throughout the buildings to have 1 inch of thick¬
ness to every foot of extreme length, and to have 9 inches of
wall-hold, and closely fitted up to the out-side stone lintels. All
inside doors to have wood lintels.
“ Joists and sleepers to be laid as shown, 18 inches from
centres. Joists to have 9 inches of wall-hold.
“ To have one row of trimmers in centre 10 inches by 1.
“ Mill beams to be laid as shown, to have 12 inches of wall-
hold ; to be double mortised, and fixed with a fth-inch joining
bolt.
“ The main couples on wide roofs will be framed as shown,
and secured at the joinings with iron plates; the rafters to be
placed 21 inches from centres, checked at joinings, and securely
nailed.
“ The wide roofs will be supported by cast-iron columns as
shown. These-columns to have large bases and capitals, and
to have 6 inches diameter at the centre, and not less than |
inch thick of metal, fixed at the top to a dressed beam 11 inches
square, and let into the stone base at the bottom J inch.
The other roofs to be framed up as shown—roofing to be
checked at joinings, and properly nailed.
“ Slate-lath to be nailed on to answer slates 16 inches by 8
inches, or as near to that size as can be conveniently got.
“ Gutters between the roofs to be formed as shall be shown;
all to be properly bracketed up and laid with ploughed floor¬
ing.
- Luffer-windows for granary and ventilators to have frames
3 inches by 2 inches, boards one inch thick, and made to open
and shut with a rod and.wood brackets, as shall be shown.
“ The window-frames to be two inches thick, and to be made
to open on pivots 12 inches from the top, and to be filled with
strong rough plate glass.
“ All the large doors to be in two halves, bound with four
bars each, 7 inches by 1^ inch, and all to have margin stiles in
both edges 3£ inches by 1^ inch. Covering to be | inch thick,
ploughed, and all heeded on the joints. Each door to have
two slipping bolts 18 inches long, f inch diameter, made to
work on strong iron plates ; hinges to be inches broad, 11-
inch at neck, and each hinge to be two-thirds the width of the
door, and to have three screw bolts each.
“ Corn-room door to be cut across the centre horizontally.
All the other outside doors to be in one piece, and all to be
framed on the back-side with stiles and bars ; stiles 3J inches,
bars 7 inches by 1^ inch. Each door to have four bars covered
with fth inch deals, either to be ploughed and beeded on the
joints, or plain joints separated fth inch between deals, as shall
be required: hinges 2 inches broad, ^ inch thick, and two-thirds Farm
the breadth of the door, and each to have a screw-bolt at Buildings,
neck. Such of the doors as shall be pointed out to have a sliding
board 9 inches square at bottom to admit air at pleasure. All
the doors to have strong ring latches, and those on the outside
to have home-made locks of the value of 5s. each, to be put on
with three screw bolts each. Keys of stable-doors to have
rings. The doors for granaries and sleeping apartments to be
made similar to the others, but hung on posts with good hinges,
and to have locks same as the others. All the doors, lufier
and other windows to have three coats of white lead paint,
finished to a taint to be approved of.
“ Crooks to be feather-tailed, pins for large doors inch,Crooks,
for small doors 1 inch.
“Mill-loft and granaries to be floored with 1-| inch thick Flooring,
deal, not broader than 7 inches, clean dressed on face, grooved
and tongued, and nailed down with M lb. spikes, and the bye
wood all cleaned off. Dressed skirting boards fixed to ducts
round all the walls of granaries, corn-room, and sheaf-loft, 7
inches deep and 1 inch thick.
“ The mangers to be 16 inches deep, and sloped from the Stable-
back to 20 inches, and in addition to have a 3 inch deal biting mangers,
tree of hard wood. The front and bottom to have If inch deal,
the back 1 inch deal.
‘ ‘ The posts to be octagon, 8 inches diameter at foot, and 7 Stable-
inches at top, grooved for travis inch deep and 2 inches posts,
broad; to be fixed at top to a run-joist 7 inches by 2J inches,
with a large oak pin, and at bottom with an iron pin 5 inches
long, 1 inch diameter. Front posts same size, split up the
centre and similarly fixed. Posts and run-joists to be clean
dressed.
“ Hay-racks to be fitted up in the stable 36 inches broad. Stable-
The splits to be 2f inches by 1^- inch, and to be 4 inches be-racks,
tween. Rails to be 4 inches by 2 inches, and checked for splits,
and properly nailed.
‘‘ Travis to be 2 inches thick, to be clean dressed, close jointed, Travis
each joint to have 3 iron dowels fth inch diameter; and boards,
to be fixed between the front posts by screw-bolts. The gable
walls to be lined the length of the stalls with 1 inch deal,
ploughed and fixed to straps 1 inch by 2 inches. Travis to be
finished on the top with an ogee, and strapped with thick iron
hoop.
“ Harness-pins and saddle-rests to be fitted up as shall be Harness
pointed out, each post to have an iron hook for hanging harness, pins.
Two rings to be fixed into each post for binding horses.
“ Two corn-chests to be fitted up in recesses in walls of stable, Corn-
of 1 inch ploughed deal, 4 feet long each, 2 feet wide inside, chests,
and 3 feet deep; provided with proper locks and hinges. One
corn-chest 3 feet long for riding stable, similar to the others.
“Fronts and backs of byre-troughs to be 2 inches thickByre-
and 12 inches deep, to slope towards the cattle, and rounded on troughs,
the edge.
Post to be fitted up as shown, to be fastened at bottom and Byre-posts,
top same as stable, to be 5J inches diameter, champhered in
comers. The front post to be grooved for receiving travis,
the other one to be in two, and travis fixed to them same as
stable. Run-joists to be 6 inches by 3 inches. Iron sliding
rods 14 inches long, f inch thick, to be fixed in the posts with
screw-bolts for cattle bindings.
“ Racks to be fitted up 30 inches deep on the side next the Byre¬
cattle, and 24 inches on the other side. Same dimensions as racks,
stable racks, and fitted up in the same way; splits to be 6
inches between.
“ Travis boards to be If inch thick, 41 feet high at front, Byre-tra-
and 3 feet 3 inches at back ; and front-bar 5 inches broad, and 2 vis.
inches thick, to be nailed to the front posts, and 2 feet above
the edge of the troughs.
‘ ‘ Troughs to be made into proper lengths for convenience Cattle-shed
in shifting. Sides to be 14 inches deep and 2 inches thick ; troughs,
bottom 1-1 inch, to be properly secured by longitudinal spars,
nailed to bottom and framing, frame 3 inches by 2 inches, and
made to stand on feet. Width of troughs to be 2J feet; all to
be firmly nailed.
‘ ‘ One straw-crib to be made for each division of sheds; posts Cribs,
to be 4 inches square, to have 3 rails on each side, 4 inches
by 2 inches; to stand 4 feet high, 8 feet long, and 4 feet wide.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 373
Agricul- “ Two traps to be made for corn-room, loft, and stable, of
ture such length and dimensions as shall be pointed out.
|| “ All scaffolding, centring, and moulds, are to be furnished
Agricul- to the contractor for the mason-work. All inferior jobs not
tural specified, nor shown in sections necessary for the proper com-
Chemistry. pletion of the carpenter work, shall be done without any addi-
tional charge, unless from its nature and extent such shall be
alllowed by the inspector of the work.
‘ ‘ All the timber shall be of good Baltic timber, or American
red pine, and must be well seasoned.
“ Scantlings of Timber.
11 Sleepers, 6^ inches by 2J.
Joists, 10J inches by 2%.
Rafters, narrow roof, 6 inches at bottom, 5 inches at top,
inches thick.
Baulks or ties, inches by 2.
Cross beam for thrashing-mill, 10 inches by 14.
Longitudinal beams, 7 inches by 14.
Safe lintels for large shed-doors, 10 inches by 10.
Slate lath, 1J inches by 1.
Rafters of main-couples, 5 inches by 8.
Tie beams of do. 9 inches by 5.
King posts of do. 5 inches by 5.
Spurs or anglers, 5 inches by 5.
Purlins, inches by 5^.
Intermediate rafters, wide roofs, 6 inches by 2.
“ Slater Work. Agricul-
“ The roofs to be covered with blue Welsh slates, size 16 tu.!’e
inches by 8 inches ; to have 2-inch cover or overlap, and all to Aaricul-
be fair and closely laid. To be nailed to laths with nails weighing |ural "
eight pounds per thousand, steeped in oil when red hot, and each chemistry,
slate to have two nails. Skylights to be put in as shown, of i J
strong sheet-glass of the size of 12 inches by 18 inches, fitted
into zinc frames, weighing 16 ounces per square foot. The
valley gutters to be covered with lead weighing 6 lb. per square
foot, and 12 inches in breadth. The flat gutter between the
roofs to be covered with lead weighing 6 lb. per square foot.
“ The gutter at the narrow ends will be 9 inches in breadth,
and the lead to rise up on the roof the usual height.
‘ ‘ Gutters will have declivities of 1^ inch on every 10 feet
of length, and to have boxes formed where shown, 5 inches
deep ; to have 3-inch lead pipes soldered into the same, and
carried through the beam below into the cast-iron columns. All
the roofs to be upheld sound and water-tight for eighteen
months after being finished.
“ The whole of the work, including materials, but excluding
carriages, must be performed by the day of in a
most substantial and workmanlike manner, to the entire satis¬
faction of or any other person to be named
by the employer. Any alterations that may be made in the
progress of the work at the suggestion of the inspector shall be
paid for, or deducted according to his estimate.”
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
The application of chemistry to the development of the
principles of agriculture, though it has only of late years at¬
tracted general attention, is by no means new. It dates as
far back as the period at which agriculture, after remaining
for ages almost stationary, received that stimulus which has
led to its recent progress. The earliest reference to the
composition of vegetables, and the source of their food, in
an agricultural point of view, we owe to Jethro Tull; and
though his conclusions are no doubt often erroneous, as in¬
deed they could scarcely fail to be, in the then imperfect
state of our knowledge of vegetable chemistry and physio¬
logy, and with his limited acquaintance with what was even
then known, yet some of his observations are unquestionably
both ingenious and valuable. They were, however, inciden¬
tal merely, for he attributed the benefits of his improved
method of culture to mechanical, and not to chemical prin¬
ciples, and deliberately denies the statement put forth by
Van Helmont, and some of the chemists of his own time,
that plants derive their food from the air.
While we thus fix the work of Jethro Tull as the earliest
in which allusion is made, though only indirectly, to the
chemical principles of agriculture, its effect was rather to
turn attention from, than direct it to the investigation of
the subject; and it was not till the close of the last century
that its importance was brought distinctly before the agri¬
cultural public by the publication of Lord Dundonald’s
Treatise on the intimate connexion between Chemistry and
Agriculture. Almost simultaneously with its publication
appeared the earlier researches of De Saussure, which, ex¬
tending over a long series of years, have the merit of laying
the foundation of all that has been recently done, and of
opening up the field which has been since so successfully
cultivated. Saussure investigated, in every point of view,
and with a care and accuracy which have never been sur¬
passed, the principal phenomena of the life of plants, and
directed attention to the important bearings which many of
the facts he substantiated had upon the practice of Agricul¬
ture. Neither Saussure’s investigations nor the work of
Lord Dundonald, appear to have excited that attention
which they deserved, or to have produced any immediate
effects in the progress of agriculture; but a lively interest
was excited by a course of lectures on agricultural che¬
mistry given by Sir Humphry Davy, in the year 1812, at
the instance of the Board of Agriculture, and afterwards
published. These lectures, written with all the elegance and
precision which characterised their author’s style, brought
prominently before the public the results of Saussure’s ex¬
periments, and contained a number of useful practical sug¬
gestions, many of which have been adopted into our every¬
day practice, and become so thoroughly incorporated with
it, that their scientific origin has been altogether forgotten.
The interest which Sir Humphry Davy’s work awakened
was only temporary: it soon died out, and the whole sub¬
ject lay in abeyance for a considerable number of years.
The truth is, that at that time agriculture was not ripe for
science, nor science ripe for agriculture. The necessities of a
rapidly increasing population had not then begun to compel
the agriculturist to use such means as would increase the
amount of production to its utmost limit; and that branch of
chemistry which treats of the nature and constitution of the
various components of animals and vegetables was still en¬
tirely uncultivated, and the whole science in a comparatively
374
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
Agricul- imperfect state. We cannot be surprised, therefore, that
tuyaj matters remained with but little change during the com-
v emis-ry- paratively long period of nearly thirty years. Indeed, with
*’ the exception of the investigation of soils by Schiibler, and
some other inquiries of minor importance, and which, in
this country at least, excited no attention on the part of the
agriculturist, nothing was done until the year 1840, when
Liebig published his treatise on Chemistry, in its applica¬
tion to Agriculture and Physiology. Few works have ever
created a more powerful impression. Written in a lively
and attractive style, and essentially a popular work, dealing
with scientific truths in a bold and original manner, and im¬
pressing, by its earnestness and the importance of its con¬
clusions, it was at once received by the agricultural public,
with the full conviction that the application of its principles
was to be immediately followed by the production of im¬
mensely increased crops, and by a rapid advance in every
branch of practical agriculture. The disappointment of
those extravagant expectations, which chemists themselves
foresaw, and for which they vainly attempted to prepare
the agriculturist, was followed by an equally rapid reaction ;
and those who had embraced Liebig’s views, and lauded
them as the commencement of a new era, but who had ab¬
surdly expected an instantaneous effect, changed their opi¬
nion, and contemned, as strongly as they had before sup¬
ported, the application of chemistry to agriculture. Taking
all things into account, this effect is scarcely to be wondered
at, and part of it is even to some extent attributable to
Liebig himself; for in place of bringing always prominently
before his reader the fact that agricultural chemistry was still
in its early youth, and burthened with all the faults and
errors of youth, he treated it too much as if it were already
perfect in all its parts. Conclusions, ingenious, but founded
on insufficient evidence, and sometimes altogether hypotheti¬
cal, were stated as if they were fully demonstrated scientific
truths; and when these proved, as they sometimes did, to
be at variance with practice, it is not surprising that they
should have produced a feeling of distrust on the part of
persons incapable, from an imperfect and still oftener from
no knowledge of science, of drawing the line of demarca¬
tion, which Liebig frequently omitted to do, between the
positive fact and the ingenious hypothesis founded upon it.
I his omission, which would be of no consequence with
scientific men, becomes a source of serious misapprehension
in a work addressed to persons unacquainted with science,
and who adopt indiscriminately both the facts and the hy¬
potheses of the author. Be this as it may, Liebig’s work,
though rather too much of a popular character, has had per¬
haps all the more on that account a very powerful influence
in awakening attention to the improvement of agriculture
through means of science.
Liebig s work was followed, in the year 1844, by the pub¬
lication of Boussingault’s Economic Rurale, a work which,
though it excited at the time infinitely less interest than
Liebig s, is really quite as important a contribution to scien¬
tific agriculture, and in some respects even surpasses it; for
it contains the accumulated results of a large number of
investigations, both in the laboratory and the field, by the
author himself, which have served to establish a great many
important truths. Boussingault possesses the qualification,
at present somewhat rare, of combining a knowledge of prac¬
tical agriculture with extended scientific attainments; and
his investigations, which have been made with direct refer¬
ence to practice, and their results tested in the field, must
be considered as the foundation of a large part of our correct
knowledge of scientific agriculture.
The same year was marked by an event of equal impor¬
tance in the history of scientific agriculture, namely, the
foundation of the. Agricultural Chemistry Association of
Scotland, which was instituted through the exertions of a Agricul-
small number of practical farmers, for the purpose of pur- tural
suing investigations in agricultural chemistry, and affording Chemistry-
to its members assistance in all matters connected with the
cultivation of the soil. That institution has formed the
model of similar associations in London, Dublin, Belfast, and
in Germany, and it is peculiarly creditable to the intelligence,
energy, and zeal of the practical farmers of Scotland, that
with them commenced a movement, which has already found
imitators in so many quarters, and has conferred so many
benefits on agriculture. Within the last six or eight years,
and mainly owing to the exertions of these associations, great
progress has been made in accumulating facts on which to
found an accurate knowledge of the principles of agricultural
chemistry, and the number of chemists who have devoted
themselves to agriculture, has considerably increased, though
still greatly less than the exigencies of the subject require.
Even now, we are but on the threshold of the subject, and
are only, as the result of numerous and laborious investiga¬
tions, becoming acquainted with the path which may be most
advantageously followed in elucidating the applications of
chemistry to agriculture. Much still remains to be done,
and it behoves the agricultural public to adopt such measures
as shall be most likely to advance the study of the principles
of their art. What these means are will be afterwards indi¬
cated. Meanwhile it admits of no question, that with all the
faults and errors of a science still in its infancy, the progress
which has been made is sufficiently encouraging to induce
practical men to turn their attention towards it.
THE ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS.
When a plant, or any of its parts, is exposed to a high
temperature, it catches fire, burns, and is gradually consumed,
until at length there is left behind a quantity of a white
earthy matter, which undergoes no further change, however
long the heat be continued. The action of heat thus di¬
vides the constituents* of plants into two great classes, the
organic constituents, contained in that part which is volati¬
lised by burning, and the inorganic constituents which are
found in the residual white matter or ash. All plants con¬
tain both classes of substances, and though their relative pro¬
portions vary considerably, the former greatly exceed the
latter, and invariably form the principal part of the plant.
The organic constituents are four in number:—
Carbon. Hydrogen.
Nitrogen. Oxygen.
The inorganic constituents, though smaller in amount, are
much more numerous, not less than twelve having been ob¬
served as essential to the plant, while one or two others have
been detected under certain circumstances, although they
appear to be only accidentally present, and form no part of
its living tissues. Those which have been clearly ascertained
to be essential constituents are:—
Potash.
Soda.
Lime.
Magnesia.
Peroxide of Iron.
Silicic Acid.
Phosphoric Acid.
Sulphuric Acid.
Chlorine.
and more rarely :—
Manganese. Iodine. Fluorine.
None of these substances occur in the plant in their ele¬
mentary or uncombined state, but exist as compounds of
greater or less complexity formed by the union of two or
more of them; which compounds are extremely varied in
their properties, and are especially adapted for performing
the various functions of the plant.
The Organic Constituents of Plants.—It would be out of
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
Agricul- place to enter here into full details regarding the properties
tural of the organic elements, which fall to be considered under
Chemistry. ^jie head of pure chemistry, but a few words regarding their
more important characteristics, are essential to a right un¬
derstanding of what is to follow.
Carbon, in the pure state, is found only in the diamond.
It is left as charcoal in a less pure condition when vegetable
and animal substances are heated in close vessels, and
is then obtained as a black substance insoluble in water,
which burns in the air, and, by its union with oxygen, is con¬
verted into a transparent and colourless gas called carbonic
acid. Carbon is the largest constituent of plants, and forms,
in round numbers, nearly 50 per cent, of their dry sub¬
stance.
Hydrogen is only met with in nature in combination with
other substances, and its principal compound is water, of
which it forms one-ninth, the remaining eight-ninths being
oxygen. It is separated from water by a well known pro¬
cess, and then appears as a transparent and colourless gas,
remarkable for its lightness. It catches fire in the air, burns
with a pale flame, and is converted into water by combining
with oxygen. It is a constituent of all plants, and of all their
parts, and though in much smaller quantity than carbon, is
equally essential. Dry plants rarely contain more than 5
or 6 per cent, of hydrogen, and sometimes considerably
less.
Nitrogen, like hydrogen, is a gas, but unlike it, is found in
great abundance in an uncombined state. It exists in large
quantities in atmospheric air, of which it forms nearly four-
fifths, or more correctly 79 per cent., of its volume. When
separated from the oxygen with which it is mixed in the air,
it forms a transparent gas, which is incombustible and ex¬
tinguishes flame. It is a remarkably inert substance, and is
incapable of directly entering into combination with the other
elements, although it can be made to do so by indirect pro¬
cesses, a peculiarity which has very important bearings on
many points which we shall afterwards have to consider.
Nitrogen is found in plants to the extent of from 1 to 4 per
cent.
Oxygen is one of the most widely distributed of all the
elements, and, from its powerful affinities, is the most im¬
portant agent in almost all natural changes. It is found in
the air, of which it forms 21 per cent., and in combination
with hydrogen and various other substances. When ob¬
tained in the pure state it possesses very remarkable proper¬
ties. All substances burn in it with greater brilliancy than
they do in atmospheric air, and its affinity for most of the
elements is extremely powerful. It supports the respiration
of animals, but only for a short time, for it excites a violent
inflammation in the system, which proves fatal after the
lapse of an hour or two. It is found in plants, in quantities
varying from 30 to 36 per cent.
Now, in order that a plant may grow, all its four organic
constituents must be presented to and absorbed by it, and
that this absorption may take place, it is essential that they
be presented to it in suitable forms. A seed may be planted
in pure carbon, and supplied with unlimited quantities of hy¬
drogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and inorganic substances, and it
will not germinate; and a plant, under similar circumstances,
will not only not increase, but will soon die. These substances
cannot then be absorbed when in the elementary state, but
when they have entered into certain forms of combination,
they acquire the property of being readily taken up, and assi¬
milated by the organs of the plant.
It has been ascertained by numerous experiments, that
the forms of combination in which these elements must exist
for this purpose, are by no means numerous; and though
great difference of opinion formerly existed, it is now gene¬
rally admitted that the most important compounds are—for
875
the carbon, carbonic acid ; for hydrogen, water; for nitrogen, Agricul-
ammonia and nitric acid; and for oxygen, water and carbonic tural
acid. The properties and general chemical relations of these Chenustry-
substances are fully treated of in the article Chemistry, and
need not be specially disscussed here; it will be enough to
remind the reader that carbonic acid is a compound of car¬
bon and oxygen, water a compound of hydrogen and oxygen,
ammonia of hydrogen and nitrogen, and nitric acid of nitro¬
gen and oxgen ; and that all these substances, with the single
exception of ammonia, may supply the plant with oxygen
as well as with that element of which it is the particular
source.
There are only two sources from which these substances
can be obtained by the plant, viz. the atmosphere, and the
soil, and it is necessary that we should here consider the
mode in which they may be obtained from these sources.
The Atmosphere as a source of the organic constituents
of Plants.—Up to the middle of the last century the atmo¬
sphere was universally considered to be one of the great che¬
mical elements, but at that time suspicions of its complex
nature began to be entertained, which were afterwards sub¬
stantiated by the experiments of Priestley, Rutherford, and
other observers. It has been clearly established that the
main bulk of the atmosphere is formed of a mechanical mix¬
ture of oxygen and nitrogen, along with certain other ingre¬
dients which, though in extremely minute proportion, are
as essential to it as its larger constituents. It has been shown
by many experiments that 100 volumes of air deprived of
moisture and minor constituents, contain
Oxygen  21
Nitrogen 79
100
Though only in mechanical mixture, the proportion of
these ingredients is fixed and invariable. Experiments, en¬
tirely corresponding in their results, have been made by
Humboldt, Gay-Lussac, and Dumas at Paris, by Saussure
at Geneva, and by Lewy at Copenhagen; and similar results
have also been obtained from air collected by Gay-Lussac
during his ascent in a balloon at the height of 21,430 feet,
and by Humboldt on the mountain of Antisano in South
America at a height of 16,640 feet. In short, under all cir¬
cumstances, and in all places, the relation subsisting between
the oxygen and nitrogen is constant; and though no doubt
many local circumstances exist which may tend to modify
their proportions, these are so slow and partial in their
operations, and are so counterbalanced by others operating
in an opposite direction, as to retain a uniform proportion
between the main constituents of the atmosphere, and to pre¬
vent any undue accumulation of one or other of them at any
one point. It is different with the minor constituents, which
are liable to have their proportion varied to some extent under
different circumstances. Of these minor constituents the
most important is carbonic acid.
Carbonic Acid.—The proportion of carbonic acid in the
air has been carefully investigated by Saussure. From his
experiments it appears that the mean quantity in 10,000
volumes of air, at the village of Chambeisy, near Geneva,
amounts to 4T5 volumes; and this quantity was not con¬
stant, but varied between 3T5 and 5‘75 volumes. The vari¬
ations in question are dependent on different circumstances.
It was found that the quantity was greater during the night
than during the day, the mean quantity in the former case
being 4‘32, in the latter 3’38. The largest quantity found
during the night was 5*74, during the day 5*4. Heavy and
continued rain had the effect of diminishing the quantity of
carbonic acid, by dissolving and carrying it down with it into
the soil. Saussure found that in the month of July 1827,
during the time when nine millimetres of rain fell, the ave-
376 A GRI CULT UR A
Agricul- rage quantity of carbonic acid amounted to 5*18 volumes in
tural 10,000; while in September 1829, when 254 millimetres fell,
Chemistry. it wag ()nly 3.57. 0n the other hand, continued frosts, by
V v ^ ^ retaining the atmosphere and soil in a dry state, had an op¬
posite effect. High winds increase the carbonic acid to a
small extent. It was also found to be greater over the cul¬
tivated lands than over the lake of Geneva; greater at the
tops of mountains than at the level of the sea ; in towns than
in the country. The differences observed in all these cases
are but small, but they are beyond the limits of error in the
experiment, and have been confirmed by subsequent experi¬
menters.
Ammonia is also an invariable constituent of the atmo¬
sphere, but in extremely minute quantity. Its amount ap¬
pears to vary within wider limits than any of the other com¬
ponents ; but it admits of question whether the very variable,
and indeed almost conflicting, statements of different ob¬
servers may not be to some extent dependent on the mode
of experimenting, and the care which has been devoted to
it. Our observations on this constituent of the air are less
numerous than on any other; for though it has long been
known that ammonia exists there, it is only recently that it
has been ascertained to be invariably present, and that tlm
recognition of its importance has led to the determination of
its quantity. Dr Kemp determined the quantity present in
1,000,000 parts of air to be 3-68; Graeger found in the same
quantity no more than 0*323; while Fresenius obtained only
0*098 parts by day, and 0*169 by night. The experiments
of the latter observer appear to have been conducted with
great care; those of Kemp probably give too high a result;
but the number of experiments we at present possess is too
small to permit us to draw any general conclusions as to the
average proportion of ammonia, although they all concur in
proving its invariable presence. It is easy to prove that it
is present in the air, by collecting the first few drops of a
shower, and applying to them the well-known tests for
ammonia; but the accurate determination of its quantity is
extremely difficult and tedious.
Water.—The air always contains a quantity of watery
vapour, which varies greatly at different times and places,
and is dependent to a great extent upon the atmospheric
temperature, being largest in hot weather and least in cold.
It is increased also by the proximity of the sea, of lakes and
rivers, evaporation from which moistens the superincumbent
air, and is diminished in dry districts. It is deposited on the
surface of the earth in the form of rain and dew, and is con¬
nected with many very important natural changes. One
thousand volumes of air contain, on the average, about eight
volumes of watery vapour; but under certain circumstances
this quantity may be greatly increased or diminished.
Carburetted Hydrogen.—Gay-Lussac, Humboldt, and
Boussingault have shown, that when the whole of the mois¬
ture and carbonic acid have been removed from the air, it
still contains a small quantity of carbon and hydrogen; and
Saussure has rendered it probable that they exist in a state
of combination as carburetted hydrogen gas. No definite
proof of this position has, however, as yet been adduced, and
the function of the compound is entirely unknown. It is
possible that the presence of carbon and hydrogen may be
due to a small quantity of organic matter; but, whatever be
its source, its amount is certainly extremely small.
Nitric Acid is sometimes, but not invariably, found in the
atmosphere. It has been detected after thunder-storms,
during which it is apparently formed by the electric spark
causing the combination of its elements. Its proportion is
extremely minute.
Sulphuretted Hydrogen and Phosphoretted Hydrogen.
—The proportion of these substances is almost infinitesimal;
but they are pretty general constituents of the atmosphere,
L CHEMISTRY.
and are apparently derived from the decomposition of animal Agricul-
and vegetable matters. tu?al
From the preceding statements, it is apparent that the ^ emiatry.
atmosphere may prove a source of all the organic consti- “
tuents of plants; for not only does it contain nitrogen and
oxygen in a pure state, but likewise in those forms of com¬
bination in which they are most readily absorbed; and it
affords also a supply of carbon in the form of carbonic acid.
No doubt the quantity of these substances appears trifling,
but it is only relatively and not absolutely small; for, if we
take into account the enormous mass of air surrounding the
globe, it will be at once apparent, that even the minute
fraction of ammonia, amounting, according to Fresenius, to
less than a ten-millionth of the atmosphere, corresponds
to a very large total quantity. It has been found, by a
simple calculation, that the atmosphere must weigh in round
numbers
5,050,000,000,000,000 tons,
and it must consequently contain
Carbonic acid, 3,300,000,000,000 tons,
Ammonia,   50,000,000 tons,
quantities sufficiently large to afford an abundant supply of
these elements to all the plants on the surface of the earth.
The Soil as a Source of the Organic Constituents of
Plants.—When a portion of soil is subjected to heat, it is
found that it, like the plant, consists of a combustible and an
incombustible part; but while in the plant the incombustible
part or ash forms only a small proportion of the whole, the
reverse is the case with the soil, which rarely contains more
than 5 or 6 per cent, of organic matter, and sometimes much
less. The organic matter exists in the state of what has
been called humus, a substance which must be considered
here as a source of the organic constituents of plants, inde¬
pendently of the general composition of the soil, which will
be afterwards discussed.
The term humus is generic, and is applied by chemists to
a rather numerous group of substances, very closely allied
in their properties, of which several are generally present in
all fertile soils. They have been submitted to examination
by various chemists, but by none more accurately than by
Mulder and Herman, to whom, indeed, we owe almost all the
precise information we possess on the subject. The organic
matters of the soil may be divided into three great classes;
the first, containing those substances which are soluble in
water ; the second, those which are extracted by means of
caustic potash ; and the third, those which are insoluble in
all menstrua. When a soil is boiled with a solution of
caustic potash, a deep brown fluid is obtained, from which
acids precipitate a dark brown flocculent substance, con¬
sisting of a mixture of at least three different acids, to
which the names of humic, ulmic, and geic acids have been
applied. The fluid from which they have been precipi¬
tated contains two substances, crenic and apocrenic acid,
while the soil still retains what has been called insoluble
humus.
The chemical characters of all the acids above named are
pretty closely allied. They have, however, been divided
into three groups, the humic, geic, and crenic groups, which
present some differences in properties and composition.
They are all compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen,
and are characterised by their affinity for ammonia, which is
so great that they are with difficulty obtained free from that
substance, and generally exist in the soil in combination
with it. They are all products of the decomposition of
vegetable matters in the soil, and are produced in succession
by the gradual progress of their decay. This decomposition
may be easily traced by observing what takes place when a
piece of wood, or any other vegetable substance is exposed
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
377
Agricul- to air and moisture. It first acquires a dark brown, and
tural finally a black colour, and is then converted into two sub-
Chemistry. stances, named ulmin and humin. These are insoluble in
alkalies, and are apparently identical with the insoluble
humus of the soil. As the decay advances, the products
become soluble in alkalies, and then contain humic, ulmic,
and geic acids, and finally, by a still further progress, crenic
and apocrenic acids are formed by a process of oxidation,
which goes on during the decay.
In fact, these substances are representatives of the differ¬
ent stages of decomposition of plants; and that this is ac¬
tually the source of all the humus compounds, is obvious
from the fact that they are only found in the soil itself, that
is to say, in the upper foot or two of the earth’s surface, and
only in those parts of it on which plants grow. Numerous
analyses of the different substances already mentioned have
been made, and have served to establish a number of minor
differences in the composition even of those to which the
same name has been applied; and these differences are
manifestly attributable to the fact, that, as their production is
the result of a gradual decomposition, at no time can it be
possible to extract from the soil one pure substance, but only
a variable mixture of several. For this reason it is that such
discrepancies exist in the statements of the most careful ob¬
servers. As far as the composition of these substances is
concerned, little need be said, as we shall immediately see
that it has no very direct bearing upon agricultural ques¬
tions. It will suffice, therefore, to give the names and
chemical formulae of those which have been analysed and
described,—
Ulmic acid from long Frisian turf. C40 His Ois
Humic acid from hard turf  C40 H15 O15
Humic acid from arable soil  C40 Hie Oie
Humic acid from a pasture field  C40 H14 O14
Geic acid  C40 H15 O17
Apocrenic acid  C48 H12 O24
Crenic aoid C24 Hl2 Oie
Humus was formerly considered a much more important
constituent of the soil than chemists are now inclined to
suppose. It was believed to be the exclusive, or at all
events the chief source of the organic constituents of plants,
and by absorption through the roots to yield to them the
greater part of their nutriment. This view is still supported
by some chemists and vegetable physiologists, among whom
Mulder is the most distinguished ; but notwithstanding their
authority, there is little doubt that humus is not a direct
source of the organic constituents of plants, and is not ab¬
sorbed as such by their roots ; but it is so indirectly, in as
far as the decomposition which it is constantly undergoing
in the soil yields carbonic acid, which can be absorbed. The
older opinion is refuted by many well-ascertained facts. As
regards the exclusive origin of the carbon of plants from
humus, it is easy to see that this at least cannot be true.
The humus, as we have already stated, is itself derived
solely from the decomposition of vegetable and animal mat¬
ters ; and if the plants on the earth’s surface were to be
supported by it alone, the whole of their substance would
have to return to the soil as humus, in order to supply the
generation which succeeds them. We know, however, that
this is not the case ; for the respiration of animals, the com¬
bustion of fuel, and many other processes, are annually
converting a large quantity of these matters into carbonic
acid ; and if there were no other source of carbon but the
humus of the soil, the amount of vegetable life would gra¬
dually diminish, and at length become entirely extinct.
Schleiden, who has discussed this subject in full, has made
an approximative calculation of the total quantity of humus
on the earth’s surface, and of the quantity of carbon annually
YOL. II.
converted into carbonic acid by the respiration of man and Agricul-
animals, the combustion of wood for fuel, and other minor tural
processes; and he draws the conclusion that, if there wereChemistl'y-
no other source of carbon except humus, the quantity of
that substance existing in the soil would only support vege¬
tation for a period of sixty years. So far from humus being
the only source of carbon, it is obvious that a great part of
it must be derived from other sources ; for Boussingault
has shown that cultivated crops carry off, on the average of
years, about one ton more carbon than they receive in the
manure applied to them, and without any corresponding
diminution on the quantity of humus. A still more con¬
vincing evidence of the same nature is given by Humboldt.
He states that an acre of land, planted with bananas, yields
annually about 155,000 pounds weight of fruit, containing
about 32,000 pounds, or upwards of 14 tons of carbon ; and
as this production goes on during a period of twenty years,
there must be withdrawn in that time no less than 280 tons
of carbon. But the soil on an acre of land weighs, in round
numbers, 1000 tons, and supposing it to contain 4 per cent,
of humus, the total weight of carbon in it would amount to
little more than 20 tons.
It is manifest from these facts that the influence of humus
must be very small, and while no one now supposes it to be
the sole source of carbon, as was once believed, it has been
contended, that there really is a certain, though small, ab¬
sorption. Numerous facts are, however, at variance even
with this opinion. It is found that the conditions which in¬
sure the solubility of the humus are by no means the most
suitable to vegetation, though we should expect them to be
so were humus absorbed. Peat soils, for instance, which
contain large quantities of it in solution, so far from being
favourable, are positively injurious to most plants. On the
other hand, innumerable examples are found of plants grow¬
ing luxuriantly in soils and places where no humus exists.
The sands of the sea-shore, and the most barren rocks, have
their vegetation, and the red-hot ashes which are thrown out
by active volcanoes, are no sooner cool than a crop of plants
springs up on them.
The conclusions to be drawn from these considerations
have been further confirmed by the direct experiments of
different observers. Boussingault sowed pease, which
weighed 15*60 grains, in a soil composed of a mixture of
sand and clay, which had been heated red-hot, and conse¬
quently contained no humus, and after 99 days growth, dur¬
ing which they had been watered with distilled water, he
found the crop to weigh 68*72 grains, so that there had been
a fourfold increase. Similar experiments have been made
by Salm Horstmar, on oats and rape. He sowed them in a
soil which had been previously ignited, and found that they
grew readily and arrived at complete maturity. One oat
straw grew to a height of three feet, and bore 78 grains;
another bore 47; and a third 28, in all 153. These when
dried at 212° weighed 46*302 grains, and the straw 45*6
grains. The most satisfactory experiments, however, are
those of Weigman and Polstorff, who found that, provided
care were taken to produce an artificial soil without humus,
but having the physical characters of a fertile soil, it was pos¬
sible to obtain a two-hundred-fold produce of barley. They
prepared a mixture of six parts of sand, two of chalk, one of
white bole, and one of wood charcoal; to this was added a
small quantity of felspar, which had been fused up with
marble and some soluble salts, so as to imitate as closely
as possible the inorganic parts of a soil, and in it they plant¬
ed twelve barley plants. The plants grew luxuriantly,
reaching a height of three feet, and each bearing nine ears;
the ears gave 22 pickles each. The grain of the twelve
plants weighed 2040 grains, the straw 2449 grains. On the
other hand, experiments have been made which show that
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
378
Agricul- even when present, humus is not absorbed. The first ex-
tural periments of this sort we owe to Saussure, who allowed plants
Chemistry. common bean and the Polygonum Persicaria to grow
;n solutions of humate of potash, and found a very trifling
diminution in the quantity of humic acid present; but the
value of his experiments is invalidated by his having omitted
to ascertain whether the diminution of humic acid which he
observed were really due to absorption by the plant. 1 his
omission has been supplied by Weigman and PolstorfF.
They grew plants of mint (Mentha undulata) and of Poly¬
gonum Persicaria in solutions of humate of potash, and placed
beside the glass containing the plant, another perfectly simi¬
lar, and containing only the solution of humate of potash.
The solution, which contained in every 100 grains, 0T48
grains of solid matter, consisting of humate of potash, &c.
was found to become gradually paler, and at the end of a
month, during which time the plants had increased by
inches, the quantity of solid matter in 100 grains had di¬
minished to 0T32. But the solution contained in the other
glass, and in which no plant had grown, had diminished to
0T36, so that the absorption could not have amounted to
more than 0-004 grains for every 100 grains of solution em¬
ployed. This quantity is so small as to be within the limits
of error of experiment, and we are consequently entitled to
draw the conclusion that humus, even under the most fa¬
vourable circumstances, is not absorbed by plants.
While it appears, then, that humus is not directly a food
of plants, it must not be supposed that it is altogether de¬
void of importance. The decompositions which it is con¬
stantly undergoing in the soil, make it a source of carbonic
acid, which may be absorbed by the plants; and it conse¬
quently has indirectly an important bearing on their nutri¬
tion. Its functions in the soil are also important, but these
we leave for future consideration.
Carbonic acid, ammonia, and water, are the great organic
foods of plants. But while the plant has afforded to it an
inexhaustible supply of the last, the quantities of the two
former, both in the atmosphere and the soil, which are avail¬
able as food, are limited, and insufficient to sustain its life for
a prolonged period. It has been shown by Chevandrier,
that an acre of land under beech wood accumulates annually
about 1650 lb. of carbon. But the column of air resting upon
an acre ofland contains only about 15,5001b. of carbon, and
the soil may be estimated to contain 1 per cent., or 22,400
lb. per acre, and the whole of this carbon would therefore be
removed, both from the air and the soil, in the course of little
more than 23 years. But it is a familiar fact, that plants
continue to grow with undiminished luxuriance year after
year in the same soil, and they do so because neither their
carbon nor their nitrogen are permanently absorbed ; they
are there only for a period, and when the plant has finished
its functions and dies, they sooner or later return into their
original state. Either the plant decays, in which case its
carbon and nitrogen pass more or less rapidly into their origi¬
nal state, or it becomes the food of animals, and by the pro¬
cesses of respiration and secretion, the same change is ef¬
fected. In this way a sort of balance is sustained ; the car¬
bon which at one moment is absorbed by the plant, passes
in the next into the tissues of the animal, only to be again
expired in that state in which it is fitted tp commence again
its round of changes.
But while there is thus, as it were, a continuous circula¬
tion of these constituents through both plants and animals,
there are various changes which tend to diminish the quan¬
tities of carbonic acid and ammonia at the earth’s surface,
carbon being separated from plants and animals under cer¬
tain circumstances in the elementary state, and the decom¬
position of nitrogenous matters yielding nitrogen, which is
incapable of returning into the state of ammonia except in
small quantity and by very circuitous processes. The ele- Agricul-
ments carbon and nitrogen being, as we have already men- tural
tioned, incapable of direct absorption by plants, a gradual chemistry
though slow diminution in the amount of vegetable life would '''•v"*"''
necessarily occur were it not that nature has provided against
this by establishing sources of carbonic acid and ammonia
so as to sustain their quantity. The most important of these
sources is perhaps volcanic action, both ammonia and car¬
bonic acid being evolved from active volcanoes to an extent
which may appear trifling when superficially examined, but
is really very large. The production of nitric acid during
thunder-storms, apparently by the combination of the nitro¬
gen and oxygen of the atmosphere, which either directly or
indirectly ministers to the growth of plants, is another mode
in which the supply of these substances is sustained, and
the small annual loss of the available food of plants counter¬
balanced.
Source of the Inorganic Constituents of Plants.—The
nature of the inorganic constituents of plants, their being
solid and fixed substances, sufficiently indicate that there
can be but one source from which they may be derived.
That source is the soil, which, as we shall afterwards see,
contains all these substances in greater or less abundance,
and has always been admitted to be the only substance cap¬
able of supplying them. The older chemists and physiolo¬
gists, however, attributed no importance to these substances,
and looking to the small quantities in which they are found
in plants, imagined that they were there present merely as
accidental impurities which had been absorbed from the soil
along with the humus, which was at that time considered to
be their organic food. This opinion, sufficiently disproved
by the constant occurrence of the same substances, and in
the same proportions, in the ash of each individual plant,
has been further refuted by the experiments of Prince Salm
Horstmar, who has established the fact of the origin of all
these substances from the soil, and of their importance to
vegetation, by 'experiments upon oats grown^ on artificial
soils, in each of which one inorganic constituent was omitted.
He found that, without silica, the grain vegetated, but re¬
mained small, pale in colour, and so weak as to be incapable
of supporting itself; without lime, it died when it had pro¬
duced its second leaf; without potash and soda, it grew
only to the height of three inches; without magnesia, it was
weak and incapable of supporting itself; without phosphoric
acid, it was weak but upright; and without sulphuric acid,
it was weak though normal in form, but produced no fruit.
Manner in ivhich the Constituents of Plants are Absorbed.
Water.—The absorption of water by plants takes place in
great abundance, and is connected with many of the most
important phenomena of vegetation. It is absorbed by the
roots alone, and passing into the tissues of the plant, a part
of it is decomposed, and goes to the formation of certain of
its organic compounds; but by far the larger quantity does
not remain in the plant, but is again exhaled by the leaves.
The extent to which this takes place is very large. Hales
found that a sunflower exhaled in twelve hours about 1 lb.
5 oz. of water, but this quantity was liable to considerable
variation, being greater in dry, and less in wet weather, and
was greatly diminished during the night. Saussure made
similar experiments, and found that the quantity of water
exhaled by a sunflower amounted to about 220 lb. in four
months. The subject of the exhalation of water by plants
has recently been examined with great accuracy by Lawes.
His experiments were made by planting single plants ot
wheat, barley, beans, pease, and clover, in large glass jars
capable of holding about 42 lb. of soil, and covered with
glass plates, furnished with a hole in the centre for the pas¬
sage of the stem of the plant. Water was supplied to the
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
379
Agricul- soil at certain intervals, and the jars were carefully weighed.
tural The result of the experiments, continued during a period of
Chemistry, ] 72 days, is given in the following table, which shows the
total quantity of water exhaled in grains :—
Wheat 113,527
Barley. 120,025
Beans 112,231
Pease 109,082
Clover, cut 28th June   55,093
It was found, further, that the exhalation was not uniform,
but increased during the period of active growth of the plant,
and diminished again when that period was passed. These
variations are shown by the subjoined tables, of which the
first gives the total exhalation during certain periods, and
the second the average daily loss of water during the same
periods.
Table I.—Shotting the Number of Grains of Water given
off by the Plants during stated divisional Periods of
their Growth.
Description
of Plant.
9 Days.
31 Days.
Apr. 28.
27 Days.
From
Apr. 28
to
May 25.
34 Days.
From
May 25
30 Days.
July 28.
14 Days.
From
July 28
Aug. 11.
27 Days.
From
Aug. 11
to
Sept. 7.
Wheat,
Barley,
Beans,
Pease,
Clover,
129
129
88
101
400
1268
1867
1854
1332
1645
4,385
12,029
4,846
2,873
2,948
40,030
37,480
30,110
36,715
50,100
46,060
45,060
58,950
62,780
15,420
17,046
12,626
5,281
6235
6414
3657
Table II.—Showing the average daily Loss of Water {in
Grains) by the Plants, within several stated divisional
Periods of their Growth.
Wheat,
Barley,
Beans,
Pease,
Clover,
| Days.
14-3
14-3
9-7
1P2
44.4
31 Days
Apr. 28.
40-9
60-2
59-8
42-9
53-0
27 Days.
From
Apr. 28
to
May 25.
162-4
445-5
179-5
106-4
109-2
34 Days.
From
May 25
1177-4
1102-3
885-6
1079-8
1473-5
30 Days.
July 28.
1535-3
1502-0
1965-0
2092-7
14 Days.
Aug. 11.
1101-4
1217-6
901-8
377-2
From
Aug. 11
to
Sept. 7.
230-9
237-5
135-4
Similar experiments were made with the same plants hi
soils to which certain manures had been added, and with re¬
sults generally similar. If, now, a calculation be made from
these results of the quantity of water exhaled by the plants
growing on an acre of land, it will be found greatly to ex¬
ceed the annual fall of rain ; but we know that of all the rain
which falls only a small proportion can be absorbed by the
plants growing on the soil, for a large quantity is carried off’
by the rivers, and never reaches their roots. It has been
calculated, for instance, that the Thames carries off in this
way at least one-third of the annual rain that falls in the
district watered by it, and the Rhine nearly four-fifths. The
exhalation which takes place to so great an extent must
therefore be dependent on the repeated absorption of the
same quantity of water, which, after being exhaled, is again
deposited on the soil in the form of dew, and passes repeat¬
edly through the plant. This constant percolation of water
is of immense importance to the plant, as it forms the chan¬
nel through which some of its other constituents are carried
to it.
Carbonic Acid.—While thus the whole of the water
which a plant requires is absorbed by its roots, exactly the
reverse is the case with carbonic acid, of which only an in¬
considerable quantity is so absorbed. It passes into the plant
by the leaves, as has been clearly shown by Boussingault, ^gricul-
by a very simple experiment. He took a large glass globe p tur.al
having three apertures, through one of which he introduced \ emisJ7-
a branch of a vine, with twenty leaves on it. With one of *
the side apertures a tube was connected, by means of which
the air could be drawn slowly through the globe, and into
an apparatus in which its carbonic acid could be accurately
determined. He found, in this way, that while the air which
entered the globe contained 0-0004 of carbonic acid, that
which escaped contained only 0-0001, so that three-fourths
of the carbonic acid had been absorbed.
Ammonia.—The absorption of ammonia, so far as we at
present know, takes place entirely by the roots; and al¬
though a quantity of it no doubt exists in the air, which is
important to the plant, there is little doubt that even that
reaches it through the root, being carried down by the
rain, and absorbed in that way. The greater part of the
ammonia, being derived from the organic matter of the soil,
is undoubtedly absorbed by the roots.
Inorganic Constituents.—These are likewise absorbed by
the roots; and it is as a solvent for these substances that
the large quantity of water that passes through the plants
is so important. The inorganic constituents exist in the
soil in particular states of combination, in which they are
only sparingly soluble; so much so, indeed, that many of
them are considered to be almost absolutely insoluble in
water. But in the soil their solubility is increased by the
presence of carbonic acid, which being absorbed by the water
causes it to dissolve, to some extent, substances otherwise
insoluble. It is in this way that lime, which occurs in the
soil principally as the insoluble carbonate, is dissolved and
absorbed. Phosphate of lime is dissolved in water containing
carbonic acid, or even common salt in solution; and generally
we have some solvent substance always present. The
amount of solubility produced by these substances is ex¬
tremely small; but it is sufficient for the purpose of sup¬
plying to the plant as much of its mineral constituents as
are required, for the quantity of water which, as we have
already seen, passes through a plant is very large when com¬
pared with the amount of inorganic matters absorbed. It has
been shown by Lawes that about 2000 grains of water pass
through a plant for every grain of mineral matter fixed in it,
so that there is no difficulty in understanding how the ab¬
sorption takes place. There is no doubt that the substances,
before they can pass into the plant, must be dissolved, experi¬
ment having distinctly shown that the spongioles or apertures
through which this absorption takes place are too minute to
admit even the smallest solid particle.
THE PROXIMATE CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS.
The substances which are absorbed by the plant undergo
within it a series of complicated changes, and produce a
number of complex organic compounds, of which the mass
of the plant is composed. These substances may be divided
into three great classes, of widely different properties, com¬
position, and functions.
1st, The Saccharine and Amylaceous Constituents.—
These substances are compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen, and all possess a certain degree of similarity in
composition. The quantities of hydrogen and oxygen which
they contain are always in the proportion to form water, so
that they may be considered as compounds of carbon and
water; not that it can be asserted that they actually do
contain water, as such, for of that we have no evidence,
but only that its constituents are there in the proportion to
form it.
Cellulose.—This substance forms the fundamental part
of all plants. It is the principal constituent of woody fibre,
and is found in a state of purity in the fibre of cotton and
380
Agricul¬
tural
Chemistry.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
flax, and in the pith of plants; but in wood it is generally
contaminated with another substance, which has been called
incrusting matter, as it is deposited in and around the cells,
of which the plant is in part composed. Cellulose is in¬
soluble in all menstrua, but, when boiled for a long time
with sulphuric acid, is converted into a substance called
dextrine. Cellulose consists of
From pith of Elder-tree. Spongioles of roots.
Carbon 43-37 dSOO
Hydrogen  6‘04  6*18
Oxygen 50-59 50*82
100*00
100*00
It is represented chemically by the formula, C24 H21 O21,
which shows it to be a compound of 24 atoms of carbon
with 21 of hydrogen and 21 of oxygen.
Incrusting matter.—Of this substance, large quantities
enter into the composition of all plants ; but of its chemical
nature little is known, as it cannot be obtained separate
from cellulose. It is, however, of analogous composition, and
probably contains hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion
to form water.
Starch.—When a quantity of the flour of wheat, or of
many other seeds, is exposed to a gentle stream of water,
there is separated from it a fine white powder, which is com¬
mon starch. This powder, when examined by the micro¬
scope, is found to be composed of minute grains, formed of
concentric layers deposited on one another. These grains
vary considerably in size and structure in different plants;
but in the same plant they are generally so much alike as
to admit of their recognition by a practised observer. These
grains were formerly believed to be composed of an exter¬
nal coating of a substance insoluble in water, and containing
in their interior a soluble kernel. This opinion has, however,
been refuted, and distinct evidence been brought to show
that the exterior and interior of the globules are identical
in chemical properties. If boiled with water, starch dissolves
to a thick fluid ; and if heated in the dry state, to a tem¬
perature of about 390° Fahr., it becomes soluble in cold water.
It is distinguished by giving a brilliant blue compound with
iodine. Starch contains—
Carbon  44*47
Hydrogen  6*28
Oxygen   49*25
100*00
and its composition is represented by the formula
C12 H10 O10. It differs, therefore, but little from cellulose
in composition, but its chemical functions in the plant are
extremely different. It is connected with some of the most
important changes which occur in the growing plants, and
by a series of remarkable transformations is converted into
sugar and other important compounds.
Lichen Starch is found in most species of lichens, and is
distinguished from common starch by producing a green
colour with iodine. Its composition is the same as that of
ordinary starch.
Inuline.—The species of starch to which this name is
given is characterised by its dissolving in boiling water, and
giving a white pulverulent deposit in cooling. It is found
in the tuber of the dahlia, in the dandelion, and some other
plants. Its composition is identical with that of cellulose,
and its formula is C24 H21 O21.
Gum is exuded from various plants in the form of a thick
fluid, which dries up into a resinous mass. Its composition
is the same as that of starch. It differs considerably in its
properties when derived from different plants, but in all
cases its chemical composition is the same.
Dextrine.—When starch is exposed to a heat of about Agricul-
400°, or when treated with sulphuric acid, or with a sub- tui;al
stance extracted from malt called diastase, it is converted ^iemistry-
into dextrine. The same substance may also be obtained
from cellulose by a similar treatment. The dextrine so ob¬
tained has the same composition as the starch from which it
is obtained, but in its properties more nearly resembles gum.
It is a highly important constituent of all plants, and may
be converted into sugar on the one hand, and into starch on
the other.
Sugar.—Under the general name of sugar are included
four or five different substances which chemists have dis¬
tinguished. Of these the most important are cane sugar,
grape sugar, and an uncrystallisable sugar found in most
plants.
Cane Sugar is met with in the sugar-cane, the maple,
and many other plants. It is extremely soluble in water,
and may be obtained in large crystals, as in common sugar-
candy. Its composition is—
Carbon  42*22
Hydrogen   6*60
Oxygen   51*18
100*00
and its chemical formula is C12 Hu On.
Grape Sugar is met with in the grape, and most other
fruits. But it is also produced when starch is boiled for a
long time with sulphuric acid, or treated with a large quan¬
tity of diastase. It is less soluble in water than cane sugar,
and crystallises in small round grains. Its composition,
when dried at 284°, is—
Carbon  40*00
Hydrogen  6*66
Oxygen ,  53*34
100*00
and its formula is C12 H12 O12.
The uncrystallisable sugar of plants is closely allied to
grape sugar, and so far as we know, its composition is the
same.
Mucilage is the name applied to the substance existing
in linseed, and in many other seeds, and which commu¬
nicates to them the property of swelling up and becoming^
gelatinous when treated with water. It is found in a state of
considerable purity in gum tragacanth, and some other gums.
Its composition is not known with absolute certainty, but it
is either C24 H19 O19, or C12 H10 O10; and in the latter case
. it must be identical with starch and gum.
All the substances belonging to this class are obviously
very closely related in chemical composition, some of them,
indeed* as starch and gum, though easily distinguished by
their properties, are identical in constitution, and the others
only differ in the quantity of water, or of its elements which
they contain. In fact, all these substances may be con¬
sidered as compounds of carbon and water, and their rela¬
tions are, perhaps, more distinctly seen when their formula
are written so as to show this, as is done in the following
table, in which they are all supposed to contain 24 equiva¬
lents of carbon, so as to make them comparable with cel¬
lulose :—
Water.
Grape sugar, C12 H12 O12 C24 H24 O24 C24 + 24
Cane sugar, C12 Hu On C24 H22 O22 C24 + 22
Cellulose, . C24 H21 O21 C24 H21 O21 C24 +21
Inuline, . C24 H21 O21 C24 H21 O21 C24 +21
Starch, . C12 Hio O10 C24 H20 O20 C24 + 20
Dextrine, . C12 Hio O10 C24 H20 O20 C24 + 20
Gum, . C12 Hio O10 C24 H20 O20 C24 + 20
Mucilage, . C12 Hio O10 C24 H20 O20 C24 + 20
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 381
Agricul- The differences being thus so slight, it will not be diffi-
tural cult to understand how one of these compounds may pass
Chemistry. jnt0 the other. Thus, for instance, cellulose has only to
absorb an atom of water to become cane sugar, or to lose
an atom in order to be converted into starch; changes which,
we have every reason to believe, actually do occur in the
plant.
Pectine and Pectic Acid.—These substances are met
with in many fruits and roots, as, for instance, in the apple,
the carrot, and the turnip. They differ from the starch
group of substances, in containing a larger quantity of oxy¬
gen than is required to form water along with their hydro¬
gen ; but their exact composition is still uncertain, and they
undergo numerous changes during the ripening of the fruit.
2c?, Fatty Matters.—The fatty constituents of plants form
a rather extensive group of substances all closely allied, but
distinguished by minor peculiarities in properties and differ¬
ences in constitution. Some of them are of very frequent
occurrence, but others are almost peculiar to individual
plants. They are all compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen, and are at once distinguished from the preceding
class, by containing oxygen in greatly less quantity than is
required to form water with their hydrogen. The principal
constituents of the fatty matters and oils of plants are three
substances, called stearine, margarine, and oleine, the two
former solids, the latter a fluid. These substances rarely if
ever occur alone, but are mixed together in variable pro¬
portions, and the fluidity of the oils is due principally to the
quantity of the last which they contain. If a quantity of
olive oil be exposed to cold, it is seen partially to congeal;
and if it be then pressed, a fluid flows out, and a crystalline
solid remains, the former is oleine, though not absolutely
pure, and the latter margarine. The separation of these
substances involves a variety of troublesome chemical pro¬
cesses ; and when it has been effected, it is found that
each of them is a compound of a peculiar acid with another
substance called glycerine, or the sweet principle of fats.
Glycerine, as it exists in the fats, appears to be a compound
of C3 H2 O, and its properties are the same from whatever
source it is obtained. The acids separated from it are known
by the names of margaric, stearic, and oleic acids.
Margaric and Stearic Acids.—These substances are
white crystalline solids insoluble in water, and fusing at a low
temperature. They were formerly believed to be different
in composition, but the more accurate analyses of later che¬
mists have shown, that they have both the following com¬
position :—
Carbon   75’64
Hydrogen 12m 1
Oxygen 11‘65
100-00
and are both represented by the formula C34 H34 O4.
Oleic Acid.—Under this name two different substances
appear to be included. It has been applied generally to the
fluid acids of all oils, while it would appear that the drying
and non-drying oils actually contain substances of different
composition. The acid extracted from olive oil appears to
have the formula C36 Hat 04, while that from linseed oil is
C4G Css Oe, but this is still doubtful.
Other fatty acids have been detected in palm oil, cocoa-
nut oil, &c. &c., but they are of minor importance, and so
closely resemble margaric and stearic acids, as to be easily
confounded with them, although their composition is un¬
doubtedly different.
Wax is a substance closely allied to the fats. It con¬
sists of two substances, cerine and myricine, each of which
is extremely complex in its composition. The former con¬
sists principally of an acid similar to the fatty acids, called
cerotic acid, and containing C54 H54 O4. The latter has Agricul-
the formula C92 H92 O4. These substances are separated turiil
from one another by boiling with alcohol, in which the for- ((hemis^ry/
mer is more soluble. The wax found in the leaves of the
lilac and other plants appears to consist of myricine, while
that extracted from the sugar-cane is said to be different,
and to have the formula C48 H50 O2. It is probable that
other plants contain different sorts of wax, but their inves¬
tigation is still so imperfect, that nothing definite can be said
regarding them. Wax and fats appear to be produced in
the plant from starch and sugar; at least it is unquestionable
that the bee is capable of producing the former from sugar,
and we shall afterwards see that a similar change is most
probably produced in the plant.
3c?, Nitrogenous or Albuminous Constituents of Plants
and Animals.—The nitrogenous constituents of plants and
animals are so closely allied, both in properties and com¬
position, that they may be most advantageously considered
together.
Albumen.—Vegetable albumen is found dissolved in the
juices of most plants, and is abundant in that of the potato,
the turnip, and wheat. In these juices it exists in a soluble
state, but if its solution be heated to about 150° it coagulates
into a flocky insoluble substance. It is also thrown down
by acids and alcohol. Coagulated albumen is soluble in
alkalies and in nitric acid. Animal albumen exists in the
white of eggs, the serum of blood, and the juice of flesh;
and from all these sources is scarcely distinguishable by its
properties from vegetable albumen. The composition of both
varieties is the same—
From From From From
Wheat. Potatoes. Blood. White of Egg.
Carbon  53-7 53-1 53*4 53-0
Hydrogen  7*1 7*2 7‘0 7’1
Nitrogen...... 15*6 ... 15-5 15-6
Oxygen  4 f ... 22-l 22-9
Sulphur  > 23’6 \ 0*97 V6 !•!
Phosphorus... ) ( ... 0-4 03
loocr ioo-o ioo-o
Closely allied to vegetable albumen is the substance known
by the name of glutin, which is obtained by boiling the glu¬
ten of wheat with alcohol. It appears to be a sort of coagu¬
lated albumen, and its composition is the same as that given
above.
Vegetable Fibrine.—If a quantity of wheat flour be tied
up in a piece of cloth, and kneaded for some time under
water, the starch it contains is gradually washed out, and
there remains a quantity of a glutinous substance called
gluten. When this is boiled with alcohol, glutin above re¬
ferred to is extracted, and vegetable fibrine is left. It dis¬
solves in dilute potash, and on the addition of acetic acid
is deposited in a pure state. Treated with hydrochloric
acid, diluted with ten times its weight of water, it swells up
into a jelly-like mass. When boiled or preserved for a long
time under water, it cannot be distinguished by its properties
from coagulated albumen.
Animal Fibrine exists in the blood and the muscles, and
agrees in all its characters with vegetable fibrine, as is seen
by the subjoined analyses—
Carbon ..
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Sulphur
Wheat Flour.
53-1
7-0
15-6
23-2
1-1
100-0
Blood.
52-5
6-9
15-5
24-0
1-1
100-0
Flesh.
53-3
7*1
15-3
23-1
1-2
100-0
382
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
Agricul- Caseine.—Vegetable caseine is abundantly found in most
*—1 ^ plants, and is met with in the juice from which albumen has
v erais ry; been precipitated by heat, and may be sejiarated from it in
** flocks by the addition of an acid. It has been obtained for
chemical examination, principally from pease and beans, and
from the almond and oats. That prepared from the pea has
been called legumine, that from almonds emulsine, and that
from oats avenine; but they are all three identical in their
properties, although formerly believed to be different, and
distinguished by these names. Vegetable caseine is best
obtained by treating pease or beans with hot water, and
straining the fluid. On standing, the starch held in sus¬
pension is deposited, and the caseine is retained in solution
in the alkaline fluid; by the addition of an acid it is precipi¬
tated as a thick curd. Caseine is insoluble in water, but
dissolves readily in alkalies ; its solution is not coagulated by
heat, but, on evaporation, becomes covered with a thin pel¬
licle, which is renewed as often as it is removed.
Animal Caseine is the principal constituent of milk, and
is obtained by the cautious addition of an acid to skimmed
milk, by which it is precipitated as a thick white curd. It
is also obtained by the addition of rennet, and the process of
curdling milk is simply the coagulation of its caseine. It is
soluble in alkalies, and is precipitated from its solution by
acids, and in all other respects agrees with vegetable caseine.
The composition of animal caseine has been well ascer¬
tained, but considerable doubt still exists as to that of vege¬
table caseine, owing to the difficulty of obtaining it absolutely
pure. The analyses of different chemists give rather discor¬
dant results, but we have given those which appear most
trustworthy—
Carbon ...,
Hydrogen ,
Nitrogen
Oxygen ....
Sulphur ....
Phosphorus
From Pease.
,50-6 50-7
, 6-8 6*6
,16-5 15-8
,25-6 23-8
, 0-5 0-8
. ... 2*3
100-0 100-0
Other results differ considerably from these, and some
observers have even obtained as much as eighteen per cent,
of nitrogen and fifty-three of carbon.
The composition of animal caseine differs from this prin¬
cipally in the amount of carbon. Its composition is—
Carbon  53*6
Hydrogen  7-1
Nitrogen   
0xygen 22-5
Sulphur  PO
100-0
It will be at once manifest that a very close relation sub¬
sists between the different substances just described. In¬
deed, with the exception of vegetable caseine, they may be
said all to present the same composition ; and, as has been
mentioned above, there are analyses of it which would class
it completely with the others. While, however, the quan¬
tities of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen are the
same, diffeiences exist in the small quantities of sulphur and
phosphorus they contain, and which are indubitably essen¬
tial to them. Much importance has been attributed to these
constituents by various chemists, and especially by Mulder
and he has endeavoured to make out that all the albuminous
substances are compounds of a substance to which he has
given the x\zm<d of pr oleine, with different quantities of sulphur
and phosphorus. The composition of proteine, according to
his newest experiments, is—
Carbon  54*0 Agricul-
Hydrogen     7"1
Nitrogen  16-0 Chemistry.
Oxygen  2T4
Sulphur   1*5
100-0
and is exactly the same from whatever albuminous com¬
pound it is obtained. Although the importance of proteine
is probably not so great as Mulder supposed, it affords an
important illustration of the close similarity of the different
substances from which it is obtained. There is every reason
to believe that the different albuminous compounds are cap¬
able of changing into one another, just as starch and sugar
are mutually convertible; and the possibility of this change
throws much light on many of the phenomena of nutrition
in plants and animals. Indeed, it would seem probable that
these compounds are formed from their elements by plants
only, and are merely assimilated by animals to produce the
nitrogenous constituents they contain.
Diastase is the name applied to a substance existing in
malt, and obtained by macerating that substance with cold
water, and adding a quantity of alcohol to the fluid, when the
diastase is immediately precipitated in white flocks. It is
produced during the malting process, and is not found in the
unmalted barley. Its chemical composition is unknown, but
it is nitrogenous, and is believed to be produced by the de¬
composition of gluten. If a very small quantity of diastase
be mixed with starch suspended in hot water, the starch is
found gradually to dissolve, and to pass first into the state of
dextrine, then into that of sugar. The change thus effected
takes place also in a precisely similar manner in the plant,
for diastase is produced during the process of germination of
all seeds and tubers, for the purpose of effecting this change,
and to fulfil other functions less understood, but no doubt
equally important. Diastase is found in the seeds only during
the periocf when the starch they contain is passing into sugar ;
as soon as that change has taken place, its function is ended,
and it disappears.
THE CHANGES WHICH TAKE PLACE IN THE FOOD OF PLANTS
DURING THEIR GROWTH.
ls£, Changes ivhich occur during germination.—When a
seed is placed in the soil under favourable circumstances, it
becomes the seat of an important and remarkable series of
chemical changes, which result in the production of the young
plant. Experiment and observation have shown that heat,
moisture, and air, are necessary to the production of these
changes. In all instances these three requisites must be
combined, with the further addition, that at the earliest period
the seed must be protected from the light. The elevation
of temperature required for germination is very different with
different seeds ; some germinate at a few degrees above the
freezing point, and others require a tolerably high tempera¬
ture. The presence of oxygen is also essential, for it has
been show n that if seeds are placed in a soil exposed to an
atmosphere containing no oxygen, or if they be buried so
deep that the air does not reach them, they may lie for an
unlimited period without sprouting; but so soon as they
are exposed to the air, germination immediately takes place.
This phenomenon is frequently observed where earth has
been thrown up from a considei-able depth, when it is often
covered by plants unknown in the neighbourhood, and which
have sprung from buried seeds.
When all the necessary conditions are fulfilled, the seed
first absorbs moisture, swells up, and sends out a shoot which
rises to the surface, and a rootlet which descends, to form the
organ by which nourishment is by and by to be absorbed.
Until this takes place, however, the young plant derives its
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
383
Agricul- whole nutriment from the seed. When the seed begins to
tural swell, oxygen is absorbed, and re-acting upon the gluten of
Chemistry. j}ie seed, causes its conversion into diastase.. The diastase
in its turn acts upon the starch, and converts it first into
dextrine, and then into cellulose, which being deposited in
the form of organised cells, produces the first little shoot
of the plant. The germ continues to derive the whole of
its nutriment from the seed until leaves are produced, and
during this time the substances laid up in it undergo a
series of complicated changes. From the first moment of
growth oxygen is absorbed, and carbonic acid evolved, and
at the same time water also is formed from the organic con¬
stituents of the seed, which gradually diminishes in weight.
The amount of this diminution is different with different
plants, but is always considerable. Boussingault found that
the loss of dry substance in the pea amounted in 26 days to
52 per cent., and in wheat to 57 per cent, in 51 days. Against
this, of course, is to be put the weight of the young plant
produced, but this is always much less than the loss of weight
of the seed, for Saussure found that a horse bean and the
plant produced from it weighed, after 16 days, less by 29
per cent, than the seed before germination. The same phe¬
nomenon is seen in the process of malting, which is in fact
the artificial germination of barley, the malt produced always
weighing considerably less than the grain from which it was
obtained. It was believed by Saussure, and the older inves¬
tigators, that the carbonic acid evolved was entirely pro¬
duced from starch and sugar. These substances, as we have
already stated, may be looked upon as compounds of carbon
and water, and the carbon was supposed to be simply oxid¬
ised to carbonic acid, and its water eliminated. The ac¬
tion cannot, however, be so simple as this, for the woody
fibre contains more carbon than the sugar from which it is
produced; and we have, moreover, every reason to believe
that the nitrogenous substances are also oxidised. In fact,
all the constituents of the seed appear to take part in this
change, and the process of germination may in some respects
be compared to decay or putrefaction, which, like it, is at¬
tended by the absorption of oxygen and evolution of car¬
bonic acid; but while in the latter case the residual sub¬
stances remain in a useless state, in the former they at once
become part of a new organism.
Changes which occur during the after-groivth of the giant.
'—So soon as the plant has exhausted the store of materials
laid up for it in the seed, it begins to derive its subsistence
from the surrounding air, and to absorb carbonic acid, water
and ammonia, and to decompose and convert them into the
different constituents of its tissues. Each of these substances,
of course, undergoes a different series of changes, which we
shall separately consider.
Decomposition of Carbonic Acid.—Carbonic acid is ab¬
sorbed by the leaves and stems of plants, and in their in¬
terior is entirely decomposed, its carbon being retained, while
its oxygen is again evolved in the gaseous state. For the
production of this change, the influence of the sun’s rays is
essential, and the stronger the light the greater is the amount
of oxygen exhaled, and consequently of carbonic acid de¬
composed. The separation of oxygen is observed only in
the green parts of plants ; the flowers and roots, and the fruits
when approaching ripeness, produce an exactly opposite
effect, absorbing oxygen and evolving carbonic acid. The
absorption of carbonic acid and escape of oxygen has been
proved by numerous direct experiments by Saussure and
others, in which both atmospheric air and artificial mixtures
containing an increased quantity of carbonic acid have been
employed. Saussure allowed seven plants of periwinkle
(Vinca minor) to vegetate in an atmosphere containing 7’5
per cent, of carbonic acid for 6 days, during each of which
the apparatus was exposed for 6 hours to the sun’s rays. The
air was analysed both before and after the experiment, and
the results obtained were—
efore the experiment
Volume Nit Oxveen Carbonic
of the Air. U Og ' uxysen- Acid.
Agricul¬
tural
Chemistry.
There were therefore absorbed 431 volumes of carbonic acid,
and 292 volumes of oxygen evolved. Had the whole oxygen
of the carbonic acid been evolved, its volume would have
been equal to that of the acid, or 431; so that the deficiency
of 139 volumes of oxygen must have been retained in the
organs of the plant. Similar results have been obtained with
other plants, and in all of them it was observed that after the
experiment the nitrogen was increased in amount. It might
be supposed that this nitrogen had been produced from the
nitrogenous constituents of the plant, but Saussure has ef¬
fectually disproved this, and rendered it probable that it had
simply been retained in the interstices of the plant, and dis¬
solved in the water in which they grew. The absorption of
carbonic acid takes place only during the day ; at night or in
the dusk, exactly the opposite occurs, oxygen being absorbed
and carbonic acid evolved from all parts of the plant. Saus¬
sure found that the oak, the horse-chesnut, and other plants,
absorb oxygen and give off carbonic acid in less volumes than
the oxygen, while the house-leek, the cactus, and other plants,
absorb oxygen without evolving carbonic acid. While then
this action is exactly the reverse of that occurring during the
day, it must not be supposed that it is due to the carbon
which has been fixed during the day being again eliminated
in absence of light. On the contrary, it appears to be a
purely mechanical and not a chemical action. The carbonic
acid is absorbed along with the moisture which day and night
is passing into the plant by the roots, but in the absence of
the sun it passes through the plant and is exhaled, by the
leaves without undergoing any change.
The absorption of oxygen during the night, however, ap¬
pears to be a true chemical process; were it mechanical it
would not be confined to oxygen alone, but would take place
also with the other gases in contact with the plant. More¬
over, the absorption is extremely different in different plants,
in some scarcely appreciable, in others very abundant. The
plants containing volatile oils, which pass readily into resins
by absorption of oxygen, and those which contain tannine
and other readily oxidisable substances, taking up the largest
quantity. Thus the leaves of the Agave americana after
24 hours’ exposure in the dark, have absorbed only OS of
their volume of oxygen. The leaves of the fir which con¬
tain abundance of volatile oil have absorbed 10 times as
much, and those of the oak which contain much tannine, 18
times as much oxygen.
In the flowers, both by day and night, there is a constant
absorption of oxygen and evolution of carbonic acid. In
fact, an active oxidation is going on attended by the evolu¬
tion of heat, which in the Arum maculatum, and some other
plants, is so great as to raise the temperature 10° or 12° above
that of the surrounding air.
Decomposition of ivater in the Plant.—In addition to the
function which water performs in the plant, as the solvent of
the different substances which form its food, and hence as
the medium through which they pass into its organs, it
serves also as a direct food, undergoing decomposition, and
yielding hydrogen to the organic substances. Its consti¬
tuents, along with those of the carbonic acid absorbed, un¬
dergo a variety of transformations, and form the principal
part of the non-nitrogenous constituents. We have already
stated that starch, sugar, and the other allied substances may
384
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
Agricul- be considered as compounds of carbon with water, and their
Ch tU™t forrnation might be conceived to be effected by the carbonic
v IS_^y acid losing all its oxygen, and then direct combination en-
” suing between the residual carbon, and a certain proportion
of water. This, of course, would imply that no change takes
place in the water, and though probably the simplest view
of the case, it is by no means the most probable. It is
much more likely that the carbonic acid is only partially de¬
composed, half its oxygen being removed, and, at the same
time the oxygen being separated from a quantity of water,
its hydrogen takes the place of the oxygen which has been
removed from the carbonic acid. Thus, for instance, sugar
may be produced from twelve equivalents of carbonic acid
and twelve equivalents of water, twenty-four equivalents of
oxygen being eliminated as thus represented:—
12 equivalents of Carbonic Acid, C12 012 012
12 „ Water, Hi2 Oi2
1 „ Sugar. & 24 of Ox. Ci2 Hi2 Oi2 +024
It cannot, of course, be positively asserted that sugar is
really produced exactly in tbe manner here shown, but there
are many facts which point to the probability of its occurring
in a somewhat similar method. That water must be decom¬
posed is evident from the fact established by analysis, that
the hydrogen of the plant is generally larger than is required
to form water with its oxygen, so that this excess at least
must be produced by the decomposition of water. The
hydrogen of the volatile oils, many of which contain no
oxygen, and that of the fats, which contain only a small
quantity of oxygen, must manifestly be obtained in a similar
manner.
Decomposition of Ammonia.—The nitrogenous or albu¬
minous compounds of vegetables must of necessity obtain
their nitrogen from the decomposition of ammonia, experi¬
ment having distinctly shown that they are incapable of ab¬
sorbing it in the free state from the atmosphere. It has been
clearly ascertained, that the albuminous substances do not
contain ammonia, and it is hence apparent that a complete
decomposition of that substance must take place in the plant.
In fact, carbonic acid, water, and ammonia, must simultane¬
ously take part in these changes, which must of necessity
be complicated; so much so, indeed, that in the present state
of our knowledge we cannot attempt any distinct explana¬
tion of them.
It must be clearly understood, that while such changes
as those described manifestly must take place, the explana¬
tions of them which have been attempted by various chemists
are not to be accepted as determinately established facts ;
they are at present no more than hypothetical views which
have been expressed chiefly with the view of presenting
some definite idea to the mind, and are unsupported by
absolute proof; they are only inferences drawn from the
general bearings of known facts, and not facts themselves.
Although, therefore, they are to be received with caution,
they have advantages in so far as they present the matter to
us in a somewhat more tangible form than the vague general
statements which are all that could otherwise be made.
THE INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS.
The examination of the inorganic constituents or ash of
plants has, of late years, formed the subject of a large num¬
ber of laborious investigations which have served to give us
pretty full information on this subject, and to refute several
errors at one time prevalent. The proportion in which the
inorganic constituents exist in many plants is so small that
they were believed by the older chemists to be entirely for¬
tuitous components, which were present merely because
they had been dissolved alongwith the humus, which was then
supposed to enter the roots in solution, and to form the chief
food of the plant. This supposition which could only be
sustained at a time when analysis was imperfect, has been Agricul.
long since disproved and abandoned, and it has been dis- tural
tinctly shown by repeated experiment that not only are these Chemistl7-
inorganic substances necessary to the plant, but that every
one of them, however small its quantity, must be present if
it is to grow luxuriantly and arrive at a healthy maturity.
The experiments of Prince Salm Horstmar, before alluded
to, have established beyond a doubt, that while a seed may
germinate, and even grow, to a certain extent, in absence of
one or more of the constituents of its ash, it remains sickly
and stunted, and is incapable of producing either flower or
seed.
While the necessity for a certain quantity of mineral
matters is thus certain, it nevertheless appears that their
relative and absolute quantities may vary within very wide
limits. The total quantity of ash in different plants and
parts of plants is extremely different, and the extent of this
difference may be best seen from the table given below,
which gives the quantity of ash in 100 parts of the different
substances in a dry state.
Table shoiving the quantity of inorganic matters in 100
parts of different plants dried at 212 degrees:—
SEEDS.
Wheat  1*97
Barley  2-48
Oats (with husk)   3-80
Oats (without husk) ... 2‘06
Bye   2-00
Millet   3*60
Bice  0’37
Maize   1-20
Pease   2*88
Beans   3*22
Kidney Beans   4-09
Lentils   2-51
Tares,   2-60
Buckwheat   2T3
Linseed  4*40
Hemp seed   5-60
Bape seed  4*35
Sunflower  2-95
Guinea Corn  1*99
Gold of Pleasure   4T0
White Mustard  4-15
Black Mustard  4*31
Poppy   6-56
Horse-chesnut  2‘81
Grape   2-76
Clover   6T9
Turnip   3-98
Carrot  10-03
Sainfoin  5*27
Italian Ryegrass   6'91
Mangold-Wurzel  6*58
STRAWS AND STEMS.
Wheat    4*54
Barley     4-99
Oat     7-24
Winter Rye  5-15
Summer Rye   5-78
Millet   8-32
Maize   3-60
Pea   4-81
Bean  6-59
Tares   6-00
Lentil   5-38
Buckwheat   4*50
Hops  4*42
Flax straw  4-25
Hemp   4-14
Gold of Pleasure   6-05
Rape  4*41
Potato  14-90
Jerusalem Artichoke 4*40
ENTIRE PLANT.
Potato  17-70
Spurry  10-06
Red Clover   8’79
White Clover   8-72
Yellow Clover   8*56
Crimson Clover {T. in-
carnatum) 10-81
Cow Grass ( T. medium) 11-31
Sainfoin  6-51
Ryegrass   6'42
Meadow Foxtail {Alo-
pecuruspratensis)... 7"81
Sweet-scented Vernal
Grass {Anthoxan-
thum odoratum  6'32
Downy Oat Grass {Are¬
na pubescens)   5-22
Bromus erectus   5-21
Bromus mollis   5*82
Cynosurus cristatus ... 6-38
Dactylisglomeratis ... 5-31
Festucac duriuscula ... 5*42
Holcus lanatus  6*37
Hordeum pratense ... 5-67
Lolium perenne   7-54
Poa annua   2-83
Poa pratensis   5-94
Poa trivialis   8*33
Phleum pratense   5-29
Plantago lanceolata 8‘68
Poterium Sanguisorba 7"97
Yarrow 13-45
Rape Kale  8-00
Cow Cabbage  10-00
Asparagus  6*40
Parsley  P10
Furze   3-11
Chamomile {Anthemis
arvensis)   9*66
Wild Chamomile {Ma¬
tricaria Chamomilla) 9*10
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
385
Agricul- Corn Cockle {Agros-
tural temma Githago) ... 13-20
Chemistry. c0rnBlue Bottle(Ce«-
taurea Cyanus) ... 7*32
Foxglove  1089
Hemlock ( Comum ma-
culatum)  12'80
Sweet Rush (Acorus
Calamus)  6-90
Common Reed (Arun-
do Phragmites) ... 1 •44
Celandine {Chelidoni-
um majus)   6‘85
Equisetumfluviatile ...23-60
hyemale  11‘80
arvense  IS'SO
linosum   15*50
LEAVES.
Turnip   9*37
Beet 20*30
Kohl-rabi  18*54
Carrot  10*95
Jerusalem Artichoke...28*30
Hemp  22*00
Hop  17*25
Tobacco  22*62
Spinach 19*76
Poplar  23*00
Red Beech   6*00
White Beech 10*51
Oak   9*80
Elm  16*33
Horse-chesnut   9*08
Maple  28*05
Ash  14*76
Acacia  18*20
Olive  6*45
Orange 13*73
Potato  15*10
Tussac Grass   7*15
ROOTS AND TUBERS.
Potato   4*16
Jerusalem Artichoke 5*38
Turnip  13*64
Beet  8*27
Kohl-rabi   6*08
Rutabaga  7*34
Carrot   5*80
Belgian White Carrot 6*22
Mangold-Wurzel   8*78
Parsnip  5*52
Radish   7*35
Chicory 
Madder  8*33
WOODS.
Beech   0*38
Apple   1*29
Cherry   0*28
Birch  1*00
Oak   2*50
Walnut  1*57
Lime  5*00
Horse-chesnut  1*05
Olive  0*58
Vine   2*57
Larch   0*32
Fir  0*14
Filbert   0*50
Chesnut   3*50
Poplar   0*80
Hazel   0*50
Orange  2*74
Vine  2*57
BARKS.
Beech   6*62
Cherry  10*37
Oak   6*00
Horse-chesnut   7*85
Filbert   6*20
FRUITS.
Plum  0*40
Cherry     0*43
Strawberry   0*41
Pear   0*41
Apple   0*27
Chesnut   0*99
Cucumber  0*63
Vegetable Marrow ... 5*10
An examination of this table indicates, that though great
differences exist in the proportion of ash in different plants,
some general relations may be traced. It appears that the
grains of the cereal ia of all other seeds contain the smallest
quantity of ash, and that the proportion is nearly the same in
all, and may be stated in round numbers at two per cent. In
the leguminous plants (pease, beans, &c.), the quantity is
larger, amounting to about three per cent., while in rape-
seed, linseed, and the other oily seeds, it reaches four per cent.
In the stems and straws less uniformity exists, but if we ex¬
cept a few extreme cases, the quantity of ash in most of them
approaches pretty closely to five per cent. Still more diversi¬
fied are the results obtained from the entire plants; but this
diversity is probably much more apparent than real, and must
be, in part at least, dependent on the proportion existing be¬
tween the stem and leaves; for, the leaves, as we observe
under the next head, are peculiarly rich in ash, and a leafy
plant must, of course, indicate a higher total per-centage of
ash, although, if stems and leaves were separately examined,
they might not show so conspicuous a difference.
The leaves of all parts of plants are richest in ash ; the
table shows that in some instances, as in the maple, the in¬
organic constituents exceed one-fourth of the whole of the
weight of the dry matter. In other instances, and particu-
VOL. II.
larly in the coniferous plants, the quantity is much smaller. Agricul-
The average proportion of ash in the leaves amounts to tural
about thirteen per cent., but where such variations exist, ^ emis ry.
little value is to be attached to an average such as this, ex-
cept as an indication of their general abundance.
Roots and tubers likewise show some variety, but, with
the exception of the turnip and potato, all approach pretty
closely to seven per cent.
The wood is that part of the plant which contains the
smallest quantity of ash. In one case only does it reach five
per cent., while the average scarcely exceeds one per cent.,
and in the fir the quantity amounts to no more than one
six-hundredth of the dry matter. In the bark the quantity
is much larger, and may be stated at seven per cent.
We have thus, in round numbers, the following propor¬
tions of ash in different parts of plants:—
Wood  1
Seeds  3
Stems and straws  5
Roots and tubers  7
Bark  7
Leaves 13
The differences which exist in the proportion of ash, are
much more strikingly seen when we examine different parts
of the same plant. In few instances, however, have analyses
been sufficiently multiplied to give much information on this
point. The oat, the orange tree, and the horse-chesnut, are
the only plants in which it has been done. The results ob¬
tained with the oat are given in the following table:—
Grain 
Husk 
Chaff. 
Leaves 
Upper part of)
straw )
Middle part of
straw 
Lower part of
straw 
3 8
2*14
6*47
16*53
8*44
4*95
6*11
5*33
1*81
6*03
17*23
7*19
5*44
5*23
5*18
Oj ^3
O S
PH £
2*22
6*99
15*59
14*59
9*22
7*41
9*76
® -a
C3 M
O £
*5
o
A T3
PP w
2*11
8*24
19*19
10*29
8*25
6*53
7*11
° H
>-.2
1*76
6*03
18*97
15*92
11*0
9*01
7*30
Mean.
2*00
6*75
1606
10*88
7*77
6*66
6*93
from which it will be seen that though considerable varia¬
tions occur, the relative proportions of ash in different parts
of the plant are pretty constant.
The proportion of ash which a plant contains varies greatly
at different periods of its growth, but the changes which it
undergoes seem, so far as we at present know, to be governed
by no general laws. It appears, however, generally, that
during the period of active growth the quantity of ash is
largest. Thus, it has been found that in early spring the
wood of the young shoots of the horse-chesnut contains 9*9
per cent, of ash. In autumn this has diminished to 3*4, and
the last year’s twigs contain only 1*1 per cent., while in the
old wood the quantity does not exceed 0*5. Saussure has
also observed that the quantity of ash diminishes in certain
plants when the seed has ripened. Thus, he found that the
per-centages of ash, before flowering, and after seeding,
were as follows:—
Before flowering. With ripe seed.
Sunflower 14*7 
Wheat  7*9 3*3
Maize 12*2 4*6
3 c
386 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
Agricul¬
tural
On the other hand, the quantity of ash in the leaves of
trees increases considerably in autumn, as shown by this
Chemistry. ^
Per-centage of ash in
May. September.
Oak leaves   S’S 5*5
Poplar  6*6 S’S
Hazel  6-l 7*0
Horse-chesnut  7*2 8'6
In other cases, the proportion of ash appears to increase
as the plant reaches maturity, and this is particularly seen
in the oat, of which we have very complete analyses, at dif¬
ferent periods of its growth :
Proportion of Ash in different parts of the Oat at different
periods of its growth.
Date.
2d July 
9th July 
16th July 
23d July 
30th July 
oth August ....
13th August 
20th August 
27th August 
3d September.
Stalks.
7*83
7*80
7-94
7-99
7-45
7’63
6-62
6-66
7- 71
8- 35
Leaves.
11- 35
12- 20
12-61
16-45
16-44
16-05
20- 47
21- 14
22- 13
20-90
Chaff.
6-00
9-11
12-28
13-75
18-68
21- 07
22- 46
27-47
Grain
with husk
4-91
4-36
3-38
3- 62
4- 22
4-31
4-07
3-64
3-51
3-65
Here a rapid increase takes place in the quantity of ash in
the leaves and chaff. In the stalks it remains nearly uniform
at all periods of the growth. In the grain, again, there is a de¬
cided diminution ; but this diminution is apparent, not real,
and is due to the determination of the ash being made on the
grain, with its husk, and the rapid increase in weight of the
grain, which is poor in ash, while the husk remains nearly un¬
changed, causes an apparent diminution in its proportion.
The quantity of ash contained in a plant is also depen¬
dent upon the nature of the soil on which it grows. Of
this an interesting illustration is given in the following table
of the quantities found in the grain and straw of the same
variety of the pea grown on fourteen different soils :—
Seed.
Straw.
Seed.
Straw.
2- 30
3- 25
4- 27
3-40
2- 99
3- 19
2-53
3-43
3-62
3-39
3-90
6-80
3-90
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
2-27
2- 69
1-61
3- 11
3-34
2- 78
3- 01
6- 59
3-49
3-91
5-28
7- 57
3-76
3-38
Agricul¬
tural
Chemistry.
v'
The differences, especially in the straw, are here very re¬
markable, but we are unable to connect them with the pe¬
culiarities in composition of the soils on which they grow; in¬
deed it is obvious that they must be dependent on most com¬
plicated questions, which we cannot at present solve, for we
see that the increase in the ash of the straw is not generally
connected with any corresponding increase in that of the
grain. Theoretically, we should anticipate the proportion to
be greatest in those soils which contain the largest quantities
of the substances which enter into the composition of the ash;
but this is by no means invariably the case. In some in¬
stances, the variations certainly can be traced to this source,
as in the following analysis of the fruit of the horse-chesnut,
grown on a common fruit soil, and on a rich porphyry soil:—
Kernel of seed. Green husk. Brown husk.
Forest soil 2-26 4-53 1-70
Porphyry soil 3*36 7*29 2-20
in which a very marked increase has occurred, in that grown
on the rich soil. This, however, is only an isolated case,
and in many instances no satisfactory connexion can be
traced between the nature of the soil and the quantity of
ash contained in the plants grown on it.
While it thus appears that the quantity of ash differs
greafly in different plants, the proportion in which the indi¬
vidual components enter into these ashes is also variable.
Within very wide limits this will be at once apparent, from
the following table, in which are gathered together analyses
of the ash of most of our common cultivated, and a few un¬
cultivated plants:—
Table of the Composition of the Ash of different Plants in 100 parts.
Note.—Alumina and oxide of manganese are of so rare occurrence that separate columns have not been introduced
for them, but when they occur their quantity is stated in a note at the end of the table.
Potash.
Wheat, grain 
straw  
chaff  
Barley, grain : 
straw  
Oats, grain1  
straw  
chaff2  
Bye, grain 
straw  
Maize, grain  
stalks and leaves  
Rice, grain 
Pease (gray), seed 
straw    
Beans (common field), grain.
straw   
Tare, straw 
straw  
30- 02
17-98
9-14
21.14
11-22
20- 63
19- 46
6-33
33-83
17-20
28-37
35-26
20- 21
41-70
21- 30
51-72
32-85
32-82
31- 72
Chloride
Soda, of Potas¬
sium.
3-82
2-47
1-79
1- 93
3- 93
0-39
i’-74
2- 49
4- 22
0-54
2-77
Chloride
of
Sodium.
5-65
i:03
2-71
0-30
3-82
3-27
7-41
1-01
214
4-27
0-24
O'60
trace
2-29
i-24
11-54
4-03
4-55
Mag- Oxide of
nesia. Iron.
P,h03.' Sulphu-
P.h^lc rio Acid
Acid.
Carbonic
Acid.
1-15
7-42
1-88
1-65
5-79
10-28
7-01
1- 95
2- 61
9-10
0-57
10-53
7-18
4- 78
37-17
5- 20
19- 85
20- 78
15-71
13-39
1-94
1- 27
7-26
2- 70
7-82
3- 79
0-38
12-81
2-40
13-60
5-52
4- 26
5- 78
7-17
6- 90
2-53
5-31
1-66
0-91
0-45
0-37
2 13
1-36
3-85
1-49
1-58
1-04
1- 40
0-47
2- 28
2-12
0-18
1-07
0-61
0-65
46-79
2- 75
4- 31
28-53
7- 20
50-44
5- 07
1-04
39-92
3- 80
53-69
8- 09
62-23
36-50
4- 65
28-72
0-49
10-59
10-34
3-09
i’-91
1-09
3- 35
9-61
0-17
0-80
5-16
4- 47
8-68
3- 05
1- 40
2- 52
4- 67
1-36
2- 87
O'82
12-48
3- 42
25-32
18-73
20-37
3- 89
63- 89
81-22
30-68
68-50
4- 40
49-56
72-85
9-22
64- 50
1-55
27-98
1- 37
0-68
3-23
0-42
2- 61
1-28
3-57
1 Oxide of Manganese, 0-42.
2 Oxide of Manganese, 0"92.
(
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
Agricul¬
tural
Chemistry.
Flax, seed  
straw  
Rape, seed1  
straw2  
Spurry 
Red clover 
Cow grass, Trifolium medium
Yellow clover 
Alsike clover   
Lucerne  
Anthoxantlium odoratum
Alopecurus pratensis 
Avena pubescens    
j Bromus erectus   
Bromus mollis  
Cynosurus cristatus  
Dactylis glomerata  
F estuca duriuscula 
Holcus lanatus  
Lolium perenne 
Annual ryegrass  
Poa annua  
Poa pratensis 
Poa trivialis  
Phleum pratense 
Plantago lanceolata  
Poterium Sanguisorba ...
Achillea Millefolia 
Potato, tuber  
stem 
leaves  
Jerusalem Artichoke 
stem  
leaves  
Turnip, seed  
bulb 
leaves  
Mangold-Wurzel, root ....
leaves  
Carrot, root 
leaves  
Kohl-rabi, bulb  
leaves  
Cow cabbage, head 
stalk 
Poppy seed  
leaves  
Mustard seed (white) 
Radish root 
Potash,
34-17
21- 53
16-33
16-63
26-12
25-60
22- 78
27-48
29- 72
27- 56
32- 03
37-03
31-21
20-33
30- 09
24-99
29- 52
31- 84
34-83
24-67
28- 99
41- 86
31-17
29- 40
31-09
33- 26
30- 26
30- 37
43-18
39- 53
17-27
55-89
38-40
6-81
21-91
23-70
11-56
21-68
8- 34
42- 73
17-10
36-27
9- 31
40- 86
40-93
9-10
36-37
25-78
21-16
Soda.
1-69
3-68
0-34
10-57
1-14
0-33
0-87
0-09
3-95
0-69
3-72
1- 23
14-75
12-43
3- 13
12-21
12-11
4- 85
2- 84
2*43
4-05
0-33
Chloride
of Potas
sium.
9-08
12- 39
11-72
6- 29
11-64
7- 03
9-50
4-05
10- 63
11:60
17-86
8- 17
3- 91
13- 80
6-47
11- 25
6-90
0-70
4- 53
3-27
20-49
4-95
4-88
5-99
7-15
2-50
1-29
Chloride
of
Sodium.
0-36
9-21
0-96
2- 53
8-90
6-02
1-86
8-16
1-05
1-91
4- 90
5*66
1-38
3- 11
3 09
0-62
6-66
7- 25
5- 11
3-35
1-31
3-24
8- 80
1-35
3- 63
7-92
20-43
11- 37
4- 68
1-82
7-05
12- 41
49-51
37-66
3-62
11-90
6-66
2-08
1- 94
2- 51
7-07
8-40
21-20
8- 30
21-51
14-46
21-57
24-42
17-26
26-83
20-60
9- 21
3- 90
4- 72
10-38
6-64
10-16
5- 82
10- 31
8- 31
9- 64
6- 82
11- 69
5-63
8-80
14-94
19- 01
24-82
13- 40
1-80
14- 85
27- 69
3-34
20- 31
40-15
17-40
11-82
28- 49
1-90
8-72
5-64
24-05
10-20
30-31
15- 01
10-61
35-36
30-24
19-10
8-78
Mag¬
nesia.
Oxide of
Iron.
13-11
4-20
8-80
2-92
8-88
8-47
8-86
8-39
4- 01
5- 22
2- 53
1-28
3- 17
4- 99
2-60
2-43
2-22 i
2- 83 |
3- 41
2-85 I
2-59
2-44
2- 71
3- 22
5- 30
3- 51
4- 21
3-01
3- 17
4- 10
7- 78
1-30
1-91
1- 95
8- 74
3-28
2- 62
1- 79
9- 84
2- 29
0-89
2- 36
3- 62
2- 39
3- 85
9-49
6-47
5-90
3-53
0-50
5-58
1-79
1-30
1*26
1-09
1- 40
0-71
2- 23
1-18
0-47
0-72
0-26
0-28
0-18
0-59
0-78
0-31
0-21
0-28
1-57
0-28
0-29
0-27
0-90
0-86
0-21
0-44
1-34
4- 50
0-45
0-88
1-14
1-95
0-47
3 02
0-52
1- 46
0-51
3-43
0-38
5- 50
0-77
0-41
0-41
2- 14
0-39
1-19
Phos
phoric
Acid,
38-54
7-53
31-90
4-68
10-20
4-09
4- 94
5- 64
6- 47
10-09
6- 25
10-82
7- 53
9-62
7- 24
8- 60
12- 07
8-02
8- 73
10- 07
9- 11
10-02
9-13
11- 29
7-08
7-81
7- 13
8- 61
6-68
13- 60
16-99
2- 97
6-61
40- 17
9-31
4- 85
1-65
5- 89
12- 31
6- 21
13- 45
9-43
12-53
19*57
31-38
3- 28
44-97
41- 09
Sulphu¬
ric Acid.
Carbonic
Acid. ^inca,
1-56
3-39
5-38
3- 90
1- 79
2- 96
2-66
4- 82
3- 25
4- 80
3-39
2-16
3- 37
5- 46
4- 91
3-20
3-52
3- 45
4- 41
5- 20
3- 45
10-18
4- 26
4-47
4-86
6- 11
4-84
2- 44
15- 24
6-56
6- 37
3- 77
3-23
2-21
7- 10
16- 13
10- 36
3- 14
6- 54
4- 26
5- 08
11- 43
10- 63
7- 27
11- 11
1- 92
5-09
2- 19
7-71
0-22
15-75
5-44
23 04
27-38
18-05
20-16
4-31
20- 74
15-94
1-26
0-65
0-55
9-07
2- 09
1-38
1-82
0-49
3- 29
0-40
0-29
4- 02
14-40
21- 72
9-36
18-29
11*80
25-40
24-31
0-82
10-74
6-18
15- 23
6-92
18-00
23-15
10-24
8-97
16- 68
6-33
1-45
7-92
19-98
11-80
1-14
1-95
1-12
1-76
1- 73
2- 63
28-35
38-75
36- 28
38-48
33-34
40- 11
26- 65
28-53
28-31
27- 13
41- 79
16- 03
32-93
37- 50
31-09
2-37
0*83
9-92
1- 94
2- 56
6-47
1-52
1- 51
17- 25
0-67
2- 69
8-04
1- 40
2- 35
1-11
11-61
0-83
9*57
1-66
1-04
3- 24
11*40
1-31
8-17
A simple inspection of this table leads to various interest¬
ing conclusions. It is to be observed that two at least of
the constituents of the ash, viz. alumina, and oxide of man¬
ganese, occur rarely, and in small quantity, and must be of
very little importance. They have indeed been altogether
excluded by some chemists from the hst of the true con¬
stituents of the ashes of plants, and their presence consi¬
dered as purely fortuitous. Oxide of iron, of which the
proportion is also very small, has sometimes been classed
along with these substances as a fortuitous component; but
it is invariably present, and the experiments of Prince
Salm Horstmar leave no doubt that it is essential to the
plant. Its function is unknown, but it is an important
constituent of the blood of herbivorous animals, and may
be present in the plant, less for its own benefit than for
that of the animal of which it is destined to become the
food.
Soda would appear also to be a comparatively unimport¬
ant constituent, being absent in some cases, and found in
most plants in but small quantity. It is only in the cruci¬
ferous plants (turnip, rape, &c.) that it is found abundantly,
and in them it appears to be an indispensable element; but
m most other plants it admits of replacement by potash,
and this replacement is probably in some instances the re¬
sult of cultivation. It has at least been found that the pro¬
portions of the two alkalies vary greatly in cultivated and
uncultivated specimens of the same plant, the proportion
of soda being greatest in the uncultivated. This is conspi¬
cuously seen in the asparagus plant, which gave the follow¬
ing quantities of alkalies and chlorine:—
Wild. Cultivated.
Potash 18*8 50*5
^°da 16*2 traced
Chlorine 16*5  8*3
387
Agricul¬
tural
Chemistry.
1 Alumina, 1'02.
2 Alumina. 0-63.
388
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
Agricul¬
tural
The soda having almost entirely disappeared in the cul¬
tivated plant, while a corresponding increase had taken place
Chemistry. jn ^ quant|ty 0f potash.
Potash is a most important constituent of plants, and ge¬
nerally forms a considerable proportion of their ash. It is
most abundant in the roots and tubers, and sometimes forms
more than half of their mineral constituents. It is also
abundant in the seeds, while its proportion is small in the
straws and stems, and particularly in the chaff, of our com¬
mon grains. In general, it may be said to constitute a thii d
part of the ash of most plants.
The proportions of lime and magnesia are liable to very
great variations. As a general rule, the proportion of the
former greatly exceeds that of the latter. An exception to
this is found in the cereals, the grains of which are remark¬
ably rich in magnesia; but, generally speaking, the quan¬
tity of magnesia is small, and rarely exceeds 4 per cent.
Lime is most abundant in the leguminous plants, exceeding,
in some instances, 30 per cent, of the ash. In the cereals
it is remarkably small.
Chlorine is by no means an invariable constituent of the
ash, although it is most commonly met with, and sometimes
in considerable quantity. It appears to have some relation
to the quantity of soda, and is always largest when that ele¬
ment is most abundant. A reference to the analyses of the
wild and cultivated asparagus will render this obvious, and
the same conclusions may be drawn from the table of the
composition of ashes, where it will be seen that the chlorine
exists to a great extent, as chloride of sodium, and conspi¬
cuously so in the ash of mangold-wurzel, where it amounts
to almost exactly half of the mineral matter.
Sulphuric Acid is an essential constituent of the ash.
But it is to be observed that it is in some instances entirely,
and in all partially, a product of the combustion to which
the plant has been submitted in order to obtain the ash. It
is partially derived from the albuminous compounds, which
all contain a certain quantity of sulphur, and which, being
oxidised to sulphuric acid during the burning, remains in
the ash. It is certain, however, that we thus obtain an im¬
perfect estimate of the whole quantity of sulphur which the
plant contains in its natural state ; and for this reason expe¬
riments have been made, by treating the plants with nitric
acid, so as effectually to oxidise the whole of their sulphur,
and admit of its being accurately determined. From such
experiments, the following table, showing the total amount
of sulphur contained in 100 parts of different dry plants,
has been constructed.
Poa palustris   0T65
Lolium perenne  0’310
Italian Ryegrass  0‘329
Trifolium pratense ... 0T07
repens   0'099
Lucerne   0’336
Vetch...  0-178
Potato tuber  0-082
tops   0*206
Carrot, root  0-092
tops  0-745
Mangold-Wurzel, root 0-058
tops  0*502
Swede, root  0-435
tops  0-458
Rape   0-448
and the stems and leaves of other plants afford intermediate Agricul-
tural
proportions. . Chemistry
Silica is an invariable constituent of the ash. It is only, , [
however, in the grasses that it is abundant, and that princi¬
pally in their stems. It there contributes to the strength of
the straw, and by giving it additional rigidity prevents its
being broken or injured by the weight of the ear.
The knowledge of the composition of the ash of plants
leads to many important practical deductions. It enables
us to explain why some plants will not grow upon particu¬
lar soils on which others flourish. Thus, for instance, a plant
which contains a large quantity of lime, such as the bean or
turnip, will not grow in a soil in which that element is de¬
ficient, although wheat or barley, which require but little
lime, may yield excellent crops. Again, if the soil be defi¬
cient in phosphoric acid, those plants only will grow luxuriant¬
ly which require but a small quantity of that element. An
extension of this principle leads us to the conclusion that
even where a soil contains a proper quantity of all its in¬
gredients, the repeated cultivation of a plant which removes
a large quantity of any one substance, may, in the course of
time, so far reduce its amount, that the soil becomes in¬
capable of any longer producing that plant, but if it be re¬
placed by another which requires but little of the element
thus removed, it may again produce an abundant crop. On
this principle the rotation of crops is founded, and its suc¬
cess is dependent on the cultivation in successive years of
plants which remove preponderating quantities of different
substances.
It may be observed by a minute inspection of the table
of ashes, that some plants are peculiarly rich in alkalies, others
in lime, and others again in silica ; and it would, of course,
be the object of the farmer to employ, in succession, crops
containing these elements in different proportions. Practical
experience in this matter has led to conclusions in all respects
identical with those of science, and the successive crops of
a good rotation always belong to these different classes. It
has been attempted to classify different plants under the heads
of silica plants, lime plants, and potash plants, and the fol¬
lowing table, extractedfrom Liebig’s Agricultural (chemistry,
in which the constituents of the ash are grouped under the
three heads of salts of potash and soda, lime and magnesia,
and silica, gives such a classification as far as it can be
done:—
Salts of Salts of
Potash and Lime and
Soda. Magnesia.
Drumhead Cabbage... 0-431
Wheat, grain   0"068
straw   0-245
Barley, grain   0-053
straw   0-191
Oats, grain  0-103
straw   0*289
Rye, grain   0-051
Beans  0-056
Pease  0-127
Lentils  0-110
Hops    1-063
Gold of Pleasure  0-253
Black Mustard   IT 70
White Mustard   1-050
I Oat straw with seeds
Wheat straw 
i j Barley straw with l
,2 ] seeds j
^ Rye straw 
\ Good hay 
/Tobacco 
i I Pea straw 
J { Potato plant 
^ I Meadow Clover 
/ Maize straw 
^ 1 Turnips 
“ ' Beet root 
Potatoes 
Jerusalem Artichoke
34-00
22-50
19-00
18-65
6-00
24-34
27-82
4-20
39-20
72-45
81-60
88-00
85-81
84-30
4-00
7’20
25-70
16-52
34-00
67-44
63-74
59-40
56-00
6-50
18-40
12-00
14- 19
15- 70
Silica.
62-00
61-50
55-30
63-89
60-00
8-30
7-81
36*40
4-90
18-00
Phosphoric Acid is found principally in the seeds of plants
in which it amounts to from 30 to 50 per cent. The straws
of the cereal plants contain it only in very small proportion,
The special application of these facts must be left till
we come to treat of the subject of the rotation of crops in
full, for which a knowledge of the composition of soils is re¬
quired.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
389
Agricul- It must be manifest that, as the crops which we remove
tural from the soil contain a greater or less amount of inorganic
Chemistry. matterSj the quantity of these must, under any circum-
stances, be undergoing diminution. In many cases the
soil contains an almost inexhaustible supply of those sub¬
stances, but in other instances, where the quantity is small,
a system of reckless cropping may reduce a soil to a state
of absolute sterility. A remarkable illustration of this fact
is found in the virgin soils of certain parts of America. The
early settlers there reaped from these soils almost unheard-
of crops, but, by repeated cultivation, they were soon ex¬
hausted and abandoned, new tracts being brought in and
cultivated only to be in their turn exhausted and abandoned.
The knowledge of the composition of the ash of plants
shows us how this exhaustion may be avoided, and indicates
the mode in which such soils may be preserved in a fertile
state.
THE SOIL ITS CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHAEACTEKS.
No department of agricultural chemistry is surrounded
with such difficulties and uncertainties as that relating to
the properties of the soil. When chemistry began to be
applied to agriculture it was from the determination of the
composition of the soil that its principal advantages were an¬
ticipated, and it was certainly from it that the most striking
results were at first obtained; for when analysis revealed, as
it occasionally did, the absence of one or more of the essen¬
tial constituents of the plant in a barren soil, it indicated at
once the cause and the cure of the defect. The expecta¬
tions naturally formed from the facts then observed have
been but very partially fulfilled; for, as our knowledge has
advanced, it has become apparent that it is only in rare in¬
stances that it is possible satisfactorily to connect together
the composition and the properties of a soil, and with each ad¬
vancement in the accuracy and minuteness of our analysis
the difficulties have been rather increased than diminished.
It has become more and more obvious that the question of
the composition of a soil is one of extreme complexity, and
we are now convinced that it will be necessary to commence
again almost de novo, and, discarding many of the obser¬
vations hitherto made, endeavour to determine the funda¬
mental principles on which the fertility of a soil depends.
It_has been found that while in some instances it is possible
to predicate with certainty that a particular soil is barren,
in numerous others a barren and a fertile soil may approach
so closely in composition that it is scarcely possible to dis¬
tinguish them from one another; and so much is this the
case that the analysis of a soil must, at the present moment,
be considered as in many instances of comparatively little
practical value. No doubt practical deductions of importance
may occasionally be drawn from the careful analysis of a soil,
but the great majority of those hitherto made fail to give
the desired information. This may be partly owing to the
imperfect analyses which have too often been made, but it is
certainly mainly due to imperfect knowledge of the che¬
mical conditions requisite for fertility; and until these are
clearly known we cannot expect to derive from the analysis
of a soil the important conclusions which it ought to, and
at some future period certainly will, yield. Under the pre¬
sent circumstances, therefore, we can only detail such limited
facts as are at present known, and of these we shall endea¬
vour to give as clear and succinct an account as possible.
Origin of Soils.—The constituents of the soil, like those
of the plant, may be divided into the great classes of organic
and inorganic. The origin of the former of these we have
already discussed. We have pointed out that they are de¬
rived from the decay of plants which have already grown
upon the soil, and which, in various stages of decomposition,
form the numerous class of substances grouped together Agricul-
under the name of humus. The organic substances may tural
therefore be considered as in a manner secondary consti- (liemistry-
tuents of the soil, which have been accumulated in it as the
consequence of the growth and decay of successive gene¬
rations of plants, while the primeval soil consisted of inor¬
ganic substances only.
The inorganic constituents of the soil are obtained as the
result of a succession of chemical changes going on in the
rocks which protrude through the surface of the earth. We
have only to examine one of these rocks to observe that it
is constantly undergoing a series of important changes.
Under the influence of air and moisture it is seen to become
soft, to disintegrate, and to fall to powder, and is finally
washed away by the rains. These actions, minute and
trifling as they may at first sight appear, acting throughout
many thousand years, are the source of the inorganic matters
of all our soils. Geology points to a period at which the
earth’s surface must have been altogether devoid of soil,
and have consisted entirely of hard crystalline rocks, such as
granite and trap, by the disintegration of which, slowly pro¬
ceeding from the creation down to the present time, all the
soils which now cover the surface have been produced. But
they have been produced as the result of very complicated
processes; for these disintegrated rocks being washed away in
the form of fine mud, or at least of minute particles, and being
deposited at the bottom of the primeval seas, have there
hardened into what are called sedimentary rocks, which
being raised above the surface by volcanic action or other
great geological forces have been again disintegrated to
yield different soils. Thus, then, all soils are directly or in¬
directly derived from the crystalline rocks, those soils which
overlie them being formed immediately by their decomposi¬
tion, while those which overlie the sedimentary rocks may
be traced back through them to the crystalline rocks from
w hich they were originally formed. Such being the case,
the composition of a soil must manifestly be dependent on
the crystalline rocks from which it is derived. When we
inquire into the matter, we find that these crystalline rocks
are by no means numerous, and that they are made up of
but a small number of different minerals. The great mass
of our different rocks is made up of mixtures, in variable
proportions, of quartz, felspar, mica, hornblende, augite, and
zeolites. With the exception of quartz and augite, these
names are, however, representatives of different classes of
minerals. There are, for instance, not less than four different
sorts of felspar, which have been distinguished by minera¬
logists by the names of orthoclase, albite oligoclase, and La¬
brador felspar; and there are, at least, two sorts of mica and
hornblende, and many varieties of zeolites. The composi¬
tion of those different minerals, with the exception of quartz,
which is pure silica, is as follows, Thomsonite being given
as a general illustration of the zeolites, which is a very nu¬
merous family:—
Felspars.
Potash.
Ortho¬
clase.
Silica   65-72
Alumina   18'57
Peroxide of iron ... traces
Oxide of manganese traces
Lime   034:
Magnesia     OTO
Potash   1402
Soda   1-25
Soda.
Alhite.
67*99
19-61
0-70
0-66
1112
Lime and
Soda. OH-
goclase.
62-70
23-80
0-62
4-60
0-02
1-05
8-00
Lime.
Labra¬
dor.
54-66
27-87
1201
5-46
100-00 100-08 100-79 100-00
390 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
Agricul¬
tural
Chemistry.
Mica.
Potash.
Mag¬
nesia.
Silica   46-36
Alumina   36-80
Peroxide of iron 4-53
Protoxide of iron —
Oxide of man- |
ganese  /
Lime   —
Magnesia  —
Potash   9-22
Soda  —
Hydrofluoric acid 0'70
Water   1’84
42-65
12-96
7-11
1-06
25-75
6-03
0-62
317
99-47 99-35
Hornblende.
Com¬
mon.
41-50
15-75
7-75
0-25
14-09
19-40
0-50
Basal¬
tic.
42-24
13- 92
14- 59
0-33
12- 24
13- 74
Augite.
50-12
4-20
11-60
20-05
13-70
Thom-
sonite.
38-73
30-84
13-43
0-54
3-85
13-09
99-24 97-06 99-67 100-48
It is very obvious that soils produced from the disinte¬
gration of those minerals must be very different in their
composition and fertility. Potash felspar, for instance, must
yield a soil of much greater value than albite or Labrador,
as it contains abundance of potash which, in the foregoing
section, we have seen to be so important a constituent of
the ash of plants; in the same way mica ought to produce
a valuable soil. On the other hand, Labrador, hornblende,
and augite supply lime and magnesia, and in this respect
may be said to surpass the other felspars. But the value of
these different minerals is not dependent on their chemi¬
cal constitution alone ; the facility with which they disinte¬
grate, and undergo decomposition so as to liberate their
constituents in a state in which they may become available
to the plant, is an important element of their value, and in
this respect very marked differences are observable. The
disintegration of these minerals occurs in two different ways:
in those rich in the alkalies it depends on their gradual se¬
paration into a silicate of alumina, and an alkaline silicate; in
those which contain little alkali, and much protoxide of iron
it depends on the gradual absorption of oxygen by that sub¬
stance, which causes the breaking up of the mineral into
new compounds. These changes take place with very dif¬
ferent degrees of rapidity. In potash and soda felspar they
proceed apace, but in Labrador, owing to the absence of al¬
kalies, they are extremely slow.
The changes which take place in felspar may be easily
traced through all their stages. We observe, in the first
place, that after a certain time the mineral loses its peculiar
lustre, acquires a dull and earthy appearance, absorbs water,
becomes gradually soft, and at length falls into a more or
less white and soft powder, presenting the characters of
common clay. The nature of this change will be best seen
by the following analysis of the clay produced by the de¬
composition of felspar, which is employed in the manufac¬
ture of porcelain under the name of kaolin,—
Silica  46-80
Alumina  36*83
Peroxide of Iron.    3*11
Carbonate of Lime  0-55
Potash  0-27
Water    12-44
100-00
In this instance the decomposition of the felspar had
reached its limit, a mere trace of potash being left, but if
taken at different stages of the process, variable proportions
of that alkali are met with. This decomposition of felspar is
the source of the great deposits of clay which are so abun¬
dantly distributed over the globe; and it takes place with
nearly equal rapidity with potash and soda felspar. It is only
in rare instances complete, and the soils produced from it
frequently contain a considerable proportion of undecom¬
posed felspar, which continues for a long period to yield a Agricul-
supply of alkalies to the plants which grow on them. tural
Mica undergoes decomposition with extreme slowness, as Chemistry,
is at once illustrated by the fact that its shining scales may *
frequently be met with entirely unchanged in the soil. Its
persistence is dependent on the small quantity of alkaline
constituents which it contains ; and for this reason it is ob¬
served that the magnesian micas undergo decomposition less
rapidly than those containing the larger quantity of potash.
Eventually, however, both varieties become converted into
clay, their magnesia and potash passing gradually into soluble
forms. Hornblende and augite, as already mentioned, owe
their decomposition to another cause, oxygen is absorbed,
the protoxide of iron being converted into peroxide ; lime
and magnesia being separated, and a ferruginous clay pro¬
duced. The zeolites are all rapidly decomposable minerals;
like the felspars they yield a clay, while lime and alkalies are
separated.
It is obvious from what has just been stated that all of
these minerals may yield soils, but most of them would be
devoid of many essential ingredients, while not one of them
would yield either phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, or chlo¬
rine. It has, however, been recently ascertained that cer¬
tain of these minerals, or at least the rocks formed from
them, contain minute, but distinctly appreciable traces of
phosphoric acid, although in too small quantity to be de¬
tected by ordinary analysis ; and small quantities of chlorine
and sulphuric acid may also in most instances be found. Still
it will be observed that most of these minerals would yield
a soil containing only two or three of those substances, which,
as we have already learned, are essential to the plant. Thus
potash felspar, while it would give abundance of potash,
would be but an inefficient source of lime and magnesia; and
Labrador, which contains abundance of lime, is altogether
deficient in magnesia and potash.
Nature has, however, provided against this difficulty, for
she has so arranged it that these minerals rarely occur alone,
the rocks which form our great mountain masses being com¬
posed of intimate mixtures of two or more of them, and that
in such a manner that the deficiencies of the one compensate
those of the other. We shall shortly mention the composi¬
tion of these rocks.
Granite is a mixture of quartz, felspar, and mica in vari¬
able proportions. The quality of the soil it yields is depen¬
dent on the variety of felspar present, for both orthoclase
and albite occur in it. When the former is the constituent,
granite yields soils of tolerable fertility provided their cli¬
matic conditions be favourable ; but it frequently occurs in
high and exposed situations which are unfavourable to the
growth of plants. Gneiss is a similar mixture, but charac¬
terised by the predominance of mica, and by its banded
structure. Owing to the small quantity of felspar which it
contains, and the abundance of the difficultly decomposable
mica, the soils formed by its disintegration are generally
inferior. Mica slate is also a mixture of quartz, felspar, and
mica, but consisting almost entirely of the latter ingredient,
and consequently presenting an extreme infertility. The
position of the granite gneiss and mica slate soils in this
country is such that very few of them are of much value; but
in warm climates they not unfrequently produce abundant
crops of grain. Syenite is a rock similar in composition to
granite, but having the mica replaced by hornblende, which
by its decomposition yields supplies of lime and magnesia
more readily than they can be obtained from the less easily
disintegrated mica. For this reason soils produced from the
syenitic rocks are frequently possessed of considerable fer¬
tility.
The series of rocks of which greenstone is the type, and
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 391
Agiicul- which are among the most widely distributed, are very dif-
tural ferent in composition from those already mentioned. They
Chemistry. are divisible into two great classes, which have received the
names of diorite and dolerite, the former a mixture of albite
and hornblende, the latter of augite and Labrador, sometimes
with considerable quantities of a sort of oligoclase containing
both soda and lime, and of different kinds of zeolitic minerals.
Generally speaking, the soils produced from diorite are supe¬
rior to those from dolerite. The albite which the former
contains undergoes a rapid decomposition, and yields abun¬
dance of soda along with some potash, which is seldom alto¬
gether wanting, while the hornblende supplies both lime
and magnesia. Dolerite, when composed entirely of augite
and labrador, produces rather inferior soils; but when it con¬
tains oligoclase and zeolites, and comes under the head of
basalt, its disintegration is the source of soils remarkable
for their fertility; for these latter substances undergoing
rapid decomposition furnish the plants with abundant sup¬
plies of alkalies and lime, while the more slowly decomposing
hornblende affords the necessary quantity of magnesia. In
addition to these the basaltic rocks are found to contain ap¬
preciable quantities of phosphoric acid, so that they are in a
condition to yield to the plant almost all its necessary con¬
stituents.
The different rocks now mentioned, with a few others of
less general distribution, constitute the whole of our great
mountain masses; and while their general composition is
such as I have stated, they frequently contain disseminated
through them quantities of other minerals which, though in
trifling quantity, nevertheless add their quota of valuable
constituents to the soils. Moreover, the exact composition
of the minerals of which the great masses of rocks are com¬
posed is liable to some variety. Those which we have taken
as illustrations have been selected as typical of the minerals ;
but it is not uncommon to find albite containing 2 or 3 per
cent, of potash, Labrador with but 2 per cent., the remainder
being replaced by magnesia, and zeolitic minerals con¬
taining several per cent, of potash, the presence of which
must of course considerably modify the properties of the soils
produced from them. The properties of the soils are also
greatly altered by the mechanical influences to which the
rocks are exposed. Situated for the most part in elevated
positions, they are no sooner disintegrated than they are
washed down by the rains. A granite, for instance, as the
result of disintegration, has its felspar reduced to an im¬
palpable powder, while its quartz and mica remain, the for¬
mer entirely, the latter in great part, in the crystalline grains
which existed originally in the granite. If such a disinte¬
grated granite remains on the spot, it is easy to see what its
composition must be; but if exposed to the action of running
water, by which it is washed away from its original site, a
process of separation takes place, the heavy grains of quartz
are first deposited, then the lighter mica, and lastly the fel¬
spar. Thus there may be produced from the same granite
soils of very different nature and composition, from a pure
and barren sand to a rich clay formed entirely of the debris
of the felspar.
The sedimentary rocks are too numerous and too varied
in their composition to admit of much detail being given re¬
garding their relations to the soil. Being derived, however,
from the crystalline rocks, the observations which we have
already made regarding the latter will apply in some sort to
the former. In fact, the sedimentary rocks may to all in¬
tents and purposes be classed under the head of clays (em¬
bracing the different sorts of clay slates, shales, &c.), and
sandstone, the former derived from felspathic, the latter from
quartzose minerals. To these must be added limestone,
which in various forms is one of the most important of the
stratified rocks. Each of these forms many subdivisions,
partly dependent on chemical differences, and partly on their Agricul-
position in the geological series. The purest clays, such as tural
the fire clay of the coal formation, have manifestly been Chemistry,
produced by the thoroughly complete decomposition of fel-
spar, and in them almost nothing but its silica and alumina
have been left; such clays yield almost absolutely barren
soils. But when the decomposition has not proceeded so
far, different sorts of clay slates and shales are produced,
which, though of considerable hardness, disintegrate some¬
times with great rapidity, and often produce soils of much
value. As an illustration of the general composition of such
rocks the following analyses of the fire clay of the coal for¬
mation, and of transition clay slate are given.
Silica 
Alumina 
Peroxide of iron
Lime 
Magnesia  
Potash 
Soda   
Carbonic acid ...
Water...., 
Transition
Clay Slate.
60*03
14*91
8*94
2*08
4*22
3*87
5*67
Fire Clay.
54*77
28*61
4*92
0*58
1*14
1*00
0*24
8*24
99*72 99*50
The sandstones require little mention ; many of them
consist of nearly pure silica, and these produce mere sandy
soils, incapable of supporting vegetable life ; but in other in¬
stances silica is only the principal constituent, and is mixed
with a certain proportion of clay, and such sandstones may
yield soils of better quality, but they are always light and
poor. Where such sandstones occur interstratified with
clays, still better soils are produced, the mutual admixture
of the disintegrated rocks producing a soil of intermediate
properties, and in which the heaviness of the clay is tem¬
pered by the lightness of the sandstone.
Limestone is one of the most widely distributed of the
stratified rocks, and in different localities occurs of very dif¬
ferent composition. Limestones are divided into two classes,
common and magnesian ; the former a nearly pure carbon¬
ate of lime, the latter a mixture of that substance with car¬
bonate of magnesia. But while these are the principal con¬
stituents, it is not uncommon to find small quantities of phos¬
phate and sulphate of lime, which, however trifling their
proportions, are not unimportant in an agricultural point of
view. The following analyses will serve to illustrate the
general composition of these two sorts of limestone :—
Common. Magnesian.
Mid-
Lothian.
Silica   2*00
Peroxide of iron)
and alumina ....)
Carbonate of lime, 93*61
Carbonate of mag-}_ j ,g9
nesia j
Phosphate of lime 0*56
Sulphate of lime .,. 0*92
Organic matter ...,, 0*20
Water   0*50
99*86
Suther- Suther- Dum-
land. land. fries.
7*42 6*00 2*31
0*76 1*57 2*00
84*11 50*21 58*81
7*45 41*22 36*41
0*10
0*69
99*74 99*69 99*63
These are pure limestones; but there occurs yet another
sort, which is a mixture of carbonate of lime with variable
quantities of clay. Limestone and chalk, when disinte¬
grated, produce light and open soils; but when mixed with
clay, they give rise to soils of high fertility. This is parti-
392
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
Agricul- cularly the case with chalk, on which are found some of
tural f-hg most valuable of all soils. But it is true only of the
v emib_ry; common limestones, for experience has shown that those
^ v_*" which contain magnesia in large quantity are generally pre¬
judicial to vegetation, and yield barren or at best very infe¬
rior soils.
Such are the general characters of the three great classes
of stratified rocks; any attempt to particularise the nume¬
rous varieties of each would lead us far beyond the limits of
the present article. It is necessary, however, to remark, that
in many instances the one variety passes into the other, or,
more correctly speaking, sedimentary rocks occur, which
are, so to speak, mixtures of two or more of the three great
classes. Thus we have sandstones which contain much
clay, clay slates and shales, which are rich in lime, lime¬
stone rocks with a large intermixture of clay. Such mix¬
tures usually produce better soils than either of their consti¬
tuents separately, and accordingly, in those geological for¬
mations in which they are abundant, the soils are generally
of excellent quality. The same effect is produced where
numerous thin beds of members of the different classes are
interstratified, the disintegrated portions being gradually in¬
termixed, and valuable soils formed. It may be stated gene¬
rally that the soils of the clay slates are for the most part
cold, heavy, and very difficult and expensive to work ; those
of sandstone light and poor, and of limestone generally poor
and thin. These statements must, however, be considered
as very general; for individual cases occur in which some of
these substances may produce good soils. Such is the case
with the lower chalk and with some of the shales of the coal
formation. Little is at present known regarding the pecu¬
liar nature of" these rocks, or their composition; and the
cause of the differences in the fertility of the soil produced
from them is a subject worthy of minute investigation.
Chemical Composition of the Soil.—We have already re¬
ferred to the division of the constituents of the soil into the
two great classes of organic and inorganic. When treating
of the sources of the organic constituents of plants, we en¬
tered with some degree of minuteness into the composition
and relations of the different members of the former class,
and expressed the opinion that they did not admit of being
directly absorbed by the plant. As a direct source of these
substances, humus is unimportant; but it has other functions
to perform which render it an essential constituent of all
fertile soils. These functions are dependent on the power
which it has of absorbing and entering into chemical composi¬
tion with ammonia, and with certain of the soluble inorganic
substances of the soil. Its effects in this way are strikingly
seen in the manner in which ammonia is absorbed by peat
soils; it suffices merely to pour upon some dried peat a
small quantity of a dilute solution of ammonia to find its
smell immediately disappear. This peculiar absorptive power
extends also to the fixed alkalies, potash and soda, as well
as to lime and magnesia, and has an important effect in pre¬
venting these substances being washed out of the soil—a
property which, as we shall afterwards see, is possessed also
by the clay contained in greater or less quantity in most
soils.
In examining into the inorganic constituents of the soil,
we find that it is not sufficient merely to inquire into the
nature of these substances, but that the states of combina¬
tion in which they exist is of the very highest importance.
I wo soils may, for instance, be found on analysis to yield
exactly the same results, and yet the one may prove in prac¬
tice to be fertile, the other barren ; and these differences
may be entirely dependent on the conditions in whicli their
individual elements exist. To pass into the plant, these sub¬
stances must be soluble in water, and, unless they are so, it
matters not in what quantity the soil contains them; if they
are insoluble, they are locked up from use, and the soil is Agricul-
left to hopeless infertility. Accordingly, it must be at once tural
apparent that the determination of the total amount of each Chemistry,
of the elements of the soil is not sufficient to establish its 's—
value. If the analysis is to be of any use, it ought to indi¬
cate also the conditions in which they exist, so that we may
ascertain the ease or difficulty with which they may be ab¬
sorbed. For this purpose it is necessary to determine, 1st,
The substances soluble in water; 2d, The substances in¬
soluble in water, but soluble in acids; 3c?, The substances
insoluble both in water and acids. If to these we add the or¬
ganic constituents, we have four separate heads, under which
the components of a soil ought to be classified. This classi¬
fication is accordingly adopted in the most careful and mi¬
nute analyses ; but the difficulty and labour attending such
analyses has hitherto precluded the possibility of making
them except in a few instances; and, generally speaking,
chemists have been contented with treating the soil with an
acid, and determining in the solution all that is dissolved.
Such analyses are at times useful for practical purposes, as,
for example, when they show the absence of lime, or any other
individual substance, by the addition of which we may rec¬
tify the deficiency of the coil; but they are of comparatively
little scientific value, and throw but little light on the true
constitution of the soil, and the sources of its fertility. Nor
is it likely that we shall arrive at much satisfactory informa¬
tion until the number of minute analyses is so far extended
as to enable us to establish the fundamental principles on
which the various properties of the soil depends.
The separation of the constituents of a soil into the four
great groups already mentioned is effected in the following
manner:—A given quantity of the soil is boiled with three of
four successive quantities of water, which dissolves out all the
soluble matters. These soluble matters generally amount to
about one-half per cent, of the whole soil, and consist of
nearly equal proportions of organic and inorganic substances.
In very light and sandy soils, it occasionally happens that
not more than one or two-tenths per cent, dissolve in water,
and in peaty soils, on the other hand, the proportion is some¬
times considerably increased, principally owing to the abun¬
dance of soluble organic matters.
When the residue of this operation is heated with dilute
hydrochloric acid, the portion soluble in acids is obtained in
the fluid. This portion of the soil is liable to very great
variations. In some soils of excellent quality, and well
adapted to the growth of wheat, it does not exceed three
per cent., while in calcareous soils, such as those of the chalk
formation, it may reach as high as 50 or 60 per cent. In
general, however, it amounts to about 10 per cent. The
organic constituents are also very variable in amount; ordi¬
nary soils of good quality containing from 2 to 10 per cent.,
while in peat soils it is no uncommon thing for them to ex¬
ceed 30 per cent., and in some instances to reach as high as
50. Such soils, however, cannot be considered fertile soils.
The insoluble constituents are likewise subject to great varia¬
tions. In the ordinary clay and sandy soils of this country,
they generally form from 80 to 90 per cent, of the whole,
but they are occasionally as low as 30, especially in such
soils as are very rich in lime.
The distribution of the constituents under these different
heads will be best illustrated by a few analyses of soils of
good quality. The following are the analyses of two noted
for the excellent crops of wheat they produce, and for their
general fertility. The analyses were made from the upper
10 inches, and a quantity of the 10 inches immediately sub¬
jacent was analysed as subsoil. The first is the ordinary
wheat soil of the county of Mid-Lothian, the other the allu¬
vial soil of the Carse of Gowrie in Perthshire, so celebrated
for the abundance and luxuriance of the crops it produces.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
393
^gricul- Mid-Lothian,
tural Soil. Subsoil.
Chemistry. Substances soluble in water.
Silica   0*0149
Lime    0*0300
Magnesia   0*0097
Chi or. of magnesium
Potash   0*0034
Soda   0*0065
0*0104
0*0072
0*0016
0*0037
0*0049
Perthshire.
Soil. Subsoil.
0*0072 0*0461
0*0184 0*0306
0*0040 0*0034
0*0033
Chloride of potassium ... ... 0*0088 0*0080
Chloride of sodium ... ... 0*0110 0*0166
Sulphuric acid   0*0193 0*0124 0*0089 0*0239
Chlorine  trace trace
Organic matters   0*1481 0*2228 0*0608 0*1342
0*2319 0*2630 0*1191 0*2661
Soluble in acids.
Silica   0*1490 0*0680 0*0482 0*1697
Peroxide of iron  5*1730 3*4820 4*8700 4*6633
Alumina   2*1540 1*8130 2*6900 3*9070
Lime   0*4470 0*3810 0*3616 0*5050
Magnesia   0*4120 0*2850 0*3960 0*9420
Potash   0*0650 0*1650 0*3445 0*1670
Soda   0*0050 0*0560 0*1242 0*1920
Sulphuric acid  0*0250 0*0850 0*0911 0*0160
Phosphoric acid  0*4300 0*1970 0*2400 0*2680
Carbonic acid  ... 0*0500
8*8600 6*5320 9*2156 10*8300
Insoluble in acids.
Silica  71*3890 82*5090 63*1400 61*4200
Alumina   4*7810 3*5120 11*3500 10*3400
Peroxide of iron   trace trace ... 1*5670
Lime   0*7520 0*5500 0*4500 0*7400
Magnesia   0*6610 0*5500 0*6200 0*4450
Potash   0*2860 ... 2*4500 2*0030
Soda   0*4220 ... 1*3100 0*8440
78*2910 87*1210 79*3200 77*3590
Organic matters.
Insoluble organic) 3.3777 4*2370 7*7400 6*2910
matter )
Humine  0*8850 0*3450 0*0700 0*0840
Humic acid   0*1340 0*0310 0*6800 0*3600
Apocrenic acid   0*1533 ... ... 0*0920
Water   2*6840 1*7670 2*7000 4*5750
12*7340 6*3800 11*1900 11*4020
Sum of all the)
constituents ...)
100*1169 100*2960 99*8447
99*8571
Amount of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen con¬
tained in 100 parts of each soil.
Carbon     4*510 1*3060 2*55 2*03
Hydrogen   0*550 0*3324 0*71 0*53
Nitrogen   0*220 0*0973 0*21 0*17
Oxygen   4*918 3*1001 5*08 4*09
10*198 4*8358 8*55 6*82
From an examination of these analyses, it is apparent that
certain of the inorganic constituents of the soil are met with in
each of the three heads under which they are arranged, while
others are confined to one or two. Silica and the alkalies
occur generally, though not invariably in all three. Chlo¬
rine is met with only in the part soluble in water, phosphoric
acid only in that soluble in acids, while sulphuric acid oc¬
curs in both the last-named divisions. The part soluble in
water is composed entirely of salts of the alkalies, lime, and
yol. n.
magnesia; the acids being sulphuric acid, silica, and chlorine, Agricul-
the latter in very small quantity. All the substances met tural-
with in solution are important constituents of the ash of ^ iemis ry-
plants. It is different, however, with those soluble in acids,
of which the larger proportion consists of alumina and oxide
of iron, both of which are comparatively unimportant to the
plant, but very important, as we shall afterwards see, in re¬
lation to the physical properties of the soil. The remainder
of the substances soluble in acids, amounting to from 1 to 2
per cent., is composed of some of the most essential consti¬
tuents of plants. Lime, magnesia, potash, and soda, appear
again in larger quantity than in the soluble part, and along
with them we have the phosphoric acid to the amount of from
0*2 to 0*4 per cent, of the whole soil, and sulphuric acid in
much smaller quantity. The insoluble matters show a strik¬
ing difference in the two soils, in regard to the proportion
of alkalies they contain, the Mid-Lothian soil showing only
0*28 per cent, of potash, the subsoil none, while the Perth¬
shire contains 2*45 and 2*00 respectively.
As a contrast with these soils, we have the following ana¬
lysis of a soil from the island of Antigua, from which very
large crops of sugar-cane are obtained. The soil is of great
depth, and analyses of the subsoil at the depth of 18 inches
and 5 feet are given. These last analyses are not so minute
as that of the soil itself, the soluble matters not having been
separately determined, but included in that soluble in acids.
Soluble in water.
Lime 
Magnesia 
Potash 
Soda 
Chlorine  
Organic matter
Surface 18 inches 5 feet
soil.
  0*07
  trace
  0*06
  0*04
  0*05
  0*15
0*37
Soluble in acids.
Silica  0*74
Peroxide of iron   2*22
Protoxide of iron  0*77
Alumina  1*90
Lime  10*43
Magnesia  0*20
Potash  0*03
Soda  0*02
Sulphuric acid  trace
Phosphoric acid  0*14
Carbonic acid  7*38
Insoluble in acids.
Silica 
Protoxide of iron
Alumina 
Lime 
Magnesia 
Potash 
Soda 
41*44
3*24
9*00
0*08
0*80
Organic matters.
Humine 
Humic acid 
Insoluble organic matters.
Water 
deep
1*67
9*05
2*52
3*04
0*54
0*29
0*11
0*02
trace
0*82
51*24
0*26
1*50
0*88
0*54
0*74
0*25
12*05
1*581
1*15
7*66J
11*13 14*69
deep
1*87
3*10
4*21
25*75
0*51
0*28
0*16
0*13
0*04
20*23
23*83 18*06 56*28
27*67
1*40
1*00
trace
trace
54*56 55*41 30*07
7*49
6*06
21*52 26*74 13*55
Sum of all the constituents  100*28 100*21 99*90
In this soil there is a general resemblance in the compo-
3 D
394
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
Agricul- sition of the portion soluble in water to those of the wheat
tu^al soils. But the part soluble in acids is distinguished by the
emistry. abundance of carbonate of lime.
“r V~""J The soil of Holland from the neighbourhood of the Zui¬
der Zee, which is an alluvial deposit from the waters of the
Rhine, and produces large crops, gave the results which
follow.
Insoluble silica 
Soluble silica 
Alumina 
Peroxide of iron 
Protoxide of iron 
Oxide of manganese 
Lime 
Magnesia 
Potash 
Soda 
Ammonia 
Phosphoric acid 
Sulphuric acid 
Carbonic acid 
Chlorine 
Humic acid 
Crenic acid 
Apocrenic acid 
Other organic matters and
Combined water 
Loss 
Surface.
57-646
2-340
1-830
9-039
0-350
0-288
4-092
0-130
1-026
1-972
0-060
0-466
0-896
6-085
1- 240
2- 798
0.771
0-107
8-324
0-540
15 inches
deep.
51-706
2-496
2-900
10-305
0-563
0-354
5- 096
0-140
1- 430
2- 069
0-078
0-324
1-104
6- 940
1-302
3- 991
0-731
0-160
7- 700
0-611
30 inches
deep.
55-372
2-286
2-888
11-864
0-200
0-284
2- 480
0-128
1-521
1-937
0-075
0-478
0-576
4-775
1-418
3- 428
0-037
0-152
9-348
0-753
100-000 100-000 100-000
It is unnecessary to multiply analyses of fertile soils, those
now given being sufficient to shew their general composition.
They are all characterised by the presence in considerable
quantity of all the essential constituents of plants, and by
their presence in a state in which they may be readily ab¬
sorbed. The absence of one or more of these substances
immediately diminishes or altogether destroys the fertility
of the soil; and the extent to which this occurs is illustrated
by the following analysis of a soil from Pumpherston, Mid-
Lothian, forming a small patch in the lower part of a field,
and on which nothing would grow. Being naturally wet, it
had been drained and sowed with oats, which died out about
six weeks after sowing, and left a bare soil on which weeds
did not show the slightest disposition to grow.
Soluble in acids.
Soluble silica  0*173
P eroxide of iron  6" 7 75
Alumina  1-150
Oxide of manganese  trace
Carbonate of lime  0*856
Magnesia  0*099
Potash    0-132
Soda  0-123
Phosphoric acid  trace
Chlorine  trace
  9-308
Silica  73-096
Peroxide of iron  1-371
Alumina  4-263
Lime   0-858
Magnesia  0-520
  80-108
Organic matter    8-012
Water  2-391
  10-403
99-819
In this instance the barrenness of the soil is distinctly Agricul-
traceable to the deficiency of phosphoric acid, sulphuric tural
acid, and chlorine. There is also a remarkably large quan- Chemistry,
tity of oxide of iron, which, when dissolved by the humic
acid, is well known to be highly prejudicial to vegetation.
That this took place was shown by the fact that the drains,
a couple of months after being laid, were almost stopped up
by humate of iron. Still more striking are the following
analyses:—
Moorland soil Sandy soil Soil from
near Aurich near near Mnhl-
hansen.
77-780
9-490
5-800
0-105
0-866
0-728
trace
0-003
trace
0-200
trace
0-732
0-200
4-096
100-000
The results contained in these analyses are peculiarly re¬
markable, indicating as they do the almost total absence of
all those substances which the plant requires. These must,
however, be considered as in a great measure exceptional
cases, as it is no doubt but rarely that so large a number of
constituents is absent, and far more frequent to find the de¬
ficiency restricted to one or two substances. They are
illustrations of barrenness dependent on different circum¬
stances. The first shows the unimportance of the organic
matters of the soil, which are here unusually abundant, with¬
out in any way counteracting the unfertility dependent on
the absence of the other constituents. The second is that
of a nearly pure sand; and the third, though it contains a
greater number of the essential ingredients of the ash, is
still rendered unfruitful by the deficiency of alkalies, sul¬
phuric acid, and chlorine.
An examination of the foregoing analyses indicates pretty
clearly the conditions of fertility of the soil. It must ob¬
viously contain all the constituents of the plants which are
to grow upon it, and in a soluble state, so that they may
admit of absorption by the plant. It is clear, however, that the
part directly soluble in water embraces only a certain number
of the constituents of the plant, and that only in small quan¬
tity. This becomes still more apparent if we estimate the
quantities contained in an acre of soil. It is calculated that
the soil on an imperial acre of land 10 inches deep weighs
in round numbers about 1000 tons; and calculating from
this, we find that the quantity of potash soluble in water in
the Mid-Lothian wheat soil amounts only to about 70 lb.
per acre. But a crop of hay carries off from the soil about
38 lb. of potash, and one of turnips, including tops, not less
than 200 lb. Manifestly, therefore, if only the matters
soluble in water could be taken up by the plant, such soils
could not possess the amount of fertility which they actually
do. But the soil is not an inert unchangeable substance;
it is the theatre of an important series of chemical changes
effected by the action of air and moisture, and producing a
continued liberation of its constituents. The oxygen of the
air acts upon the organic matters of the soil, and produces
a constant though slow evolution of carbonic acid, which is
East Friesland.
70-576
1-050
0-252
trace
0-012
trace
trace
11-910
16-200
Wettingen.
96-000
0-500
2-000
trace
0-001
trace
trace
0-200
1-299
100-000 100-000
Silica and sand 
Alumina 
Oxide of iron 
Oxide of manganese.
Lime 
Magnesia 
Potash 
Soda 
Phosphoric acid 
Sulphuric acid 
Carbonic acid 
Chlorine 
Humic acid 
Insoluble humus 
Water 
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
395
Agricul- absorbed by the moisture contained in the soil, and exerts a
tural solvent action on its constituents. In fact, though a very
Chemistry. feeb]e acid5 carbonic acid, by continuous action, is constantly
v ^ effecting the solution of new quantities of the constituents
of the soil; and this action goes on so slowly that at any one
moment, the quantity in a soluble condition is not sufficient
to supply the total amount required by the plant; but by a
beautiful provision of nature, they are brought into the
soluble state only in proportion as they are required for the
plant, and thus the loss which would take place by the rain
falling upon a soil charged with soluble matters and washing
them out, is effectually prevented.
Carbonic acid is therefore a most important agent in pro¬
ducing the chemical changes in the soil, and the organic
matters are valuable, as affording a supply of that substance
within the soil itself; but the carbonic acid of the atmo¬
sphere will itself effect these changes, although with differ¬
ent degrees of rapidity according to the character of the
soil. In light soils of open texture it will act easily, but in
stiff clay soils its action is very slow. The solvent action of
the carbonic acid is, no doubt, principally exerted on the
substances soluble in acids, but not entirely, for we know that
the part insoluble in acids is gradually being disintegrated
and made soluble; and hence it is that the composition of
that part of the soil which resists the action of acids, and which
at first sight might appear of no moment, is really impor¬
tant. We observe, in fact, that this circumstance must at
once confer on the soil of the Carse of Gowrie a great supe¬
riority over those of Mid-Lothian and most other districts;
for it contains in its insoluble part a quantity of alkalies which
must necessarily form a source of continual fertility. Ac¬
cordingly, experience has all along shown the great supe¬
riority of that soil, and of alluvial soils generally, which are
all more or less similar to it. The facility with which these
matters are attackable by carbonic acid is also an important
element of the fertility of a soil, and it is to the existence
of compounds which are readily soluble that we attribute the
high fertility of the trap soils.
By a further examination of the analyses of fertile soils,
it is at once apparent that the most essential constituents of
plants are by no means the most abundant in the soil. In
fact, phosphoric and sulphuric acids, lime, magnesia, and the
alkalies, which in most instances make up nine-tenths of the
ash of plants, form but a small portion of even the most fer¬
tile soils ; while silica, which except in the grasses occurs in
small quantity, oxide of iron which is a limited, and alumina
a rare, constituent of the ash, form by far their larger part.
Thus the total amount of potash, soda, lime, magnesia,
phosphoric and sulphuric acids and chlorine contained in the
Mid-Lothian wheat soil amounts only to 3*5888 per cent.,
and in the Perthshire to 6*4385, the entire remainder being
substances which enter into the plant for the most part in
much smaller quantity. Now, as these small quantities of
the more important substances are capable of supplying the
wants of the plant, it must be obvious that a very small fraction
of the silica, oxide of iron, and alumina, which the soils contain,
would afford to it the whole quantity of these substances it
requires, and that the rest of these constituents must have
some other functions to perform in the soil. Hitherto we
have looked upon a soil merely as the source of the inor¬
ganic food of plants, but it has to act also as a support for
the plant while growing, and to retain a sufficient quantity
of moisture to support its life; and unless it possess the pro¬
perties which fit it for doing so, it may contain all the ele¬
ments of the food of plants, and yet be nearly or altogether
barren.
If a quantity of a soil be shaken up with water and allowed
to stand for a few minutes, we find that it rapidly deposits
a quantity of grains which we at once recognise as common
sand. If the water be now poured off into another vessel Agricul-
and allowed to stand for a longer time, there is deposited a tural
quantity of a fine soft powder, having the properties and Chemistry,
composition of common clay, while the clear fluid now con-
tains the soluble matter. By a more careful treatment we
can likewise distinguish and separate humus, and in soils
lying on chalk or limestone, calcareous matter or carbonate
of lime. We perform in this way a sort of mechanical ana¬
lysis, and classify the components of the soil into four groups,
a mixture of two or more of which in variable proportions
is found in all soils.
The relative proportions in which these substances exist
in a soil are intimately connected with its mechanical and
physical properties, which have as important an influence in
its fertility as its chemical composition; fora soil may con¬
tain all the necessary elements of the crops, and yet, from
some defect in its physical characters, be nearly or altogether
barren. In fact, it is impossible to examine a large number
of analyses of soils without seeing that though in many in¬
stances they may give tolerably satisfactory information as
to their relative values, yet we sometimes see two soils one
fertile and the other barren although there is no appreciable
difference in their chemical composition. An illustration of
this is found in the following analyses of two soils both fer¬
tile, but in one of which red clover grows luxuriantly, in the
other it invariably fails.
Clover fails.
Insoluble silicates 83*90
Soluble silica  0*08
Peroxide of iron  4*45
Alumina   2*40
Lime  1*23
Magnesia  0*45
Potash  0*20
Soda  0*07
Sulphuric acid  0*05
Phosphoric acid  0*38
Carbonic acid  0*09
Chlorine trace
Humic acid  0*42
Humine 
Insoluble organic matters.... 3’70
Water  2*54
Clover succeeds.
81*34
0*02
6*68
3*00
1*33
' 0*25
0*22
0*09
0*08
0*07
0*34
trace
0*43
0*10
3*61
2*52
99*96 100*08
Nitrogen  0*15 1*15
In default of any explanation deducible from the compo¬
sition of the soil, we are induced to attribute the differences
here observed to differences in their physical properties.
Now it appears that the mechanical constituents of the
soil mentioned above possess certain properties, partly me¬
chanical and partly chemical, which exert an important in¬
fluence on its fertility. Sand and clay, the most important
of the four, confer on the soil diametrically opposite proper¬
ties; the former, when present in large quantity, producing
what are designated as light, the latter stiff or heavy soils.
Sand, being composed of hard indestructible grains of sili-
cious matter, forms a soil of an open texture, through which
water readily permeates; while clay, from its fine state of
division, and peculiar adhesiveness or plasticity, gives a close-
textured and retentive soil; and the proper intermixture of
the two produces a light fertile soil, each tempering the
peculiar properties of the other. Indeed, their mixture is
manifestly essential, for sand alone contains none of the
essential ingredients of the plant; and if present in large
quantity, the openness of the soil is excessive, water flows
through it with rapidity, manures are rapidly destroyed, and
the accession of drought soon causes the plants which grow
upon it to languish and die. Clay, on the other hand, is by
396 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
Agricul- itself equally objectionable; the closeness of its texture pre-
tural vents the spreading of the roots of plants, and the access of
Chemistry. car]:)0nic acic]? which, as we have already seen, is so impor-
tant an agent in the changes occurring in the soil. In fact
a pure clay, that is to say, a clay unmixed with sand, even
though it may contain all the essential constituents of the
plant is absolutely unfertile. Practically, of course, these
extreme cases never occur; the heaviest clay soils are mix¬
tures of true clay with sand, and the most sandy soils con¬
tain their proportion of clay; but frequently the prepon¬
derance of the one over the other is so great, as to produce
soils greatly inferior to those in which the mixture is more
uniform.
We have spoken of those substances merely as mechani¬
cally affecting the soil; but clay possesses also a very remark¬
able property, apparently of a chemical nature, although to
what extent it is so is as yet unknown, and which gives it a
high importance in the soil. It possesses a remarkable
power of absorbing the soluble constituents of the soil, and
preventing them, in part at least, from being washed out by
the rains. This peculiar effect of clay has long been recog¬
nised by chemists ; but its special importance in an agricul¬
tural point of view has been shown by Mr Thomson; and
to the extended investigation of Way we owe the greater
part of our definite information regarding it. It appears
that all ordinary arable soils possess, in a more or less
marked degree, the power of removing from their solution
ammonia, potash, soda, and phosphoric acid, to a consider¬
able extent, and lime and magnesia in smaller quantity.
The amount of this absorption is easily seen by a simple ex¬
periment. It suffices to take a tall cylindrical vessel open
at both ends, and filled with the soil to be operated upon,
which is retained by a piece of rag tied over its lower end. A
quantity of a dilute solution of ammonia being then poured
upon the surface of the soil, and allowed to percolate, the
first quantity which flows away is found to have entirely lost
its peculiar smell and taste; and in a similar manner the re¬
moval of potash and soda may be illustrated. Mr Way has
found, that not only is ammonia absorbed by the soil in the
free state, but also when in combination with different acids.
In the latter case the absorption is attended with a true
chemical decomposition, for the fluid which flows from the
soil contains the whole of the acid of the ammonia salt in
combination with lime. Thus, if sulphate of ammonia be
employed, we have sulphate of lime in the fluid, and if mu¬
riate of ammonia, we have muriate of lime escaping. Mr
Way’s experiments have shown, that an ordinary soil is
capable of absorbing and bringing into an insoluble condi¬
tion about 0'3 per cent, of ammonia, when either ammonia
itself, its sulphate, or muriate, is employed. It thus appears,
as far as absorption goes, to be immaterial whether the am¬
monia is free or combined. But it is different with potash,
which is absorbed from the nitrate to the extent of about
06 per cent., and from a caustic solution of potash to double
that amount. In these cases the acid of the substance em¬
ployed appears to combine with lime, and the whole of it is
obtained in the solution. From this it may be gathered, that
lime is not readily absorbed from solutions of its salts; in¬
deed, it would appear that the only salt of lime which comes
under the absorbent power of the soil is the bicarbonate, from
which lime is taken to the extent of T4 per cent, by the
soil. The absorption of lime from this salt, and of phosphoric
acid, which takes place to a considerable extent, probably
occurs, however, quite independently of the clay present in
the soil, and is occasioned by its lime, which forms an inso¬
luble compound with phosphoric acid, and by removing half
the carbonic acid of the bicarbonate of lime converts it also
into an insoluble state.
Mr Way attributes the entire absorptive effects of the soil
to the clay which they contain, but it may be questioned Agricul-
whether it is the exclusive agent at work. We have re- tui;al
marked, that the absorption of phosphoric acid and of lime ^ lemistry.
from the bicarbonate is probably dependent on lime itself.
But as regards alkalies and ammonia, there is another absorp¬
tive agent in the organic constituents of the soil. So power¬
ful indeed is the affinity of these substances for ammonia,
that chemists are at one as to the difficulty of obtaining the
humic and other acids pure, owing to the obstinacy with
which they retain it; and there cannot be a doubt that in
many soils these substances are in this point of view of much
importance. This is particularly the case in peat soils,
which, though naturally barren, may be made to produce
good crops by the application of sand or gravel; and as
neither of these can cause any absorption of the valuable
matters, we must attribute this effect to the organic matter.
That peat does absorb ammonia may be shown by a simple
experiment. If a quantity of dry peat be taken and ammo¬
nia poured on it, we find that its smell disappears; and this
may be continued until upwards of T5 per cent, of dry am¬
monia has been absorbed, and this quantity is retained by the
peat. There is another point worthy of inquiry at the pre¬
sent time, and which may prove of much importance. It is
certain that the soil, when shaken up with ammonia, with¬
draws from its solution a quantity of that substance; but
what is the effect of withdrawing the remaining solution, and
agitating with more water ? May it not happen that the
ammonia at first absorbed may be again washed out of the
soil. The analyses of the soils given in page 393 show at
least that the whole of the potash and soda is not in an in¬
soluble condition in the soil; and though the quantity ex¬
tracted by water is small, it is unequivocal; we know also,
that the water which flows from the drains always contains
a variety of alkaline and other salts in solution, manifestly
derived from the soils through which it has percolated. In
short, it must not be supposed that the substances absorbed
are rendered absolutely insoluble; they become only rela¬
tively so; and it is probable that, under particular circum¬
stances, a considerable proportion of them may be again re¬
moved. This is obviously the case in regard to ammonia,
as absorbed by peat, for we find that the alkaline reaction
is removed by that substance from a considerable quantity
of dilute ammonia, although only a 'portion of it is retained
when the soil has become dry. Here the presence of mois¬
ture appears to be of consequence, and no doubt other con¬
ditions, not at present understood, may have the effect of
greatly modifying the phenomena.
The peculiarities hitherto alluded to are perhaps in some
respects more chemical than mechanical, or at least partake
to some extent of both; but the more strictly physical
characters, such for instance as the relations of the soil to
heat and moisture, &c., are not less important. It needs,
indeed, only a moment’s consideration to see how great
must be the influence exerted by their power of absorbing
heat and moisture. We know that in these respects soils
differ greatly, and the possession of these properties in a high
degree may cause two soils chemically identical to differ
widely in productiveness. Thus, for instance, two soils may
be identical in composition, but one may be highly hygro-
metric, that is, may absorb moisture readily from the air,
while the other may be very deficient in that property.
Under ordinary circumstances no difference will be appa¬
rent between the produce of the two soils, but in a dry sea¬
son the crop upon the former may be in a flourishing con¬
dition, while that on the latter may be languishing and en¬
feebled merely from its inability to absorb from the air, and
supply to the plant the quantity of water required for its
growth. In the same way, a soil which absorbs much heat
from the sun’s rays will surpass another which has not that
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
Agricul- property; and though in many cases this effect may be com-
tural paratively unimportant, it may make the difference between
Chemistry. successful and unsuccessful cultivation in soils which lie in
an unfavourable climate or exposure.
The investigation of the physical characters of soils has
attracted little attention except on the part of Schiibler,
who published, nearly 30 years ago, a very elaborate series
of researches on this subject, from which all our present in¬
formation is derived. He determined, 1^, The specific
gravity of the soils ; 2d, The quantity of water which they
are capable of imbibing ; 3d, The rapidity with which they
give off by evaporation the water they have imbibed ; that
is, their tendency to become dry ; Ath, The extent to which
they shrink in drying ; 5th, Their hygrometric power ; 6th,
The extent to which they are heated by the sun’s rays;
7th, The rapidity with which a heated soil cools down, which
indicates its power of retaining heat; 3th, Their tenacity,
or the resistance they offer to the passage of agricultural im¬
plements ; §th, Their power of absorbing oxygen from the
air. Each of these experiments was performed on several
different soils, and on their mechanical constituents. Schii-
bler’s experiments are undoubtedly important, and though
the methods employed are some of them not altogether be¬
yond cavil, they have apparently been performed with great
397
care. It is nevertheless desirable that they should be care- Agricul-
fully repeated, for such facts ought not to rest on the autho- tur.al
rity of one experimenter, however skilful and conscientious, Chemmiry.
nor on a single series of soils, which may not give a fair re-
presentation of their general physical properties. In fact
Schiibler appears to imagine that having once determined
the extent to which the sand, clay, and other mechanical con¬
stituents of the soil possess these properties, we are in a
condition to predicate with regard to soils produced from
their mixture in variable proportions, although this is by no
means probable.
In examining these properties, Schiibler selected for ex¬
periment, pure silicious sand, calcareous sand (carbonate of
lime in coarse grains), finely powdered carbonate of lime,
pure clay, humus, and powdered gypsum. He used also a
heavy clay consisting of 11 per cent, of sand and 89 of pure
clay, a somewhat stiff clay containing 24 per cent, of sand
and 76 of clay, a light clay, with 40 per cent, of sand and
60 of pure clay, a garden soil consisting of 52'4 per cent, of
clay, 36-5 of silicious sand, 1'8 of calcareous sand, 2 per
cent, of finely divided carbonate of lime, and 7’2 of humus,
and two arable soils, one from Hoflwyl, and one from a
valley in the Jura, the former a somewhat stiff, the latter a
light soil.
Silicious sand,....
Calcareous sand,
Light clay, 
Stiff clay, 
Heavy clay,  
Pure clay, 
Carbonate of lime,
Humus, 
Gypsum, 
Garden soil,  
Soil from Hofwyl,
Soil from Jura,...
Specific
gravity.
Water ab¬
sorbed by
100 parts.
Per cent.
2-753
2-822
2-701
2-652
2-603
2-591
2-468
1- 225
2- 358
2-332
2-401
2-526
Of 100 parts
of water
absorbed,
there eva¬
porate in
four hours
at 66°.
25
29
40
50
61
70
85
190
27
96
52
47
88-4
75-9
52-0
45-7
34-9
31- 3
28-0
20-5
71-7
24-5
32- 0
40-1
Diminution
during dry¬
ing of 100
parts of
moist soil.
o-o
0-0
6-0
8- 9
11- 4
18-3
5-0
20-0
0-0
14-9
12- 0
9- 5
Quantity of hydrometric water absorbed by
77-165 grains of the soil spread on a surface
of IIPIS square inches.
0
0-154
1-617
1- 925
2- 310
2-849
2-002
6-160
0-077
2-695
1-232
1-078
0
0-231
2-002
2-310
2- 772
3- 234
2- 387
7-469
0-077
3- 465
1-771
1-463
0
0-231
2- 156
2-618
3- 080
3-696
2- 695
8-470
0-077
3- 850
1-771
1-540
0
0-231
2-156
2- 695
3- 157
3- 773
2-695
9-240
0-077
4- 004
1-771
1-540
Power of
retaining
heat. Cal¬
careous
sand, KIO.
Tenacity
of the
soils, pure
clay, 100.
95-6
100-0
76-9
71T
68-4
66-7
61-8
490
73- 2
64-8
70-1
74- 3
Quantity of
oxygen ab¬
sorbed by
77‘165 grains of
the moist soil
in 30 days,
from 15 cubic
inches of at¬
mospheric arr,
Expressed in
cubic inches.
0
0
57-3
68-8
83-3
100-0
5-0
8-7
7-3
7-6
33-0
22-0
0-24
0-84
1-39
1- 65
2- 04
2- 29
1-62
3- 04
0-40
2-60
2-43
2-25
The experiments detailed in the preceding table speak
in a great measure for themselves, and scarcely require de¬
tailed comment. It must be remarked, however, that all
the characters determined are not equally important. Those
illustrating the relations of the soil to water are perhaps the
most important. The superiority of a retentive over an
open soil is sufficiently familiar in practice, and though
this superiority is no doubt partly due to the former ab¬
sorbing and retaining more completely the ammonia and
other valuable constituents of the manures applied to it, it
is also dependent to an equal if not greater extent upon the
power it possesses of retaining moisture. A reference to
the table makes it apparent that this power is presented
under three different heads, which are certainly related to
one another but are not identical. In the second column
of the table we have the quantity of water absorbed by the
soil, when thoroughly moistened as a sponge is, and it may
be considered as representing the quantity of water which
will be retained by these different soils when thoroughly
saturated by long continued rains. The column imme¬
diately succeeding gives the quantity of that water which
escapes by evaporation from the same soil after exposure for
four hours to dry air at the temperature of 66°. The fifth,
sixth, seventh, and eighth columns indicate the quantity of
moisture absorbed, when the soil, previously artificially dried,
is exposed to moist air for different periods. These charac¬
ters are dependent principally, though not entirely, on the
porosity of the soil. The last may also be in some measure
due to the presence of deliquescent salts in the soil, but is
partially occasioned by their peculiar structure. It is to be
remarked that clay and humus are two of the most highly
hygrometric substances known, and it is peculiarly interest¬
ing to observe, that by a beneficent provision of nature, they
also form a principal part of all fertile soils. The quantity
of water imbibed by the soil is important to its fertility, in
so far as it prevents it becoming rapidly dry after having
been moistened by the rains. It is valuable also in another
point of view, because if the soil be incapable of absorbing
much water, it becomes saturated by a moderate fall of rain,
and when a larger quantity falls, the excess of necessity per¬
colates through the soil and carries off with it a certain
quantity of the soluble salts. Important as this property is,
however, it must not be possessed in too high a degree, but
must permit the evaporation of the water retained wit a
certain degree of rapidity. Soils which do not admit o t ns
taking place, become the cause of much inconvenience an
398
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
Agricul¬
tural
Chemistry.
injury in practice. By becoming thoroughly saturated dur¬
ing winter, they remain for a long time in a wet and un¬
workable condition, in consequence of which they cannot
be prepared and sown until late in the season, and though
chemically unexceptionable, such soils are always disadvan¬
tageous, and may in certain seasons prove absolutely value¬
less. The extent to which the imbibition of water takes
place is extremely variable, and the rapidity of evaporation
equally so, but apparently in the inverse ratio of the former;
for we observe that silicious sand absorbs only one-fourth
of its weight of water, and again gives off in the course of
four hours four-fifths of that it had taken up, while humus,
which absorbs nearly twice its weight, retains nine-tenths of
that quantity after four hours exposure. Long-continued and
slow evaporation of the water absorbed by a soil is injurious
in another way, for it makes the soil “ cold,” a term of prac¬
tical origin, but which very correctly expresses the pecu¬
liarity in question, which is due to the quantity of heat ab¬
sorbed during evaporation, which prevents the soil acquir¬
ing a sufficiently high temperature from the sun’s rays. The
soils which have absorbed a large quantity of moisture
shrink more or less in the process of drying, and form
cracks, which often break the delicate fibres of the roots of
the plants and cause considerable injury: the extent of this
shrinking is given in the fourth column.
The relation of the soils to heat divides itself into two
considerations: the amount of heat absorbed by the soil,
and the degree in which it is retained. Of these the latter
only is illustrated in the table. The former is dependent
on so many special considerations that the results cannot be
tabulated in a satisfactory manner. It is independent of
the chemical nature of the soil, but varies to a great extent
according to its colour and the angle of incidence of the
sun’s rays, and its state of moisture. It is, however, an im¬
portant character, and has been found by Girardin to modify
to a considerable extent the rapidity of ripening of the crops.
He found in a particular year, that on the 25th of August
26 varieties of potatoes were ripe on a very dark-coloured
sandy vegetable mould, 20 on an ordinary sandy soil, 19
on a loamy soil, and only 16 on a nearly white calcareous
soil.
The tenacity of the soil is very variable, and indicates the
great differences in the amount of power which must be ex¬
pended in working them. According to Schiibler, a soil
whose tenacity does not exceed 10 is easily worked, but
when it reaches 40 it becomes sufficiently difficult and heavy
to work.
In looking at the tables, we see manifestly that there is
one constituent of the soil to which a high importance must
be attached in relation to its physical properties, and it is
the more interesting to observe, as it is that to which we
have attributed a minor chemical importance. It is humus,
which will be observed to confer on the soil a high power of
absorbing and retaining water, to diminish its tenacity and
permit its being more easily worked, to add to its hygrometric
power and property of absorbing oxygen from the air, and
finally, from its dark colour to cause the more rapid absorp¬
tion of heat from the sun’s rays. It will be tb .s understood,
that while humus does not directly supply food to the plant,
it ministers indirectly in a most important manner to its
well-being, and that to so great an extent that it must be
considered an indispensable constituent of a fertile soil. But
it is important to observe that it must not be present in too
large a quantity, for an excess of it does away with all the
good effects of a smaller supply, and produces soils noto¬
rious for their infertility.
Such are the important physical properties of the soil, and
it is greatly to be desired that they should be more exten¬
sively examined. The great labour which this involves has,
however, hitherto prevented its being done, and will, in all Agricul-
probability, render it impossible ever to do so except in a tural
limited number of cases. Some of these characters are, CheinistrJ*
however, of minor importance, and for ordinary purposes it
might be sufficient to determine the specific gravity of the
soil in the dry and moist state, the power of imbibing and
retaining water, its hygrometric power, its tenacity and its
colour. With these data we should be in a condition to
draw probable conclusions regarding the others ; for we find
that the higher the specific gravity in the dry state, the
greater is the power of the soil to retain heat, and the darker
its colour the more readily does it absorb it. The greater
its tenacity, the more difficult is it to work, and the greater
difficulty will the roots of the young plant find in pushing
their way through it. The greater the power of imbibing
water, the more it shrinks in drying; and the more slowly
the water evaporates, the colder is the soil produced. The
hygrometric power is so important a character that Davy
and other chemists have even believed it possible to make it
the measure of the fertility of a soil; but though this may be
true within certain limits, it must not be too broadly as¬
sumed, the results of recent experiments by no means con¬
firming the opinion in its integrity, but indicating only some
relation between the two.
The Subsoil.—The term soil is strictly confined to that
portion of the surface turned over by the plough working at
ordinary depth; which, as a general rule, may be taken at
10 inches. The portion immediately subjacent we call the
subsoil, and it has considerable agricultural importance, and
requires a short notice. In many instances, soil and subsoil
are separated by a purely imaginary line, and no striking dif¬
ference can be observed either in their chemical or physical
characters. In such cases it has been the practice with some
persons not to limit the term soil to the upper portion, but to
apply it to the whole depth, however great it may be, which
agrees in characters with the upper part, and only to call
that subsoil which manifestly differs from it. This principle
is perhaps theoretically the more correct, but great practical
advantages are derived from limiting the name of soil to
the depth actually worked in common agricultural operations.
The subsoil is always analogous in its general characters to
a soil, but it may be either identical with that which overlies
it or not. Of the former, striking illustrations are seen in
the wheat subsoils, the analyses of which have been already
given. In the latter case we find that great differences may
exist. Thus we may have a heavy clay lying on an open
and porous sand, or on peat, and vice versa. Even whure
the characters of the subsoil appear the same as those of
the soil, appreciable chemical differences are generally ob¬
served, especially in the quantity of organic matter, which
is increased in the soil by the decay of plants which have
grown upon it, and by the manure added. In general, then,
all that we have said regarding the characters of soils both
chemically and physically, will apply to the subsoils, except
that, from the difficulty with which the air reaches the
latter, some minor peculiarities are observed. The most
important is the effect of the decay of vegetable matter, with¬
out access of air, which is attended by the reduction of the
peroxide of iron to the state of protoxide, or more commonly
by the production of sulphuret of iron, compounds which
are extremely prejudicial to vegetation, and occasionally
give rise to some difficulties when the subsoil is brought to
the surface, as we shall afterwards have to notice.
The physical characters of the subsoil are often of much
importance to the soil itself. As, for instance, where a light
soil lies on a clay subsoil, in which case the value of the
soil is much higher than if it reposed on an open or sandy
subsoil. And in many similar modes is an important in¬
fluence exerted ; but these belong more strictly to the prac-
Agricul¬
tural
Chemistry.
AGEICULTUBAL CHEMISTRY.
tical department of agriculture, and need not be mentioned
here.
Classification of Soils.—Numerous attempts have been
made to form a classification of soils according to their cha¬
racters and value, but they have not hitherto proved very
successful; and the result of more recent chemical investi¬
gations has not been such as to encourage a farther at¬
tempt. We have not at present data sufficient for the
purpose, nor if we had, would it be possible to arrange any
soil in its class except after an elaborate chemical examina¬
tion. The only classification at present possible must be
founded on the general physical characters of the soil; and
the ordinary mode followed in practice of dividing them
into clays, loams, &c. &c., which we need not here particu¬
larise, fulfils all that can be done until we have more minute
information regarding a large number of soils. Those of
our readers who desire more full information on this point
are referred to the works of Thaer, Schiibler, and others,
where the subject is minutely discussed.
THE MECHANICAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL.
In order that it may have the highest degree of fertility,
a soil must possess the necessary physical properties and
chemical composition in perfection. In comparatively few
instances does this actually occur; for the greater propor¬
tion of soils, either from mechanical or chemical defects, are
incapable of producing an abundant vegetation. These de¬
fects, however, admit of diminution, or even entire removal,
by certain methods of treatment, the adaptation of which to
particular cases is necessarily one of the most important
branches of agricultural practice, as the elucidation of their
mode of action is of its theory. The observations already
made with regard to the characters of fertile soils, will have
prepared the reader for the statement that these defects
may be removed in two ways, either mechanically or che¬
mically. The former method of improvement may at first
sight appear to fall more strictly under the head of prac¬
tical agriculture, of which the mechanical treatment of the
soil forms so important a part, and that their improvement
by chemical means should form the sole subject of our
consideration here. But the line of demarcation between
the mechanical and the chemical, which seems so marked,
disappears on more minute observation, and we find that
the mechanical methods of improvement are frequently de¬
pendent on chemical principles; and those which, at first
sight, appear to be entirely chemical, are also in reality
partly mechanical. It will be necessary for us, therefore,
to consider shortly the mechanical methods of improving
the soil.
Draining.—By far the most important method of mecha¬
nically improving the soil is by draining,—a practice the
beneficial action of which is dependent on a great variety of
circumstances. Its most obvious effect is probably that
which it produces on the temperature of the soil. We have
already remarked that the germination of a seed is depen¬
dent on the soil in which it is sown acquiring a certain tem¬
perature, and the rapidity of the after-growth of the plant
is, in part at least, dependent on the same circumstance.
The necessary temperature is speedily attained by the heat¬
ing action of the sun’s rays, when the soil is dry ; but when
it is moist, the heat is expended in evaporating the mois¬
ture with which it is saturated; and it is only after this has
been effected that it acquires a sufficiently high temperature
to produce the rapid growth of the seeds committed to it.
But when the soil is drained, the superfluous moisture is
drawn off, and it is ready to take advantage of the heating
effect of the sun’s rays in early spring ; and thus the period
of germination, and by consequence also that of ripening, is
advanced. The extent to which this takes place is neces¬
399
sarily variable, but it is generally considerable ; and in some Agricul-
districts of Scotland the extensive introduction of draining tu^al
has made the harvest on the average of years from 10 to 14 Chemistry,
days earlier than it was before. It is unnecessary to insist *’v
on the importance of such a change, which in upland dis¬
tricts may make cultivation successful when it was pre¬
viously almost impossible. The removal of moisture by
drainage affects the physical characters of the soil in another
manner: it makes it lighter, more friable, and more easily
worked ; and this change is occasioned by the downward
flow of the water carrying with it to the lower part of the
soil the finer argillaceous particles, leaving the coarser and
sandy matters above, and in this way a marked improve¬
ment is produced on heavy clays. The abundant escape of
water from the drains acts chemically by removing any
noxious matters the soil may contain, and by diminishing
the amount of soluble saline matters, which sometimes pro¬
duce injurious effects. It thus prevents the saline incrus¬
tation, which is frequently seen in dry seasons on soils which
are naturally wet, and which is produced by the water, which
rises to the surface by capillary attraction, depositing, as it
evaporates, the soluble substances it contained, and leaving
a hard crust which prevents the access of air to the interior
of the soil. The access of air to the soil, which is one of
the most important elements of its fertility, is promoted in
a high degree by draining, as, by removing the water which
stagnates in the lower part of the soil, it permits the air to
reach it. It provides also for the frequent change of the
air which permeates the soil; for every shower that falls ex¬
pels from it a quantity of the air it contains, and as the mois¬
ture flows off by the drains, a new supply of air enters to
take its place, and thus the important changes which the
atmospheric oxygen produces on the soil, are promoted in a
high degree. The air which thus enters acts on the organic
matters of the soil, and produces the carbonic acid, which
we have already seen is so intimately connected with many
of its chemical changes. In the absence of atmospheric
air, the organic matters undergo different decompositions,
they pass into states in which they are slowly acted on, and
are incapable of supplying a sufficient quantity of carbonic
acid to the soil. They also act upon the peroxide of iron,
contained in all soils, reduce it to the state of protoxide, or,
with the simultaneous reduction of the sulphuric acid, they
produce sulphuret of iron, forms of combination which are
well known to be most injurious to vegetation.
The removal of water from the lower part of the soil, and
the admission of air, which is the consequence of draining,
submits that part of it to the same changes which take place
in its upper portion, and has the effect of practically deepen¬
ing the soil to the extent to which it is thus laid dry. The
roots of the plants growing on the soil, which stop as soon
as they reach the moist part, now descend to a lower level,
and derive from that part of it supplies of nourishment
formerly unavailable. The deepening of the soil has further
the effect of making the plants which grow upon it less
liable to be burned up in seasons of drought, a somewhat
unexpected result of making a soil drier, but which mani¬
festly depends on its permitting the roots to penetrate to a
greater depth, and so to get beyond the surface portion,
which is rapidly dried up, and to which they were formerly
confined.
It is thus obvious that the drainage of the soil modifies
its properties both mechanically and chemically. It exerts
also various other actions in particular cases which we can¬
not here stop to particularise. It ameliorates the climate
of districts in which it is extensively carried out, and even
affects the health of the population in a favourable manner.
The sum of its effects must necessarily differ greatly in
different soils, and in different districts; but a competent
400
AGKICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
Agricul- authority1 has estimated, that, on the average, land which has
r, tura,1 been drained produces a quarter more grain per acre than
^ mis ry. w]1icl1 }s undrained. But this can scarcely be said to ex-
m v-"- haust the benefits derived from it, for draining is merely the
precursor of further improvement. It is only after it has been
carried out that the farmer derives the full benefit of the
manures which he applies. He gains also by the increased
facility of working the soil, and by the rapidity with which
it dries after continued rain, which enables him to get on
at their proper season with agricultural operations, which
would otherwise have to be postponed for a considerable
time.
We can scarcely be expected here to say much regarding
the mode in which draining ought to be carried out, but we
may remark that much inconvenience and loss has occa¬
sionally been produced by too close adhesion to particular
systems. No rules can be laid down as to the depth or
distance between the drains which can be universally appli¬
cable, but the intelligent drainer will seek to modify his
practice according to the circumstances of the case. As a
general rule, the drains ought to be as deep as possible, but
in numerous instances it may be more advantageous to
curtail their depth and increase their number. If, for in¬
stance, a thick impervious pan resting on a clay were found
at the depth of three feet below the surface, it would serve
no good purpose to make the drains deeper; but if the pan
were thin, and the subjacent layer readily permeable by
water, it might be advantageous to go down to the depth of
four feet, trusting to the possible action of the air which
would thus be admitted, gradually to disintegrate the pan,
and increase the depth of soil above it. It is a common
opinion that if we reach, at a moderate depth, a tenacious
and little permeable clay it is no use making the drains
deeper than this; but this is an opinion which should be
adopted with caution, both because no clay is absolutely
impermeable, even the most tenacious admitting of the pas¬
sage of water, and because the clay may have been brought
down by water from the upper part of the soil, and may
have stopped there merely for want of some deeper escape
for the water, and which drains at a lower level might sup¬
ply. It may even happen that it might be necessary to vary
the depth of the drains in different parts of the same field,
and the judicious drainer may sometimes save a considerable
sum by a careful observation of the peculiarities of the dif¬
ferent parts of the ground to be drained.
Subsoil and Deep Ploughing.—It frequently happens,
when a soil is drained, that the subsoil is so stiff as to per¬
mit the passage of water imperfectly, and to prevent the
tender roots of the plant from penetrating it, and reaching
the new supplies of nourishment which are laid open to it.
In such cases the benefits of subsoil ploughing and deep
ploughing are conspicuous. The mode of action of these
two methods of treatment is similar but not identical. The
subsoil plough merely stirs and opens the subsoil, and per¬
mits the more ready passage of water and the access of air
and of the roots of plants, the former to promote the neces¬
sary decompositions, the latter to avail themselves of the
valuable matters set free. Deep ploughing again produces
more extensive changes; it brings up new soil to the surface,
mixes it with the original soil, and thus not only brings up
new supplies of valuable matters to it, but frequently changes
its chemical and mechanical characters, rendering a heavy
soil lighter by the admixture of a light subsoil and vice
versa. Both are operations which are useless unless they
are combined with draining, for it must manifestly serve no
good purpose to attempt to open up a soil unless the water
which lies in it be previously removed. In fact, subsoiling
is useless unless the subsoil has been made thoroughly dry, Agricul-
and it has been found by experience that no good effects tural
are obtained if it be attempted immediately after draining, Chemistry-
but that a sufficient time must elapse, in order to permit
the escape of the accumulated moisture, which often takes
place very slowly. Without this precaution, the subsoil, after
being opened by the plough, soon sinks together, and the
good effects anticipated are not realised. The necessity for
allowing some time to elapse between draining and further
operations is still more apparent in deep ploughing, when
the soil is actually brought to the surface. In that case
it requires to be left for a longer period after draining,
in order that the air may produce the necessary changes
on the subsoil; for if it be brought up after having been for
a long time saturated with moisture, and containing its iron
in the state of protoxide, and the organic matter in a state in
which it is not readily acted upon by the air, the immediate
effect of the operation is frequently injurious in place of
being advantageous. One of the best methods of treating
a soil in this way is to make the operation a gradual one,
and by deepening an inch or two every year gradually to
mix the soil and subsoil; as in this way from a small quan¬
tity being brought up at a time no injurious effects are pro¬
duced. Deep ploughing may be said to act in two ways,
firstly, by again bringing to the surface the manures which
have a tendency to sink to the lower part of the soil, and,
secondly, by bringing up a soil which has not been ex¬
hausted by previous cropping, in fact a virgin soil.
The success which attends the operation of subsoiling or
deep ploughing must manifestly be greatly dependent on the
character of the subsoil, and good effects can only be ob¬
tained when its chemical composition is such as to supply
in increased quantity the essential constituents of the plant;
and it is no doubt owing to this that the opinions entertained
by practical men, each of whom speaks from the results of his
own experience, are so varied. The effects produced by
deep ploughing on the estates of the Marquis of Tweeddale,
are familiarly known to most Scottish agriculturists, and
they are at once explained by the analyses of the soil and
subsoil here given, which show that the latter, though poor in
some important constituents, contains more than twice as
much potash as the soil.
Soil. Subsoil.
Insoluble silicates 87-623 82-72
Soluble silica  0-393 0-12
Alumina and peroxide of iron  4-129 8-60
Lime  0-341 0T8
Magnesia   0-290 0-24
Sulphuric acid  0'027 0‘03
Phosphoric acid   0'240 trace
Potash   0-052 0T2
Soda   0-050 0-04
Water   1-956 326
Organic matter  5-220 4-02
100-321
99-33
In addition to the difference in the amount of potash,
something is probably due to the difference in the quantity
of alumina and oxide of iron in the subsoil, which on this ac¬
count must probably be more tenacious than the soil itself,
which appears to be rather light. In many other instances,
the use of the subsoil plough has occasioned much disap¬
pointment, and has led to its being decried by many prac¬
tical men ; but of late years its use having become better
understood its merits are more generally admitted. We be¬
lieve that, in all cases in which the soil is deep, more or less
marked good effects must be produced by its use, but of
course there must be cases in which, from the defective com-
1 Mr Dudgeon of Spylaw. Highland Society's Transactions, vol. xii. p. 505.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
Agricul- position of the subsoil or other causes, it must fail. It may
tural sometimes be possible a priori to detect these cases, but in
Chemistry. a iarge majority of them we suspect our knowledge is much
too limited to enable us to do so.
Improving the Soil by Burning.—It has long been fami¬
liarly known, that a decided improvement has been produced
on some soils by burning. Its advantages have chiefly been
observed on two sorts, heavy clays, and peat soils; and on
these varieties it has been practised to a great extent. The
action of heat on the heavy clays appears to be of a two-fold
character, depending partly on the change effected in its phy¬
sical properties, and partly on a chemical decomposition pro¬
duced by the heat. The operation of burning is effected
by mixing the clay with brushwood and vegetable refuse,
and allowing it to smoulder for some time. It is an opera¬
tion of some nicety, and its success depends on the tempera¬
ture being kept as low as possible. It has been further
found that its success is by no means equal in all clays, but
that there are some which are rather injured than benefited
by it. The cause of its beneficial action appears to depend
on a change which takes place in the state in which the pot¬
ash exists in the soil, as a consequence of which it becomes
more soluble than it was before. It has been found, that after
heating, a dilute acid will extract from clays improved by
burning a much larger quantity of potash than it did before ;
and as we know that the substances not extractable by acids
are in a state in which they are unavailable to the plant, or
at least can only be slowly obtained by it, we can easily un¬
derstand how such a soil should be improved by burning,
and also how some clays which contain little or no potash
should not be affected by the process. The necessity for
preserving the temperature of the burning mass of clay as
low as possible is also rendered obvious; for it has been found
by direct experiment, that at high temperatures another
change occurs, whereby the potash, which at lower tempera¬
tures becomes soluble, passes again into an insoluble state.
A part of the beneficial effects is no doubt also due to the
change produced in the physical characters of the clay by
burning, which makes it lighter and more friable, and by
mixture with the unburnt clay ameliorates the whole. This
improvement in the physical characters of the clay also re¬
quires that it shall be burnt with as low a heat as possible ;
for if it rises too high, the clay coheres into hard masses which
cannot again be reduced to powder, and the success of the
operation of burning may always be judged of by the readi¬
ness with which it fells into a uniform friable powder.
The improvement of peat by burning has been practised
to some extent in Scotland, though less frequently of late
years than formerly; but it is still the principal method of re¬
claiming peat soils in many countries, and particularly in
Finland, where large breadths of land have been brought into
profitable cultivation by means of it. The modus operandi
of burning peat is very simple; it acts by diminishing the
superabundant quantity of humus or other organic matters,
which, in the previous section we have seen to be so inju¬
rious to the fertility of the soil. It may act also in the same
way as it does on clay, by making part of the inorganic con¬
stituents more really soluble, although it is not probable that
its effect in this way can be very marked. Its chief action
is certainly by destroying the organic matters, and by thus
improving the physical character of the peat, and causing it
to absorb and retain a smaller quantity of water than it na¬
turally does. For this reason it is that it proves successful
only on thin peat bogs, for if they be deep the inorganic mat¬
ters soon sink into the lower part, and the surface relapses
into its old state of infertility. It is probably for this reason
that the practice has been so much abandoned in Scotland,
the more especially as other and more economical modes of
treating peat soils have come into use.
VOL. II.
401
Mixing of Soils.—The mixing of soils is a very obvious Agricul-
method of improving those which are defective, and nothing tural
but its expense limits its utility. It has been applied to the ^hemistryy'
improvement of heavy soils and of peats, the former being
mixed with sand or marl so as to diminish its tenacity ; the
latter with clay or gravel to add to its inorganic matters, and
in both instances it has proved successful. The admixture
of peat with open sandy soils and with heavy clays has also
been tried, although to a small extent, and we are not aware
of the results obtained. It is very probable that the prac¬
tice of mixing soils might be judiciously extended if we had
sufficiently accurate information regarding the chemical com¬
position of those mixed. It must be manifest, indeed, that
the admixture of a highly fertile soil, even in moderate quan¬
tity, with another of inferior quality, must of necessity be at¬
tended with some effect. We believe, indeed, that the rich
trap soils of some parts of Scotland have been mixed with
those of inferior quality, but the extent of the benefit derived
from the practice has not been made public.
MANURES. THEIR CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND MODE OF
ACTION.
It is obvious from the statements we have made in a pre¬
vious section, that even fertile soils contain many of the
essential constituents of plants in limited and some of them
in very small quantity; and the necessary consequence is,
that the growth of successive generations of plants would
soon exhaust the whole supply of these substances which
they are capable of affording. In a state of nature, the plant
which grows upon a soil dies there, or annually sheds its
leaves, and returns to it the substances it had drawn into its
system, in a state in which they are ready to afford nourish¬
ment to the next year’s vegetation. But under the artifi¬
cial circumstances of cultivation, when the crops produced
are more or less completely removed from the soil, exhaus¬
tion would sooner or later take place if the substances re¬
moved from it were not again returned in the form of manure.
The action of a manure, however, is more complicated
than this statement would lead us to suppose ; for it is not
confined to the mere addition to the soil of the substances
required to sustain its fertility, but they exert an influence
upon the soil itself, promote the changes which are con¬
tinually in progress within it, and cause the liberation of a
larger quantity of its valuable constituents than the atmo¬
sphere alone could do. It is clear that different manures
may effect these objects in different ways and to different
extents. Some may confine their influence to the mere
addition of the necessary elements of the plants, others may
exert a powerful influence on the changes occurring in the
soil. Some again may supply all the constituents of the
plants, others only one or two. The former of these is a very
obscure and ill-understood branch of the action of manures ;
the latter is better known, and is an important element in
our estimation of their value, those manures necessarily
having the highest value which contain the greatest num¬
ber of substances required by the plant, and those which
afford only one or more having their value regulated by the
difficulty which the plant has in obtaining the constituents
these manures contain in abundance. There has thus arisen
the distinction between general and special manures, a dis¬
tinction which is important both in theory and practice, and
which ought never to be lost sight of.
General Manures.—General manures, then, are those
which are capable of supplying to the plant all or nearly all
its constituents, and this is necessarily done in the most
effectual manner by farm-yard manure, to which theory and
practice concur in giving the highest rank.
Farm-Yard Manure.—Farm-yard manure is a mixture of
the dung and urine of domestic animals with the straw
3 E
402
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
Agricnl- which has been used as litter, and its composition and value
tural will 0f course depend on that of these substances, which we
^ emistry. mug|. consider. The dung of animals consists ot that
part of their food which passes through the intestinal canal
without undergoing assimilation ; the urine contains that
portion which has been assimilated and is again excreted in
consequence of the changes which are proceeding in the
tissues of the animal. Their composition is naturally very
different, and must be separately considered.
Urine.—Urine consists of a variety of earthy and alkaline
salts, and of certain organic substances, generally rich in
nitrogen, dissolved in a large quantity of water. The com¬
position in the different domestic animals has been examined
by different chemists ; we quote the analyses of Fromberg,
as giving the most complete view of the subject.
Horse.
Extractive matter l 2-132
soluble in water /
Extractive matter 1 2.550
soluble in spirit /
Salts soluble in) 2-340
water  J
Salts insoluble in ) ^.qqq
water  J
Urea  U244
Hippuric acid   1-260
Mucus   0-005
Water  88-589
Swine. Ox.
0-142 2-248
0-387 1-421
0-909 2-442
0-088 0-155
Goat.
0-100
0-273 1-976 0-378
0-550 0-125
0-005 0-007 0-006 0-025
98-196 91-201 98-007 92-897
Composition of the ash of these Urines.
Horse.
Carbonate of lime ... 12-50
Carbonate of mag- ) Q
nesia J y 4t>
Carbonate of potash 46-09
Carbonate of soda ... 10-33
Sulphate of potash 
Sulphate of soda 13-04
Phosphate of soda 
Phosphate of lime
Phosphate of mag¬
nesia 
Chloride of sodium...
Chloride of potas- (
sium  j "" •
Silica    0-55
Oxide of iron and loss 1 *09
694
Swine.
12-10
7:00
19-00
8-80
53-10
trace.
Ox.
1-07
6-93
77-28
13-30
Goat.
trace.
Sheep.
0-82
7-3 0-46
trace.
53-0
25-0
0-30 14-7
0-35
0-77
100-00 100-00 100-00 100-0 100-00
Human urine has been accurately examined by Berze¬
lius. His analysis gives the following numbers :—
TT Natural.
Urea. ;    3-010
Lactic acid, lactate of ammonia, l -1.7-..,
and extractive matters / ^
Uric acid  0-100
Mucus 0-032
Sulphate of potash  0"371
Sulphate of soda  0-316
Phosphate of soda   0-294
Biphosphate of ammonia  0-165
Chloride of sodium  0-445
Muriate of ammonia  0T50
Phosphates of magnesia and lime... 0-100
Silica   0-003
Water  93-300
Dry Residue.
44-70
25-58
1- 49
0-48
5- 54
4-72
4-39
2- 46
6- 64
2-46
1-49
005
large quantity of nitrogen, which they yield in the form of Agricul-
ammonia, as a consequence of certain changes to which tural
they are liable. The composition of these substances is as Chemistry
follows:—
0-454 3-330
0-850 1-957
0-080 0-052
1-262
42-25
2-98
7-72
0-70
32-01
12-00
1-06
Carbon  20-00
Hydrogen  6-60
Nitrogen   46-70
Oxygen   26-70
100-00
Uric Acid.
36-0
2-4
33-4
28-2
100-0
Hippuric Acid.
60-7
5-0
8-0
26-3
100-0
Sheep.
0-340
100-000 100-000 100-000 100-000 99-863
It is evident from these analyses that the urines of differ¬
ent animals must differ greatly in value, those of the ox,
swine, and goat, containing a very much smaller quantity of
solids than the others. They differ also in regard to their
saline ingredients; and while salts of potash and soda form
the principal part of the ash of the urine of the ox, sheep,
goat, and horse, and phosphoric acid and phosphates are
entirely absent, that of the pig contains a considerable
quantity of the latter substances, and in this respect more
nearly resembles the urine of man. Human urine is also
much richer in urea and nitrogenous constituents generally,
and has a higher value than any of the others.
Dung.—'Phe solid excrement of animals is equally va¬
riable in composition. That of the domestic animals which
had the ordinary winter food was found to have the follow¬
ing composition:—
Horse.
Per-centage of water in the l 77-25
fresh excrement /”’* ‘
Ash in the dry excrement  13-36
Cow.
82-45
15-23
Sheep. Swine.
56-47 77-13
13-49 37-17
100 parts of ash contained—
Horse.
Silica  62-40
Potash  11-30
Soda  1-98
Chloride of sodium  0-03
Phosphate of iron  2-73
Lime   4-63
Magnesia   3 "84
Phosphoric acid  8-93
Sulphuric acid    1-83
Carbonic acid 
Oxide of manganese  2-13
Sand    
Cow.
62-54
2-91
0-98
0-23
8-93
5-71
11-47
4-75
1-77
trace
Sheep.
50-11
8-32
3-28
0-14
3-98
18-15
5-45
7-52
2-69
trace
Swine.
13-19
3-60
3-44
0-89
10-55
2-63
2-24
0-41
0-90
0-60
61-37
99-80 99-29 99-64 99-82
Human faeces contain about 73 per cent, of water, and
leave about 1 per cent, of ash, of which the composition is—
Potash  6" 10
Soda  5*07
Lime  26"46
Magnesia  10-54
Oxide of iron  2-50
Phosphoric acid  36"03
Sulphuric acid  3-13
Carbonic acid    5'07
Chloride of sodium    4"33
99-23
100-000 100-00
Among the special organic constituents of the urine are
three substances of much importance, as they contain a
It is to be observed that the urine and dung of animals
differs conspicuously in the composition of the ash, the urine
being characterised by the abundance of alkaline salts, the
latter containing only a small proportion of these, but being
rich in earthy matters, and especially in phosphoric acid.
The difference in the quantity of nitrogen they contain is
also very marked, and is distinctly shown by the following
analyses by Boussingault, which give the quantity of carbon,
hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen in the dung and urine of
the horse and the cow.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
Agricul¬
tural
Chemistry.
Carbon....
Hydrogen,
Nitrogen..
Oxygen...
Ash 
Water 
Horse.
Natural.
Urine. Dung
4-46
0*47
1-55
1-40
4-51
87-61
100-00
9-56
1-26
0-54
9-31
4-02
75-31
100-00
Dry.
Urine. Dung
36-0
3-8
12-5
11-3
36-4
0-0
100-0
38-7
5-1
2-2
37-7
16-3
0-0
100-0
Cow.
Natural.
Urine. Dung
3-18
0-30
0-44
3- 09
4- 68
88-31
10000
4-02
0-49
0-22
3-54
1-13
90-60
100-00
Dry.
Urine. Dung
27*2
2-6
3-8
26-4
40-0
0-0
100-0
42-8
5-2
2-3
37-7
12-0
0-0
100-0
403
Agricul¬
tural
Chemistry.
It thus appears that the urine of the horse, in its natural
state, contains three times as much nitrogen as its dung,
and that of the cow twice as much; and the difference, es¬
pecially in the horse, becomes still more conspicuous when
they are dry.
Taking the facts just mentioned into account, it is obvious
that the quality of farm-yard manure must depend, 1. On
the kind of animal from which it is produced; 2. On the
quantity of straw which has been used as litter; 3. On the
nature of the food with which the animals have been sup¬
plied; and, 4. On the care which has been taken to prevent
the escape of the urine, or of the ammonia produced by its
decomposition. The extent to which these different circum¬
stances modify the quality of farm-yard manure has not been
very fully determined by analyses; nor is it probable that its
composition varies very greatly, indeed, the analyses which
we possess, although they are not very numerous, show a
great degree of similarity in the farm-yard manure of dif¬
ferent places, when prepared in the same manner. The re¬
sults obtained by different analyses are contained in the fol¬
lowing table, which, in addition to the ordinary farm-yard
manure, gives also the composition of that produced by feed¬
ing cattle in boxes and of stable dung. The authority is
given with each analysis.
Water....
Organic
matter
Ash 
Nitrogen..
Farm Yard Manure.
Nisbet.
70-0
20-8
9-2
100-0
70-0
20-4
9-6
1000
Liebig.
65-0
24-0
11-0
100-0
Boussin-;
gault. 1
79-3
14-0
6-7
100-0
0-4
I Box
'Manure.
Way.
71-4
28-6
100-0
0-4
Way.
71-0
29-0
100-0
0-6
Stable
Dung.
Rich¬
ardson.
65-2
24-7
10-1
100-0
0-6
The composition of the
parts is:
Potash 
Soda 
Lime 
Magnesia 
Alumina  
Oxide of iron    
Chloride of sodium ...
Chlorine  
Phosphoric acid  
Sulphuric acid 
Carbonic acid  
Sand and silica 
ash of farm-yard manure in 100
Farm-Yard Manure. Stable Dang.
Nisbet.
3-3
0-9
6-9
0-6
0-5
1-0
1-4
3-6
1-9
5-1
1-7
12-3
0-8
0-8
1-0
1-2
3-6
1-6
Liebig. Richardson.
79-9 71-9
2-7
2-7
8-2
1-0
i:8
2- 7
6-4
3- 6
4- 5
66-4
3-2
2-7
8-7
1- 9
2- 4
3- 2
7-8
3- 1
4- 9
59-0
100-0 100-0 100-0 96-9
The value of farm-yard manure must manifestly depend
on the quantity of all the constituents of the plant contained
in it. If, however, we examine minutely into the action of
the individual elements, it becomes obvious that two pre¬
sent a much higher value than the others, and may, in most
cases, be taken as the measure of the value of any manure.
These substances are nitrogen and phosphoric acid. Now,
it is to be observed, that though both exist in the soil, they
are present in but small quantity, even in those of the highest
fertility. But this is not all, for the condition in which they
are met with is far from being that in which they are readily
available to the plant. The phosphoric acid of our soils is
not only in an insoluble state, but in one in which it is not
readily reached or dissolved by the roots of the plant, and,
consequently can only become available as it is liberated by
the continuous and slow decomposition constantly occurring
in the soil. As regards nitrogen, we have already very dis¬
tinctly referred to the fact that it can only be absorbed in
the state of ammonia or of nitric acid, and most abundantly
and readily in the former condition. But the soil contains
its nitrogen in the form of vegetable debris, which do not
contain that element in the form of ammonia, but only yield
it as the result of decompositions, which, like all those oc¬
curring in the soil, proceed with extreme slowness. The
importance of having the phosphoric acid in a soluble
state, and the nitrogen in the form of ammonia, is conspi¬
cuously seen from the marked effects obtained from the use
of superphosphate of lime (in which a large quantity of the
phosphoric acid is soluble) and the salts of ammonia, to
which we shall afterwards have to advert. By reference to
the analyses of the urine and dung of our domestic animals
in the previous page, we see that they do not contain ammo¬
nia as such, although they are rich in substances capable of
yielding it, and that soluble phosphates are found only in
the urine of man and the pig. The value of farm-yard
manure is to be estimated by the abundance of these ele¬
ments ; but for all ordinary purposes, in considering the mat¬
ter, we may put the phosphoric acid out of the question, and
confine our attention to the nitrogen.
In the production of farm-yard manure of the highest
quality, the object of the farmer must be, first, to produce a
manure containing the largest possible amount of nitrogen ;
and secondly, to convert that nitrogen more or less completely
into ammonia. In regard to the first of these points, it
will be at once seen from what we have said of the com¬
parative composition of the dung and urine, that the more
effectually the latter is collected and its escape from the
dung preserved, the higher will be the value of the manure ;
and it is for this reason that chemists have so anxiously im¬
pressed upon the agricultural public the great importance
of preserving, and, if possible, retaining in the mass the fluid
that drains from the dung heap, which must necessarily con-
404
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
Agricul- tain a considerable quantity of the nitrogenous constituents
tural 0f the urine. This may be managed to a considerable ex-
Oicnriistry. tent, by arranging the manure heap in such a manner that
the fluid which drains from it can be again pumped up over
the solid matter, so that the latter may be saturated by it.
A still more effectual plan is to mix the dung with some
substance which may absorb the urine. For this purpose
it is desirable that the absorbent substance shall be one
which has an affinity for ammonia, so that it. may not only
retain the urine mechanically, but, by combining cbemically
with the ammonia produced by its decomposition, may pre¬
vent the escape of that substance into the air, which, fiom
its volatility, it is of course very liable to do. Many sub¬
stances, such as gypsum, sulphate of iron, chloride of man¬
ganese,' sulphate of magnesia, and sulphuric acid, have been
proposed for this purpose, and have occasionally been used,
though not extensively. They all answer the purpose of
fixing the ammonia, that is, of preventing its escaping into
the air more or less effectually, but they do not add suffi¬
ciently to the porosity of the manure heap to enable it to
absorb the fluid, which is a matter of some importance.
For this purpose clay, or the vegetable refuse of the farm,
may be employed. But by far the best substance, when it
can be got, is dry peat, which not only absorbs the fluid,
but will serve to fix the ammonia without the addition of
any other substance. We have already referred to the ab¬
sorbent power of peat in the section on soils, but we may
mention here that accurate experiment has shown that a
particular peat will absorb about 2 per cent.1 of ammonia,
and when dry will still retain from 1 to To per cent., or
nearly three times as much as would be yielded by the
whole nitrogen of an equal weight of farm-yard manure.
Peat charcoal has been recommended for the same purpose,
but careful experiment has shown that it does not absorb
ammonia, although it removes putrid odour; and though it
may be usefully employed when it is wished to deodorise
the manure heap, it must not be trusted to as an absorbent
of ammonia.
In addition to these methods of managing farm-yard man¬
ure, we have of late years had the introduction of box-feed¬
ing, one of the great advantages of which is said to be the
production of a manure of superior quality to that obtained
in the old way. In box-feeding none of the dung or urine
is removed from under the animals, but is trampled down
by their feet, and new quantities of litter being constantly
added, the whole is consolidated into a compact mass, by
which the urine is entirely retained. That, under these
circumstances, the manure should be of high quality is cer¬
tainly consistent with theory, and the analysis of box man-
ure given above confirms the opinion. It is, however, a
solitary analysis, and until confirmed by more extended
analyses too much dependence must not be placed upon it.
The value of box manure must mainly depend upon the
solid retaining the whole of the liquid manure; but this is
exactly the point on which practical men differ, the keen
supporters of box-feeding asserting that it does, while others
find that a certain quantity escapes. Should this prove to
be frequently the case, the advantages of box-feeding, as a
means of producing good manure, will be less than its sup¬
porters imagine.
Whether box manure is really superior to that prepared
by the ordinary method is very questionable, but there is no
doubt that it surpasses a large proportion of that actually
produced. It is more than probable, however, that the more
careful management of the manure heap may produce
equally good effects. It is manifest that the same number
of cattle, fed in the same way, and on the same food, and Agricul-
supplied with the same quantity of litter, must always ex- turnl
Crete the same quantities of valuable matters, and the only ^ eni^'
question to be solved is, whether these valuable matters
are more effectually preserved in the one way than the other.
It will be readily seen that this cannot be done by the ana¬
lysis of the manure alone, but we must conjoin with it a de¬
termination of the total weight of manure produced; for
though, weight for weight, box manure may be better than
ordinary farm-yard manure, the total quantity obtained from
a given number of cattle may be so much greater that the
deficiency in quality may be compensated for. At the pre¬
sent time our knowledge is too limited to admit of a definite
opinion on this subject, but it is highly deserving of the
combined investigation of the farmer and the chemist.
The value of the manure produced is also dependent on
the nature of the food supplied to the cattle, and the period
of the fattening process at which it is collected. When
lean beasts are put up to fatten they at first exhaust the
food much more completely then they do when they are
nearly fattened, and the manure produced is very inferior at
first, and goes on gradually improving in quality as the ani¬
mal becomes fat. That the quality of the food affects the
value of the manure is an opinion which has long been en¬
tertained by practical men, and it is no doubt correct,
though not to the extent which some persons believe. It is
held by some farmers, that while cattle are fed with oil-cake,
the increased value of the manure is equal to from one-
half to one-third that of the oil-cake. This is certainly
an exaggeration, but there cannot be a doubt that some in¬
crease of value must take place; for when oil-cake is em¬
ployed, the quantity of nutritive matters consumed by the
animal is larger than when it is fed on turnip alone; but it is
not possible at present to estimate the difference, for want
of experiments especially directed to this point. From
analyses made some time since, we have come to the con¬
clusion that, weight for weight, the dung and urine of cattle
fed with oil-cake are richer in valuable matters than those
fed on turnips alone; but the experiments were not suffi¬
ciently extensive to enable us to draw a definite conclusion,
and no determination of the total quantity excreted could
be made.
Supposing the conditions which produce the manure con¬
taining the largest quantity of nitrogen to have been ful¬
filled, we have now to consider those which affect its evolu¬
tion in the form of ammonia. This change is effected by
fermentation. When a quantity of manure is left to itself
for some time it is found to become hot, and gradually to
diminish in bulk, and if it be now turned over it is found to
evolve the smell of ammonia more or less distinctly. This
ammonia is produced, in the first instance, from the urine,
the nitrogenous constituents of which are rapidly decom¬
posed, and the fermentation thus set up in the mass of
manure extends to the solid dung, and finally to the straw
of the litter, and gradually proceeds until a large quantity
of ammonia is produced. The same change occurs in the
manure if mixed with the soil, but in that case it is much
slower, and experience has shown that much greater effects
are produced if the manure has been fermented previous to
being used. Science at once explains the necessity for the
process, and shows that by its means the nitrogen is con¬
verted into a state in which the crop it is applied to can
rapidly absorb it, and that the practice of applying well-fer¬
mented dung to the quickly growing crops, and fresh dung
to those which come slowly to maturity, is consistent with
theory. But it points out also that the method of doing this
1 Report on the economic uses of peat. Highland Society's Transactions, N.S., vol. iv. p. 549.
Agricul¬
tural
Chemistry.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 405
by fermentation is, in so far, defective, that it cannot be
effected without some loss of ammonia, however carefully it
may be managed; and though Up to the present time the
fermentation of a manure has been deemed essential to its
success, it may be questioned whether, now that we have
other sources of ammonia, it might not be more economical
to apply farm-yard manure in an unfermented state, so as to
avoid the loss of ammonia which takes place during the pro¬
cess, and to supply the quantity required for the early
growth of the plant by the use of some of the salts of am¬
monia or other ammoniacal manures. This is a speculative
opinion, which must be submitted to experiment, and its
value must depend on the amount of loss which takes place
by fermentation in the manure heap, regarding which we
have at present no information.
Liquid Manure.—This term is applied to the urine of
the animals fed on the farm, and to the drainings from the
manure-heap, which, in place of being returned to it, are
in some instances allowed to drain away, and are collected
in tanks, from which they are distributed according to the
old plan by a watering-cart, or according to the method re¬
cently introduced in Ayrshire, by pipes laid under-ground
in the fields, and through which the manure is either pumped
by steam-power, or, where the necessary inclination can be
obtained, is distributed by gravitation. That liquid ma¬
nure must necessarily be valuable, is an inference which
may be at once drawn from the analyses of the urine of dif¬
ferent animals already given, and which, when it is collected
apart from the solid matters, may be taken as representing
the composition of liquid manure. It will be at once seen
from these analyses, that liquid manure so obtained must be
extremely rich in ammonia, but deficient in phosphates; and
as the nitrogenous matters of urine pass with great rapidity
into the form of ammonia, it must act quickly, and pro¬
duce its best effects on those crops which admit of being
rapidly forced on to maturity. The deficiency of phosphates
in the urine of the common domestic animals is an objection
to the use of that fluid alone. But where the drainings of
the manure-heap are employed, this difficulty is done away
with, for they generally contain a certain quantity of phos¬
phates, either in solution, or more probably in suspension
in the fluid. The following analyses by Professor Johnston
give the composition, No. 1 of the drainings of the manure-
heaps when exposed to rain ; No. 2 of the drainings when
moistened with cows’ urine pumped over it. The numbers
give the quantities in grains contained in a gallon of the
fluid:—
No. 1. No. 2.
Ammonia   9'6 2T5
Organic matter   200-8 77‘6
Ash  268-8 5184
Total solids in a gallon  479"2 617"5
The ash contained,—
Alkaline salts   207"8 420-4
Phosphates   25-1 44-5
Carbonate of lime   18'2 31-1
Carbonate of magnesia, and loss .... 4-3 3-4
Silica and alumina   13"4 19-0
268-8 518-4
The method of liquid manuring employed by Mr Ken¬
nedy at Myremill, the results of which have excited so
much interest, is different from liquid manuring in its strict
sense, for not only are the drainings of the manure-heap em¬
ployed, but the whole solid excrements are mixed with water
in a tank, and rape-dust and other substances occasionally
added, and distributed through the pipes.
No system of manuring has produced more striking
effects than liquid manuring; and especially on grass-lands,
the rapidity of its action is such as to produce an extremely Agricul-
abundant vegetation, much greater, indeed, than could be tui;al
produced by the application of the solid manure. The luxu- ^hemistry-
riance of the growth of grass by its means is, however, apt
to lead us to overrate its general effects; and it is by no
means so certain that it can be advantageously applied to
the general operations of the farm. Its effect on the cereals
is certainly much less marked than that on ryegrass and
root-crops, and we have not yet seen the effects of its con¬
tinued use. Experience and theory concur in holding that
a supply of solid matters capable of evolving carbonic acid,
is essential to the fertility of the soil, so that, by acting on
the mineral matters, it may cause their continuous decom¬
position. The objection to liquid manure is, that it does
not supply these substances in sufficient quantity. This
difficulty is no doubt got rid of, to some extent, in the Ayr¬
shire plan, which, after all, is rather a new method of apply¬
ing the solid manure of the farm than strictly liquid man¬
uring; but still, as no litter is employed, the quantity of or¬
ganic matters capable of evolving ammonia is greatly less
than it is by the old method; and we must consider the
Ayrshire mode of liquid manuring as a great experiment of
which all will await the results with interest. Of course the
pecuniary question is also of much importance in this me¬
thod ; but that is a matter which we only indicate here, as it
is treated of in full in the article on Practical Agriculture.
Vegetable Manures.—Many vegetable substances are
employed as manures, and their value is variable, and must
be estimated in the same manner as that of farm-yard man¬
ure, the quantity of nitrogen and phosphoric acid greatly
exceeding in importance that of the other constituents. Al¬
though like farm-yard manure they may be made to undergo
fermentation so as to convert their nitrogen into ammonia,
they are generally, indeed almost invariably, applied in the
unfermented state, seldom alone, and most commonly con¬
joined with farm-yard manure.
Rape-Dust, Castor-Cake, Poppy-Cake, See.—Rape-dust
has long been employed as a manure, and the success which
has attended its use has led to the introduction of the refuse
cake from some other oil seeds, such as that of the castor-
oil seed, which cannot be employed for feeding. Like the
seeds of all plants, these substances are rich in nitrogen,
and their ash, containing of course all the constituents of the
plant, supplies the necessary inorganic elements. The fol¬
lowing are analyses of these substances, which, in addition
to the amount of nitrogen and phosphates, show also that of
water and oil, to which we shall have occasion afterwards
to refer in relation to the feeding value of some of them.
Water   
Oil  
Albuminous compounds ....
Ash 
Other constituents  
Nitrogen.... 
Silica 
Phosphates 
Phosphoric acid in com-)
bination with alkaline J
Rape-
Cake.
10-68
11-10
29-53
7-79
40-90
Poppy-
Cake.
11- 63
5-95
31-16
12- 98
38-18
Cotton¬
seed cake.
11-19
9-08
25-16
5-64
48-93
Castor-
Cake.
12-31
24-32
21-91
6-08
35-38
100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00
4-38
1-18
3-87
0-39
4-94
3-36
6-93
3-95
1- 32
2- 19
3-20
1- 96
2- 81
3-27 0-15 0-64
A general similarity will be observed in the composition
of all these substances; they are all rich in nitrogen, and
contain as much of that element as is found in about ten
times their weight of farm-yard manure, and a somewhat
similar proportion exists in the amount of phosphates and
probably of their other constituents. They have all been em¬
ployed with success, but the most accurate experiments have
been made with rape-dust, which has been longer and more
406
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
Agricul- extensively used than any of the others. It has been era-
tural ployed alone for turnips, or mixed with farm-yard manure,
Chemistry. antj a|so ag a top-dressing to cereals. The most marked ad-
“ vantage is derived from it when applied in the latter way on
land which has been much exhausted, on which its effects
are often very striking. Several circumstances are essen¬
tial to the production of its full effects. It requires mois¬
ture, and hence it often proves a failure in very dry seasons,
and on dry soils. It must not be applied in too large
a quantity, experience having shown that after a certain
point has been reached, an increase in the quantity not
only does not increase but positively diminishes the crop.
The most advantageous application is found to be from five
to seven cwt. per acre. The observations in regard to the
use of rape-dust probably apply with equal force to the
other substances of the same class ; but their application be¬
ing more recent and more limited, the results of their use
have not been made public.
Malt-Dust, Bran, Chaff, &c.—All these substances have
been applied as manures, and their value is principally de¬
pendent on the quantity of nitrogen they contain, which in
malt-dust amounts to 4'5 per cent, of nitrogen, and in bran
to about 3'2. They must therefore be made to rank with
rape-dust in point of value.
Straw has been occasionally employed as a manure, and
sometimes even as a top-dressing for grass land. It is
generally admitted, however, that its application in the dry
state, and especially as a top-dressing, is a practice not to
be recommended, as it decomposes too slowly in the soil;
and it is always desirable to ferment it in the manure heap,
so as to facilitate the production of ammonia from its nitro¬
gen. Still circumstances may occur in which it becomes
necessary to employ it in the dry state, and it will generally
prove most valuable on heavy soils, which it serves to keep
open, and so promotes the access of air, and enables it to
act on the soil. On light sandy soils it generally proves less
advantageous, as its tendency of course is to increase the
openness of the soil, and render it less able to retain the
essential constituents of the plant. The manurial value of
straw alone is low, as it contains only about 0’2 per cent, of
nitrogen, or about half as much as farm-yard manure.
Saw-Dust has little value as a manure, as it undergoes
decomposition with extreme slowness. It is a good mecha¬
nical addition to heavy soils, and diminishes their tenacity ;
and though its manurial effects are small, it sooner or later un¬
dergoes decomposition, and yields what valuable matters it
contains. It is a useful absorbent of liquid manure, and may
be advantageously added to farm-yard manure for that pur¬
pose.
Manuring with Fresh Vegetable Matter.—Green Manur¬
ing.—The term green manuring is applied to the ploughing
in of green vegetable matter which has been grown on the soil
for that purpose. The success which attends it, especially
on soils poor in organic matter, is very marked. Its utility
is manifestly dependent on its affording to the soil a supply
of matter which by its decomposition may yield carbonic acid
to act on the soil, as well as nitrogen and inorganic matters.
The action is not, however, confined to this, for it serves
also as a means of bringing up from the lower parts of
the soil the valuable matters it contains, and of mixing
them again with the surface part. Many of the plants found
most useful for green manuring send down their roots to a
considerable depth ; and when they are ploughed in, all the
substances which they have brought up are of course de¬
posited in the upper few inches of the soil. Plants when
ploughed in in the fresh state also decompose rapidly, and are
therefore able immediately to improve the subsequent crop ;
and as this decomposition takes place in the soil without the
loss of ammonia and other valuable matters, which infallibly
occurs when they are fermented on the dung-heap, it will Agricul-
be obvious that in no other mode can equally good results tural
be obtained by the use of these plants. Chemistry.
Many plants have been employed as green manure, and
different opinions have been expressed as to their relative
values. In the selection of any one for the purpose, that
should of course be taken which grows most rapidly, and
produces within a given time the largest quantity of valu¬
able matters. No general rule can be given for the selec¬
tion, as the plant which fulfils those conditions best will
differ in different soils and climates. The plants most com¬
monly employed in this country are spurry, white mustard,
and turnips. Rye, clover, buck-wheat, white lupins, rape,
borage, and some others, have been largely employed abroad.
Some of these are obviously unfitted for the climate of the
British Islands; and the others, although they have been
tried occasionally, do not appear to have been Very exten¬
sively employed. The turnip is sown broadcast at the end
of harvest, and ploughed in after two months. White mus¬
tard and spurry are employed in the same way as a prepa¬
ration for winter wheat, and with the best results. The
latter is sometimes sown as a spring crop in March, ploughed
in in May, and another crop sown which is ploughed in in
June, and immediately followed by a third. The effect of
this treatment is such that the worst sands may be made to
bear a remunerative crop of rye.
Sea-Weed.—Sea-weeds are very extensively employed
on the coasts of Scotland and England, in quantities vary¬
ing from 10 to 20 tons per acre as a manure. Their action
is necessarily similar to that of green manure ploughed in,
as they contain all the ordinary constituents of land plants.
Their nitrogen usually amounts to about 2T per cent, of
the dry substances, and they are much richer in ash than
ordinary land plants. The dry fucus saccharinus contains
28 per cent., and fucus vesiculosus about 20 per cent. The
following are analyses of the ash of three species of sea-weeds
from the Firth of Forth.
Laminaria
digitata.
Potash  31-812
Chloride of potassium  19-764
Iodide of potassium   1-365
Chloride of sodium  23-986
Lime   5-351
Magnesia  3-4:54
Peroxide of iron  1-333
Sulphuric acid  9-598
Phosphoric acid  3-287
Silica     0-050
Fucus
serratus.
30-870
6- 148
25-859
7- 927
6-368
0-230
17-870
2-480
2-248
Fucus
nodosus.
14- 320
29-885
15- 557
7-647
5-636
0-135
24-812
0-848
1-160
100-000 100-000 100-000
The great value of sea-weed is dependent on the rapidity
with which it decomposes. In fact, when spread on the
land, it is seen to soften and disappear in a very short time.
It is therefore a rapid manure, and its effects are almost en¬
tirely confined to the crop to which it is applied. It may
be used as a top-dressing to grass land; but it is most be¬
neficial when ploughed in green, or when made into a com¬
post with lime and earth. On the western coast of Scot¬
land and in the Hebrides sea-weed is the chief manure. It
gives excellent crops of potatoes, but they are said to be
of inferior quality, unless marl or shell sand is employed at
the same time.
The observations which have been made regarding the
manurial value of these substances, immediately lead to the
inference that all vegetable matters possess a certain value,
and that they ought to be carefully collected and preserved.
In fact, the careful farmer adds every thing of the sort to
his manure heap, where, by undergoing fermentation along
with the manure, their nitrogen becomes immediately avail¬
able to the plant; while during the fermentation the seeds of
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
407
Agricul- weeds are destroyed, and the risk of the land being ren-
tural dered dirty by their springing up when the manure is used,
Chemistry. jg prevented.
Animal Manures.—Animal substances generally contain
a much larger quantity of nitrogen than vegetables, and as
they undergo decomposition and yield it in the form of am¬
monia more rapidly, their value is much higher.
Flesh is an important manure. That of horses is prepared
and sold to some extent. The dead animal after being
skinned is cut up and boiled in large cauldrons until the
flesh separates from the bones. The latter are removed, and
the flesh dried upon a flat stove. The flesh as sold has the
following composition:—
Water  1217
Organic matter   78,44
Phosphate of lime, &c  3’82
Alkaline salts 
Sand  1-93
100-00
Nitrogen   9-22
Ammonia to which the nitrogen ) pp.20
is equivalent J
Another sort of “ flesh manure” has been recently imported
from South America. It is a mixture of the flesh and smaller
bones of cattle which have been slaughtered for their tallow,
and remains in the vats in which the separation of the tallow
is effected by steaming. Owing to the variable proportion
of bones and flesh, and to the mixture of sand, which takes
place, owing to the careless way in which it has been pre¬
served, it varies somewhat in composition. Its composition is,
Water    9'05
Fat  11-13
Animal matter   39-52
Phosphate of lime   28-74:
Carbonate of lime   3-81
Alkaline salts  0'57
Sand   7-18
100-00
Nitrogen  5-56
Ammonia to which the nitrogen 1
is equiva1ent j
Another sample contained 5-77 of nitrogen, l7’16of phos¬
phate of lime, and 18-78 of sand.
Considerable difference must necessarily exist in the effects
of these two manures, owing to the difference of their com¬
position. The first must owe its value entirely to nitrogen,
the quantity of phosphate of lime and alkaline salts being
too small to exert any influence of importance. In the
South American manure, however, the quantity of bones
raise that of phosphate of lime in the first instance to above
a fourth, and in the second to nearly a fifth, of the whole
weight, and must therefore cause it to act, to a great extent,
in the same manner as bones, to the manurial value of which
we shall presently refer.
Fish have been employed in considerable quantity as a
manure. That most extensively employed in this country is
the sprat, which is occasionally caught in enormous quanti¬
ties on the Norfolk coast, and used as an application for tur¬
nips. They are sold at 8d. per bushel, and their composi¬
tion is,—
Water  64-6
Organic matter  33-3
Ash  2-1
100-0
Nitrogen   1"90
Phosphoric acid   0-91
The refuse of herring and other fish curing establishments,
whales’ blubber, and similar fish refuse are all useful as man- Agricul-
ure, and are employed whenever they can *be obtained. tu^al
They are not usually employed alone, but are more advan- ^hemistry/‘
tageously made into composts with their own weight of soil,
and allowed to ferment thoroughly before being applied.
Blood is a most valuable manure, but it is not much em¬
ployed in this country, at least in the neighbourhood of large
towns, as there is a demand for it for other purposes, and it
can rarely be obtained by the farmer in large quantity. In
its natural state it contains about 3 per cent, of nitrogen, and
after being dried up the residue contains about 15 per cent.
It is best used in the form of a compost with peat or mould,
and this forms an excellent manure for turnips, and is also
advantageously applied as a top-dressing to wheat.
Hair, Skin, and Horn.—The refuse of manufactories in
which these substances are employed, are frequently used
as manures. They are all highly nitrogenous substances,
and owe their entire value to the nitrogen they contain,
their inorganic constituents being in too small quantity to
be of any importance, wool and hair having only 2 per cent.,
and horn (>7 per cent, of ash. In the pure and dry state,
and after subtraction of the ash, their composition is,—
Horn.
51-99
6-72
17*28
24-01
100-00
The refuse actually obtained is always moist and often
mixed with foreign matters, and is consequently inferior to
this. Refuse horse hair generally contains 11 or 12 per
cent, of nitrogen. Wool contains very different quantities
according to the kind of refuse. Woollen rags contain 12-7
per cent, of nitrogen ; woollen cuttings about 14 ; and what
is called shoddy only 5-5 per cent. Horn shavings are ex¬
tremely variable in their amount of nitrogen. When pure
they sometimes contain as much as 12-5 per cent., but a
great deal of the horn shavings from comb manufactories,
&c., contains much sand and bone dust, by which their per¬
centage of nitrogen is greatly diminished, and it sometimes
does not exceed 5 or 6 per cent.
All these substances are highly valuable as manures, but
as they undergo decomposition more slowly than flesh or
blood they are more applicable to slow growing crops, and
to those which require a strong soil. Woollen rags have been
largely employed as a manure for hops, and are believed to
surpass every other substance for that crop. As a manure
applicable to the ordinary purposes of the farm they have
scarcely met with that attention which they deserve, proba¬
bly because their first action is slow and the farmer is more
accustomed to look to immediate than to future results ; but
they possess the important qualification of adding perma¬
nently to the fertility of the soil.
Urate and Sulphated Urine.—We have already discussed
the urine of animals, in reference to farm-yard manure.
But human urine, the composition of which was then stated,
is of much higher value than that of the lower animals, and
many attempts have been made to preserve and convert it
into a dry manure. Urate is prepared by adding gypsum to
urine, and collecting and drying the precipitate px-oduced.
It contains a considerable quantity of the phosphoric acid
of the urine, but very little of its ammonia; and as the
principal value of urine depends on the latter, it is neces¬
sarily a very inefficient method of turning it to account. A
better method has been proposed by Ur Stenhouse, who
adds lime-water to the urine, and collects the precipitate,
which, when dried in the air, contains 1-91 per cent of ni¬
trogen, and about 41 percent, of phosphates. This method
Skin.
Carbon  50*99
Hydrogen  7"07
Nitrogen   18'72
Oxygen  23-22
Sulphur 
100-00
Human Hair. Wool.
50-65 50-65
6-36 7-03
17-14 17*71
20-85 l 24-61
5-00 / ^ bl
100-00 100-00
408
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
Agricul- is subject tOithe same objection as that by which urate is
tur.al made, namely, that the greater part of the ammonia is not
v emis ry~ precipitated. This might probably be got over to some ex-
V~"L tent by the addition of sulphate of magnesia, or, still better,
of chloride of magnesium, which would throw down the
phosphate of magnesia and ammonia. By much the best
mode of employing urine is in the form of sulphated urine,
which is made by adding to urine a sufficient quantity of
sulphuric acid to neutralise its ammonia, and evaporating to
dryness. In this form all the valuable constituents are re¬
tained, and excellent results are obtained from it. Its effects,
though mainly attributable to its ammonia, are also in part
dependent on the phosphates and alkaline salts which it con¬
tains ; and it is therefore capable of supplying to the plant
a larger number of its constituents than the animal matters
already mentioned.
Night-Soil and Poudrette,—The value of night-soil as
a manure is well known. It depends, of course, partly on
the urine, and partly on the faeces of which it is formed. Its
disagreeable odour has prevented its general use, and va¬
rious methods have been contrived both for deodorising and
converting it into a solid and portable form. The same
difficulties which beset the conversion of urine into the solid
form are found here, and in most of the methods employed
the loss of ammonia is great. It is sometimes mixed with
lime or gypsum, and dried with heat, and sometimes with
animal charcoal or peat charcoal. By none of these me¬
thods, however, is it obtained of high quality ; and a good
method of making it portable at small expense is still a de¬
sideratum. It usually contains about 2 per cent, of nitrogen,
and 6 of phosphoric acid.
Guano is the solid excrement of carnivorous sea-birds,
which is accumulated in immense quantities on the coasts
of South America and other tropical countries. It has been
used as a manure in Peru from time immemorial, but the
accounts given by the older travellers of its marvellous
effects were considered to be fabulous, until Humboldt, from
personal observation, confirmed all their statements. It was
first imported into this country in 1840, in which year a few
barrels of it were brought home ; and from that time its im¬
portation rapidly increased. Soon after large deposits of it
were found in Ichaboe ; and it has since been brought from
many other localities.
The value of guano differs greatly according to the loca¬
lity from which it is obtained. That from the rainless dis¬
tricts of Peru contains the ingredients of the dung compara¬
tively little changed, a considerable proportion of the uric
acid and ammonia of the urine existing in some instances in
its natural state, and a small quantity only having under¬
gone decomposition. But that from other districts has suf¬
fered a more or less complete decomposition according to
the moisture of the climate, which reduces the quantity of Agricul-
organic matters and ammonia, until, in some varieties, they tural
are so small as to be of little importance. The following are Chemistry,
minute analyses of three specimens of Peruvian guano, show- v ■“ v ~n-y
ing all the different constituents it contains, and the amount
of difference which may exist:—
r.
Urate of ammonia  lO'JO
Oxalate of ammonia  12,38
Oxalate of lime  5-44
Phosphate of ammonia  19-25
Phosphate of magnesia and ammonia
Sulphate of potash  4-50
Sulphate of soda  1-95
Sulphate of ammonia   S'Sfi
Muriate of ammonia  4,81
Phosphate of soda 
Chloride of sodium 
Phosphate of lime    15'56
Carbonate of lime  1 -80
Sand and alumina  1-59
Water  9.14 i
Undetermined humus-like organic \ t A nn
matters / iu'uu J
II.
9-0
10-6
7-0
6-0
2-6
5-5
3- 8
4- 2
14-3
4-7
in.
3- 24
13-35
16-36
6-45
4- 20
4- 23
1-12
6-50
5- 29
0-10
9-94
5-80
32-3 23-42
100-48 100-0 100-00
These analyses illustrate two points—that in differ¬
ent samples the decomposition may have advanced to dif¬
ferent extents ; for we observe that the quantity of uric acid,
or rather of urate of ammonia, is greatly less in the last
analysis than in the other two, and much smaller than in
the fresh dung, which contains from 50 to 90 per cent, of
uric acid ; and secondly, that guano is rich in all the consti¬
tuents of the plant, but especially in ammonia, the best
form in which nitrogen can be supplied in uric acid, which,
by decomposition, yields ammonia, and in phosphoric acid.
But such analyses are too elaborate for ordinary purposes;
and a less complete analysis is usually made, in which the
total quantity of ammonia, with that which exists ready
formed, and will be yielded by the uric acid, the quantity
of water, the loss by ignition (that is, the total quantity of
organic matter and ammoniacal salts), the water, sand, and
alkaline salts, are determined. The subjoined tables give
the average composition of different sorts of guano deter¬
mined in this way. They are mostly averages deduced from
a very large number of analyses, excepting those of recent
Ichaboe, and of old Bolivian. In the second table are given
the analyses of a number of other sorts of guano, but some
of them only from a single analysis, so that they probably
do not accurately represent the average, although they may
give some idea of the composition of each sort. Two of
the sorts—old Ichaboe and old Bolivian—are not now im¬
ported, the supplies being exhausted.
Table showing the Average Composition of different varieties of Guano.
Water  
Organic matter &)
ammoniacal salts /
Phosphates   
Sulphate of lime 
Carbonate of lime....
Alkaline salts ....
Sand  
Ammonia
Phosphoric acid in l
[ alkaline salts.... J
Anga-
mos.
12-36
59-92
17-01
7-20
3-51
ICHABOB.
Peruvian.
100-00
21-10
1-20
13-73
53-16
23-48
7.97
1-66
100.00
17-50
2-50
Old.
24-21
39-30
30-00
4-19
2-30
New.
100-00
8-50
18- 89
32-49
19- 63
8-82
6-72
Bolivian.
Old.
12-55
35-89
27-63
15-29
8-64
100-00
10-42
Govern¬
ment.
16-44
12-28
56-09
11-33
2-81
Inferior.
100-00
8-99
100-00
2- 57
3- 11
14-15
26-14
23-13
9-65
12-87
5-97
8-09
Latham
Island.
Saldanha
Bay.
24-96.
10-96
54-47
2-82
2-20
4-06,
0-51
21-03
14-93
56-40
6-10
1-54
100-00
3 26
100-00
1-26
100-00
1-62
Austra¬
lian.
Patago¬
nian.
Chilian.
13-20
13-77
44-47
4-55
8-82
7-34
7-85
100-00
1-01
20-61
19-72
30-66
1-30
3-06
7-01
17*04
100-0
269
3-00
14-89
16-81
36-90
10-28
6-84
14-26
100-00
1-42
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
Table showing the Composition of some of the less common varieties of Guano.
409
Agricul- Table showing the Composition of some of the less common varieties of Guano. Agncul-
Chemistry. Note.—The numbers in this Table are mostly derived only from a single analysis, and have no value as determining the Chemistry.
average composition of these Guanos, but they serve to give a general idea of their value.
Water 
Organic matter and ammoniacal salts
Phosphates 
Sulphate of lime 
Carbonate of lime 
Alkaline salts 
Sand  
Ammonia  
Phosphoric acid in alkaline salts.
Sea Bear I Holmes’s j Ascension | Possession i Aleoa
Bay. | Bird Island, j Island. I Island. I Bay.
New
Island.
30- 82
31- 78
24-33
3-84
0-58
7-38
1-27
100-00
10-45
25-00
32-10
2736
8-82
6-72
100-00
7-75
15-97
23-15
32-54
15-92
12-42
100-00
6-06
1-82
10-92
15-42
46-41
7-46
6-15
13-64
30-55
6-85
21-24
36-42
3-32
1-62
28-78
13-78
22-46
ms
12-62
11-58
100-00
1-34
100-00
0-54
100-00
0-84
Bird’s
Island.
16-52
14-84
25-21
40-47
i'-’ie
1-80
100-00
1-26
As with farm-yard manure, the value of guano is estimated
by the quantity of nitrogen and phosphates which it is cap¬
able of yielding to the crop. As the nitrogen, however,
exists in great part as ammonia, and the remainder in a state
in which it readily passes into that substance, it is customary
in the analysis to state the quantity of ammonia and not that
of nitrogen, but it is easy to calculate the amount of the lat¬
ter by bearing in mind that 17 parts of ammonia correspond
to 14 of nitrogen.
By examining the tables given above, it is obvious that
guanos may be divided into two classes, the one charac¬
terised by the abundance of ammonia, the other by that of
phosphates ; and which, for convenience sake, may be called
ammoniacal and phosphatic guano. Peruvian and Angamos
are characteristic of the former, and Saldanha Bay and
Bolivian of the latter class. Of course the value of these
varieties is very different; and as guano is an expensive
manure, it is of much importance that some ready means of
estimating the value of different samples should be known
to the farmer. The principles that guide the chemist in
making such an estimate are very simple. As the value of
a guano depends on the quantity of ammonia and phosphates
it contains, and as these are commercial articles, which
have a definite value in the market, all that is necessary is
to ascertain that value, and to calculate from it that of the
guano. Now when sulphate of ammonia is bought, we find
by calculation from its price, that the dry ammonia con¬
tained in it costs very nearly 6d. per pound, and in bones
the cost of phosphate of lime is about f d. per pound.
In addition to this, we have also a certain quantity of
phosphoric acid in the alkaline salts, which is equal in round
numbers to double its weight of phosphate of lime. But
this phosphoric acid being in a soluble state is worth more
than twice as much as phosphate of lime. It is somewhat
difficult to estimate its exact value, but we shall probably
not be far wrong in assuming it at 3d. per lb. If we calculate
the value of Peruvian guano upon this principle we obtain
the following results per ton :—
17*5 per cent, of ammonia equal to 392 t l g jg q
lb. per ton, value at 6d per lb., j
23*48 per cent, of phosphates equal to 1 n
526 lb. at fd. per lb., J
2-5 per cent, of phosphoric acid equal to ^ 14 o
56 lb. per ton at 3d. per lb. j
Total value per ton, L.12 3 0
But the price of Peruvian guano is from L.9, 10s. to L.10
per. ton ; and this being the case, either it must be bought
for its ammonia alone or else we buy ammonia in guano at
a cheaper rate that we do in any other form. The latter is
VOL. II.
probably the most correct view of the case; and if so we find
that the price paid for ammonia in Peruvian guano is rather
less than 5d. per lb. Calculated on this principle, the value
of a ton of average Peruvian guano is L.9, 13s. 8d., which
is almost exactly the price at which it is sold. B^ calculat¬
ing in this way, then, we can at once estimate the value of
any sample of guano. A very simple method of effecting
the calculation is the following:—If a pound of ammonia be
worth 5d., a ton will be worth L.45 ; in the same way we
find that a ton of phosphates is worth L.7, and of phosphoric
acid in the alkaline salts L.28. If then we multiply the
per-centage of ammonia by 45, that of phosphates by 7, and
of phosphoric acid by 28, the sum of the products will give
the price in pounds sterling of 100 tons of guano, and then
dividing by 100 and doubling the first decimal, we have the
price of a ton within a shilling or two. Applying this method
of calculation to the Government Bolivian guano we find
its value to be as follows:—
Phosphates  56-09 x 7 = 392-6
Phosphoric acid  3-11 x 28 = 87"0
Ammonia  2-57 x 45 = 115-6
Value of 100 tons  593*2
The value of a ton will therefore be about L.5, 18s. But
the usual selling price of Bolivian guano is about L.8 per
ton, so that it actually sells at a much higher price than its
value calculated in this way would warrant. By a similar
calculation we find the value of Saldanha Bay would be
L.4, 13s., its selling price at present being L.6, 1 Os.
This method of calculation, therefore, while it may be
used with advantage for the comparison of different ammo¬
niacal guanos, is not applicable to the phosphatic class, as it
gives a lower value than that at which they are sold. It
may be urged that these guanos are sold at a higher price
than the value of their constituents warrants, but the ques¬
tion is not limited to this point. The two classes of guanos
are bought for different purposes, the ammoniacal guanos for
the sake of their ammonia principally, the phosphatic for
their phosphates, and these prices would not be given for
the latter sorts of guano unless the farmer found his advan¬
tage by it. We shall see afterwards that though Peruvian
guano is generally the best, there are certain soils on which
the phosphatic guanos nearly or altogether equal it; and on
these soils, of course, Bolivian guano at L.8 is actually
cheaper than Peruvian at L.9, 10s.; but this is only the case
in particular instances, and taken as a whole it may be said
that Peruvian, notwithstanding its high price, is the cheapest
of all guanos.
In purchasing guano particular precautions are required
410 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
Agricul- on the part of the farmer, in order to avoid the risk of ob-
tixral taining an adulterated article. He ought to attend to the
Chemistry. f'0H0wing points in regard to Peruvian guano.
V v ^ J 1st, The guano should be light coloured. If it is dark,
the chances are that it has been damaged by sea-water.
2d, It should be dry, and when a handful is well squeezed
together it should cohere very slightly.
‘M, It should not have too powerful an ammoniacal odout.
Ath, It should contain lumps which, when broken, appear
of a paler colour than the powdery part of the sample.
5th, When rubbed between the fingers it should not be
gritty. ....
These characters must not, however, be too implicitly
relied on, for they are all imitated with wonderful ingenuity
by the skilful adulterator, and they are applicable only to
Peruvian guano; the others being so variable that no general
rules can be given for determining whether they are genuine.
With them as well as with Peruvian guano, the only safe
mode of detecting adulteration is by analysis; and it is desir¬
able even where there is no chance of adulteration having
been practised, to determine in this way the value of the
guano, as different cargos of the same sort differ materially
in this respect. In the table above we have given the
average Composition of the different guanos, but in order to
show how much individual cargos may differ from the mean,
we give here analyses of samples of the highest and lowest
quality of the genuine guanos of most importance.
Angamos. Peruvian. Bolivian.
Highest. Lowest. Highest. Lowest. Highest. Lowest.
Water  12-60 7-09 10-37 21-49 11-53 16-20
Organic matter and j 65.62 5().83 46.26 12.86
ammonxacal salts J
Phosphates  10-83 8-70 25-20 18-93 62-99 52-95
Alkaline salts   7-50 16-30 7-50 10-64 9-93 13-83
Sand   3-45 17-08 1-20 2-68 4-38 4-16
100-00 100-00 100-00 10000 100-00 100-00
Ammonia   25-33 17-15 18-95 14-65 1-89 2-23
Calculating, in the manner before given, the value of
these two samples of Peruvian guano, we find the highest
to be worth L.10, 6s. per ton, the lowest no more than
L.7, 18s. Something would have to be added for the phos¬
phoric acid in the alkaline salts which have not been deter¬
mined in these analyses, but this would not materially alter
their relative values.
The adulteration of guano is carried on to a very large
extent, and we are certainly within bounds in asserting that
one-half of all the guano sold in this country is adulterated.
The chief adulterations are a sort of yellow loam, very simi¬
lar in appearance to guano, sand, gypsum, common salt, and
apparently also ground coprolites. The extent to which it
is adulterated may be estimated from the following analyses
taken at random from those of a large number of guanos, all
of which were sold as first-class Peruvian.
Water  12-85
Organic matter and ammo- 1
niacal salts  / ^b’y4
Phosphates  15-54
Sulphate of lime 
Alkaline salts  6-07
Sand  38-70
15-19
44-31
20-95
9-40
10-15
12-06
34-14
22-08
11-08
12-81
7-83
27-86
30-41
22-17
7-92
1-64
6-32
27-42
33-61
22-11
22-50
10-15
Ammonia,
100-00 100-00 100-00 10000 100-00
9-34 13-90 9-77 8-64 9-76
In all these cases a very large depreciation in value has
taken place ; the first of them, by calculation, being worth
only L.5, 5s. per ton. Large quantities of similarly adul¬
terated guanos are annually sold at the price of the genuine
article. The adulteration is principally carried on in Lon¬
don, but it is believed that it is also practised, though not Agricul-
so largely, in other places. In most instances these guanos tural
are sold without analysis, and with the assurance on the partChemistry-
of the seller that they are genuine guano, which some far-
mers seem to consider all that is required. Others are sold
with analysis, and sometimes it occurs that large quantities
of adulterated and inferior guanos are sold by the analysis
of a genuine sample, but of course this is the practice of the
fraudulent dealer only. In order to insure obtaining a
genuine guano, none should ever be purchased without an
analysis, a comparison of which -with the average composi¬
tion of good guano, enables the buyer to ascertain its quality,
and when the supply is obtained another sample should be
selected of which an analysis should be obtained, in order to
ascertain that the stock corresponds with the analysis by which
it was sold—-a very necessary precaution. It may be ob¬
jected that this involves expense, but surely the cost of an
analysis is a very trifling matter when a farmer buys perhaps
L.100 or L.200 worth of a manure which adulteration may
reduce to half its value.
The value and use of guano are now so well understood,
that it will scarcely be necessary to enlarge on the mode of its
application. Although owing its chief value to ammonia
and phosphates, it contains also all the other ingredients of
the plant, and everything required in a manure except the
large quantity of organic matters capable of producing car¬
bonic acid, on the importance of which to the soil we have
already enlarged. It is capable of entirely replacing farm¬
yard manure, and excellent crops of turnips and potatoes
have been raised by it alone, and at less cost than by farm¬
yard manure. But though this can be done, it is a practice
not to be recommended, for the quantity of valuable matters
in an ordinary application of guano is much smaller than in
farm-yard manure, and not sufficient permanently to sustain
the fertility of the soil. Five cwt. of Peruvian guano, which is
a fair application to an acre, contains about 97 lb. of am¬
monia and 138 of phosphates, but 30 tons of farm-yard man¬
ure contain about 280 of ammonia and 360 of phosphates,
and consequently the effects of the guano must be much
more rapidly exhausted than those of the farm-yard manure.
In fact guano is a rapidly acting manure, and its effects are
principally observed on the crop to which it is applied. It
is not of course to be denied that a certain effect will be ex¬
perienced on the subsequent crops, but it must of necessity
be small. The inference from these facts is, that, though
guano may at an emergency be used as an entire substi¬
tute for farm-yard manure, the practice is one to be gene¬
rally avoided. But the rapidity of action of guano makes it
a most important auxiliary to farm-yard manure, and it is as
an auxiliary that the greatest benefit has been derived from
it. Experience has shown that one-half the farm-yard
manure may be replaced by guano with the production of a
larger crop than hy the former alone in its full quantity.
The proportion of guano usually employed is from three to
five cwt., and it is said that a much larger quantity produces
prejudicial effects on the subsequent crop, although it is not
very easy to see on what it depends.
Guano has also been most advantageously employed as a
top-dressing to grass land and to young corn.
In selecting the variety to be employed, several circum¬
stances must be attended to. It will be found as a general
rule that on strong soils, under good cultivation, the best
effects are obtained from the ammoniacal guanos, but on
light soils these guanos are less applicable, as the soluble am¬
moniacal compounds they contain are rapidly washed out, and
much of their effects lost. On such soils the phosphatic
guanos come up to, or even surpass, the others. No definite
rules can be given for determining the soils on which these
different varieties are most applicable, but each individual
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
411
Agricul- must determine by experiment that which best suits his own
tui-al farm ; and the inquiry is of much importance to him, as, of
Chemistry. courSe5 if the phosphatic guanos will answer as well as the
ammoniacal, there is a large saving in the cost of the
manure. A very excellent practice is to employ a mixture
of equal parts of the two sorts of guano.
Pigeons' Dung.—The dung of all birds, which more or
less closely resembles guano, may be employed with much
advantage as a manure, but that of the pigeon and the com¬
mon fowl are the only ones which can be got in quantity.
Pigeons’ dung, according to Boussingault, contains 8’3 per
cent, of nitrogen, equivalent to 100 of ammonia. Its value,
therefore, will be more than half that of guano, but it varies
greatly, and a sample imported from Egypt into this country,
and analysed by Professor Johnston, contained only 5’4 per
cent, of ammonia. Hens’ dung has not been accurately ana¬
lysed, but its value must be about the same as pigeons’.
Bones.—Bones appear to have been employed agricultu¬
rally to a considerable extent in the last century as a dressing
to old exhausted pasture lands in Cheshire; but it is only
during the present century that they have been employed
on arable land. The bones employed as a manure are al¬
ways moist, and vary to some extent in quality. The fol¬
lowing is an analysis of a very excellent sample, consisting,
we believe, mostly of the bones of the horse :—
Water   6'20
Organic matter  39T3
Phosphate of lime  48'95
Lime   2’57
Magnesia   O30
Sulphuric acid   3T5
Silica    0'30
100'60
Ammonia which the organic matter is 1 ^.qq
capable of yielding,  /
In general, bones may be said to contain about half their
weight of phosphate of lime, and 10 or 12 per cent, of water.
But besides these, bones are met with in other forms in
commerce, in which their organic matter has been extracted
either by boiling or burning. The latter is especially com¬
mon in the form of the spent animal charcoal of the sugar
refiners, which usually contains from 70 to 80 per cent, of
phosphate of lime, but of course does not yield ammonia, the
organic matters having been entirely destroyed by heat.
From the analysis given above, it is obvious that the
manurial value of bones is dependent partly on their phos¬
phates and partly on the ammonia they yield. It has been
common to attribute their entire effects to the former, but
this is manifestly erroneous. It is true that in some in¬
stances this may be the case, but there is no doubt that the
ammonia must generally be of importance, and ought to be
taken into account in estimating their value. When bones
are applied for the sake of their phosphates alone, burnt
bones or the spent animal charcoal of the sugar-refiners are
to be preferred.
At the first introduction of bones they were applied in
large fragments, and in quantities of from 20 to 30 cwt. per
acre. As their use became more general they were gradu¬
ally employed in smaller pieces, until at last they were re¬
duced to dust, and it was found that, in a fine state of divi¬
sion, a few hundredweights produced as great an effect as
the larger quantity of the unground bones. Even the most
complete grinding which can be attained, however, leaves
the bones in a much less minute state of division than guano,
and they necessarily act more slowly than it does, the more
especially as they contain no ready-formed ammonia. They
may be still further reduced by fermentation, which acts by
decomposing the organic matter, and causing the produc¬
tion of ammonia. Or by solution in sulphuric acid, which Agricul-
converts the insoluble phosphate of lime into a soluble state. tural
Dissolved Bones.—The method of dissolving bones in sul- Cheniistry-
phuric acid has proved a very important boon to agriculture.
It depends upon the fact that there exists a phosphate of
lime containing half as much lime as that which is found
naturally in the bones, and which is artificially produced by
the sulphuric acid, which withdraws one-half of the lime,
forming with it sulphate of lime, while the whole of the
phosphoric acid of the bones remains in combination with
the other half, and in a soluble form. By employing a suffi¬
ciently large quantity of sulphuric acid, the whole quantity of
phosphoric acid in the bones may be thus brought into a solu¬
ble state, but in actual practice it is found preferable to leave
part of it in both states ; as where it is entirely soluble, its
effect is too great during the early part of the season, and de¬
ficient at its end. In order to dissolve bones, we employ from
one-half to one-fourth of their weight of strong sulphuric acid;
but one-third will be found to be the quantity most generally
applicable. The bones are put into a vessel of wood, stone,
or lead (iron is to be avoided, as it is rapidly corroded by the
acid), and mixed with one-third their weight of water, which
may with some advantage be used hot. One-third their weight
of sulphuric acid is then added, and mixed as uniformly as
possible with the bones. Considerable effervescence takes
place, and the mass becomes extremely hot. At the end of
two or three days it is turned over with the spade, and after
standing for some days longer, generally becomes pretty
dry. Should it still be too moist to be sown, it must be again
turned over, and mixed with some dry substance to absorb
the moisture. For this purpose all substances containing
lime or its carbonate must be carefully avoided, as they
bring back the phosphates into the insoluble state, and undo
what the sulphuric acid has done. Dry loam, peat, decay¬
ing leaves, or similar substances may be used. An excel¬
lent plan is to sift the bones before dissolving, and, applying
the acid only to the coarser part, to mix in the finer dust
which has passed through the sieve, to dry up the mass.
Considerable trouble attends the manufacture of superphos¬
phate on the small scale, and large manufactories have sprung
up in which it is manufactured for sale, and is sold at about
L.7 per ton. This probably exceeds the cost at which
superphosphate can be prepared at the farm, but the saving
of trouble induces many persons to purchase it. Since the
introduction of coprolites, that substance has come into gene¬
ral use among manufacturers as a substitute for bones, owing
to its cheapness and the large quantity of phosphates it con¬
tains. But as it is devoid of nitrogenous matters, and is con¬
sequently incapable of yielding ammonia, a certain quantity
of bones is always employed along with it, or sulphate of
ammonia, or some other ammoniacal salt is added to the
mixture. The following are analyses of different samples
of commercial superphosphate of fair quality. The first and
second are made entirely from bones, the third apparently
from coprolites alone. We have added also a single analysis
of an inferior sort.
Water    IfrSO
Organic matter   26'4:7
Phosphates  3P29
Sulphate of lime  12T4
Sulphuric acid   14'40
Alkaline salts   0'72
Sand     1-48
23-97
16-18
27-18
11- 39
12- 93
2-54
5-81
10-43
3- 61
37-59
25-63
4- 69
7-71
10-34
100-00 100-00 100-00
1-32
19-58
0-54
13-72
Inferior.
7-37
13-99
20-96
45-43
traces.
2-67
9-58
0-44
Ammonia    3-17
Soluble phosphates 22-97
These analyses give the total quantity of phosphates in
412
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
Agricul- the body of the analysis, and below the proportion of these
tiiral phosphates which is rendered soluble by acids, as well as the
Chemistry. quantjty 0f ammonia contained in the organic matter. The
two first of them are rather above the average quality, and
it may be stated generally that the farmer must expect to
find in a good superphosphate, about 30 per cent, of phos¬
phates, of which from 12 to 15 ought to be in the soluble
state; and about To per cent, of ammonia if the super¬
phosphate is made from bones, a smaller quantity if from
coprolites. Many superphosphates, however, are sold of
greatly inferior quality, and containing little or no soluble
phosphates; and these are generally made from coprolites
and with a deficient quantity of sulphuric acid. Of this the
last analysis is an example, but it is no uncommon thing to
see samples which prove to contain no soluble phosphates,
but even some per cent, of carbonate of lime, which is in¬
compatible with their existence. The farmer should lay it
down as a rule, never to purchase a superphosphate in the
analysis of which carbonate of lime or of magnesia occurs.
The manurial value of bones depends principally, but not
entirely, on their phosphates, and it is for these almost ex¬
clusively that they are employed. They were first made
use of in Cheshire as an application to old pasture lands, on
which their effects were truly marvellous. That here, at
least, the phosphates alone were the cause of their benefi¬
cial effects is very clear. These lands had been from time
immemorial pastured by milch cows; and in the milk and
cheese removed, a large quantity of phosphoric acid is carried
off, and so the pasture at length became deteriorated. The
bones supplied this element, and hence their good effects.
The principal use of bones at the present time is in the cul¬
ture of the turnip, and it is on that crop that dissolved bones
have proved so beneficial. They exert a remarkable influ¬
ence in forcing on the plant through the early period of its
growth, and so bringing it out of the stage during which it
is most liable to suffer from the attacks of insects and other
x'isks; and are best applied in conjunction with farm-yard
manure or with guano; although the turnip can be raised
with them alone. Dissolved bones are a rapid manure, and
the greater part of their influence is exerted on the first
crop. But undissolved bones are very permanent, and their
effects have been observed many years subsequent to a libe¬
ral application.
Many other substances have been used as manures, but
those to which we have referred are of much greater im¬
portance than any others. It is at once obvious from the
remarks already made, that manures vary greatly in quality,
and it is most desirable that some means should be con¬
trived for estimating their comparative values. Consider¬
able difficulties stand in the way of doing this effectually.
Boussingault, who has paid much attention to this subject,
is of opinion that the value of a manure may be determined
solely from the quantity of nitrogen it contains, irrespective
of its other constituents, and in his Rural Economy he has
given a table constructed on this principle, of which the
following is an abridgment.
Nitrogen
in moist Equi-
state, valent.
per cent.
Farm-yard manure  041 100
Dung from inn-yard  0-79 51
Wheat straw   0‘24 167
Rye straw   0T7 235
Oat straw  0'28 143
Pea straw     T79 22
Potato tops  0'37 108
Withered beet-root leaves  O’5 80
Carrot leaves   0-85 47
Oak leaves  1T8 34
Fucus digitatus   0’86 46
Salt cod fish   6‘70 6
White lupin seed   3'49 1T5
Malt grains  4,51 9
Hemp seed cake  4,21 9’5
Poppy cake  5'36 7‘5
Cider apple refuse  0-59 68
Cow dung   0'42 125
Horse dung  0'55 73
Cows’ urine  O’44 91
Horses’ urine   2-66 15‘5
Poudrette of Belloni   3'85 10-3
Montfaucon   1-56 25‘5
Pigeons’ dung  S'SO 5
Guano (Peruvian)   13-95 3-0
Silkworm litter  3-29 12
Dried muscular flesh  13-04 3
Dried blood  12*18 3-2
Liquid blood   2-95 13-3
Bones (fresh)   5-31 7’5
Sugar-refiners’ black   13-75 2-9
Animal black   1-06 3-8
Sugar scum   0-54 7*5
Feathers   15-24 2-5
Woollen rags  17*98 2-0
Horn shavings   14-36 3"0
Coal soot   1-35 30-0
Wood soot   1-15 35
Agricul¬
tural
Chemistry.
In this table the first column gives the quantity of nitro¬
gen in 100 parts of the moist manure. The second gives
the equivalent, that is, the quantity of any manure which
may be substituted for another, farm-yard manure being
taken at 100. Thus, to give an example of its use, suppose
the farmer wished to employ a certain quantity of dried
blood in place of farm-yard manure, he finds in the table
that for every 100 lb. of the latter, he requires only 3*2 lb. of
the former. It is evident, however, that this principle can¬
not be accurately carried out with all manures. In the com¬
parison of farm-yard manure with straw and other analogous
substances it probably approximates very closely to the
truth ; but with bones, guano, and other substances, much
of the value of which is certainly dependent on their phos¬
phates, it must manifestly give incorrect results, and with
the phosphatic guanos especially we should obtain values
much less than practical experience has shown them to pos¬
sess. Moreover, no account is taken of the state in which
the nitrogen exists, although we have already seen that this
is far from unimportant. Still some value attaches to such
a table, and except with those manures which contain phos¬
phates or other substances in larger quantity, it may often
prove useful.
Mineral Manures.
All the substances to which we have hitherto alluded are
capable of adding to the soil all, or the greater part of, the
essential constituents of the plant. Even bones supply not
merely ammonia and phosphates, but contain quantities of
alkaline salts and other matters, which, though small, are
not to be neglected. But many substances are also em¬
ployed which contain only a single constituent, and their
use is found to be followed by very remarkable results. We
shall mention these substances in succession, commencing
with those which yield nitrogen.
Sulphate and Muriate of Ammonia.—These and other
salts of ammonia have been tried experimentally as manures,
and it has been ascertained that they may all be used with
equal success ; and as the sulphate is by much cheaper, it is
that which probably will always be employed to the exclu¬
sion of every other. It contains, when pure, 25*7 per cent,
ammonia. That which is now manufactured for agricultu¬
ral purposes is of very excellent quality, and when genuine,
contains almost exactly the proper quantity of ammonia.
Its purity may always be roughly estimated, by putting a
AGRICULTUR A
Agricul- small quantity on a shovel and heating it over a fire, when
tural it ought to volatilise completely, or leave only a trifling re-
Chemistry. sicjue> Some care, however, is necessary in applying this
test, as in the hands of inexperienced persons it is some¬
times fallacious. The salts of ammonia may be applied in
the same way as guano; but they are most advantageously
employed as a top-dressing, and principally to grass lands.
In this way very remarkable effects are produced, and within
a week after the application, the difference between the
dressed and undressed portions of a field is already conspi¬
cuous. Experience has shown that success is best insured
when the salt is applied during or immediately before rain,
so that it may be at once incorporated with the soil; as
when used in dry weather little or no benefit is derived
from it. It seems also to exert a peculiarly beneficial effect
upon clover; and hence it ought to be employed only on
clover-hay, as where ryegrass or other grasses form the
whole of the crop we have better manures.
Ammoniacal Liquor of the Gas Works, and of the Ivory-
Hack Manufacturers.—Both of these are excellent forms in
which to apply ammonia, when they can be obtained. The
ammoniacal liquor of the gas-works is very variable in qua¬
lity, but contains generally from 4 to 8 ounces of dry am¬
monia per gallon, which corresponds in round numbers to
from 1 to 2 lb. of sulphate of ammonia. It is best applied
with the watering-cart, but must be diluted before use with
three or four times its bulk of water, as if concentrated it
burns up the grass. It is also well to use it during wet weather.
The ammoniacal liquor of the ivory-black works contains
above 12 per cent, of ammonia, or about four or five times
as much as gas liquor. It has been used in some parts of
England, made into a compost, and applied to the turnip and
other crops, and, it is said, with good effect. Bone oil, which
distils over along with it, has also been used in the form of
a compost; it contains a large quantity of ammonia and of
nitrogen in other forms of combination; the total quantity of
nitrogen it contains being 9'04 per cent., which is equiva¬
lent to 10-98 of ammonia. Only part of this nitrogen is
actually in the state of ammonia; and some circumstances
connected with the chemical relations of the other nitro¬
genous compounds in this substance render it probable that
they may pass very slowly into ammonia, and may therefore
be of inferior value; but the substance is worth a trial, as it
is very cheap. It must be carefully composted with peat,
and turned over several times before being used.
Nitrates of Potash and Soda.—Nitrate of potash has been
frequently employed as a manure, but its place is now en¬
tirely taken by nitrate of soda, which, from its superior cheap¬
ness, will always be preferred. Like the ammoniacal salts,
it is a source of nitrogen, of which it yields about 16 per
cent., and is therefore richer in that element than Peruvian
guano. It is employed as a top-dressing to grass lands and
to young corn, and with the most striking effects, even when
the quantity employed has been extremely small. In a re¬
cent experiment, Mr Pusey found 42 lb. per acre to increase
the produce of barley by 7 bushels per acre, and very favour¬
able results have been obtained by other experimenters.
The beneficial effects of nitrate of soda appear to be almost
entirely confined to the grasses and cereals. At least ex¬
perience here has shown that it produces little or no effect
on clover ; and one farmer has stated, that having recently
adopted the practice of sowing clover with a very small pro¬
portion of ryegrass only, he has been led to abandon the
use of nitrate of soda, which he formerly employed abun¬
dantly, when ryegrass formed a principal part of his crop.
The action of nitrate of soda is very remarkable, not only
in this respect, but also because a given quantity of nitro¬
gen in it appears to produce a greater effect than the same
quantity in sulphate of ammonia or guano. At the same
L C H E M I S T R Y. 413
time, this statement must be taken as very general, for our Agricul-
experiments are still too few to permit us to state it as a de- tural
finite fact. Nitrate of soda is best conjoined with common t’hemistl7-
salt, which checks its tendency to make the grain crops run
to straw, and prevents their lodging, which, when it is em¬
ployed alone, they are very apt to do. With hay this pre¬
caution is less necessary, and it is better to conjoin the nitrate
with an equal quantity of sulphate of ammonia, the combina¬
tion of the two giving better results than either separately.
Salts of Potash and Soda.—The substances just men¬
tioned may be considered to owe all their value to their
nitric acid, but other salts of the alkalies have been employed
as manures, although, with the exception of common salt, to
a limited extent. Sulphate of soda has been tried on clover
and grass, but mixed with nitrate of soda, and with good
effect, although we cannot tell how much may have been
due to the nitrate.
Chloride of Sodium, or Common Salt, has at different
times been employed as a manure, but its effects are so
variable and uncertain, that its use, in place of increasing,
has of late years rather diminished, it having frequently been
found that on soils in all respects similar, or even on the
same soil, in different years, it will sometimes prove advan¬
tageous, at others positively injurious. It appears, how¬
ever, to be a valuable addition to other manures, especially
to guano and nitrate of soda, as it prevents the tendency
which crops manured with these substances have to lodge.
The mode in which this effect is produced is obscure ; and,
so far as we know, no explanation has yet been given of it.
It is supposed to cause the plant to absorb more silica from
the soil; but this is a speculative explanation of its action,
and has not been supported by definite experiment. Al¬
though little effect has been observed from salt, it deserves
a more accurate investigation, as notwithstanding the extent
to which it has been employed, we are singularly deficient
in definite experiments with it.
Silicates of Potash and Soda have been employed with
the view of supplying silica to the plant, but the results have
been far from satisfactory. Good effects have been observed
from the application of silicate of soda to the potato; but
our experience of it is much too limited to enable us to form
any estimate of its general value.
Carbonates of Potash and Soda have only been tried
experimentally, and that to a small extent. The remarks we
have made in the section of the ashes of plants regarding
the subordinate value of soda, will enable the reader to see
that greater effects are to be anticipated from the former
than from the latter of these salts. They may, however,
exert a chemical action in the soil, altogether independent
of their absorption by the plant, but its nature and amount
are still to determine.
Sulphate of Magnesia can be obtained at a low cost, and
has been used as a manure in some instances with very
marked success. It has been chiefly applied as a top-dress¬
ing to clover hay, but it seems probable that it might prove
of use to the cereals, the ash of which is peculiarly rich in
magnesia.
Many other saline substances have been tried as manures;
but in most instances to too limited an extent to permit any
definite conclusions as to their value. The experiments
have also been too frequently performed without those pre¬
cautions necessary to exclude fallacy, so that the results al¬
ready arrived at must not be accepted as establishing facts,
but rather as indications of the direction in which further
experiments would be valuable. There is little doubt that
many of these substances might be usefully employed, if the
conditions necessary for their successful application were
eliminated; and no subject is at present more deserving of
elucidation by careful and well-devised field experiments.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
414
Agricul- Various mixtures of saline manures have been employed,
tural and frequently with good effects. The most marked, how-
ever> f*ave been from those of vegetable origin. Thus, wood
ashes and peat ashes have been employed with more or less
success, and their utility is clearly attributable to their afford¬
ing a supply of all the inorganic constituents of the plant.
Wood ashes, when they can be obtained, are a most valu¬
able manure; coal and peat ashes appear to be inferior as a
general rule ; but in Belgium and Holland the use of peat
ashes is common, and the effects are said to be excellent.
They have at different times been imported into this country,
but do not appear to have established a reputation as a
manure.
It has been held by some chemists, and particularly by
Liebig, that, provided we apply to the soil the mineral con¬
stituents of the plant, without adding either nitrogen or
organic matters, we fulfil all the conditions necessary to the
growth of the plant. This opinion has certainly not been
confirmed by experiment in this country ; the presence of
ammonia, or at all events of nitrogen, in some form or other,
having always been found necessary, and the application of
the mineral matters, even when their proportions have been
regulated by reference to the composition of the ash of the
plant to which they have been applied, has proved a failure.
Notwithstanding this, Liebig still holds to this view, which
he has found supported by experiments of his own. It is
extremely difficult to reconcile these discordant statements
and facts; but we suspect strongly that something must
depend on climate and soil; we know at least as regards
one manure, superphosphate, that climate has its effect. In
England dissolved coprolites have been successfully employed
as a manure for the turnip, but in Scotland they have proved
by no means so successful. An addition of ammonia is
necessary in the moister and colder climate of Scotland;
and this is so well known to some manufacturers that they
avoid sending to our market any superphosphates made from
coprolite alone, but take care to add a sufficient quantity
of nitrogenous matters to satisfy the wants of the climate.
It is not impossible that the different requirements of the cli¬
mates may be the real cause of these differences of opinion
and that Liebig may be right for the climate of Giessen,
as our experimenters are for this country. Boussingault,
who first insisted on the importance of ammonia or nitrogen
in manures, has had his opinion fully confirmed by the
valuable researches of Lawes, to which we must refer our
readers for a very full discussion of the whole subject.
Lime.—Lime is by far the most important of the mineral
manures, and is an almost indispensable agent in all agricul¬
tural improvement. It has been employed in the form of
chalk, limestone, marl, shell-sand, and as quick and slaked
lime, f o the composition of limestones we have already
referred when treating of the origin of soils, and have pointed
out that they are divisible into two classes—one consisting
of nearly pure carbonate of lime, the other of a mixture of
carbonate of lime and magnesia. It will be unnecessary,
therefore, to refer further to this subject. Chalk is a nearly
pure carbonate of lime; marl is a pulverulent deposit of
carbonate of lime, sometimes nearly pure, at others mixed
with a variable proportion of clay and sand; and shell-sand
is the debris of shells which has been cast up on the sea¬
shore, and which contain a greater or less admixture of
sand.
Pure carbonate of lime contains exactly 56 per cent, of
lime, and a good limestone ought to contain from 90 to 95
per cent, of the carbonate, equivalent to 50*40 ner cent, of
lime. It may therefore be said generally, that a1 good lime¬
stone should contain about half its weight of lime. When
limestone is exposed to heat, its carbonic acid is driven off,
and the lime is left in the quick state; and the quick lime,
by exposure to the air, absorbs moisture from it and slakes ; Agricul-
and if it be exposed for a longer time, it also absorbs car- tural
bonic acid, and passes back, more or less completely accord- Chemistry,
ing to the length of time it is exposed, into the state of car-
bonate. While lime may be applied in the state of carbo¬
nate, either as chalk, marl, or pounded limestone, and with
a certain amount of advantage, much greater effects are ob¬
tained from the use of the lime itself in the quick or slaked
state. These advantages are dependent partly on the
mechanical effect of the burning and slaking, which enable
us to reduce the lime to a much more minute state of divi¬
sion, and consequently to incorporate it more uniformly and
thoroughly with the soil, and partly on the more powerful
chemical action of the quick or caustic lime, by which a
greater effect is produced upon the soil. Other minor ad¬
vantages are also secured, such as the production of a cer¬
tain quantity of sulphate of lime, &c., which, though com¬
paratively trifling, may, under particular circumstances and
in some soils, be of considerable importance.
The action of lime is of a complicated character. Like
all the inorganic constituents of plants, it may of course
serve as food for those growing in the soil to which it is
added. But this is manifestly a very subordinate part of its
action,—1^, Because no soil exists which does not contain
lime in sufficient quantity to supply that element to the
plants. 2d, Because its effects are not restricted to those
soils in which it exists naturally in small quantity ; and, 3d,
Because it is found that a small application, such as would
suffice for the wants of the crops, is not sufficient to produce
its best effects. In fact, by far the most important action
of lime is that which it exerts on the chemical and mecha¬
nical properties of the soil; and it is this which necessitates
its application in very large quantities.
The proportion of lime applied varies very greatly in dif¬
ferent places. As much as ten tons per acre have frequently
been applied, and in some instances much more. Of late
years, however, we believe that these very large applications
have become less common, because it is found that better
effects are produced by a smaller quantity more frequently
repeated. Its quantity depends greatly on the nature of the
soil; on heavy clays, especially if undrained, very large ap¬
plications are required; on light soils much smaller; even
the depth of a soil must be considered, and a smaller quan¬
tity will suffice when it is shallow. The geological origin
of the soil is also not without its influence; for we find that
its beneficial effect is peculiarly seen on granite, porphyry,
and gneiss soils, both because these are naturally deficient
in lime, and because they undergo very slowly those decom¬
positions which liberate their active constituents.
The greater part of the action of lime is indeed depen¬
dent on its exerting a chemical decomposition on the soil;
and it acts equally on both the great divisions of its consti¬
tuents, the inorganic and the organic. On the former, it
acts by decomposing the silicates, which form the main
part of the soil, and by liberating the alkalies they contain,
it causes a larger supply of these substances to become
available to the plant. On the organic constituents its
effects are principally expended in promoting the decom¬
position which converts their nitrogen into ammonia; and
thus a supply of food, which might remain for a long period
locked up, is set free in a state in which the plant can at once
absorb it. But these chemical decompositions are attended
by a corresponding change in the mechanical characters of
the soil. Heavy clays are observed to become lighter and
more open in their texture; and those which are too rich
in organic matter have it rapidly reduced in quantity, and
the excessive lightness which it occasions diminished.
The effects of an application of lime are not generally
observed immediately, but become apparent in the course
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
415
Agiicul- of one or two years, when it has had time to exert its
tural chemical influence on the soil; but from that time its effects
Chemistry. are geen gra(]ual]y t0 diminish and finally to cease entirely.
The period within which this occurs necessarily varies with
the amount of the application and the nature of the soil,
but it may be said generally that lime will last from ten to
fifteen years. The cessation of its effects is due to several
circumstances, partly of course to the absorption of lime by
the plants, partly to its being washed out of the soil by the
rains, and partly to its tendency to sink to a lower level in
the soil, a tendency which most practical men have had op¬
portunities of observing. In the latter case, deep-plough¬
ing often produces a marked effect, and sometimes makes it
possible to postpone for a year or two the reapplication of
lime. All these circumstances have their influence in bring¬
ing to an end its action, but the most important is, that after
a time it has exhausted its decomposing effect on the soil,
having destroyed all the organic matter, or liberated all the
insoluble mineral substances which the quantity added is
competent to do, and so the soil passes back to its old state.
It does even more, for unless active measures are taken to
sustain the fertility of the soil by other means, it is found
that its fertility is apt to become less than it was before the
use of lime. And that it should be so is manifest, if we
consider that the lime added has liberated a quantity of
inorganic matter, which, in the natural state of the soil,
would have become slowly available to the plant, and that
it must have acted chiefly in those very portions which, from
having already undergone a partial decomposition, were
ready to pass into a state fitted for absorption, and thus as
it were, must have anticipated the supplies of future years.
This effect has been frequently observed by farmers, and
is indeed so common, that it has passed into a proverbial
saying, that “lime enriches the fathers and impoverishes
the sons.” But this is true only when the soil is stinted
of other manures, for when it is liberally treated the ex¬
hausting effect of lime is not observed, and it must be laid
down as a practical rule that the use of lime necessitates a
liberal treatment of the soil in all other respects. But when
lime has been once employed, it becomes almost necessary
to resort to it again; and generally so soon as its effects are
exhausted a new quantity is applied, not so large as that
which is used when the soil is first limed, but still consider¬
able. When this is done very frequently, however, bad
effects ensue; the soil gets into a particular state in which
it is so open that the grain crops become uncertain, and
such land is said, in practical language, to be overlimed.
The explanation commonly assumed by those unacquainted
with chemistry is, that the land has become too full of lime;
but a moment’s consideration of the very small fraction of
the soil, which even the largest application of lime forms,
will serve to show that this cannot be the cause. And
analyses of overlimed soils have proved that the lime does
not exceed the ordinary quantity found in fertile soils.
The explanation of the phenomenon probably is, that the
rapid decomposition of organic matter by the lime, and its
escape as carbonic acid has so opened the pores of the
soil as to give it the peculiar appearance so well known
in practice. The cure for overliming is found to be the
employment of such means as consolidate the soil, such as
eating off with sheep, rolling, or laying down to permanent
pasture.
The immediate effect of lime on the vegetation of the
land to which it is applied is very striking. It immediately
destroys all sorts of moss, makes a tender herbage spring
up, and eradicates a number of weeds. It improves the
quantity and quality of most crops, and causes them to
arrive more rapidly at maturity. The extent to which it
produces these effects is due to the form in which it is ap¬
plied. In general they are produced more distinctly and Agricul-
more rapidly when it is applied in the quick state, more lu^al
slowly if it be in the mild state, that is to say, quick lime ^heimstl7-
which has been exposed for a long time to the air, and still
more slowly as marl or chalk. The particular circumstances
under which these different forms of lime are best employed
is a very extensive subject, and would lead us beyond our
limits; and for further information we must refer the reader
to Professor Johnston’s treatise on the use of lime in agri¬
culture.
Sulphate of Lime, or Gypsum.—Gypsum has been applied
in large quantity as a manure, and is found to exert a very
remarkable influence upon clover, and leguminous crops
generally. It is used in quantities varying from 2 cwt. per
acre up to a very large quantity, and almost invariably with
good results, in some instances even wdth the production of
double crops. Much speculation has taken place as to the
cause of this action w hich is so specific in its character, and
from Sir Humphry Davy down to the present time, many
chemists and agriculturists have considered the matter. Sir
Humphry Davy attributed its action to its supplying sul¬
phur to those plants which, according to him, contain a
larger quantity of that element than other plants. That
opinion has been since entertained by others, but it can
scarcely be considered as well founded, for the more accu¬
rate experiments recently made do not point to any conspi¬
cuous differences between the quantities of sulphur contained
in these and other plants. It is, moreover, to gypsum alone
that these effects are due, and if it were merely as a source
of sulphur that it was employed, there are other salts w hich
could be equally, perhaps more advantageously, used; such,
for instance, as sulphate of soda. It is more probable that
the action of sulphate of lime may depend on its value as
an absorbent of ammonia, and to its taking the atmospheric
ammonia, and supplying it to the plants. Great difficulties
unquestionably surround this explanation, and though sup¬
ported by some persons, much may be said against it; as, for
instance, wdiy should its effect be so very marked on parti¬
cular plants. In fact, while we have experiments which
prove in the most unquestionable manner the utility of gyp¬
sum, we require others made with the express object of elu¬
cidating the cause of its action.
Phosphate of Lime.—In treating of bones we have alluded
sufficiently to the value of phosphate of lime, but when
conjoined with animal matters, ammonia, and other valuable
substances. We have now simply to refer to the existence
of certain varieties of mineral phosphates, some of which
have been used, and others proposed, as manures. The apa¬
tite of Estremadura was some years since proposed as a
manure, and a commission was sent by our Government to
inquire into the extent of the supplies, and the possibility of
its being imported, but it was found to be limited in extent
and too inaccessible to be of much importance, and we be¬
lieve no attempt has been made to import it. The same
mineral is met with in New Jersey and other districts of
America, and has been sent to this country, but its price was
too high to admit of its being employed. Phosphate of lime
also occurs in England, principally in Suffolk, in the form of
what are called coprolites, although it is doubtful whether
they really deserve that name, which was originally given
by geologists to very different substances. The coprolites
are now collected in very large quantities, and some thou¬
sand tons must be annually employed. They are extremely
hard, and require very powerful machinery to reduce them
to powder, and hence their price is considerable, we believe
about L.3 per ton. From this hardness they are also less
easily attacked by the plant, and are consequently best em¬
ployed dissolved in sulphuric acid. Coprolites have the fol¬
lowing composition;—-
416 AGRICULTUKA
Agricul- Phosphate of lime   57'33
tural Carbonate of lime  23*89
Chemistry. Sulphate of lime  2*03
Sand   12*70
Organic matter  2*23
Water    1'82
100*00
They are therefore rich in phosphates, containing, in fact,
more of these substances than guano ; but as they are hard,
and not easily dissolved by the plant, an inferior value must
be attributed to them. Much coprolite of inferior quality, and
containing a larger proportion of carbonate of lime, is sold;
and the purchaser must ascertain by analysis that the article
he buys is good.
THE ROTATION OF CROPS.
It is a necessary consequence of the facts detailed in the
previous sections, that a crop growing on any land must
necessarily exhaust it more or less; that is, must remove
from it a certain quantity of the elements which confer fer¬
tility upon it. That this is the case has been long admitted
in practice, and it has also been established that the exhaust¬
ing effects of different species of plants are very different;
that while some rapidly impoverish the soil, others may be
cultivated for a number of years without material injury, and
others even apparently improve it. Thus, it is a notorious
fact that white crops exhaust, while grass improves the soil;
but the improvement in the latter case is really dependent
on the fact, that when the land is laid down in pasture, no¬
thing is removed from it, the cattle which feed on its pro¬
duce returning again all that they had removed; so that,
when we take into account the fact that the plants de¬
rive a part, and in some instances a very large part, of their
nutriment from the air, the fertility of the soil must mani¬
festly be improved, or at all events supported in its previous
state.
When, however, the plant, or some of its parts, is re¬
moved from the soil, there must be a reduction in the
amount of its fertility dependent on the quantity of its valu¬
able constituents which each plant contains; and thus it
occurs that when a plant has grown on any soil, and has re¬
moved from it a large quantity of nutritive matters, that it
becomes incapable of producing an equally large crop of
the same species ; and if the attempt is made to grow it in
successive years, the land becomes incapable of producing
it at all, and is then said to be thoroughly exhausted. But
if the exhausted land be allowed to lie for some time with¬
out a crop, it is found, more or less rapidly according to
circumstances, to regain its fertility, and to produce again
the same substance in remunerative crops. The observa¬
tion of this fact led to the introduction of naked fallows,
which, up to a comparatively recent period, were an essen¬
tial feature in agriculture.. But after a time it was observed
that the land which had been exhausted by successive crops
of one species was not absolutely barren, but was still cap¬
able of producing a luxuriant growth of other plants. Thus
pease, beans, clover, or potatoes, might be cultivated with
success on land which would no longer sustain a crop of
grain, and these plants came into use in place of the naked
fallow under the name of fallow crops. On this was founded
the rotation of crops; for it was clear that a judicious inter¬
change of the plants sown might enable the soil to regain its
fertility for one crop at the time when it was producing an¬
other ; and when exhausted for the second, it might be
again ready to bear crops of the first.
The necessity for a rotation of crops has been explained
in several ways. The oldest is that of Decandolle, who
founded his theory on the fact that the plants excrete cer¬
tain substances from their roots. He found that when a
L CHEMISTRY.
plant was grown in water, a substance was excreted from Agricul-
the roots; and he believed that this extrementitious sub- tuyal
stance was thrown out because it was injurious to the plant, <“hemistry*
and that, remaining in the soil, it acted as a poison to those
of the same species, and so prevented the growth of another
crop. But this excretion, though poisonous to the plants
from which it was excreted, he believed to be nutritive to
those of another species which thus grew luxuriantly w here
the others failed. Nothing can be more simple than this
explanation, and it was readily embraced at the time it was
propounded and considered fully satisfactory. But when
more minutely examined, it becomes apparent that the facts
on which it is founded are of a very uncertain character.
Decandolle’s observations regarding the radical excretions
of plants have not been confirmed by subsequent observers.
On the contrary, they have found that though some plants,
when growing in water, do excrete a particular substance
in small quantity, that nothing of the sort appears when they
are grown in a silicious sand. And hence the inference is,
that the peculiar excretion of plants growing in water is
rather the result of disease than a natural product. But even
admitting the existence of these matters, it would be impos¬
sible to accept the explanation founded upon them, because
we know that, on individual soils, the repeated growth of
particular crops is perfectly possible, as, for instance, on the
virgin soils of America, from which many successive crops
of wheat have been taken; and in these cases the alleged
excretion must have taken place without producing any
deleterious effect on the crop. Besides, it is in the last de¬
gree improbable that these excretions, consisting of soluble
organic matters, should remain in the soil w ithout under¬
going decomposition, as all similar substances do ; and even
if they did, we cannot, with our present knowledge of the
food of plants, admit the possibility of the direct absorption
of any organic substance whatever. We believe, indeed,
that the idea of radical excretions, as an explanation of the
rotation of crops, must be considered as being entirely aban¬
doned.
We now seek for its explanation in the different quanti¬
ties of valuable matters which different plants remove from
the soil, and more especially to their mineral constituents.
To the great differences which exist in the composition of
the ash of different plants we have referred in the section on
that subject; and we have pointed out that a distinction has
been made between lime, potash, and silica plants. This dis¬
tinction has its origin in the explanation of the rotation of
crops, to which we now refer. In fact, it is believed that
if, to take a particular instance, a plant which requires a
large quantity of potash be grown on a soil, it will, in a
greater or less time, exhaust all, or nearly all, the potash
which that soil contains in an available form, and will con¬
sequently cease to produce a luxuriant crop of it. But if
we replace it by another plant which requires only a small
quantity of potash and a large quantity of lime, it w*ill flou¬
rish, because it finds what is necessary to its growth. In
the meantime, the changes which are proceeding in the soil,
are liberating new quantities of the inorganic matters from
those forms of combination in which they are not imme¬
diately available, and when after a time the plant which re¬
quires potash is again sown on the soil, it finds a sufficient
quantity to serve its purpose. We have already, in treating
of the ashes of plants, pointed out the extent of the differ¬
ences which exist; but these will be made more obvious
by the annexed table, giving the quantity of the different
mineral matters contained in the produce of an imperial
acre of the different crops. We have omitted the oxide of
iron and manganese as unimportant, and have added the
quantity of nitrogen, which is of considerable interest, though
of course not directly important as regards rotation.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
417
Agricul¬
tural
Chemistry.
Table showing the number of Pounds of Mineral Matters and Nitrogen removed from an Acre of Land by
average Crops of different Grains, §c.
Agricul¬
tural
Chemistry.
Silica.
Wheat, grain.
straw 
Barley, grain
straw 
Oat, grain 
straw 
Beans, grain..
straw 
Pease, grain..
straw 
Turnip, bulb..
tops  
Potato, tuber.
top 
Meadow hay.
Byngrass 
Red clover ...
Flax, straw,
seed....
1-2
96-8
175
129-7
23-0
83-5
0-4
5-9
0-6
9-7
4-0
2-0
60-0
68-0
147-0
10-0
90-71
0-6
Potash.
10- 5
27-2
11- 7
6-0
8-0
18- 7
23-1
32-1
19- 3
30- 7
112-0
50-0
87-0
4-0
48-0
31- 0
44-0
14-1
13-4
Soda.
1-0
3- 7
0-8
1-6
1-2
20-0
0-4
7-0
0-4
4- 5
26-0
1-0
7-0
2-0
5- 0
10-0
5-0
14-1
0-6
Lime.
1-2
11-1
1-0
18-4
3- 8
11-1
4- 8
32-1
2- 9
67-5
320
70-0
2-0
58-0
39-0
25-0
103-0
17'8
3- 4
Magnesia.
Chloride oil
Potassium.
4-1
3- 0
4- 1
2- 7
3- 8
7-2
3-7
7- 4
3-1
11-8
8- 0
2-0
7-0
9-0
16-0
6-0
32-0
11-4
5- 2
Chloride of
Sodium.
2-3
2-6
0-2
1-3
0-6
11-0
0-5
3-8
1-0
13- 8
0-4
6-4
26-0
14- 0
Chlorine.
9-0
4-0
6-0
9-0
6-0
7-0
Chlorine.
3-3
0-1
Phosphoric
Acid.
15- 3
4- 0
16- 0
5- 4
17-2
3-0
17- 9
11-1
16-8
8-1
32-0
11-0
18- 0
12-0
12-0
16-0
18-0
15-4
15-2
Sulphuric
Acid.
o-l
4-6
1-0
4-0
3.3
3- 0
2-5
4- 9
2-7
10-2
40-0
29-0
29-0
9-0
6-0
7-0
12-0
4-0
0-7
Nitrogen.
38-0
16-0
36-0
8-0
60-0
14-0
80-0
35-0
75- 0
60-0
76- 0
50-0
81-0
24-0
57-0
68-0
74-0
From an inspection of this table, we at once perceive the
difference of effects which different crops must produce on
the soil. Thus, a wheat crop (grain and straw) removes
from the soil 98 lb. of silica; and as we know that that sub¬
stance exists in small quantity in an available, state in most
soils, we understand how a succession of wheat or other
grain crops (some containing even a larger quantity of silica
than wheat) should fail to flourish, unless a sufficient quan¬
tity of that element be annually set free to supply the loss;
while a crop of turnips removing only 4 lb. of silica may be
produced, and at the same time permit the accumulation of
a quantity of soluble silica ready for another crop of grain.
The turnip again, which carries off no less than 112 lb. of
potash, soon exhausts the soil of that element; and when a
grain crop, removing only from 17 to 37 lb. according to
circumstances, replaces it, we have the conditions neces¬
sary for the restoration of that which the turnip had re¬
moved. So with the other elements we find that the turnip
removes 40 lb. of sulphuric acid, wheat only 4-7; and clover
requires above 135 lb. of lime and magnesia, and wheat only
19 of the two. And thus the small quantity of individual
substances removed by one plant, compensates for the large
quantity withdrawn by another; and by a judicious inter¬
change we have the soil always in a condition to supply a
sufficient quantity of the elements necessary for any crop
which grows on it.
Viewed in this light, we see that there are several impor¬
tant practical deductions to be drawn from these observations
regarding the principles of rotation. We observe that the
quantities of mineral matters withdrawn by the plants of the
same class are generally similar, and thus we infer that we
ought as much as possible to cause crops of the most oppo¬
site class to alternate with one another, and to repeat each
plant as seldom as possible, so that even when we are obliged
to return to the same class we should, if circumstances per¬
mit, employ a different member of it. Thus, for instance,
in place of immediately repeating wheat, when we wish
another grain crop, it would theoretically be preferable to em¬
ploy oats or barley, and to replace the turnip by mangold-
wurzel or some other root. It is obvious, however, that this
system cannot be carried out in practice to its full extent;
YOL. II.
for the superior value of individual crops causes their repe¬
tition more frequently than that of those which make a less
return. But experience has so far concurred with theory,
that it has taught the farmer the advantage of long rotations;
and we have had the successive introduction of the three,
four, five, and six course shift, and even of longer periods in
some instances.
In all this the farmer only imitates the practice of nature;
for it has been long observed that when one generation of
plants dies out, it is immediately replaced by another. In
the forests of Sweden we have a remarkable illustration of
this, for when a pine forest is felled and the land left to it ¬
self, there spring up not pines but birch trees; and every one
is familiar with the fact that when a gap occurs in a thorn-
hedge it is useless to attempt to fill it up by putting in a
young thorn, but that some other plant must be used.
Such is the theory of rotation ; but is it absolutely neces¬
sary that it should be rigidly adhered to? We think not.
Because in the art of agriculture we place the plants in arti¬
ficial circumstances, and instead of allowing them to depend
entirely on the soil we supply them with a quantity of manure
containing all the elements of the plant, and if it be used in
sufficiently large quantity we may grow year after year the
same crop. And accordingly the order of rotation which is
theoretically the best may be, and every day is, violated in
practice. This must necessarily be done at the expense of
a certain quantity of the valuable matters of the manure
added, and is so far a practice which ought theoretically to
be avoided. But in actual practice the matter is to be de¬
cided on other grounds. The object then is, not to produce
the largest crops, but those which make the largest money
return, and thus it may be practically economical to grow a
crop of high commercial value more frequently than is theo¬
retically advantageous. The farmer must therefore seek to
do away as far as possible with the disadvantages which
such a course entails, and this he will endeavour to do by a
liberal treatment of the soil, and by as careful a manage¬
ment of the other crops of this nature as possible.
But while the farmer may do this to some extent, he
must bear in mind that the frequent repetition of some crops
cannot be practised with impunity, for they are liable to
3 G
>
<
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
418
Agricul- certain diseases, which have been attributed more or less
tural correctly to this cause. Such is the case with clover, which,
eniisry. wj-ien frequently repeated on light soils, fails entirely ; and
the potato and turnip disease have also, though with less
foundation, been attributed to the same cause. Whether
this is the sole origin of these diseases is questionable, but
there is no doubt that they are aggravated by frequent re¬
petition, and hence a strong argument in favour of rotation.
We have been told by great authorities in high farming,
that with the command of manures we now have, rotations
may be done away with; but this is an opinion to which
science gives no countenance, and he would be a rash man
who attempted to carry it out in practice.
THE FEEDING OF THE ANIMALS ON THE FARM.
The feeding of cattle, once a subordinate part of the ope¬
rations of the farm, has now become one of its most impor¬
tant departments, and the principles of its most successful
and economical practice have been elucidated by the re¬
cent investigations of chemists and physiologists, by which
much light has been thrown on many matters which would
otherwise have remained obscure.
It scarcely requires to be stated at the outset, that the
food must contain all the different elements which enter into
the composition of the animal body. When wre examine
what these are, we find them identical with those of plants;
their organic part consisting of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,
and oxygen, and their ash of the same ingredients as that
of plants. The organic elements are not only the same, but
they are united together in a similar manner, and we have
them existing, on the one hand, as nitrogenous matters, in the
form of fibrine, albumen, and caseine, which, as we have
pointed out when treating of the proximate constituents of
plants, are identical in chemical composition and properties
with the substances extracted from plants, and described un¬
der the same names ; and, on the other hand, as fatty matters,
which correspond in all respects with those found in plants.
It has hence been inferred, and is supported by many other
facts which our limits will not permit us to detail, that the ani¬
mals simply absorb the substances which have been formed by
the plant, and deposit them in their tissues. It has been dis¬
tinctly ascertained that the wrhole nutriment of animals is de¬
rived from their food, and that neither nitrogen nor any other
element is derived from the air. Now, of the food consumed,
a part only is absorbed; the remainder passes through the in¬
testinal canal and is excreted in the form of faeces, while the
absorbed portion goes to fulfil two different functions ; one
quantity being deposited in the tissues to supply that waste
which we learn from physiological facts is constantly occur¬
ring ; the other being employed in supporting the process
of respiration, combining with the oxygen of the air inspired,
and converting it partly into carbonic acid. If the supply
of food be properly apportioned to the animal, the loss oc¬
casioned by the waste of the tissues and the process of res¬
piration is exactly sufficient to counterbalance the gain of
food, and the animal remains with its weight unchanged;
but if it be larger than is required for this purpose, an in¬
crease of weight takes place, and a quantity of fat and flesh
is laid up as a sort of reserve against future deficiencies of
supply. In a state of nature an equilibrium subsists between
the supply and the waste, which prevents the animal ever in¬
creasing greatly in weight; and it is the object of the feeder,
by placing the animal in artificial circumstances, and increas¬
ing the supply of food, to raise this reserve to the greatest
extent compatible with the health of the animal. In order
to this, he must consult nature, and endeavour to imitate her
processes as closely as possible, to give food consonant with
her principles, and to fulfil all those conditions which are
likely to diminish the waste of the tissues.
The Food of Animals.—In examining the conditions which Agricul.
must be attended to in the food of animals, we may with ta™1
advantage take an example from that which nature has pro- Chemistry.
vided for the sustenance of their young. The milk may, in
fact, be considered as a typical food, and necessarily the
best fitted to fulfil the purposes for which it is intended.
Now, we find it, exclusive of its inorganic constituents, to
contain three different classes of nutritious matters. 1st,
Nitrogenous or albuminous substances; 2d, Fatty matters ;
3d, Sugar; the first adapted to the production of flesh, the
second to the formation of the fat of the body, and the third
going partly to supply the respiratory process, and partly to
be converted into fat. Now, to sustain the animal in its
usual state, a sufficient quantity of those substances must be
given to supply the waste of the tissues, and the process of
respiration, along with a quantity which is never absorbed, but
passes through the alimentary canal. In round numbers
this latter quantity amounts to not less than half the whole
nutritive matters. The quantity of albuminous substances
absorbed and used to supply the waste of the tissues varies
very greatly according to circumstances shortly to be men¬
tioned, but in an experiment of BCussingault’s on a cow,
amounted to about 18 ounces. The consumption of sugar,
starch, and similar substances, to maintain respiration is much
larger; for it has been ascertained that in the course of 24
hours an ox will convert into carbonic acid by respiration,
from 4 to 5 lb. of carbon, to supply which from 10 to 121b.
of sugar or starch are required. It is necessary, therefore,
that the food to be supplied should contain these substances,
and a sufficiency of them for the purpose; and what we have
already said of the composition of vegetables shows that all
do contain these substances, though their quantity is very
variable. In comparing the value of different sorts of food,
it is necessary to consider the quantity of nitrogenous and
other matters which they contain. But we find by experi¬
ence, that all these substances are not of equal importance,
some being supplied in sufficient quantity for all purposes,
others being found in many sorts of food in comparatively
small quantity. It appears, indeed, that the nitrogenous
constituents are by much the most important, and for many
purposes the value of the food may be estimated almost en¬
tirely from them. But these substances are the flesh-form¬
ing element of the food only; the production of fat is depen¬
dent partly on the fatty matter, and partly on the starch and
sugar of the plant. At one time it was believed that the
presence of fatty matters in the food was essential to the
production of fat in the animal; but careful experiments have
entirely refuted this opinion, and have shown that the fat
may be produced from sugar or starch alone, and hence some
chemists and physiologists have even gone so far as to hold
that the fat of the food does not go to form the fat of the
animal. We apprehend, however, that this is an extreme view
of the case, and it can scarcely be doubted that the fat must
be of importance, though it may not be absolutely essential.
Now, in comparing different sorts of food, we come to the
conclusion, that those are most valuable which contain the
largest quantity of albuminous substances, oil and saccha¬
rine matters; but there are few or no foods which do not
contain these latter substances in sufficient quantity to sup¬
ply the wants of any animals which feed upon them. We
may therefore take the quantities of albuminous matters and
oil as the measure of the nutritive value of any sort of food.
That this is borne out by practice, we may see at once by
selecting any two sorts of food: let us take the turnip and
linseed-cake. Now the former of these is very poor in nu¬
tritive matters, and hence requires to be supplied in large
quantity to the animal; the latter is rich both in albuminous
and oily matters, and only a small quantity of it is required.
The practical farmer, when he gives cattle linseed-cake,
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 419
Agricul- generally considers that he may replace 100 lb. weight of
tural turnips by 5 lb. of cake; and that with this apparently trifling
Chemistry-quantity t]ie cattie fatten better than they did with the large
quantity of turnip. Now, when we inquire into the relative
quantities of nitrogenous and oily matters contained in these
two substances, we have at once an explanation of the ob¬
served fact. Analysis shows us, that the quantities of albu¬
minous matters and of oil contained in 100 parts of those
two substances are as follows:—
Oil-Cake. Turnip.
Albuminous matter   27'69 1,27
on   12-79 0-20
If we calculate from these results, we find that 100 lb. of
turnips contain the same quantity of albuminous matter as
4’5 lb. of oil-cake, and no more oil than is supplied by 1"5 lb.
of oil-cake, so that the 5 lb. of oil-cake contain a larger quan¬
tity of nutritive matter than the large quantity of turnip for
which they are a substitute.
The consideration of these facts is of much importance in
the economic feeding of animals, for it is manifest that very
great differences must exist in the nutritive value of different
sorts ot food; and now that the farmer finds it desirable to
use other substances than those produced on the farm, it is
of importance that he should possess some means of esti¬
mating the relative value of different sorts of food. We
give here, as an assistance in doing so, a table showing the
per-centage of albuminous and oily matters contained in 100
parts of different crops.
Poppy cake 
Rape cake   
Crambolina cake 
Common Scotch tares  
Hopetoun tares 
Linseed cake 
Field beans 
Winter tares (foreign)  
Spring tares (foreign)  
Cotton seed cake 
Beans (65 lb. per bushel)...
Linseed  
Lentils (foreign) 
Lentils (Scotch growth) 
Gray pease 
Foreign beans 
Kidney beans 
Maple pease  
Clover hay, second crop 
Sunflower seed  
Oats 
Buckwheat 
Guinea corn  
Wheat 
Common Scotch bean straw
Barley 
Hay (new) 
Winter bean straw  
Hay (old)  
Crimson clover  
Yellow clover 
Lucerne  
Cow grass  
Red clover 
Chevalier barley straw 
Early Angus oat straw 
Red wheat straw  
White wheat straw  
Turnip  
Albumin ons
Matters. '
. 31-4:6 5-75
. 29-53 11-10
. 28-79 9-50
. 28-57 1-30
. 28-32 1-49
. 2769 12-79
. 27-05 1-58
. 26-73 1-58
. 26-54 1-26
. 25-16 9-08
. 24-70 1-59
. 24-44 34-00
. 24-57 1-51
. 24-25 1-79
. 24-25 3-30
. 23-49 1-51
, 20-06 1-22
, 19-43 1-72
. 13-52
. 12-70 29-98
. 10-16 6-12
. 9-84 2-69
9-27 3-46
. 9-01 1-99
, 8-25
. 7-74 1-88
. 6-16
. 5-71
. 4-00
. 3-30
. 3-26
. 3-11
. 2-75
. 2-59
. 1-90
. 1-50
. 1-50
. 1-37
. 1-27 0-20
The blank spaces in the second column occur where the
oil is in too small quantity to admit of accurate determina¬
tion.
A simple inspection of this table gives a great deal of in¬
formation ; but by the use of the rule of three it is easy to Agricul-
calculate the quantity of one substance which corresponds tu(al
in albuminous or in oily matters to another. It is to be ^hemistry-
observed, however, that the substances containing the for- v~"~
mer in large quantity, do not necessarily, or even frequently
contain a proportionate amount of the other, so that, prac¬
tically, in making the comparison, we must rely upon one
only, and we commonly select the quantity of albuminous
matters as the most important. It will be understood, that
while these two constituents are the most important as re¬
gards the estimation of the value of any food, they are not
the only substances essential to its nutritive value. On the
contrary, the non-nitrogenous, or, as they are sometimes
called, the respiratory elements, because they supply the
carbon consumed in the process of respiration, and each in¬
dividual inorganic substance is essential; but as these sub¬
stances are met with in abundance in all sorts of food, they
are unimportant in the estimation of their relative value.
The values as deduced from these numbers must be con¬
sidered as an approximation only; but they are very close
approximations when the substances are of analogous cha¬
racters ; as, for instance, in the case of different sorts of
grain. They are, however, liable to modification, by a num¬
ber of different circumstances : thus, for example, rape-cake
has, according to the table, a higher value than linseed-cake,
but it possesses a peculiar bitter flavour, which makes it
unpalatable to the cattle; and it also frequently produces
scouring, so that it may not always give as good effects as
might be anticipated from it. Something also is to be attri¬
buted to the general nature of the substance, and to the
condition in which its constituents exist; and it would ap¬
pear that the presence of a large quantity of woody fibre
reduces the value of food, by enveloping its nitrogenous and
other matters, and preventing their absorption during their
passage through the intestines of the animal; and it is pro¬
bably on this account that straw, though richer in nitro¬
genous matters, has a much lower nutritive value than the
turnip.
The nutritive effects obtained from the food, are also in¬
creased by mixing together different sorts. Indeed this is
found to be an exceedingly important point; for as we have
seen that the milk which nature supplies as the appropriate
food of the young animal, contains a mixture of all the dif¬
ferent classes of nutritive elements, so it appears the best
effects are produced by an imitation of this also. But few
of the substances which we employ contain all the necessary
elements of the food in proper proportion; we find one
deficient in fatty matters, another in albuminous, and so on,
and in order to produce a food of the most suitable kind, we
require to mix together several substances ; and when this is
judiciously done so as to insure a proper relation between
the individual nutritive elements, a higher effect is obtained
than could have been got by the use of these substances
separately. Thus the farmer who is feeding with bean-
meal in considerable quantity, will generally find that a
better effect is obtained by replacing a part of it with some
of the more oleaginous seeds or cakes. There is, however,
another circumstance independent of chemical composition
which modifies the nutritive value of the different sorts of
food. It is necessary in order to its proper digestion, that
the food shall have a certain bulk, for without it the peri¬
staltic motions of the intestines are not properly performed,
digestion is incomplete, and a quantity of nutritive matter is
wasted. For this reason the highly nutritive foods must
always be conjoined with those which occupy a large bulk
in the stomach. But, on the other hand, the bulk of the
food must not be excessive, for then the stomach is over¬
loaded, digestion and absorption of the food are checked,
and the health of the animal becomes impaired.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
420
Agricul- The circumstances which diminish the vmste of the Food.
tural —We have already remarked that there are three great
^emistry. purp0ses to which the food swallowed is appropriated; the
increase of weight ifr the animal—the object the feeder has
in view and desires to promote—the supplying the waste of
the tissues, and the process of respiration, both of which are
sources of waste of food, and which it must necessarily be
his aim to diminish as much as possible. The circumstan¬
ces which must be attended to in order to do this are suffi¬
ciently well understood. It has been clearly established
that the natural heat of the animal is sustained by the con¬
sumption of a certain quantity of its food in the respiratory
process, during which it undergoes exactly the same change
as those which occur during combustion. In fact, a certain
quantity of the food is no more than so much fuel intended
to sustain the heat of the body. We observe, however,
that the temperature of the body is always the same, what¬
ever be that of the surrounding air. Now it is obvious that
if the temperature of the animal is to remain the same in
winter as in summer, a larger quantity of fuel {i.e., food)
must be consumed for this purpose, just as a room requires
more fire to keep it warm in winter than in summer, and
hence it naturally follows that if we keep the animal in a
warm locality we economise the fuel. In order to do this,
then the housing of the cattle is a matter of importance,
and here practice has arrived at conclusions strictly concor¬
dant with science. The old feeders kept their cattle in
large open courts, where they were exposed to every vicis¬
situde of the weather. But as intelligence advanced, we
find them substituting, first, what are called hammels and
then stalls, in which the animals are kept, during the whole
time of fattening, at an equable temperature. The effect
of this is necessarily to introduce a considerable economy
of the food required to sustain the animal heat; but it also
effects a saving in another way, for it diminishes the waste
of the tissues. It has been ascertained in the most conclu¬
sive manner, that this waste is dependent on the amount of
muscular exertion. Thus if we sit still for an hour a cer¬
tain amount of waste in our tissues takes place, but if we
run or engage in any violent muscular exertion, we increase
this waste, and consequently require a larger quantity of
food to supply it. The confining the animals in stalls has
the effect of diminishing the amount of muscular action,
and introduces an important economy in the food. Even
the making the houses dark, and thus preventing the atten¬
tion of the animal being disturbed by various objects, has
its effect in promoting this economy.
An extension of the same principle has led to the use of
the food artificially heated, but it is doubtful whether the
advantages derived from it are commensurate to the in¬
creased expenses of the process ; at least opinions differ
among the best informed practical men on this subject.
The rapidity of fattening is dependent on many other Agricul-
circumstances. One of the most important is the breed, tural
and universal experience has shown that the short-horn ('hemistry-
manifests in this respect a marked superiority. This and
many similar facts are, however, less chemical than physio¬
logical, and could not be considered here without entering
upon many matters not connected with our subject.
CONCLUDING REMARKS.
We have thus endeavoured to give our readers as full an
account of the present state of agricultural chemistry as our
limits permit. In a science so new, and embracing so many
minute facts, the task is not without difficulty. It has been
our object, however, as far as possible to avoid details, and
to give rather such principles as have been established, and
to illustrate them by what appeared to be the most satis¬
factory and best observed facts. In many branches of the
subject these are but few, and the conclusions founded on
them must necessarily be uncertain, and in some instances
may possibly be proved erroneous by further observations.
That a department of science cultivated for so short a period,
and requiring for its proper pursuit the co-operation of two
classes of men, the farmer and the chemist, who have
hitherto had so little in common, should be imperfect, is not
to be wondered at. On the contrary, we are of opinion
that the progress made within the last few years, consider¬
ing all the disadvantages under which it has been placed,
from the rash and unweighed theories with which it has
been overloaded, the excessive and imprudent zeal of its
supporters, the opposition of another class, and the equally
fatal lukewarmness of a third, a great deal has been done.
Facts of much practical value have been elicited, and an
immense stimulus has been given to careful observation and
inquiry into principles on the part of the farmer. That this
is already beginning to bear its fruit is unquestionable, and
it is impossible to look at the opinions and practice of mo¬
dern farmers of the best class, without observing how much
they are influenced by science. That much, however, still
remains to be done, is only too obvious from many of the
statements we have made, and even in what we consider
familiar matters, the chemist is frequently stopped by the
want of field experiments sufficiently definite to support or
refute his positions. Indeed there are few departments of
scientific agriculture that would not be benefited by ex¬
periments of a more minute and careful nature than those
which, in a less advanced state of the art, and for purely
practical purposes, were sufficient. We doubt much, how¬
ever, whether this can be carried out in detail until a re¬
gular professional education in the principles as well as the
practice of agriculture is provided for the young farmer, a
want which is every day becoming more felt, and the fulfil¬
ment of which cannot long be postponed.
AGE,
Agrigen- AGRIGENTUM, in Ancient Geography, a city of Sicily,
turn. part of the site of which is now occupied by a town called
Girgenti, from the old name. See Girgenti. According
to ancient authors, Daedalus, the most famous mechanician
of fabulous antiquity, fled to this spot for protection against
Minos, and built many wonderful edifices for Cocalus, king
of the island. Long after his flight, the people of Gela sent
a colony hither 582 years before the birth of Christ, and,
from the name of a neighbouring stream, called the new
city Acragas, whence the Romans formed the word Agri-
gentum. These Greeks converted the ancient abode of the
Siculi into a citadel to guard the magnificent city which
they erected on the hillocks below. An advantageous situa¬
tion, a free government, with all its happy effects, and an
active commercial spirit, exalted their commonwealth to a
degree of riches and power unknown to the other Greek
settlements, Syracuse alone excepted. But the prosperity
of Agrigentum appears to have been but of short duration,
and tyranny soon destroyed its liberties. Phalaris was the
first who reduced it to slavery. His name is familiar to most
readers on account of the cruelty with which he tortured his
enemies. See Phalaris. Phalaris met with the common
fate of tyrants, and after his death the Agrigentines enjoyed
their liberty for sixty years; at the expiration of which term
Thero usurped the sovereign authority. The moderation, jus¬
tice, and valour of this prince preserved him from opposition
while living, and have rescued his memory from the obloquy
of posterity. He joined his son-in-law Gelo, king of Syra¬
cuse, in a war against the Carthaginians; in the course of
which victory attended all his steps, and Sicily saw herself
for a time delivered from her African oppressors. Soon after
his decease, his son Thrasydeus was deprived of the diadem,
and Agrigentum restored to her old democratical govern¬
ment, which she retained till the Carthaginian invasion in
406 B.C., a period of more than sixty years. During this
interval of prosperity were executed most of those splendid
public works which excited the admiration of succeeding
ages, and caused their citizen Empedocles to remark, “that
the Agrigentines built their dwellings as though they should
exist for ever, and indulged in luxury as if they were to die
on the morrow.” The total number of the inhabitants at
this period was estimated by Diodorus at 200,000. But
their prosperity was not entirely without interruption; for
the Agrigentines having engaged in hostilities with the moun¬
tain chief Ducetius, the conduct of the Syracusans towards
that chieftain occasioned a war between these two rival
states, which terminated in the signal defeat of the Agrigen¬
tines at the river Himera. But a more terrible reverse
awaited them: they were attacked by the Carthaginians in
406 b.c., and by this enemy their armies were routed, their
city taken, their race almost extirpated, and scarce a vestige
of magnificence was left. It appears, however, that some of
the fugitive inhabitants availed themselves of permission to
return to the ruined city, and after a few years were even
able to shake off the yoke of Carthage, and attach themselves
to the cause of Dionysius. But the city was so far from hav¬
ing recovered its previous importance, that Timoleon, after
his triumph over the Carthaginians b.c. 340, found it neces¬
sary to re-colonize it with citizens from Velia in Italy. This
measure was crowned with astonishing success; for Agri¬
gentum rose from its ashes with such a renewal of vigour,
that in a very short time we find it engaged in the bold
scheme of seizing a lucky moment, when Agathocles and
Carthage had reduced Syracuse to the lowest ebb, and ar¬
rogating to itself supremacy over all the Sicilian republics.
Xenodocus was appointed the leader of this arduous enter¬
prise ; and had his latter operations been as fortunate as
his first campaign, Agrigentum would have acquired such a
preponderance of reputation and power, that the rival states
AGE 421
would not have even dared to attack it. But a few brilliant Agrionia
exploits were succeeded by a severe overthrow ; the Agrigen- II
tines lost courage, disagreed in council, and humbly sued AgrlPPa-
for peace to Agathocles. This commonwealth afterwards
took a strong part with Pyrrhus ; and, when he left Sicily to
the mercy of her enemies, threw herself into the arms of
Carthage. During the first Punic war Agrigentum was the
headquarters of the Carthaginians, and was besieged by the
Roman consuls, who, after eight months’ blockade, took it
by storm. It nevertheless changed masters several times
during the contests between these rival states, and in every
instance suffered most cruel outrages. After this period
very little mention of it occurs in history, nor do we know
the precise time of the destruction of the old city and the
building of the new one.
The hospitality and parade for which the Agrigentines
are celebrated in history were supported by an extensive
commerce : by means of which, the commonwealth was able
to resist many shocks of adversity, and always to rise again
with fresh splendour. It was, however, crushed by the gene¬
ral fall of Grecian liberty: the feeble remnants of its popu¬
lation, which had survived so many calamities, were at length
driven out of its walls by the Saracens, and obliged to lock
themselves up for safety among the bleak and inaccessible
rocks of the present city.
Agrigentum occupied a hill of considerable extent, but
small elevation, rising between the small rivers Acragas and
Hypsas, and was remarkable for its strength as a fortress.
The whole space comprehended within the walls of the an¬
cient city abounds with traces of antiquity, foundations, brick
arches, and little channels for the conveyance of water. Of
its many celebrated edifices, the most magnificent was the
temple of Olympian Jupiter, which, according to Diodorus,
was 340 feet long, 160 broad, and 120 in height, without in¬
cluding the basement; each fluting of the columns being of
capacity sufficient to admit the body of a man. Of this vast
structure nothing remains but the basement and a few frag¬
ments of the columns and entablature; but these, and many
other monuments less ruinous, attest the ancient wealth and
magnificence of the Agrigentines.
AGRIONIA, in Grecian Antiquity, festivals annually
celebrated by the Boeotians in honour of Bacchus. At these
festivals the women pretended to search after Bacchus as a
fugitive, and, after some time, gave over their inquiry, saying
that he had fled to the Muses, and was concealed among them.
AGRIOPHAGI (aypios, and <£a-yio), in Antiquity, a
name given to those who fed on wild beasts. The name is
given, by ancient writers, to certain people, real or fabulous,
said to have fed altogether on lions or panthers. Pliny and
Solinus speak of Agriophagi in Ethiopia, and Ptolemy of
others in India on this side the Ganges.
AGRIOPUS, a genus of Acanthopterygious fishes in
the system of Cuvier. The best known, A. Torvus, is found
at the Cape of Good Hope.
AGRIPPA, Cornelius, born at Cologne in 1486, a man
of considerable learning, and by common report a great ma¬
gician ; for the monks at that time suspected every thing of
heresy or sorcery which they did not understand. He com¬
posed his treatise of the Excellence of Women to insinuate
himself into the favour of Margaret of Austria, governess of
the Low Countries. He accepted of the charge of historio¬
grapher to the emperor, which that princess gave him. The
treatise of the Vanity of the Sciences, which he published
in 1530, enraged his enemies extremely ; as did that of Oc¬
cult Philosophy, which he printed soon after at Antwerp.
He was imprisoned in France for having written something
against the mother of Francis I. On being liberated, he
went to Grenoble, where he died in 1535.
Agrippa, Herod, the son of Aristobulus and Berenice,
422 A G R
A G R
Agripiia. and grandson to Herod the Great, was born a.m. 3994, ten
years before the vulgar era. After the death of Aristobulus
his father, Josephus informs us that Herod, his grandfather,
took care of his education, and sent him to Home to make
his court to Tiberius. The emperor conceived a great affec¬
tion for Agrippa, and placed him near his son Drusus. He
very soon won the favour of Drusus, and of the empress
Antonia. On the death of Drusus, Agrippa, who had in¬
dulged his inclination to liberality, was obliged to leave
Rome, overwhelmed with debt, and retired to the castle of
Malatha, where he lived rather like a private person than a
prince. Herod the tetrarch, his uncle, who had married
Herodias, his sister, assisted him for some time with great
generosity. He made him principal magistrate of Tiberias,
and presented him with a large sum of money ; but grow¬
ing weary of assisting him, and reproaching him with his
had economy, Agrippa left Judea, and some time afterwards
returned to Rome. Upon his arrival he was received into
the good graces of Tiberius, and commanded to attend
Tiberius Nero, the son of Drusus. Agrippa, however, hav¬
ing more inclination for Caius, the son of Germanicus, and
grandson of Antonia, chose rather to attach himself to him;
as if foreseeing the future elevation of Caius, who, at that
time, was universally beloved. The great assiduity and
agreeable behaviour of Agrippa so far won upon this prince,
that he kept him continually about him.
Agrippa being one day overheard by Eutyches, a slave
whom he had made free, to express his wishes for Tibe¬
rius’s death and the advancement of Caius, the slave be¬
trayed him to the emperor; whereupon Agrippa was loaded
with fetters, and committed to the custody of an officer.
Tiberius soon after died, and Caius Caligula ascended the
throne. The new emperor heaped wealth and favours upon
Agrippa, changed his iron fetters into a chain of gold, set a
royal diadem upon his head, and gave him the tetrarchy of
Batanaea and Trachonitis, which Philip the son of Herod
the Great had formerly possessed. To this he added that
of Lysanias; and Agrippa returned very soon into J udea
to take possession of his new kingdom.
On the assassination of Caligula, Agrippa, who was then
at Rome, contributed much by his advice to maintain Clau¬
dius in possession of the imperial dignity, to which he had
been advanced by the army ; and while he made a show of
being in the interest of the senate, he secretly advised Clau¬
dius to maintain his good fortune with firmness. The em¬
peror, as an acknowledgment for his kind offices, gave him
all J udea; and the kingdom of Chalcis, at his request, was
given to his brother Herod. Thus Agrippa became of a
sudden one of the greatest princes of the East, and was pos¬
sessed of as much, if not more territory than had been held
by Herod the Great, his grandfather. He returned to
Judea, and governed it to the great satisfaction of the Jews.
But the desire of pleasing them, and a mistaken zeal for
their religion, impelled him to acts of cruelty, the memory
of which is preserved in Scripture, Acts xii. 1, 2, &c.; for
about the feast of the passover, in the year of Jesus Christ
44, St James major, the son of Zebedee, and brother of St
John the Evangelist, was seized by his order and put to
death. He proceeded also to lay hands on St Peter, and
imprisoned him, delaying his execution till the close of the
festival. But God having miraculously delivered St Peter
from the place of his confinement, the designs of Agrippa
were frustrated. After the passover, he went from Jeru¬
salem to Caesarea, and there had games performed in honour
of Claudius. Here the inhabitants of Tyre and Sidon waited
on him to sue for peace. Agrippa being come early in the
morning to the theatre to give them audience, seated himself
on his throne, dressed in a robe of silver tissue, which re¬
flected the rays of the rising sun with such lustre as to
dazzle the eyes of the spectators. When the king had de- Agrippa.
livered his address, the parasites around him shouted out
that it was not the voice of a man but of a god. The vain
Agrippa received the impious flattery with complacent satis¬
faction ; but in the midst of his elation, looking upwards he
saw, with superstitious alarm, an owl perched over his head.
During his confinement by Tiberius, he had been startled
by a like omen, which had been interpreted as portending
his speedy release, with the warning, that whenever he
should behold the same sight again, his death was to follow
within the space of five days. Seized with terror, he took
to his bed, and after a few days of excruciating torment, died,
according to the Scripture expression, “ eaten up by worms.”
Such was the death of Herod Agrippa, after a reign of seven
years, in the year of Christ 44.
Agrippa II., son of the preceding, was made king of
Chalcis ; but three or four years after, he was deprived of
that kingdom by Claudius, who gave him instead of it other
provinces. In the war which Vespasian carried on against
the Jews, Herod sent him a succour of 2000 men; by
which it appears, that though a Jew by religion, he was yet
entirely devoted to the Romans, whose assistance indeed he
wanted to secure the peace of his own kingdom. He lived
to the third year of Trajan, and died at Rome a.d. 100.
He was the seventh and last king of the family of Herod
the Great. It was before him and Berenice his sister that
St Paul pleaded his cause at Caesarea.
Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius, according to Tacitus, was
born of humble parents about 69 years B.c.; yet he could
scarcely have been of very mean birth, as at the age of 18
he was the chosen companion at Apollonia of Octavius, the
nephew and successor of Julius Caesar; many of whose
successes were mainly due to the courage and military talents
of Agrippa. On the assassination of the dictator, Agrippa
accompanied his friend to Italy, and rendered essential ser¬
vice in the conduct of the first war against M. Antonius,
which terminated in the capture of Perusia, into which L.
Antonius, the younger brother of the triumvir, had thrown
himself. He appears to have had no part in the atrocious
butcheries that followed the capture of that city, which cast
such a deep stain on the character of Octavius. The event
took place 40 years B.c. Three years after this Agrippa
was made consul, and had the command in Gaul; when he
defeated the Aquitani, and led the Roman eagles beyond
the Rhine, to punish the aggressions of the Germans on the
province of Gaul. But Agrippa was soon summoned to
Italy by the critical state of the affairs of Octavius; where
the whole coasts were commanded by the superior fleets of
Sex. Pompeius. Elis first care was the formation of a secure
harbour for the ships of Octavius; and this he accomplished
by uniting the Lucrine lake with the sea by means of a
fortified canal through a narrow slip of land called the
Barrier of Hercules. He made an inner haven also by join¬
ing the lake Avernus to the Lucrine by another cut. In
these secure ports the fleets were equipped, and 20,000 manu¬
mitted slaves were sedulously trained to rowing and naval
manoeuvres, until they were able to cope with the seamen
of Pompeius. Agrippa was thus enabled in the following
year to defeat S. Pompeius in the naval action of Mylae, in
which he captured 30 ships from his opponent; and soon
after gave him a in ore signal defeat near Naulochus, sink¬
ing 28, and capturing or burning 250 of his ships. This
victory gave Octavius the empire of the Mediterranean, and
secured to him Sicily, the granary of Rome, after an easy
triumph over his feeble colleague Lepidus ; and it prepared
the way for the overthrow of the power of M. Antonius the
other triumvir. The whole merit of these successes is due
to Agrippa; for Octavius scarcely exhibited common cour¬
age in any of these transactions.
AGE
Agrippa. In the year 33 b.c. Agrippa filled the useful office of
gedile; and he signalized the tenure of his office by fresh
proofs of the activity and perseverance of his character, by
the great improvements in the city of' Rome, in the repairs
and construction of aqueducts and fountains neglected or
injured during the civil wars, and in the reformation of the
sewers of the capital, which he repaired and enlarged until
they became what Pliny has described them,—“ Operum
omnium maximum, suffossis montibus, atque urbe pensili,
subterque navigata.” He appears also on this occasion to
have introduced an effectual mode offlushing those sewers
by conducting into them the united waters of several differ¬
ent streams.
From these useful labours he was again called away in
the year 31 B.c. to command the Roman fleet, which by the
victory at Actium fixed the empire of the world on the un¬
worthy Octavius. The services of Agrippa made him a
special favourite with the former, who gave him his niece
Marcella in marriage, 27 b.c., when for a third time he was
consul; and in the following year the servile senate bestowed
on Octavius the imperial title of Augustus. In this same
year Agrippa, in commemoration of the naval victory of Ac¬
tium, dedicated to Jupiter and all the other gods the pantheon,
now called Rotunda. The inscription on its portico still
remains, M. Agrippa L. F. Consul Tertium Fecit. But
it is probable that he only added the magnificent portico to
a much more ancient building; as a minute examination of
the architecture of the structure appears to indicate. In the
year 25 B.c. we again find this eminent man employed in
Spain; where he reduced the insurgent Cantabri, the an¬
cestors of the present Biscayans.
The friendship of Augustus and Agrippa seems to have
been clouded by the jealousy of Marcellus, who had mar¬
ried Julia the daughter of Augustus by Scribonia. This
coolness was probably fomented by the intrigues of Livia,
the second wife of Augustus, who probably dreaded his in¬
fluence with her husband. The consequence was that Agrippa
left Rome; and though, to cloak his retirement, he was
appointed to the distant government of Syria, he repaired to
Mytilene. But Marcellus dying within a year, Agrippa was
recalled to Rome; and at the desire of Augustus was di¬
vorced from Marcella, and became the husband of the
widowed Julia, who was no less distinguished by her beauty
and abilities, than afterwards by her shameless profligacy.
In 19 B.c. we find Agrippa again at the head of an army
in Spain, where he subdued the Cantabri, who had been for
two years in insurrection against the Romans. After that
he was a second time made governor of Syria; where by
his justice and wise administration he obtained general com¬
mendation, especially from the Hebrew population of his
province, of which Judea formed a part.
The last military employment of this great and good man
was in Pannonia, where his character for equity alone suf¬
ficed to put down insurrection, without bloodshed. In fact
he was the greatest military commander of Rome since the
days of Julius Caesar, and the most honest of Roman gover¬
nors in any province. His character is well described by
Y. Paterculus, “ Virtutis nobilissimae, labore, vigilia, peri-
culo invictus, parendique sed uni scientissimus, aliis sane
imperandi cupidus, et per omnia extra dilationes positus,
consultisque facta conjungens.”
This great man returned to Italy, where he lived greatly
honoured, and died two years before his imperial father-in-
law.
Agrippa left several children; by his first wife—Pomponia
Vipsania, who became the first wife of Tiberius, and was
the mother of Drusus: he had no children by Marcella;
but by Julia he was the father of Caius and Lucius Caesar;
of Julia, married to Lepidus; of Agrippina the elder, wife
A G U 423
of Germanicus ; and of Agrippa Posthumus.—See Dm Agrippina
Cassius; Appianus; Suetonius; Velleius Paterculus; Fer- II
gusson’s R. Rep. (t. s.t.) Agnas
AGRIPPINA, the Elder, the virtuous, heroic, but un- v a ie'u^s-
fortunate offspring of M. Agrippa by a very abandoned mo-
ther, and herself the parent of a still more profligate and
guilty daughter of the same name. She was early married
to Germanicus, the son of Drusus and Antonia the niece of
Augustus. On the death of Augustus, she joined her hus¬
band in his German campaigns, where she had several op¬
portunities of showing her intrepidity, sharing with Germani¬
cus his toils and his triumphs. The love which the army
showed for this leader was the cause of his recal from the
Rhine by the suspicious Tiberius. He was soon afterwards
sent into Syria, where he died at Antioch, from the effects,
as was believed, of poison administered to him by Piso, the
governor of Phcenice.
On his deathbed, Germanicus implored his wife for hea¬
ven’s sake, and that of their numerous children, to submit
with resignation to the evil times on which they were fallen,
and not to provoke the vengeance of the tyrant Tiberius.
But unhappily this prudent advice was not followed by this
high-spirited woman ; who, on landing at Brundusium, went
straight to Rome, and entered the city bearing the urn of
her deceased husband in her arms, and was received amid the
tears of the citizens and the soldiery, to whom Germanicus
was dear. She boldly accused Piso of the murder of her hus¬
band ; and that bad man, to avoid public infamy, committed
suicide. She continued to reside at Rome, watched and sus¬
pected by Tiberius, who for some time dreaded to glut his
vengeance on the widow and family of so popular a prince
as Germanicus. She soon had the temerity to upbraid the
tyrant with his hypocrisy in pretending to worship at the
tomb of Augustus. He began by putting to death both men
and women who had shown attachment to the family of
Germanicus ; and finally he arrested Agrippina and her two
eldest sons, Nero and Drusus, and deported them to the isle
of Pandataria, where her mother Julia had perished; and
there she was starved to death. Tiberius also ordered the
execution of her two eldest sons. Yet it is remarkable that,
by his will, the emperor left her youngest son Caius, better
known by the name of Caligula, as one of the heirs of the
empire. Agrippina was murdered in the 33d year of our
era. (t. s. t.)
Agrippina, daughter of Germanicus, sister of Caligula,
and mother of Nero ; a woman of wit, but licentious and
cruel. She was thrice married, the last time to Claudius,
her own uncle, whom she poisoned to make way for Nero,
her son. Nero afterwards caused her to be murdered in
her chamber, when she bid the executioner stab her first
in the belly, that had brought forth such a monster.
Agrippina Colonia Ubiorum, in Ancient Geography,
now Cologne; so called from Agrippina, the daughter of
Germanicus and mother of Nero, who had a colony sent
thither at her request by the Emperor Claudius, to honour
the place of her birth. See Cologne.
AGRON OMI, in Antiquity, rural police, frequently men¬
tioned by Plato.
AGROSTIS, a genus of grasses. See Botany.
AGROTERAS THUSIA, an annual festival at Athens,
in honour of Artemis or Diana, in consequence of a vow
made before the battle of Marathon to offer in sacrifice as
many goats as there should be slain of the enemy. The
number was afterwards restricted to 500.
AG HAS CALIENTES, a well-built town of Mexico,
in the province of Guadalaxara, containing about 500 fami¬
lies of Spanish descent, besides numerous others of mixed
races. It takes its name from the hot-springs in its vicinity.
The climate is fine, and the extensive and beautiful gardens
424 A G U
Agudo surrounding the town produce abundance of olives, figs,
II grapes, &c. Much maize also is raised. It has a great
. guesscau. manufactory, and the general trade is considerable.
' Lat. 22. N. Long. 101. 50. W.
AGUDO, a well-built town of La Mancha, in Spain,
with a population of 1240, chiefly engaged in agriculture
and cattle-breeding.
AGUE. See Medicine.
AGUEDA,the YUminium F lumen of the Romans (Pliny),
a river of Spain in the province of Salamanca. It rises in
the Sierra de Gata, and passing by Ciudad Rodrigo, falls
into the Douro, on the Portuguese frontier, after a northward
course of 70 miles.
Agueda, Santa, a small village in the province of Gui-
puzcoa, in Spain, celebrated for its sulphurous baths, which
for 300 years have been esteemed for their efficacy in the
cure of cutaneous and other diseases.
AGUESSEAU, Henri Francois d’, Chancellor of France,
illustrious for his virtues, learning, and talents, was born at
Limoges on the 27th of November 1668. His father, at
that time intendant of Languedoc, and afterwards a coun¬
sellor of state, w as a man of great worth and abilities. He
seems to have taken the sole charge of his son’s education;
and having destined him for the bar, he took uncommon
pains to exercise him in every branch of knowledge which
could contribute to his success in that profession. His care
was rewarded with the happiest success. Young D’Agues-
seau gave early indications of uncommon abilities ; and such
was his thirst for knowledge, and his habits of application,
that he soon acquired the reputation of an almost universal
scholar. He had a particular relish for poetry, which, he
used to say, “ was the only passion of his youth but this
passion was so far from withdrawing him from severer
studies, that it was allied in his mind with a nearly equal taste
for mathematics. He studied law with the zeal of an anti¬
quary, and the spirit of a philosopher; and, in order to form
his taste as a pleader, he employed a whole year in repeated
perusals of the most esteemed productions of ancient elo¬
quence. After this thorough course of preparation, he be¬
came an advocate in 1690; and by the interest of his father,
who then resided in Paris, he was soon furnished with op¬
portunities of distinguishing himself, and of rising to the
highest honours of the profession. When little more than
21 years of age, he was appointed one of the three Advo-
cates- General,—an office which imposed the duty of assist¬
ing in those causes where the king, the church, or the public
was concerned. The king, Louis XIV., in appointing him,
yet untried, to this situation, acted solely upon the recom¬
mendation of the elder D’Aguesseau, “ who was incapable,”
said, Louis, “ of deceiving him, even to advance his own
son. D Aguesseau’s first appearances as an advocate-general
were such as amply to fulfil the expectations of his father,
and to warrant the appointment which he had obtained from
the king. Denis Talon, an old lawyer, who had long offi¬
ciated w ith great reputation in the same capacity, was heard
to say, that he should have been glad to have finished his
career as that young man had begun.”
D Aguesseau held this office for ten years, during which
period he greatly distinguished himself, both for learning in
his profession, and for a superior style of forensic eloquence.
The society which he chiefly frequented was well adapted
to improve his taste ; for the chosen companions of his lei¬
sure hours were Racine and Boileau, the latter of whom has
frequently mentioned him with praise in his writings.
It was D’Aguesseau’s opinion, that no one could rise to
distinguished eminence as an orator, who did not labour to
enlarge his mind, and to improve his taste, by the study of
philosophy, and by exercises of literature ; and he accord¬
ingly employed several of those stated discourses which
A G u
the usages of France required from the advocates-general Aguesseau.
at the opening of the Sessions, to impress these views upon
the minds of the younger members of the bar.
In the year 1700 he was appointed Procurator-General;
an office of higher dignity, and of more various and exten¬
sive duties, than that of advocate-general. He filled this
office for seventeen years with the most splendid reputation ;
adding, by his lenity in criminal cases, and by his care of the
public hospitals, the praise of humanity and benevolence to
his other claims to the respect and admiration of his country¬
men.
It had been early predicted of D’Aguesseau, that he would
one day fill the place of Chancellor ; and this prediction was
at length realised in 1717, upon the death of Voisin, who
then held the seals. Though he was yet only forty-eight
years of age, his nomination to this high dignity gave gene¬
ral satisfaction, and was, indeed, intended as a popular mea¬
sure by the Duke of Orleans, who had lately assumed the
regency. D’Aguesseau soon began to experience the dif¬
ficulties and perils attendant upon his elevation ; for he had
not been installed above a year, when he was deprived of
the seals, and exiled to his estate. His steady opposition to
the delusive projects of the famous John Law, with which
the regent and his ministers were wholly intoxicated, was
the honourable cause of this first reverse of fortune. In 1720,
when the ruinous consequences of these schemes had filled
the nation with distress and alarm, the chancellor was re¬
called from banishment; and he contributed not a little, by
the firmness and sagacity of his counsels, to calm the public
discontents, and repair the mischiefs which had been com¬
mitted.
Law himself had acted as the messenger of his recal;
and it is said that D’Aguesseau’s consent to re-accept the
seals from the hand of this adventurer was much blamed by
the literary corps, with which he had hitherto stood in high
favour, as well as by the parliament. But his reputation ap¬
pears to have sustained a much severer shock, when he en¬
deavoured to prevail with the latter body to register the de¬
claration of the late king in favour of the bull Unigenitus,—
a measure which they held in great abhorrence, and which
he had himself firmly opposed during the life of Louis. The
regent’s favourite, Dubois, then Archbishop of Cambray, had
moved his master to insist upon this act of registration, in
the hope that he might thereby obtain a cardinal’s hat; and
it seems to have been thought that the chancellor had yield¬
ed his better opinion in compliance with the wishes of this
worthless minion. Be this as it may, it is certain that he
opposed the favourite with firmness, when he attempted,
after being made prime minister, to take precedence in the
council; and he was in consequence, in 1722, sent a second
time into exile.
He now passed five years on his estate at Fresnes; and
he always spoke with delight of this tranquil period, when
he was left free from the cares of professional duty, and
the distractions of public life, to cultivate his mind. The
Scriptures, which he read and compared in various languages,
and the Jurisprudence of his own and other countries, formed
the subjects of his more serious studies : the rest of his time
was devoted to philosophy and literature, and the improve¬
ment of his park, where he was sometimes to be seen em¬
ployed with a spade.
From these noble and congenial occupations he was again
recalled, by the advice of Cardinal Fleury, in 1727; but the
seals were not restored to him till ten years thereafter. Dur¬
ing the intervening period he had endeavoured to mediate
in the new disputes which had arisen between the court and
the parliament; but his interference seems to have given
satisfaction to neither party,—the one reproaching him with
desertion from their cause, and the other with too great a
A G U
Aguilar, leaning towards it. When the seals were at last restored to
him, he completely withdrew from all affairs of state, and
devoted himself entirely to his duties as chancellor', and to
the introduction of those reforms which had long occupied
his inquiries and meditations.
Besides some important enactments regarding Donations,
Testaments, and Successions, he introduced various regula¬
tions for improving the forms of procedure, for ascertaining
the limits of Jurisdictions, and for effecting a greater uni¬
formity in the execution of the laws throughout the several
provinces. These reforms constitute an epoch in the his¬
tory of the jurisprudence of France, and have associated his
name with those illustrious benefactors of her Civil Code,
L’Hopital and Lamoignon.
In 1750, when upwards of eighty-two years of age, he be¬
sought the king to accept his resignation ; and he was ac¬
cordingly permitted to retire, the king continuing to him the
honours of his office as a special mark of his approbation.
He died in the following year, and was interred, according
to his own request, in the common burial-place of the village
of Auteuil, where the remains of his wife, who died there
in 1735, had been deposited. The name of this lady, whom
he married in 1694. and by whom he had several children,
was Anne Lefevre d’Ormesson.
This great man has not, in all respects, been equally
praised by those who have attempted to transmit his cha¬
racter to posterity. Saint-Simon and others reproach him
with a degree of tardiness and indecision, which sometimes
greatly obstructed the course of justice. His own answer
to this charge has been recorded by Duclos, and is worthy
of notice: “ When I recollect,” said he, “ that a decision of
the chancellor makes a law, I think myself warranted in
taking a long time for consideration.” In summing up his
character, all must agree with Laharpe, that he was “ a man
who did honour to France, to the magistracy, and to letters,
by his virtues, his talents, his profound and various learn¬
ing, and his enlightened views in the science of jurispru¬
dence.”— Cours de Litterature, tom. xiv. c. 1.
His published writings form a collection of thirteen vol¬
umes quarto, of which the first was published at Paris in
1759, and the last in 1789. The far greater part of these
volumes relates to matters connected with his professional
occupations and studies; but they also contain a variety of
pieces upon other subjects. Besides the already mentioned
discourses, an elaborate treatise on money, and some theo¬
logical pieces, there is a life of his father,—interesting from
the view which it affords of his own early education under
that excellent person ; and Metaphysical Meditations, writ¬
ten in vindication of the grand truth, that independently of
all revelation, and all positive law, there is that in the con¬
stitution of the human mind which renders man a law
to himself.—See Histoire des Hommes Illustres de Regnes
de Louis XIV. et de Louis XV. par le Due de Saint-
Simon ; Memoires Secretes, par Duclos ; Les Loisirs dun
Ministre dEtat, par D’Argenson; Eloge de UAguesseau,
par Thomas. (m. N.)
AGUILAR de la Frontera, a very fertile district of the
province of Cordova in Spain, with a population of 18,844,
chiefly engaged in agriculture, cattle breeding, and the
manufacture of oil and pottery.
Its chief town, of the same name, stands near the river
Cabra, seven leagues S.S.E. of Cordova. The houses are
well built, and distinguished by their cleanness and regu¬
larity, both external and internal. The principal buildings
are the parish church, the chapter-house, the prison, and the
markets. There are two convents, two public schools, a
charity-hospital, and a house of refuge. Near the church
are the ruins of a once magnificent castle. The principal
products are wine and oil. Pop. 11,836.
YOL. it.
A G U 425
AGUILAS, San Juan de las, a seaport of Murcia in Aguilas
Spain, with 4832 inhabitants. Its harbour is small but II
secure; and England, France, and Portugal maintain vice-^svsadura.
consuls there. v ^
AGUILLANEUF, or Augillaneuf, a form of rejoicing
used among the ancient Franks on the first day of the year.
The word is compounded of the French a, to, gui, misletoe,
and ran neuf the new year. Its origin is traced from a
druidical ceremony. In the sacred month of December
every year, the priests went in solemn procession to gather
the misletoe of the oak. The prophets marched in front,
singing hymns in honour of the gods ; after them came a
herald with a caduceus in his hand; these were followed by
three druids abreast, bearing the things necessary for sacri¬
fice ; last of all came the chief or arch druid, accompanied
by the train of people. The chief druid, ascending the oak,
cut off the misletoe with a golden sickle, and the other druids
received it in a white cloth. On the first day of the year
they distributed it among the people, after having blessed
and consecrated it by crying A gui Van neuf, to proclaim
the new year.
AGUILLON, or Aguillonius, Francis, a Jesuit, born
at Brussels. He was rector of the Jesuit college at Ant¬
werp, and eminent for his skill in mathematics. He was
the first who introduced that science among the Jesuits in
the Low Countries. He wrote a book of Optics, and was
employed in finishing his Catoptrics and Dioptrics when he
died in 1617.
AG UIMES, a town in the Great Canary Island, 1100 feet
above the sea level, with a population of 3073, and manu¬
factures of palm and olive oil, linen, cloth, &c.
AGUIRRE, Joseph Saenz d’, a Benedictine, and one
of the most learned men of the 17th century, was born at
Logrono, March 24, 1630. He was censor and secretary
of the supreme council of the inquisition in Spain, and in¬
terpreter of the Scriptures in the university of Salamanca.
He printed three volumes in folio upon Philosophy, a com¬
mentary upon Aristotle’s ten books of Ethics, and other
pieces. He attained to the dignity of cardinal, and died at
Rome on the 19th August 1699.
AGULHAS, Cape, the most southern point of Africa,
100 miles eastward of the Cape of Good Hope, in Lat. 34.
51. 30. S. Long. 19. 55. 30. E. It rises 155 feet above
the sea; and in 1849 a lighthouse was opened on it nearer
the water. An immense bank, the Agulhas Bank, extends
from the Cape of Good Hope along this coast to the great
Fish River, a distance of 560 miles, with a general breadth
of 100: but opposite to the Cape it projects 100 miles more
southward. The great oceanic current from the Indian
Ocean to the Atlantic sets along its outward edge, and has
sharply defined it. The soundings on the bank westward
of Cape Agulhas show a muddy hollow in the bottom of
the sea; but eastward it is sandy, with a mixture of com¬
minuted shells. The oceanic current has such velocity
that ships are often set far to the westward, and round the
Cape of Good Hope, even against a smart breeze. The
bank abounds with fish; and the approach to it is denoted
by the appearance of many toothed whales such as the
dolphin, sharks, seals, and innumerable sea-birds.
AGURAH, in Jewish Antiquity, the name of a silver
coin, otherwise called gerah and keshita, value l^d.
AGUSADURA, in Ancient Customs, a fee due from
vassals to their lord for the sharpening of their agricultural
implements. Of old the tenants in some manors were not
allowed to have them sharpened by any but those whom the
lord appointed, for which an acknowledgment was to be
paid, called agusadura, in some places agusage; which
some take to be the same with what was otherwise called
reillage, from the ancient French reille, a ploughshare.
426
A H A
AHA
Agyei
II
Ahasuerus.
AGYEI, in Antiquity, & kind of obelisks, sacred to Apollo,
erected in the vestibules of houses, by way of security.
AGYNIANI (a priv. and yvvrj), in Church History, a
sect who condemned marriage and the use of flesh, as not
instituted by God, but introduced at the instigation of the
devil. They are sometimes also called Agynenses, and
Agynii ; and are said to have appeared about the year 694.
It is not surprising that they soon became extinct. Their
tenets coincide in a great measure with those of the Abel-
ians, Gnostics. Cerdonians, and other preachers of chastity
and abstinence.
AGYRIUM, the ancient name of a Sicilian town, in the
Val di Demona, near the River Semetus, now called San
Filippo d’Argiro, containing 6500 inhabitants. It was the
birth-place of the historian Diodorus.
A GYR1YE (ayetpto, I congregate), in Grecian Antiquity,
a kind of strolling imposters, who went about the country
to pick up money, by telling fortunes at rich men’s doors ;
pretending to cure diseases by charms, sacrifices, and other
religious mysteries ; also to expiate the crimes of their de¬
ceased ancestors, by virtue of certain odours and fumiga¬
tions ; to torment their enemies, by the use of magical verses,
and the like. The Agyrtce corresponded to the AEruscatores
of the Latins, and to our modern gypsies.
AHAB, son of Omri, and seventh king of Israel, reigned
twenty-one years, from b.c. 918 to 897. Many of the evils
of his reign may be ascribed to the close connection he
formed with the Phoenicians, between whom and the Jews
there had long been a beneficial commercial intercourse.
Having married Jezebel, the daughter of Ethbaal, or Itho-
baal, king of Tyre, Ahab was entirely under her control, and
sanctioned the introduction, and eventually established the
worship, of the Phoenician idols, and especially of the sun-
god Baal. Hitherto the golden calves in Dan and Bethel
had been the only objects of idolatrous worship in Israel, and
they were intended as symbols of Jehoyah. But all reserve
and limitation were now abandoned. The king built a temple
at Samaria, and erected an image, and consecrated a grove
to Baal. Idolatry became the predominant religion; and
so strong was the tide of corruption, that it appeared as if
the knowledge of the true God was soon to be for ever lost
among the Israelites. But Elijah the prophet boldly opposing
himself to the regal authority, succeeded in retaining many
of his countrymen in the worship of the true God. At length
the judgment of God on Ahab and on his house was pro¬
nounced by Elijah, that, during the reign of his son, his
whole race should be exterminated. Ahab died of the wounds
he received in a battle with the Syrians, according to a pre¬
diction of Micaiah, which he refused to credit, yet endea¬
voured to avert, by disguising himself in the action.—1 Kings
xvi. 29, xxii. 40.
AHALA, a noble Roman family of the gens Servilia,
which produced many distinguished men. Of these the
most celebrated is C. Servilius Structus Ahala, master of
the horse to the dictator Cincinnatus, B.c. 439. He signal¬
ised himself by his boldness in slaying in the forum with
his own hand the popular agitator Sp. Maslius, for refusing
to appear before the dictator on a charge of conspiracv
against the state. For this act of violence Ahala was after¬
wards brought to trial. He saved himself from condemna¬
tion by retiring into voluntary exile.
AHANTA, a district on the Gold Coast of Africa, on the
Gulf of Guinea, in Lat. 5. N. and Long. 3. W.—See Bow-
dich’s Travels.
AHASUERUS, or Artaxerxes, the husband of Esther
and, according to Archbishop Usher and F. Calmet, the
Scripture name for Darius, the son of Hystaspes king of
Persia. Scaliger supposed Xerxes to have been the husband
of Esther, or the Ahasuerus of Scripture: and Dr Prideaux
believes him to be Artaxerxes Longimanus. See History Ahaus
of Persia, and Esther. ||
AHAUS, a circle in the department of Munster, and Ahaziah-
Prussian province of Westphalia, formed out of the old lord-
ships of Bocholt and Horstmar. It is 264 square miles, or
168,960 acres, in extent, comprehending four cities, three
market towns, and 11 villages, with 40,069 inhabitants. The
soil is moderately fertile, and yields corn, buck-wheat, and
flax. It is watered by the Aa, the Berkel, the Bechta, the
Dinkel, and several smaller streams. The most valuable
products are cattle, and especially sheep. There is some
little spinning and weaving of linen; but the higher wages
paid in Holland induce the labourers to go to that country,
in the seasons of hay and corn harvest, to save the means of
subsistence for the winter.—The chief city of the circle, of
the same name, is the residence of the Prince of Salm-kyr-
burg; and contains, besides his castle, 271 houses, and 1658
inhabitants. Long. 7. 4. 34. E. Lat. 52. 4. 36. N.
AHAZ, king of Judah, the son of Jotham, remarkable
for his vices and impieties. He made one of his sons pass
through the fire, to do honour to the idol Moloch; and he
offered sacrifices and incense upon the high places, upon
hills, and in groves. Rezin, king of Syria, and Pekah, king
of Israel, invaded Judah in the beginning of the reign of
Ahaz; and having defeated his army and pillaged the
country, they laid siege to Jerusalem. When they found
that they could not make themselves masters of that city,
they divided their army, plundered the country, and made
the inhabitants prisoners of war. Rezin and his part of the
confederate army marched with all their spoil to Damascus ;
but Pekah, with his division of the army, having attacked
Ahaz, killed 120,000 men of his army in one battle, and
carried away men, women, and children, without distinction,
to the number of 200,000. But as they were carrying those
captives to Samaria, the prophet Oded, with the principal
inhabitants of the city, came out to meet them, and by their
remonstrances prevailed with them to set their prisoners at
liberty. At the same time the Philistines and Edomites in¬
vaded other parts of his kingdom, killed multitudes of the peo¬
ple, and carried off much booty. In this distressed condition,
Ahaz sent ambassadors to Tiglath-pileser, king of the As¬
syrians ; and to engage him to his interest, he stripped the
temple and city of all the gold he could find, and sent it as
a present. Tiglath-pileser marched to the assistance of
Ahaz, attacked Rezin, and killed him, took his capital Da¬
mascus, destroyed it, and removed the inhabitants to Gy¬
rene.
The misfortunes of this prince had no influence in amend¬
ing his character; for in the times of his greatest affliction,
he sacrificed to the Syrian deities, whom he looked upon as
the authors of his calamities, and endeavoured thus to pro¬
pitiate. He broke in pieces the vessels of the house of God,
shut up the gates of the temple, and erected altars in all
parts of Jerusalem. He set up altars likewise in all the cities
of Judah, with a design to offer incense on them. His body,
after his death, was refused a place in the sepulchres of the
kings of Judah. Hezekiah his son succeeded him in the
year of the world 3278, b.c. 726.
AHAZIAH, the son and successor of Ahab, king of
Israel, reigned two years in conjunction with his father.
Ahaziah imitated Ahab’s impieties (1 Kings xxii. 52, seq.),
and paid his adoration to Baal and Astarte, the worship of
whom had been introduced into Israel by Jezebel, his mother.
The Moabites, who had been always obedient to the kings
of the ten tribes ever since their separation from the king¬
dom of Judah, revolted after the death of Ahab, and refused
to pay the ordinary tribute. Ahaziah, however, had not
leisure or power to reduce them. By an accidental fall,
about this time, from a lattice of his palace, he received such
A H I
A I
427
Ahaziah injury as to put his life in danger. He despatched messen-
!l gers to Ekron to inquire of the god Baalzebub whether or
Ahithophel not ]ie should recover. A more faithful oracle came to him
7 in the person of the prophet Elijah, who forewarned him of
his speedy death. This took place a.m. 3108, and Jehoram
his brother succeeded to the throne. (2 Kings i.)
Ahaziah, king of Judah, the son of Jehoram and Atha-
liah, succeeded his father in the kingdom of Judah, a.m.
3119. He walked in the ways of Ahab’s house, to which
he was allied. He reigned only one year, and was slain by
Jehu the son of Nimshi.
A-HEAD, a sea-term, signifying farther onward than the
ship, or at any distance before her, lying immediately on that
point of the compass to which her stem is directed. It is
used in opposition to astern, which expresses the situation
of any object behind the ship.
AHENOBARBUS, the name of a plebeian Roman
family of the gens Domitia, which rose in the course of
time to considerable distinction. The emperor Nero was
of this family. The name was derived from the red beard
and hair by which many of the family were distinguished.
AHIGAL, a town of Estremadura in Spain, with a
population of 1370, and manufactories of soap, linen, oil,
&c.
AHIJAH, or Ahiah, a prophet residing in Shiloh in the
times of Solomon and Jeroboam. He appears to have put
on record some of the transactions of the former reign. (2
Chron. ix. 29). It devolved on him to announce and sanc¬
tion the separation of the ten tribes from the house of David,
as well as the foundation (1 Kings xi. 29-39), and, after many
years, the subversion, of the dynasty of Jeroboam. (1 Kings
xiv. 7—11.)
AHIMELECH {brother of the king, i. e. the king’s friend.)
was the son of Ahitab, and brother of Ahiah, who was most
probably his predecessor in the high priesthood. When
David fled from Saul, he went to Nob, a city of the priests
in Benjamin, where the tabernacle then was ; and by repre¬
senting himself as on pressing business from the king, he ob¬
tained from Ahimelech some of the sacred bread which had
been removed from the presence-table. He was also furnished
with the sword which he had himself taken from Goliah, and
which had been laid up as a trophy in the tabernacle. (1 Sam.
xxi. 1-9.) These circumstances were witnessed by Doeg,
an Edomite in the service of Saul, and were so reported by
him to the jealous king as to appear acts of connivance at,
and support to David’s imagined disloyal designs. Saul
immediately sent for Ahimelech and the other priests then
at Nob, and laid this crime to their charge, which they re¬
pelled by declaring their ignorance of any hostile designs on
the part of David towards Saul or his kingdom. The king,
however, commanded his guard to slay them. Their refusal
to fall upon persons invested with so sacred a character
might have brought even Saul to reason; but he repeated
the order to Doeg himself, and was too readily obeyed by
that malignant person, who, with the men under his orders,
not only slew the priests then present, eighty-six in number,
but marched to Nob, and put to the sword every living crea¬
ture it contained. The only one of the priests that escaped
was Abiathar, son of Ahimelech, who fled to David, and
afterwards became high priest. (1 Sam. xxii.)
AHITHOPHEL {brother of foolishness, i. e.foolish), the
very singular name of the man who, in the time of David,
was renowned throughout all Israel for his worldly wisdom.
He was of the council of David ; but at the time of Absa¬
lom’s revolt, was at Giloh, his native place, whence he was
summoned to Jerusalem ; and it shows the strength of Ab¬
salom’s cause in Israel that a man so capable of foreseeing
residts, and estimating the probabilities of success, took his
side in so daring an attempt. (2 Sam. xv. 12.) The news of
this defection appears to have occasioned David more alarm
than any other single incident in the rebellion. He earnestly
prayed God to turn the sage counsel of Ahithophel “ to
foolishness” (probably alluding to his name) ; and being im¬
mediately after joined by his old friend Plushai, he induced
him to go over to Absalom with the express view that he
might be instrumental in defeating the counsels of this dan¬
gerous person, (xv. 31-37.) Hushai interposed with his
plausible advice, the object of which was to gain time to en¬
able David to collect his resources. When Ahithophel saw
that his counsel was rejected for that of Hushai, he gave up
the cause of Absalom for lost; and he forthwith returned
to his home, and hanged himself, b.c. 1023. (ch. xvii.) This
is the only case of suicide which the Old Testament records,
unless the last acts of Samson and Saul may be regarded as
such.
Ahjoli
n
Ai.
AHJOLI, a city on the bay of Borgas, in the Black Sea,
surrounded with many wind-mills, and of commercial conse¬
quence from its copious salt-springs. It is in the Turkish
province of Silistria, a part of ancient Bulgaria.
AHMEDABAD. See Amedabad.
AHMEDPOORA. The name of several towns in
Hindustan.
AHRWEILER, a circle in the department of Coblentz,
and the Prussian province of the Lower Rhine. It extends
over 143 square miles, or 91,520 acres ; and has 32,820 in¬
habitants, viz. 31,657 Catholics, 651 Protestants, 512 Jews,
in three cities, three market towns, and 74 villages. The
Rhine washes its eastern border, and receives the water of
the Ahr, which issues out of a fertile valley, near Sinzig,
whence some good wine from the sides of the hills is pro¬
duced. The rest of the district is poor in agriculture, and
indifferently furnished with cattle, game, fish, wood, and
stone. The capital is a small city of the same name. It is
on the banks of the Ahr, and contains 438 houses, and 2880
inhabitants, chiefly tanners, curriers, and makers of wine.
A-HULL, in naval language, the situation of a ship when
all her sails are furled on account of the violence of the storm,
and when, having lashed her helm on the lee-side, she lies
nearly with her side to the wind and sea, her head being
somewhat inclined to the direction of the wind.
AHUYS, a town of Sweden, in the principality of Goth¬
land, and territory of Christianstadt, near the Baltic Sea,
about ten miles from Christianstadt. It is small, but very
strong in situation, and has a good port. Long. 14. 10. E.
Lat. 55. 55. N.
AI (Sept. 'Ayyat, ’Ayyat, and Tat; Vulg. Ilai) a royal
city of the Canaanites, east of Bethel. It existed in the
time of Abraham, who pitched his tent between the two cities
(Gen. xii. 8 ; xiii. 3) ; but it is chiefly noted for its capture
and destruction by Joshua (vii. 2-5; viii. 1-29). At a later
perion Ai was rebuilt, and is mentioned by Isaiah (x. 28),
and also after the captivity. The site was known, and some
scanty ruins still existed, in the time of Eusebius and Jerome
{Onomast. in Agai), but Dr Robinson was unable to dis¬
cover any certain traces of either. He remarks {Bib. Re¬
searches, ii. 313), however, that its situation with regard to
Bethel may be well determined by the facts recorded in
Scripture. That Ai lay to the east of Bethel is distinctly
stated; and the two cities were not so far distant from each
other but that the men of Bethel mingled in the pursuit of
the Israelites as they feigned to flee before the king of Ai,
and thus both cities were left defenceless (Josh. viii. 17).
A little to the south of a village called Deir Diwan, and one
hour’s journey from Bethel, the site of an ancient place is
indicated by reservoirs hewn in the rock, excavated tombs,
and foundations of hewn stone. This, Dr Robinson inclines
to think, may mark the site of Ai, as it agrees with all the
intimations as to its position.
428 AIK
Aibar AIBAR, a Spanish town in a valley of the same name,
in the province of Navarre, the scene of a bloody battle
^ |i e1^' > between the Spaniards and the Moors in 885. Pop. 1360.
AID-DE-CAMP, in Military Affairs, an officer em¬
ployed to receive and carry the orders of a general.
AIDAN, a king of the Dalriad Scots, about the end of
the 6th century.—See Boece’s History.
Aidan, St, a famous Scottish bishop of Lindisfarne or
Holy Island, in the 7th century, was employed by Oswald,
king of Northumberland, in the conversion of the English,
in which he was very successful. He was a monk in the
monastery of Iona, and died in 651.
AIDS, Auxilia, a pecuniary tribute under the feudal
system, paid by a vassal to his lord on particular occasions;
originally a mere gift, which, in process of time, became a
demandable right. The aids of this kind were chiefly three,
viz.:—1^, When the lord made his eldest son a knight; 2d,
To provide a dower when he gave his eldest daughter in
marriage; 3of, To ransom his lord when taken prisoner.
The amount of the first two was limited by statute, but the
last was, of course, uncertain.
AIGLE, a bailiwick in the territory of Romand in Swit¬
zerland, consists of mountains and valleys, the principal of
which are the Aigle and Bex. Through these is the great
road from Valais into Italy. In passing by Villeneuve, which
is at the head of the lake of Geneva, the traveller enters into
a deep valley three miles wide, bordered on one side by
the Alps of Switzerland, on the other side by those of Savoy,
and crossed by the river Rhone. Six miles from thence he
arrives at Aigle, a town of 1900 inhabitants, situated in a
wide part of the valley, adorned with vineyards, fields, and
meadows. The governor’s castle is on an eminence over¬
looking the town, and has a lofty marble tower. This go¬
vernment has nine large parishes; and is divided into four
parts, Aigle, Bex, Olon, and Ormont. This last is among
the mountains, and adjoins Rougemont. It is a double val¬
ley, abounding in pasture lands. Ivorna, in the district of
Aigle, was in part buried by the 1’all of a mountain, occa¬
sioned by an earthquake, in 1584.
Aigle, l’, a city in France, in the arrondissement of Mor-
tagne, and department of the Orne. It is situated on the
river Rille, which divides it into three parts; one on each
side of the river, and one in an island formed by two of its
channels. It contains 844 houses, and 4720 inhabitants.
It is an industrious place, with manufactures of linen, cotton,
paper, leather, cutlery, needles, bottles, and other wares.
AIGUE PERSE, a town of France, in the department
of Puy de Dome, twelve miles N.N.E. of Riom. In its vi¬
cinity are mineral springs, and the Chateau de la Roche,
where the Chancellor de FHopital was born. Pop. 2671.
AIGUES MORTES,atown of France,in the department
of Gard, 20 miles south-west of Nismes. It was once a seaport
town, and here St Louis embarked on his two expeditions
to Africa; but it is now four miles distant from the coast,
being connected with it by the Roubine canal. The sur¬
rounding marshes render it very unhealthy. Pop. 3365.
AIGUILLON, a town in the department of Lot and
Garonne, in France, at the conflux of the rivers Garonne
and Lot, containing 3919 inhabitants.
AIGUISCE, in Heraldry, denotes a cross with its four
ends sharpened, but so as to terminate in obtuse angles. It
differs from the cross fitchee, inasmuch as the latter tapers
by degrees to a point, and the former only at the ends.
AIKEN, John, M.D., born at Warrington in Lancashire,
was the only son of the Rev. Dr John Aiken, w ho, for many
years, was one of the masters in the Dissenting Academy
at Warrington, before its removal to Hackney. The son
received his elementary education at that seminary: his me¬
dical studies he prosecuted in the university of Edinburgh,
AIK
and in London under the celebrated Dr William Hunter. Aikman.
He commenced his professional career as a surgeon at Ches-
ter; but not succeeding in that episcopal city, he tried to
establish himself in his native town. Finally, he went to
Leyden, took the degree of M.D. in that university, and at¬
tempted to establish himself as a physician in London. His
success in this new field does not seem to have been consi¬
derable ; partly owing to his delicate health, and partly from
the singleness of purpose and keenness with which he entered
into the engrossing political questions of the day, especially
the grand principle of liberty of conscience. Hence he
began at an early period to devote himself to literary pur¬
suits. Dr Aiken’s reputation now chiefly rests on his en¬
deavours to popularise scientific inquiries, by rendering them
easy of comprehension to the general reader. In conjunc¬
tion with his sister, Mrs Barbauld, he commenced the pub¬
lication of a series of volumes on this principle, entitled
Evenings at Home, the sixth and last volume of which ap¬
peared in 1796. This attempt to popularise scientific in¬
quiries was a favourate object of Dr Aiken ; and the work
obtained a great reputation. It is chiefly commendable for
the purity of the principles it inculcates, and the pleasing
views it gives of human nature. His love of nature, and his
powder in delineating her features, are well illustrated in The
Natural History of the Year, as well as in his miscellaneous
Essays.
In 1798 Dr Aiken retired from professional life, and de¬
voted himself with great industry to literary undertakings of
varied and numerous kinds, among which his valuable Bio¬
graphical Dictionary holds a conspicuous place. In this he
was assisted by Enfield. It appeared in ten quarto volumes,
from 1799 to 1815. Besides these he published Lives of
John Selden and Archbishop Usher, Memoirs of Huet Bi¬
shop of Avranches, Geographical Delineations of All Na¬
tions, &c. &c.
A stroke of apoplexy terminated his life on the 7th of De¬
cember 1822. The following is a list of the principal works
of Dr Aiken.—1. Essay on the Legation of Arlerias, 1771.
—2. Thoughts on Hospitals, 1771.—3. Observations on the
external use of preparations of Lead, 1771.—4. Essay on the
application of Natural History to Poetry, 1777.—5. Essay
on the Plan and Character of Thomson’s Seasons, 1778.—
6- Biographical Memoirs of Medicine in Britain, 1780.—7.
Poems, 1791.—8. A view of the character and public ser¬
vices of John Howard, Esq., 1792.—9. Description of the
country round Manchester, 1795.—10. Evenings at Home,
6 vols. finished in 1796.—11. Natural History of the Year.
—12. Letters to a Son, 1796.—13. General Biography, 10
vols. 4to. 1799 to 1815.—14. Letters to a Son, 2 vols.
1806.—15. Essays on Song-Writing, 1810.—16. Annals
of the Reign of George III., from 1760 to 1815.—17.
England Described, 1818.—18. Works of the British Poets,
1820. (t. s.t.)
AIKMAN, William, a painter of considerable eminence,
was born in Scotland, October 24. 1682. He was the son
of William Aikman, Esq. of Cairney, and was intended by
his father to follow his own profession, which was that of an
advocate at the Scottish bar. But the genius of the son led
him to other studies. He devoted himself to the fine arts,
especially that of painting; and having for some time pro¬
secuted his studies in Britain, in the year 1707 he went to
Italy, resided in Rome for three years, afterwards travelled
to Constantinople and Smyrna, and in 1712 returned to his
own country. About the year 1723 he fixed his residence
in London, where he followed the profession of painting,
and had the good fortune to be patronised by the Duke of
Argyll, the Earl of Burlington, Sir Godfrey Kneller, and
other liberal encouragers of the arts. He painted many
portraits of persons of the first rank in England and Scot-
AIL
AIN 429
Ailana land, and a large picture of’ the royal family for the Earl of
II Burlington, now in the possession of the Duke of Devon-
Ailsa. shire, which was unfinished at his death. Some of his por-
traits painted in Scotland are in the possession of the Duke
of Argyll, the Duke of Hamilton, and others. Mr Aikman
died in London, June 4. 1731. Six months previous to his
death he had lost a son at the age of 17. The remains of
both were removed to Edinburgh, and interred in the Grey-
ffiars’ churchyard on the same day. Somerville the author
of The Chase, Mallet, Allan Ramsay the author of The Gentle
Shepherd, and Thomson, were among Mr Aikman’s intimate
acquaintance; and the muse of each, in elegiac numbers,
offered a warm tribute to the memory of their departed
friend. The following epitaph, from the pen of Mallet, was
engraved on his tomb :
Dear to the good and wise, disprais’d by none,
Here sleep in peace the father and the son;
By virtue, as by nature, close ally’d,
The painter’s genius, but without the pride;
Worth unambitious, wit afraid to shine,
Honour’s clear light, and friendship’s warmth divine.
The son, fair rising, knew too short a date;
But, oh! how more severe the father’s fate !
He saw him torn untimely from his side,
Felt all a father’s anguish—wept, and died.
Aikman’s style of painting was an imitation of the pleas¬
ing simplicity of nature. It is distinguished by softness
of light, mellowness of shade, and mildness and harmony
of colouring. His compositions have more placid tranquil¬
lity of ease than boldness of touch and brilliancy of effect.
His portraits are supposed to have some resemblance to
those of Kneller, not only in the imitation of the dresses of
the time, but in the similarity of tint and manner of working.
AILANA, Ailath, or Aheloth, anciently a town of
Arabia Petraea, situated near the Sinus Elanites of the Red
Sea. It is also called Eliath, and Eloth (Stephanus, Strabo,
Moses), and is the same with Elana. See Akabah.
AILESBURY. See Aylesbury.
AILMER, or TEthelmare, Earl of Cornwall and Devon¬
shire in the reign of King Edgar. It is not known of what
family he was. His authority and riches were great, and so
also in appearance was his piety. He founded the abbey of
Cernel, in Dorsetshire; and had so great a veneration for
Eadwald, the brother of St Edmund the Martyr, who had
lived a hermit in that country, near the Silver Well, that,
with the assistance of Archbishop Dunstan, he translated his
relics to the old church of Cernel. In 1016, when Canute
invaded England, Earl Ailmer, together with the traitorous
Eadric Streone, Earl of Mercia, and Earl Algar, joined the
Dane against their natural prince, Edmund Ironside, which
contributed greatly to the ruin of the Saxon cause. Ailmer
died not long after.
AILRED, or Ealred, an English historian who lived in
the reigns of Stephen and Henry II. He was born in 1109,
of a noble family, and educated in Scotland with Henry, the
son of King David. Embracing a religious life, he became,
first abbot of Revesby, in Lincolnshire, and afterwards of
the celebrated abbey of Rievaux. He died on the 12th of
January 1166, aged 57, and was buried in his monastery.
“ He was,” says Leland, “ in great esteem during his life;
celebrated for the miracles wrought after his death; and ad¬
mitted into the catalogue of saints.” He was author of seve¬
ral works, most of which were published by Gilbo the Jesuit,
at Douay, 1631: part of them may be also found in the Bib¬
liotheca Cisterciemis, and Bibliotheca Patrum. His prin¬
cipal work is the Speculum Charitatis. Leland, Bale, and
Pits, mention several manuscripts of his which never were
published.
AILSA, an insulated rock on the western coast of Scot¬
land, between the shores of Ayrshire and Cantyre. It is of
a conoidal form, with an irregular elliptic base, and rises ^in
abruptly from the sea to the height of 1139 feet. Its area II
is estimated by Macculloch at 3300 by 2200 feet. The only
part at which the rock can be ascended is on the east side,
where there is a spit of rolled pebbles ; the other sides are
insurmountable, and for the most part perpendicular. The
south-west and north-west are perpendicular, and generally
present grand columnar forms, which, though not so regu¬
lar as those of Staffa, are far more lofty, and in some parts
are about 400 feet high. The rock is a greenstone or syenite,
with a basis of grayish compact felspar, with small grains of
quartz and hornblende. There is no difference between the
columnar and massive portions of the rock; but it is traversed
by numerous trap veins. A fine columnar cave of 50 feet
by 12 feet, and 30 feet high, exists towards the north end.
About one-fifth up on the east side are the remains of a
tower, with several vaulted rooms. The ascent is laborious,
as the fragments of rock are interspersed with the tall vegeta¬
tion of the common nettle, of Lychnis dioica, and Silene
amcena. Two springs occur on the eastern slopes, where Hy-
drocotyle vulgaris grows to a great size. The scanty grass
affords subsistence to a few goats and numerous rabbits;
but the rocks are the favourite abode of innumerable gan-
nets, gulls, puffins, and auks. Lat. 55. 15. 13. N. Long.
5. 7. W. (t. s. t.)
AIN, one of the departments in the east frontier of
France, deriving its name from a river so called, a part of
the ancient province of Burgundy. It is bounded on the
north by the departments of Saone-Loire and Jura; on the
east by Switzerland and Savoy, from which the Rhone di¬
vides it; on the south by the department of Isere, separated
also by the Rhone; and on the west by the departments of
the Rhone and the Saone-Loire, from both which the Saone
divides it. The extent is 2257 square miles, or 1,444,480
acres. The eastern part is very mountainous, being a pro¬
traction of the Jura group. The western part is hilly, but
interspersed with marshes. Some tracts of valuable land are
found in the intervals. The chief products are rye, maize,
wheat, some wine, a little salt, and oil. The dairy yields
good butter and cheese. The department is divided into
five arrondissements, 35 cantons, and 446 communes ; and
contains 22 cities, 403 market-towns and villages, 1467 ham¬
lets, and 7000 insulated houses. The population in 1851
amounted to 372,939, all Catholics, except in the arron-
dissement of Gers, where the greater part are Reformed
Protestants.
AINSWORTH, a township and chapelry in the parish
of Middleton and hundred of Salford, in the county of Lan¬
caster. Pop. in 1841, 1598, and in 1851,1781.
Ainsworth, Zb-an eminent nonconformist divine,
who about the year 1590 distinguished himself among the
Brownists, which involved him in so much trouble that he
was obliged to retire to Holland, and became minister of a
church at Amsterdam. His skill in the Hebrew language,
and his excellent Annotations on the Holy Scriptures, which
are still highly esteemed, gained him great reputation. He
also wrote several pieces in defence of the Brownists, and
some other works.
Ainsworth, Robert, born at Woodyale in Lancashire in
1660, was master of a boarding-school at Bethnal Green,
from whence he removed to Hackney, and to other places
in the neighbourhood of London. After acquiring a mo¬
derate fortune, he retired, and lived privately to the time of
his death, which happened in 1743. We are indebted to
his industry for a Latin and English Dictionary, which has
been much used in schools. It was first published in 1736,
and was, after the author’s death, enlarged by various hands
to 2 vols. 4to, in which form it has been several times re¬
printed.
430 A I E
Aintab AINTAB, a large garrison town on the northern frontier
. Jj, . of Syria, in the pashalic of Aleppo. Lat. 36. 58. N. Long.
v |ir ri|e'y 37. 13. E., 65 miles north of Aleppo, 50 miles E. of Scan-
Y~1"' deroon, and 30 miles west of Bir on the Euphrates. Pop.
25,000 to 30,000.
AIR, in Physics. See Atmosphere, Meteorology, and
Pneumatics.
Air, in Painting, &c., denotes the manner and verisimili¬
tude of action ; or it is that which expresses the disposition
of the agent. It is sometimes also used in a synonymous
sense with gesture or attitude.
Air, in Music. See Music.
Am-Gun, a pneumatic machine for propelling bullets, &c.,
with great violence. See Pneumatics.
Am-Jacket, a sort of jacket formerly made of leather, in
which were several bags or bladders, composed of the same
material, communicating with each other. These were filled
with air through a leather tube having a brass stop-cock ac¬
curately ground at the extremity, by which means the air
blown in through the tube was confined in the bladders. The
jacket is now superseded by a tubular belt of cloth, made
air-tight by a solution of caoutchouc in naphtha, buckled
round the breast, by the help of which the person is sup¬
ported in the water, without making the efforts used in
swimming.
Am-Pipes. See Ventilators.
Am-Pump, a machine by which the air contained in a
proper vessel may be exhausted or drawn out. See Pneu¬
matics.
Am-Shafts, a.mor\gMiners, denote holes or shafts descend¬
ing from the open air to meet the adits and furnish fresh air.
The damps, deficiency, and impurity of air which occur
when adits are wrought 30 or 40 fathoms long, make it ne¬
cessary to sink air-shafts, in order to give the air liberty to
play through the whole work, and thus discharge vitiated
air, and furnish good air for respiration: the expense of
which shafts, on account of their great depths, hardness of
the rock, drawing of water, &c., sometimes equals, nay, ex¬
ceeds, the ordinary charge of the whole adit.
Am-Threads, or Air Gossamer, a name given to the
long filaments so frequently seen in autumn floating about
in the air.
These threads are the work of spiders, especially of
that species called the aranea ohtextrix, which, having
mounted to the summit of a bush or tree, darts from its tail
several of these threads, till one is produced capable of
supporting the creature in the air. On this it mounts in
quest of prey, and frequently rises to a very considerable
height.
Am- Vessels are spiral ducts in the leaves, &c. of plants,
supposed to be analogous to the lungs of animals, in supply¬
ing the different parts of a plant with air.
AI RANI, in Church History, an obscure sect of Arians
in the fourth century, who denied the consubstantiality of
the Holy Ghost with the Father and the Son. They are
otherwise called Airanists ; and are said to have taken their
name from one Air os, who distinguished himself at the head
of this party in the reigns of Valentinian and Gratian.
AIRDRIE, a thriving town of Lanarkshire, eleven miles
east of Glasgow, and thirty-one from Edinburgh. Pop. in
1851, 14,435. The extensive coal and iron mines in the
vicinity afford employment to a considerable part of its popu¬
lation, and have been the means of raising it, since the com¬
mencement of the century, from the insignificance of a vil¬
lage to its present prosperity. The town contains one prin¬
cipal street, from which others diverge, and is well-built
paved, and lighted with gas. It has a handsome town-hall
with a spire and clock, three Established, and three Free
Churches, an Independent, a Baptist, a Roman Catholic, and
AIT
other places of public worship ; three branch banks, a me- Aire
chanics’ institute, an academy, and other schools; a cotton II
factory, gas-works, iron-founderies, distilleries, breweries, Alton.
&c. A considerable number of its inhabitants are also en-
gaged in the weaving of cotton goods for the Glasgow manu¬
facturers. By the Reform Act it was created a parliamen¬
tary borough ; and it unites with Lanark, Hamilton, Linlith¬
gow, and halkirk, in sending a member to Parliament. The
municipal government, under a charter dated 1833, is vested
in a provost, three bailies, and twelve councillors. Airdrie
is connected with Glasgow by railway, and also by the
Monkland canal.
AIRE, a city of France, head of a canton of the same
name, in the circle of St Omer, and department of Pas de
Calais. It is situated on the river Lys. The population
amounts to 5088 persons, who are chiefly employed in mak¬
ing cotton and woollen goods, hardware, and large quantities
of oil from seeds. Long. 2. 24. E. Lat. 50. 38. N.
Aire, a town of France, in the department of Landes,
and circle of St Sever, on the river Adour. It was at one
time the capital of the Visigoths, and has been since the
fifth century the seat of a bishopric.
Aire, a river of England in Yorkshire, one of the afflu¬
ents of the Humber, from which it is navigable for a sloop
of 100 tons as far up as Leeds, a distance of forty miles.
AIRY, or Aery, among Sportsmen, the nest of a hawk
or eagle.
Airy Triplicity, among Astrologers, denotes the three
signs, Gemini, Libra, and Aquarius.
AISLE, in Architecture, is the term applied to the wing
of a building; but it is chiefly used to designate the lateral
divisions of a Gothic building divided by two longitudinal
rows of piers. The space between these piers is sometimes
inaccurately termed the middle aisle; but properly it is the
body or middle of the nave, choir, or transept.
AISNE, a department in the north-east division of France,
on a river of the same name, formed out of divisions of the
ancient provinces of Picardy and Isle of France. It is
bounded on the N. by the department of the Nord and the
kingdom of the Netherlands, on the E. by the departments
of the Ardennes and Marne, on the S. by the Marne and
Seine-Marne, and on the W. by the Oise and Somme. The
extent is 2812 square miles, or 1,799,680 acres. The whole
department is a plain, with few hills of much elevation. The
soil is generally calcareous, except in the northern part, where
it becomes clayey, and in some spots slaty. It is of various
degrees of fertility, but for the most part adapted to the
growth of corn. Wine, cider, and flax, are the other agri¬
cultural products. The manufactures are cotton, linen, and
hosiery. The department is divided into five arrondissements,
37 cantons, and 840 communes. Its population in 1851 was
558,989. The chief city of the department is Laon. St
Gaubain is celebrated for its mirrors, which are the largest
in the world; and Folembray is said to manufacture an¬
nually 8,000,000 of wine bottles. Both these towns are in
the arrondissement of Laon.
AITOCZU, a considerable river of Lesser Asia, which
rises in Mount Taurus, and falls into the south part of the
Euxine Sea.
AITON, William, an eminent botanist and gardener,
was born at a village near Hamilton in Scotland in 1731.
Having been regularly trained to the profession of a gar¬
dener, he travelled to England in the year 1754, and soon
obtained the notice of the celebrated Philip Miller, then
superintendent of the physic garden at Chelsea, who engaged
him as an assistant. His industry and abilities recommended
him to the princess-dowager of Wales as a fit person to
manage the botanical garden at Kew. In 1759 he was ap¬
pointed to this office, in which he continued during life, and
A I X
Aius which was the source of his fame and fortune. The garden
II at Kew, under the auspices of his Majesty George III., was
^ix- destined to be the grand repository of all the vegetable riches
which could be accumulated by regal munificence, from re¬
searches through every quarter of the globe. These trea¬
sures were fortunately committed to the hands of Mr Alton,
whose care and skill in their cultivation, and intelligence in
their arrangement, acquired him high reputation among the
lovers of the science, and the particular esteem of his royal
patrons. Under his superintendence many improvements
took place in the plan and edifices of Kew gardens, which
rendered them the principal scene of botanical culture in the
kingdom. In 1783 his merit was properly rewarded with
the lucrative office of managing the pleasure and kitchen
gardens of Kew, which he was allowed to retain with the
botanical department. In 1789 he published his Hortus
Kewensis, or a Catalogue of the Plants cultivated in the
Royal Botanical Garden at Kew, in 3 vols. 8vo, with 13
plates; a work which had been the labour of many years.
The number of species contained in this work amounted to
between five and six thousand, many of which had not be¬
fore been described. A new and curious article in it relates
to the first introduction of particular exotics into the Eng¬
lish gardens. The system of arrangement adopted is the
Linnaean, with improvements, which the advanced state of
botanical science required. Mr Aiton, with candour and
modesty, acknowledges the assistance he received in this
work from the two Swedish naturalists, Dr Solander and Mr
Jonas Dryander. Indeed, his character was such as secured
him the friendship and good offices of the most distinguished
names in science of his time. He was for many years ho¬
noured with the friendship of Sir Joseph Banks, the presi¬
dent of the Royal Society. The Hortus Kewensis was re¬
ceived with avidity by the botanic world, and a large im¬
pression was soon disposed of. The best edition is in 5 vols.
Notwithstanding his great activity and temperance, Mr
Aiton fell into that incurable malady, a scirrhous liver, of
which he died in 1793, in his 62d year. His eldest son, de¬
voted to the same pursuits, was, by the king’s own nomina¬
tion, appointed to all his father’s employments. Mr Alton’s
private character was highly estimable for mildness, bene¬
volence, piety, and every domestic and social virtue. He was
interred in the churchyard of Kew.
AIUS Locutius, the name of a deity to whom the Ro¬
mans erected an altar. The following circumstance gave
occasion to this. One M. Ceditius, a plebeian, acquainted
the tribunes that, in walking the streets by night, he had
heard a voice over the temple of Vesta announcing to the
Romans that the Gauls were coming against them. The
intimation was, however, neglected; but after the truth was
confirmed by the event, Camillus acknowledged this voice
to be a new deity, and erected an altar to it under the name
of Aius Locutius.
AIX, an ancient city of France, the chief place of the ar-
rondissement of the same name, in the department of the
Mouths of the Rhone. It was, before the revolution of 1789,
richly endowed with ecclesiastical establishments, which have
since then been secularized. It stands on a plain surrounded
by hills, which produce abundance of most excellent olives,
which, with wine and fruits, form the most important branches
of agricultural industry. There are manufactories of various
rich silk goods, linen, and hardware. The ancient springs,
known to the Romans, but disused till again discovered in
1704, are slightly warm, but their efficacy is not now highly
valued. In 1846 the inhabitants amounted to 24,165. This
city is celebrated for having given birth to two famous natu¬
ralists, Adanson and Tournefort, and to the painter Vanloo.
The arrondissement of the same name comprehends 846
square miles, or about 541,740 acres, divided into ten
A J A 431
cantons and 59 communes, with, in 1846, 112,254 inha- Aix
bitants. II
Aix, a small island on the coast of France, between the Ajalon-
isle of Oleron and the Continent. It is twelve miles north-
west of Rochefort, and eleven south-south-west of Rochelle.
Long. 1. 4. W. Lat. 46. 5. N.
Aix, a river of France, in the department of the Lower
Loire, which joins the Ysable, and falls into the Loire.
AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, or in German Aachen, a dis¬
trict in the Prussian province of the Lower Rhine, with an
area of 1600 square miles. It comprehends 10 circles,
15 cities, 12 market-towns, 789 villages, 65,401 dwelling-
houses, and in 1849 contained 411,525 inhabitants, of whom
395,416 were Roman Catholics, 2685 Jews, and the remain¬
der Protestants. The circle of the same name extends over
124 square miles, and has a population of 63,458.
Aix-LA-CnArELLE, the chief town of the district and
circle of the same name, lies between the Rhine and the
Meuse, in a pleasant valley surrounded by beautiful hills,
about eighteen miles east of Maestricht, and thirty-eight
west of Cologne, with which last it is connected by railway.
By the census of 1849 it had 3125 houses, 8869 families,
and a population of 50,533, of whom 47,489 were Catholics,
2734 Protestants, and 310 Jews. It has a public library, a
gymnasium, a school for artisans, a commercial school, a col¬
lection of models, and a picture gallery ; and is the seat of
a bishop, of a district court, a court of justice, and a com¬
mercial court. It is celebrated for its woollen manufactures,
which give employment to many thousands, as also for its
needle and pin works. It has also several tan works, and a
considerable trade, particularly in cloth and wool. Among
the public buildings the most remarkable are the town-
house, erected in 1353, on the site of Charlemagne’s palace,
in which the peace of 1748 was ratified, and in front
of which, in the market-place, is a beautiful fountain; the
cathedral, founded by Charlemagne, containing the marble
seat on which the kings sat at their coronation, and many
popish relics, which are only exhibited once in seven years,
when great numbers of votaries resort to the city; and there
is also an elegant theatre. Aix-la-Chapelle was for a long
time the capital of the German empire, and the usual place
of coronation. In 1668 and 1748 treaties of peace were
concluded here ; and from this town the celebrated congress
of 1818 derives its name. This was the favourite residence
of Charlemagne, and in the cathedral is his tomb. In the
latter part of the last century it was opened, and his body,
clothed in the imperial robes, was found seated on a throne
of state. The whole crumbled into dust on being touched;
but the diamond clasp that fastened his mantle is still pre¬
served at Vienna.
Its thermal sulphureous baths are celebrated over Europe
for the cure of rheumatic and arthritic pains. These waters
have the high temperature of 136° Fahr., and contain 5*5
cubic inches of sulphuretted hydrogen per English pint.
Aix-la-Chapelle is the Aquae Sextiae of the Romans.
AJACCIO, or Adjazzo, an arrondissement in the island
and department of Corsica, in the Mediterranean, containing
12 cantons and 72 communes, with 53,463 inhabitants. Its
extent is 736 square miles, or 471,000 English acres. The
capital, which bears the same name, and is the best built
town in the island, is situated in a fertile territory, which
produces excellent wines. It has a small citadel and an ex¬
cellent harbour, and contains 10,460 inhabitants. It is cele¬
brated as the birthplace of Napoleon Bonaparte, to whose
memory a column has been here erected.
AJALON, in Ancient Geography, a Levitical city of the
tribe of Dan, in the valley of which Joshua commanded the
moon to stand still. The site of Ajalon is occupied by the
modern village of Yalo.
432 A J M A J M
Ajan A JAN, a maritime country of Africa on its eastern coast,
. II extending from Cape Guardafui to Zanguebar, between Lat.
Ajrnere^ 4° to j jo aboun(js witb an the necessaries of life, and
" produces a very good breed of horses. The whole sea-coast,
from Zanguebar to the strait of Babelmandeb, is called the
coast of Ajan; and a considerable part of it is styled the
Desert coast.
AJAX, the son of Telamon, king of Salamis, was, next
to Achilles, the most valiant of the Grecian generals at the
siege of Troy. He performed many great actions, and
proved himself no mean match for Hector in single combat.
When the arms of Achilles were adjudged by Agamemnon
to Ulysses, Ajax was so transported with rage and jealousy
that he lost his senses. In his madness he fell upon the
sheep in the Grecian camp, among which he committed
great slaughter. On coming to his senses he was so over¬
come with shame that he killed himself with the sword which
had been given to him by Hector. The Greeks paid great
honour to him after his death, and erected a magnificent
monument to his memory upon the promontory of Rhetium.
—Iliad, Dictys. Cret., Ovid. Met., B. xiii.
Ajax, surnamed Oileus, and the Lesser (to distinguish
him from the former), the son of O'ileus, king of the Locrians,
was one of the principal heroes at the siege of Troy. He is
said, after the taking of Troy, to have ravished Cassandra
the daughter of Priam, in the temple of Minerva, whither
she had fled for refuge. On his return home he was ship¬
wrecked and perished on the coast of Eubcea. Philostratus
records of him that he had a tame serpent 5 cubits in length,
which ate at his table, and followed him like a dog. The
Locrians held the memory of Ajax in great veneration and
honoured him in some degree as a tutelar deity.
Ajax, in Grecian Antiquity, a furious kind of dance, in¬
tended to represent the madness of the hero of that name
after his defeat by Ulysses, to whom the Greeks had given
the preference in his contest for Achilles’s arms. Lucian,
in his treatise of Dancing, speaks of dancing the Ajax.—-
There was also an annual feast called Ajantia, Atavreta,
consecrated to that prince, and observed with great solem¬
nity in the island of Salamis, as well as in Attica; where,
in memory of the valour of Ajax, a bier was exposed, set
out with a complete set of armour.
AJMERE, the ancient appellation of the whole of Raj-
pootana, but more recently restricted to the limits of a
British district in the centre of that province. It is bounded
on the N.W. by the Rajpoot state of Joudpore ; on the east
by the Rajpoot states of Kishenghur and Jeypore; on the
south by that of Odeypore ; and on the S.W. by the British
district of Mhairwarra. It extends from Lat. 25. 43. to Lat.
26. 42, and from Long. 74. 22. to Long. 75. 33, and has an
area of 2029 square miles. In the north and north-west
portions of the district, the mountains attain considerable
elevation. Taraghur, immediately overlooking the town of
Ajmere, rises a thousand feet from the plain below, and three
thousand above the level of the sea. Its principal summit
sustains the celebrated fort of Ajmere. The Mudar range,
east of the city, is little inferior in elevation. In their
geological character, the rocks composing these ridges bear
a near resemblance to each other, all being of primitive
formation, and generally schistose.
Copper mines have been worked on Taraghur, and lead,
manganese, and iron, are discovered in abundance. The
soil is, for the most part, light and sandy, and in many loca¬
lities impregnated with mineral salts. The only stream
which has any pretension to be styled a river is the Kharee
Nuddee. This river skirts the district to the south, sepa¬
rating it from the native state of Odeypore, and subse¬
quently intersects the territory of Ajmere in a north-easterly
direction to its confluence with the Banas; but its waters
are unpalatable, except during the rains, in consequence of Ajmere.
the quantity of carbonate of soda which they hold in solu-
tion. The other streams of Ajmere, including even the
Looni, which derives its source from the Ana Sagur Lake,
may be characterised rather as rain torrents, their channels
being completely devoid of water during the dry season.
Nor is the dearth of running water compensated by any abun¬
dant supply from springs; no natural lakes exist in the pro¬
vince ; and as the wet season is of brief duration, there are
no means by which an adequate supply of water can be se¬
cured to the inhabitants, but by the aid of tanks, which are
filled by the mountain torrents during the rains. These
abound in every village. Some of these reservoirs are of con¬
siderable magnitude, and one, indeed, the Ana Sagur, is de¬
serving of special notice from its enormous dimensions. This
artificial lake is in the immediate vicinity of the town, and
owes its construction to Ana Rao, who ruled in Ajmere prior
to the invasion of Mahmood of Ghuzni at the commence¬
ment of the eleventh century. The excavation is, however,
rather the work of nature than of art, and required nothing for
its completion as a reservoir but the erection of a dam across
a valley bounded on all other sides by steep ridges. The
waters of several rain torrents are thus collected into this
vast basin ; the extent of which, after the rains, exceeds six
miles in circumference. It furnishes the means of irrigation
to a large district on its banks, is full of fish, and affords
excellent water to the inhabitants of the town.
The climate of Ajmere, though characterised by great
aridity, is considered salubrious. During the season of the
hot winds which prevail from March to June, the tempera¬
ture is high and the heat oppressive. In the month of May
in the year 1838, the thermometer marked during the night
110 degrees. The temperature might be diminished by
encouraging the growth of trees. The hills are now bare
of timber. Formerly extensive tracts were covered by
forests and brushwood, but these were destroyed during
Mahratta rule. Refreshing breezes set in with the rains,
which continue from June till the end of September; but
the showers are lighter and far less continuous than in tracts
further to the south and east. After the rains, the climate
becomes agreeable and invigorating, and in the clear nights
of December, January, and February, the thermometer sinks
below the freezing point, and ice is abundantly formed.
Ajmere is scarcely mentioned in history prior to the esta¬
blishment of the dynasty of Ghuzni in Cabul. It appears,
however, to have enjoyed an early independence, as the
eighth prince in succession from its founder is represented
as having reigned in the year 695. The earliest incursion
of the Mahometans into India took place in 664; it was
followed from time to time by successive irruptions; until
in 997 the Hindu Rajah of Lahore became in his turn the
assailant, and led an army through Peshawur into Cabul.
He was met by Sebektegin, the father of Mahmood of
Ghuzni; but before any encounter had taken place, the
Hsndu became disheartened, acceded to humiliating con¬
ditions, and withdrew. In the following year, Sebektegin
advanced to Lahore to enforce the fulfilment of the treaty;
and among the princes who united their forces to resist the
Mussulman, was the Rajah of Ajmere. The confederated
forces were totally routed. Three years later, in Mahmood’s
first expedition to India, the sultan encountered the old
Rajah of Lahore, whom he defeated and took prisoner.
After this, Mahmood allowed little repose to himself, or re¬
spite to his neighbours. In the tenth year of his reign, he
undertook his fourth expedition against India. The princes
of Hindustan, instigated by Anang Pal, the Rajah of La¬
hore, combined their forces, and advanced to the Punjaub,
to resist the progress of the Mahometan arms. The Rajah
of Ajmere had again joined the confederacy, but their re-
A J M
AKA
433
Ajmere. newed efforts were ineffectual, and Mahmood was again vic-
torious. The part taken by the Rajah of Ajmere was not,
however, forgotten by Mahmood; and in his last irruption
into Hindustan, which was directed against the temple of
Somnath, he marched his troops through the province of
Ajmere, ravaged the country, and plundered the city. The
Rajah took refuge in his fortress, and Mahmood pursued his
course to Somnath. Thenceforward the power and re¬
sources ot the Rajahs of Ajmere rapidly increased, and half
a century later, their possessions constituted one of the four
kingdoms into which Hindustan was then distributed. The
three remaining kingdoms were those of Delhi, Canouj, and
Guzerat; but the king of Delhi dying without male issue,
his dominions lapsed to Pritwi Rao, the chief of Ajmere,
who thus held sway over the half of India. Pritwi Rao,
however, had no sooner gained this accession of power, than
a new competitor presented himself for the imperial sceptre.
This was Shahabudin, afterwards Mohammed Ghoory. In
1191 he had conquered the Punjaub, and threatened an ad¬
vance upon Delhi. Pritwi Rao was not unprepared for the
struggle. The two armies met at Tirouri, near Thanesur
in Northern India, where a decisive battle was fought, in
which the Hindu potentate prevailed, and the rout of Mo¬
hammed was complete. Pritwi Rao derived from this vic¬
tory but a brief interval of repose. Mohammed reunited his
army, and two years after reappeared at Thanesur, to try
once again the chances of battle. Upon this occasion, for¬
tune favoured Mohammed, and Pritwi Rao, being taken
prisoner, was put to death. The conquest of Ajmere fol¬
lowed. Mohammed left his new possessions in charge of
his general Kootb-ood-deen, who, upon the dissolution of
the Ghorian empire, raised himself to the throne of Delhi,
and established the line of Slave Kings of India; so called
from their founder having risen from the condition of a
Turkistan slave to sovereignty. From this time Ajmere
appears to have remained for a considerable period in various
degrees of dependence upon the Mahometans. It was wrested
in 1527 by Baber from Rajah Sanga, who had aspired to
independence. Acbar, in recovering the dominions of which
his father had been stripped by Shir Shah, obtained Ajmere
without a battle, and under this emperor it became the prin¬
cipal place of an extensive province. On the decline of the
Mogul empire, Ajmere fell into the hands of the Mahrattas,
who retained it from the middle of the last century until the
year 1818, when it was formally ceded to the British govern¬
ment by Scindia. The district of Ajmere has been distri¬
buted into ten subdivisions, and has a population of 224,891
inhabitants. The principal places are Ajmere, Kekree,
Poshkur, Pesangun, Shapoora, Sawur, and the military
cantonment of Nusseerabad.
Ajmere, a city of Hindustan, in the district of the same
name, situate on the slope of a hill, and surrounded by a wall
of stone. It was nearly ruined in the long period of anarchy
and misgovernment which prevailed in Central India prior to
1818; but since its acquisition by the British, it has greatly
improved. Bishop Heber, who visited it in 1825, describes
it as a well-built town of moderate size. Its principal streets
are broad and convenient, and among the mansions more
recently erected, some are stated to have been constructed
upon so grand a scale as to form imposing objects even from
the outside of the city walls. Above, on the mountain top,
is a very remarkable fortress called Taraghur, nearly two
miles in circuit, but of irregular shape and surface. It con¬
sists of a plain stone wall along the edge of a mountain,
strengthened with a few round bastions; and it has an
abundant supply of good water in all seasons from cisterns
cut in the rock. The fortress was dismantled in 1830, and
the works are going to decay. The most beautiful of the
buildings of Ajmere is an antique Jain temple on the lower
vol. ir.
part of the mountain Taraghur. Though much injured by
time, or by the hands of the Mussulmans, the relics are not
excelled in beauty of architecture and sculpture by any re¬
mains of Hindu art. The columns supporting the roof are
forty in number ; but no two are alike, and great fertility of
invention, as well as much taste, is manifested in the execu¬
tion of the ornaments. The portion of this building which
has survived the attacks of time or hostile feeling, has been
converted into a mosque. Ajmere is renowned as a place
of pilgrimage, the great attraction being the tomb of Khoja-
Moyen-ud-Deen, famed as a great Mahometan saint, whose
miracles are celebrated all over India. The tomb is of
white marble, but remarkable neither for style nor beauty of
architecture. To this place the emperor Acbar made a pil¬
grimage on foot from Agra, a distance of upwards of 200
miles, to implore at the sainted tomb the blessing of male off¬
spring. Outside the city wall is the ruinous palace of Shah
Jehan, and another of Acbar, now converted into an arsenal.
In 1849 a school having an English department was opened,
but the results have not yet been reported. The town is
well supplied with water from the Ana Sagur Lake ; its
population in 1837 was estimated at 23,000 inhabitants, and
is believed to be progressively improving. Ajmere is dis¬
tant from Delhi 258 miles ; from Calcutta 1039. Lat. 26.
29. Long. 74. 43. (e. t.)
AJOFRIN, a town of Spain, nine miles south of Toledo,
with a pop. of 2883, principally employed in the making of
coarse cloth, blankets, serge, and matting.
AKABAH. This gulf, the Sinus Elanites of antiquity,
is the eastern estuary at the upper extremity of the Red
Sea, extending N.N.E. from Lat. 28. to 29. 32. N., a dis¬
tance of about 100 miles, and varying from about 12 to
17 miles in breadth. The navigation is rendered dangerous
by the number of coral reefs, and the heavy squalls that
sweep from the adjacent mountains, many of which rise per¬
pendicularly to the height of 2000 feet. Tiran, and several
other small islands, lie at its mouth. Its only well-sheltered
harbour at the present day, according to Lieut. Wellsted,
is that of Meenap-el-Dsahale, or the Golden Port (so called
from the colour of its sand) on the western shore, nearly
opposite to Mount Sinai. The castle of Akabah, which
stands about 24 miles from the head of the gulf, on the east
side, 150 yards from the beach, is a massive bastioned quad¬
rangle, erected by the Sultan el-Ghury of Egypt in the
sixteenth century, and is situated, as its Arabic name imports,
on a steep declivity, in Lat. 29. 30. 58. N. Long. 35. 0. 54.
E. It is surrounded with groves of the date-palm, and im¬
mediately behind it rises the lofty Jebel el-Ashhab. A few
soldiers garrison the castle, which serves as a depot to supply
provisions to the troops and the Hajj Caravan in its progress
from Cairo to Mecca. Within its walls are several Arab
dwellings, and deep wells of good water. Fresh water is
also obtained on the shore by digging a little way into the
sand. The adjacent plain is rich in pasturage, though near
the sea it is strongly impregnated with salt. The fierce pre¬
datory character of the neighbouring Bedouins is a serious
impediment to travellers.
Though now a place of little importance, Akabah is not
devoid of historical interest: it is supposed to occupy the
site of the Elath of Scripture, from which an extensive com¬
merce was carried on in remote ages with Rhinoculura,
now El Arish, on the Mediterranean, 116 miles distant. It
was the Aila or Elana of the Romans; and during the Cru¬
sades it was taken by the Christians, and again wrested
from them by Saladin, through means of ships transported
on camels from Cairo. Midway between Akabah and Kaszer
el-Bedawy (a dilapidated castle standing southward one
hour’s journey on the east side of the gulf) there are ruins
in the sea, consisting of houses, walls, and columns, visible
Ajofrin
II
Akabah.
434 A K E
Aken only at low water, and rendered difficult of access by the
il shallows. They are supposed to be the remains of the
v 'ensiJ5‘ Scripture Eziongeber “ which is beside Eloth,” where king
*” Solomon made a navy of ships, which brought gold from
Ophir (1 Kings ix. 26, 28 ; 2 Chron. viii. 17), and was pro¬
bably the port to which his fleet returned from Tarshish
once every three years, bringing “ gold and silver, ivory,
and apes, and peacocks.” (2 Chron. ix. 21.) The mention of
peacocks would seem to indicate that Tarshish was some
part of the coast of India, as this bird is indigenous to that
country: and it may likewise be inferred, from several other
passages, that the Israelites were not a maritime people, as
Solomon’s ships, we are told, were manned by Hiram with
Tyrian sailors. The “ Akrabbim” (i. e. steep of scorpions),
mentioned in Numbers xxxiv. 4, is supposed by Burckhardt
to be the acclivity of the mountain-chain westward from
the plain of Akabah.—Burckhardt’s Travels in Syria:
Kobinson’s Biblical Researches in Palestine: Wellsted’s
Travels in Arabia.
AKEN, a Prussian town in the government of Magde¬
burg on the Elbe. Its chief manufactures are cloth, leather,
and tobacco. Pop. in 1849, 4685.
AKENSIDE, Mark, was of respectable though humble
parentage, his father being a butcher in Newcastle-upon-
Tyne, where the poet was born on the 9th November 1721.
His parents intended him for the Dissenting Church, and from
an educational fund connected with his denomination, he re¬
ceived aid to prosecute the necessary studies at the university
of Edinburgh. Subsequent reflection directed his aims to the
study of medicine, and he afterwards honourably repaid to his
denomination the sum which he had not devoted to the pur¬
pose for which it was bestowed. In 1741 he went to Leyden,
to complete his medical curriculum. There he acquired the
friendship of his afterwards munificent patron, Jeremiah
Dyson, Esq. He received his degree of Doctor of Physic,
and returning to England in 1744, published his Pleasures
of Imagination, which was received with unbounded ap¬
plause. He settled as a physician at Northampton, but found
the field already pre-occupied. “ Akenside tried the contest
a while,” says Johnson, “ but, having deafened the place
with clamours of liberty, he removed to Hampstead, and sub¬
sequently fixed himself in London, the proper place for a
man of accomplishments like his.” As medicine did not
seem likely to earn for him the maintenance of a gentle¬
man, his generous friend Mr Dyson, with whom he resided,
settled on him an annuity of L.300 a-year. He used
every means, however, of advancing his reputation in his
profession, by the publication of medical treatises, by ob¬
taining a degree from Cambridge, by becoming a member
of the Royal Society, and of the College of Physicians; and
by the acceptance of public lectureships. “ He advanced
gradually in medical reputation, but never attained to any
great extent of practice, or eminence of popularity.” Sir
John Hawkins alleges that he defeated his own efforts by
the high opinion he everywhere manifested of himself, and
the little condescension he showed to men of inferior endow¬
ments. He was certainly a man of solid ability and exten¬
sive scholarship, but the warmth of his temperament inten¬
sified his vanity and arrogance to a ludicrous extent, and
often placed him in mortifying circumstances. The humble¬
ness of his birth was a thorn in his flesh, which his opponents
loved to irritate. His manners were formal and strainedly
dignified. He was a brilliant and pleasing companion, but
exacting and pedantic in conversation. In Smollett’s Pere¬
grine Pickle Akenside is the ode-writing doctor who gives
the feast after the manner of the ancients. His features
were manly and expressive; his temper, though irritable, was
kind and benevolent. He continued to write and wrangle
amidst the literary society of London till the year 1770, when
A K E
he died of a putrid fever, while he was engaged in i’e-casting Akenside.
his great poem ; bequeathing to his patron Dyson the office
of his literary executor. He is buried in the parish church
of St James’s, Westminster.
The Pleasures of Imagination is certainly a remarkable
effort of a young man between twenty and twenty-three
years of age ; though it cannot compare in profoundness of
reflection with Pope’s Essay on Man, nor in simple warmth of
natural feeling with Campbell’s Pleasures of Hope, both com¬
posed at the same period of life. Its design, as he himself
explains, is “to give a view of these (pleasures), in the largest
acceptation of the term ; so that whatever our imagination
feels from the agreeable appearances of nature, and all the
various entertainment we meet with, either in poetry, paint¬
ing, music, or any of the elegant arts, might be deducible
from one or other of those principles in the constitution of
the human mind, which are here established and explained.”
The poem has the fault of youth, in diffuseness and obscurity
of expression in a train of subtle thinking; but its effect is
brilliant and spirit-stirring; it is full of aspirations after the
lofty, the liberal, and the good, and is coloured with the Attic
graces resulting from a warm sympathy with the Grecian
spirit. Of its philosophy the poet Gray speaks contemptu¬
ously as “ infected with the Hutcheson jargon.” Dr Thomas
Brown has largely used its pictorial portions as illustrations
in his ethical lectures. Of its poetry Johnson remarks that
“ his images are forms fantastically lost under a superfluity
of dress.
“ Pars minima est ipsa puella sui.
The words are multiplied till the sense is hardly per¬
ceived ; attention deserts the mind and settles in the ear.
The reader wanders through the gay diffusion, sometimes
amazed, sometimes delighted, but after many turnings in
the flowery labyrinth, comes out as he went in. He ob¬
served little, and laid hold of nothing.” The following is
Professor Spalding’s estimate: “ A vivid fancy, a warm
susceptibility of fine emotion, and an alluring pomp of lan¬
guage, are lavished on a series of pictures, illustrating the
feelings of beauty and sublimity. The mischief is, that the
poet, theorizing and poetizing by turns, loses his hold of his
readers more than other writers whose topics are less abstract.
The philosophical thinker finds better teaching elsewhere;
and the poetical student, unless he is also metaphysically in¬
clined, has his enthusiasm chilled by the intrusive disser¬
tations.”—History of English Literature.
Akenside’s profusion of odes, hymns, epistles, and in¬
scriptions, follow the artificial fashion of the eighteenth cen¬
tury. Most of these possess no great merit, but Johnson’s
condemnation of them appears too severe. This may pos¬
sibly be in part owing to the spirit of freedom many of
them breathe. For in his “ hot youth,” Akenside was a
theoretical republican, and he continued throughout life a
Whig, so far as the term implies what we understand by
liberal principles. “ Whether, when he resolved not to be
a Dissenting minister,” says Johnson, in speaking of Aken¬
side’s politics, “he ceased to be a Dissenter, I know not. He
certainly retained an unnecessary and outrageous zeal for
what he called and thought liberty ; a zeal which sometimes
disguises from the world, and not rarely from the mind which
it possesses, an envious desire of plundering wealth, or of de¬
grading greatness.” The Epistle to Curio, which he after¬
wards spoiled by converting it into the Ode to Curio, is a bit¬
ter stricture on Pulteney’s desertion of his principles after the
fall of Walpole. The Hymn to the Naiads, and the Hymn
to Science, are perhaps the finest of Akenside’s minor works.
The Pleasures of Imagination, his capital work, was first
published in 1744. Extraordinary though it was, as the pro¬
duction of a man who had not reached his 23d year, he was
afterwards sensible that it wanted revision and correction;
A K H
Akerblad and he went on revising and correcting it for several years;
II but finding this task to grow upon his hands, and despairing of
Akhbar. ever executing it to his own satisfaction, he abandoned the pur-
'"■"’v'—^ pose of correcting, and resolved to write the poem over anew
upon a somewhat different and enlarged plan. He finished
two books of his new poem, a few copies of which were
printed for the use of the author and certain friends ; of the
first book in 1757, of the second in 1765. He finished also
a good part of a third book, and an introduction to a fourth ;
but his most munificent and excellent friend, conceiving all
that was executed of the new work too inconsiderable to sup¬
ply the place and supersede the republication of the original
poem, and yet too valuable to be withheld from the public,
caused them both to be inserted in the collection of his
poems. (d. s.)
AKERBLAD, Jan David, a learned Swede, who greatly
distinguished himself by his profound researches in Runic,
Coptic, Phoenician, and ancient Egyptian literature. His re¬
searches on the hieroglyphics of the latter are held in much
estimation. After having travelled much in the east, he re¬
tired to Rome, where he had a pension from the late Duchess
of Devonshire, and died there, in the prime of life, in 1819.
AKERMAN, a circle in the Russian province of Bess¬
arabia, extending along the banks of the Black Sea, where
the Dneister forms an estuary. It is nearly destitute of po¬
pulation, except the capital, of the same name, which is built
on a tongue of land projecting into the estuary. It is the
ancient Roman colony of Alba Julia. It is surrounded with
strong walls and ditches, contains a castle, two public baths,
five churches, several mosques, and a synagogue for Jews.
The population, of various nations, religions, and languages,
amounts to about 25,000. Its situation renders it a place
of considerable trade. It is in Long. 30. 24. 15. E. and Lat.
46. 11. 45. N. Here the treaty with Turkey was concluded
in 1826.
AKHALIES, a class of religious warriors among the Sikhs,
and the most dissolute and most turbulent members of the
Sikh community. They are both fanatics and fatalists, and
admit proselytes from the lowest dregs of society. They
acknowledge no God, but make fate the cause of all things.
AKHALZIKE, a fortress on the south-west frontier of
Russian Georgia, formerly the capital of a Turkish pashalic.
Lat. 41.35. N. Long. 42.45. E. The adjoining town is sup¬
posed to have a population of 15,000. The neighbourhood
produces silk, honey, and wax, with excellent raisins, peaches,
apricots, figs, and other fruits.
AKHALZIKH, or Akiska, a city of Georgia, in Asia¬
tic Russia, on an affluent of the Kur, 110 miles west of
Tiflis. Lat. 41. 40. N. Long. 43.1. E. It was formerly the
capital of a pashalic, and carried on an active trade in white
slaves, now entirely suppressed. It has a strong castle, a
college, and library, a fine mosque, and a considerable trade
in silk, honey, and wax. Pop. about 12,000.
AKHBAR, or Ukhbar, called also Acbar or Acber,
or Akbar or Akber, the greatest and the best of the Mo¬
gul emperors of Hindustan, was the son of Humayun, the
son of Baber, the founder of the empire. He was born at
the foot of Anercote, in the desert of Sinde, on 14th Octo¬
ber 1542; ascended the throne 15th February 1556, and
died at Agra, 13th October 1605, after a chequered, but
generally prosperous, reign of nearly fifty years. He esta¬
blished his dominion over all Hindustan, or Northern India,
and was, in fact, the real founder of the empire ; his two pre¬
decessors having commenced the conquest of India without
complete success, and Humayun having lost nearly all that
his father had gained. Although almost continually occu¬
pied with enemies abroad, and rebellions and revolutions at
home, he found time to cultivate the arts of peace, and gave
the most anxious and most enlightened attention to every-
A K Y 435
thing that seemed calculated to promote the welfare of his Akhissar
people. He encouraged trade and commerce, reduced tax- l!
ation, and kept a strict watch over the conduct of his officers. ^ Akyab- ^
But what most of all distinguished him from other Maho-
metan rulers was his spirit of toleration. Professing no dog¬
matic faith himself, he not only did not persecute the adhe¬
rents of any creed, but showed the same benevolent atten¬
tion to the interests of all his subjects, whether Moslem or
Hindu. The mildness of his character, his strict impar¬
tiality, magnanimity, and personal courage, are mentioned
with praise even by the Jesuits, who visited India during his
reign; and the memory of his good qualities and deeds still
lives among the people of Hindustan. His body was depo¬
sited in a splendid mausoleum, which remains entire at Se-
cundra, a ruinous village six miles north of Agra ; and is
considered to be one of the finest architectural monuments
of India, inferior only to the Taj-Mehal at Agra. It is built
of red stone, and consists of several tiers of arcades and gal¬
leries, on the top of which is a small platform, surrounded
by a marble screen richly carved, and affording an extremely
fine view of the surrounding country. In the centre of the
platform is Akbar’s monument, of white marble, with these
words:—“ The god Ahbar, may his glory be magnified an
inscription that is thought to countenance the charge made
against him, that he had aspired to divine honours. The
body reposes in a plain sarcophagus, under a lofty dome,
on the ground floor. See Abulfazl.
AKHISSAR, the ancient Thyatira, a city of Natolia, in
Asia, situate in a plain 18 miles broad, which produces
plenty of cotton and grain. The inhabitants, who are rec¬
koned to be about 8000, are Greeks, Armenians, and Turks.
The houses are built of earth or turf dried in the sun,
and are very low and ill constructed; but there are six or
seven mosques which are all of marble. There are remark¬
able inscriptions on marble in several parts of the town, which
are part of the ruins of the ancient Thyatira. It is on a
branch of the river Hermus, 50 miles from Pergamos. Long.
28. 30. E. Lat. 38. 50. N.
AKHMETSCHET. See Simferopol.
AKHTIAR. See Sevastopol.
AKIBA, a famous rabbi, flourished a little after the de¬
struction of Jerusalem by Titus. He kept the flocks of a
rich citizen of Jerusalem till the fortieth year of his age, and
then devoted himself to study in the academies for twenty-
four years; and was afterwards one of the greatest masters
in Israel. According to the Jewish accounts, he had 24,000
scholars. He declared for the impostor Barcochebas, whom
he owned as the Messiah; and not only anointed him king,
but took upon himself the office of his master of the horse.
The troops which the emperor Hadrian sent against the
Jews, who, under the conduct of this false Messiah, had com¬
mitted horrid massacres, exterminated this faction. Akiba
was taken, and put to death with great cruelty. He lived
120 years, and was buried with his wife in a cave upon a
mountain not far from Tiberias. According to tradition, his
24,000 scholars were buried around bim. It is said that he
invented a supposititious work under the name of the pa¬
triarch Abraham.
AKOND, an officer of justice in Persia, who takes cog¬
nisance of the causes of orphans and widows, of contracts,
and other civil concerns. He is the head of the school of
law, and gives lectures to all the subaltern officers. He has
his deputies in all the courts of the kingdom, who, with the
second sadra, make all contracts.
AKYAB, a town and seaport of Arracan, in the East
Indies, situate on the eastern side of the island of the same
name, and at the mouth of the river Kuladyne. Previous
to its occupation by the British, in 1826, Akyab was a petty
village, consisting of a few fishermen’s huts; but since that
436 ALA
-Al period it has gradually increased in importance, and has now
Alabama ^ecome t^ie most flourishing place of the province. The
v * ‘ town ^ regularly built, with broad streets running at right
angles to each other; the houses are spacious and substantial,
and the shops are said to be well supplied with native goods
and British manufactures. Rice is the principal article of
export; and so abundant is the supply, that Akyab is called
the granary of Arracan. The harbour, though inferior to
that of Khyouk Phyoo, has the advantage of being sur¬
rounded ‘by a fertile tract of vast extent, and of communi¬
cating with the rivers which form the outlets for the export
of the surplus produce of the province. The soil of the
island is of a sandy description, which soon becomes dry
after rain, and the atmosphere is consequently devoid of
that humidity to which the interior of the province is sub¬
ject; and the heat which there is found so oppressive is here
tempered by refreshing sea-breezes. The population of the
town in 1841 amounted to 5000. Akyab was ceded to the
British by the Burmese, under the provisions of the treaty
concluded at Yandaboo on the 24th February 1826. Lat.
20. 9. Long. 92. 56. (e. t.)
AL, an Arabic particle prefixed to words, and signifying
much the same with the English particle the. Thus they
say, alkermes, alkoran, &c., i. e. the kermes, the koran, &c.
Al, or Ald, a Saxon term, frequently prefixed to the
names of places, denoting their antiquity; as, Aldborough,
Aldgate, &c.
ALA, a Latin term, properly signifying a wing; from a
resemblance to which several other things are called by the
same name. Thus,
Ala is a term used by botanists for the hollow of a stalk,
which either the leaf or the pedicle of the leaf makes with
it; or it is that hollow turning, or sinus, placed between the
stalk or branch of a plant and the leaf, whence a new off¬
spring usually issues. Sometimes it is used for those parts
of leaves otherwise called lobes or wings.
AL/E, the plural number, is used to signify those petals
or leaves of papilionaceous flowers placed between those
others which are called the vexillum and carina, and which
make the top and bottom of the flowers. Instances of flowers
of this structure are seen in those of pease and beans, in
which the top leaf or petal is the vexillum, the bottom the
carina, and the side ones the aim.
Alje is also used for those extremely slender and mem¬
branaceous parts of some seeds which appear as wings placed
on them. It likewise signifies those membranaceous expan¬
sions running along the stems of some plants, which are
therefore called alated stalks.
in Anatomy, a term applied to the lobes of the
liver, the cartilages of the nostrils, &c.
Alte, in the Roman Art of War, were the two wings or
extreme parts of the army drawn up in order of battle.
ALABAMA, one of the Lnited States of North America,
lyhjg between Lat. 30. and 35. N. and Long. 85. and 88. W.
It is bounded by tlorida and the Gulf of Mexico on the
south, the state of Mississippi on the west, Tennessee on the
north, and Georgia on the east. Its length is 330 miles,
breadth 174, and area 50,722 square miles. The country
to the extent of more than 50 miles from the coast, consists
of uneven lands, of a poor sandy soil, bearing little except
pines, but interspersed with marshes and alluvial tracts on
the sides of the streams, which are extremely fertile. HHier
up, the country becomes fertile and beautiful, and it bears
that aspect as iar as the mountains occupying the northern
part of the state. These mountains are about 50 miles in
breadth, and are supposed to exceed 1500 feet in height,
but have peaks rising much higher. They are covered with
a stony soil, but on their southern side are many rich and
beautiful valleys, clothed with forests of oak, hickory, walnut.
A Tj A
gum, and maple. The country abounds in coal and iron Alabarcha
ore, with numerous marble and hard and soft limestone II
quarries. The climate in the southern and low-lying parts Alabastei’.
of the country is very warm, but in the more elevated
parts mild and salubrious. Its principal river, the Alabama,
is formed by the junction of the Coosa and the Tallapoosa,
and flowing S.S.W., unites with the Tombeckbee, 45 miles
above Mobile Bay, to form the river Mobile. The popula¬
tion of this state has rapidly increased during the last forty
years, being in 1810 only 20,845, and in 1850, 779,001 ;
of whom 344,323 were slaves. Its commercial prosperity
has fully kept pace with the increase of its population; for
in the year ending 30th June 1851, the value of its exports
amounted to 818,528,824, being greater than that of any of
the other states, with the exception of New York and Louisi¬
ana. Its imports for the same period amounted to 8413,446.
The following are the principal of its agricultural produc¬
tions for the year 1850:—560,360 bales of ginned cotton ;
637,829 lb. of wool; 292,429 bushels of wheat; 28,485,966
bushels of Indian corn ; 163,605 lb. of tobacco ; 3,961,592
lb. of butter; 30,423 lb. of cheese; and 31,801 tons of hay.
In the same year the quantity of improved land amounted
to 4,387,088 acres; the value of its farming implements and
machinery was 85,066,814; and of its live stock 831,558,686.
It enjoys great facilities for commerce from its rivers being
navigable to a great distance from the sea, as also from its
railroads, of which, in January 1852, 121 miles were open,
and 190 miles in progress; and besides these, it has 52 miles
of canals. Several large cotton factories have been esta¬
blished, and the people are now beginning to direct their
attention to the mineral wealth of the country: coal-mining
is carried on to a considerable extent, and several iron forges
have recently been erected. The facilities presented for
shipbuilding are likewise beginning to attract notice. By
the last census (1850) the representative population was
631,272, who send seven members to Congress. The go¬
vernment is vested in a governor, senate, and house of re¬
presentatives, who meet biennially at Montgomery. The
senate consists of 33 members, elected for four years, one-
half going out every two years: the house of representa¬
tives consists of 100 members elected for two years. The
members of both houses receive 84 a-day each, and the
governor has a salary of $2500. In 1847, the public re¬
cords and offices were removed from Tuscaloosa to Mont¬
gomery, where the meetings of the legislature are now
held. The Capitol was destroyed by fire in 1849, but
another has been erected on its site, completed in Novem¬
ber 1851. The judges of the supreme and chancery courts
are elected by the joint vote of both houses of the General
Assembly for a period of six years : and by an amendment
in the jurisdiction ratified in January 1850, the people elect
the judges of the circuit courts for a similar period. The
jurisdiction of the circuit courts extends to all civil and
criminal causes in the state, and that of the supreme court
to hearing and deciding in appeals from the inferior courts.
A well-endowed university has been founded at Tuscaloosa,
and there is also a Baptist, a Catholic, and a Methodist
college. This state is divided into fifty-three counties. It
was admitted into the Union as an independent state, by an
act of Congress in 1819.
ALABARCHA, in Antiquity, a kind of magistrate among
the Jews of Alexandria, whom the emperor allowed them
to elect, for the superintendence of their policy, and the de¬
cision of differences and disputes.
ALABASTER, William, an English divine, was born
at Hadley, in the county of Suffolk. He was one of the
doctors of Trinity College in Cambridge ; and attended the
Earl of Essex as his chaplain in the expedition to Cadiz in
the reign of Queen Elizabeth. Apparently from pique at
A L A
A L A
m
Alabaster not being advanced in the English Church according to his
II own estimation of his merits, he there joined the Romish
Alaejos. C()mmuni0n. Disappointed, however, in his expectations,
lie returned to England in order to resume his former religion.
He obtained a prebend in the cathedral of St Paul, and after
that the rectory of Therfield in Hertfordshire. He was well
skilled in the Hebrew tongue; but wasted his ingenuity in
the study of the Cabala, as is testified by his theological writ¬
ings. He was also a poet, and is honoured with the praises
of Spenser and Herrick. He died in the year 1640.
Alabaster, in Natural History, a mineral substance
whose base is calcareous earth. It differs from marble in
being combined, not with the carbonic, but with the sul¬
phuric acid. The oriental alabaster of the antiquary and
sculptor is a fibrous carbonate of lime.
Alabaster, in Antiquity, a term used for a vase wdiere-
in odoriferous liquors were anciently put. The reason of the
denomination is that vessels for this purpose were frequently
made of the alabaster stone, which Pliny and other ancients
represent as peculiarly proper for this purpose.
Alabaster is also said to have been used for an ancient
liquid measure, containing ten ounces of wine, or nine of oil.
In this sense the alabaster was equal to half the sextary.
ALABASTRUM Dendroide, a kind of laminated ala¬
baster, beautifully variegated with the figures of shrubs, trees,
&c., and found in great abundance in the province of Ho-
henstein.
ALACRANES, a reef or shoal in the Gulf of Mexico,
off the north coast of Yucatan, from which it is 80 miles
distant. It extends 14 miles from N. to S., and 11 from E.
to W. On the south side there is a secure harbour, well
sheltered by dry reefs. On the 12th of February 1847,
the mail steamship Tweed was wrecked on this reef; and
in January 1849 a similar disaster befell the Forth, another
steamer belonging to the same company. Eat. of the port,
22. 23. 6. N. Long. 89. 49. W.
ALADINISTS, a sect among the Mahometans, answer¬
ing to freethinkers among us.
ALADSCHAHISSAR, a Turkish pashalic (Sandschah),
part of the ancient Bulgaria, a mountainous district, in which
the river Moravia rises in two branches, and runs into the
Danube. It extends from Long. 21. 45. to 22. 30. E. and
from Lat. 42. 30. to 43. 20. N. The great road from Bel¬
grade passes through the northern part of the province. It
is productive of wine, feeds much cattle, and has some rivers
near Camplina. The capital, of the same name, sometimes
called Kruschevarz, is the seat of a Greek bishop, and has
a castle, once the residence of the predatory chief Von Serf,
and wrested from him by the Sultan Murad the Second. It
is near the east bank of the river Moravia.
ALADULIA, or Adadeul, a considerable province of
Turkey in Asia, in that part called Natolia, between the moun¬
tains of Antitaurus, which separate it from Amasia on the
north, and from Caramania on the west. It has the Mediter¬
ranean Sea on the south ; and the Euphrates divides it on the
east from Diarbekir. It comprehends the Lesser Armenia
of the ancients, and the east part of Cilicia. Formerly it had
kings of its own ; but the head of the last king was cut off by
Selim I. emperor of the Turks, who had conquered the coun¬
try. It is now divided into twm parts: the north, compre¬
hended between Taurus, Antitaurus, and the Euphrates, is a
beglerbeglic, which bears the name of Marash, the capital
town ; and the south, seated between Mount Taurus and the
Mediterranean, is united to the beglerbeglic of Aleppo. The
country is rough, rugged, and mountainous ; yet there are
good pastures, and plenty of horses and camels. The people
are hardy and thievish. The capital is Malatia.
ALAEJOS, a Spanish town in the province of Valladolid,
with two fine churches of Doric architecture, a convent, a
hospital, and four schools. The chief manufacture is linen. Alagon
Pop. 3255. II
ALAGON, a Spanish town in the province of Zaragoza,Alamanni-
near the confluence of the Ebro and the Jalon. Pop.
1932.
Alagon, a river of Spain, rising in the province of Sala¬
manca, on the southern side of the Sierra de Herreros, and
flowing through the provice of Caceres. After a course of
90 miles from N. to S. and S.W. it falls into the Tagus near
Alcantara.
ALAIN, Ciiartier, secretary to Charles VII. king of
France, born in the year 1386. He was the author of seve¬
ral works in prose and verse ; but his most famous perform¬
ance was his Chronicle of King Charles VII. Bernard de
Girard, in his preface to the History of France, styles him
“ an excellent historian, who has given an account of all the
affairs, particulars, ceremonies, speeches, answers, and cir¬
cumstances, at which he was present himself, or had infor¬
mation of.” Giles Coroxet tells us that Margaret, daughter
to the king of Scotland, and wife to the Dauphin, passing
once through a hall w here Alain lay asleep, she stopped and
kissed him before all the company who attended. Some of
them telling her, that it was strange she should kiss a man
w ho had so few charms in his person, she replied, “ I did
not kiss the man, but the mouth from whence proceed so
many excellent sayings, so many wise discourses, and so
many elegant expressions.” Fontenelle, among his Dialogues
of the Dead, has one upon this incident, between the princess
Margaret and Plato. Pasquier compares Alain to Seneca,
on account of the great number of beautiful sentences inter¬
spersed throughout his writings.
ALAIS, an arrondissement in the department of the Gard,
in France, extending over 529 square miles, or 338,900
acres. It is divided into nine cantons and ninety-five com¬
munes, and in 1846 contained 98,133 inhabitants.
Alais, the chief city of the arrondissement of the same
name. It is situate on the river Garden, at the foot of the
Cevennes. It contains 16,983 inhabitants, Who are em¬
ployed in manufacturing ribbons, sewing-silk, silk-hosiery,
cotton-goods, glass, porcelain, and other articles. Long.
3. 29. 40. E. Lat. 44. 7. N. It has mines of coal and iron.
ALA JAR, a town of Spain, in the province of Huelva,
with a population of 1995.
ALAMAGAN, one of the Ladrone or Marianne islands,
in the Indian Ocean, is situated in Long. 146.47. E. Lat. 18.
5. N. It is of an irregular form, and about 12 miles in cir¬
cumference. The land in some places of this island is
pretty high, so that it may be seen at the distance of 12 or
14 leagues. Near the north end of the island there is a vol¬
cano, which emitted an immense body of smoke in the year
1799, when it was visited by Captain Bass. The volcano
is in a mountain close to the sea, rising above its level 1200
or 1500 feet. The high parts of the island are rugged and
sterile. In the lower parts there is a profusion and luxu¬
riance of vegetation. These abound with cocoa-nut trees,
several kinds of stone-fruit, and the mellora or bread-tree of
the Nicobar islands. Some small sugar-canes, some banana
trees, and one bread-fruit tree, were discovered. Lizards,
land-crabs, large partridges, quails, pigeons, owls, thrushes,
and bullfinches, are numerous. But no fresh water, which
was the object of Captain Bass’s visit, could be found.
ALAMANNI, or Alemanni, Luigi, an Italian states¬
man and poet, was born at Florence in 1495. Having taken
part in an unsuccessful conspiracy against Giulio de Medici,
afterwards Pope Clement VIL, he was obliged to take re¬
fuge in Venice, and afterwards in France. The hlorentines
having in the meantime recovered their liberty, Alamanni
returned to his country, and took a prominent part in the
affairs of the state. On the occurrence of a new revolution
438
A L A
Alamos he was again banished, and retired into France. Here he
^jjn composed the greater part of his works. He was greatly
‘ , esteemed by Francis L, who, after the peace of Crespi in
1544, sent him as ambassador to Charles V. It is re¬
lated that in the course of his address before the emperor,
having spoken with complimentary emphasis of the imperial
eagle, Charles quickly interrupted him with the words,
“ 1’aquila grifagna,
Che per piu devorar, duoi rostri porta.”
The lines were the ambassador’s own, written with satiri¬
cal allusion to the imperial crest. Alamanni replied that
these were the words of a poet, and spoken in the heat of
youth, but that now he spoke as an ambassador, uttering
the words of truth and soberness. Charles was pleased with
this ready reply, and congratulated him on enjoying the pa¬
tronage of so distinguished a monarch as Francis I. After
the death of Francis, Alamanni was still retained in the fa¬
vour of his successor, Henry II., who in 1551 sent him as
his ambassador to Genoa. He died at Amboise in 1556. He
wrote a large number of poems distinguished by the purity
and elegance of their style : the best of these is his didactic-
poem, entitled La Coltivazione. He is also the author of
notes on the Iliad and Odyssey: those on the Iliad are in¬
serted in the Cambridge edition of 1689, and in Barnes’ fine
edition of 1711.
ALAMOS, Balthasar, a Spanish writer, born at Medina
del Campo, in Castile. After having studied the law at
Salamanca, he entered into the service of Anthony Perez,
secretary of state under Philip II. He was in high esteem
and confidence with his master, on which account he was
imprisoned after the disgrace of this minister. He was kept
in confinement 11 years, when Philip HI. coming to the
throne, set him at liberty, according to the orders given by
his father in his will. Alamos continued in a private capa¬
city till the duke of Olivarez, the favourite of Philip IV.,
called him to public employments. He was a man of ex¬
cellent wit as well as judgment. He died in the 88th year
of his age. His Spanish translation of Tacitus, and the
aphorisms which he added in the margin, gained him great
reputation. This work was published at Madrid in 1614, and
was to have been followed, as mentioned in the king’s privi-
lege, with a commentary, which, however, has never yet
appeared. The author composed the whole during his im¬
prisonment.
ALAN, Cardinal William, was born at Rossal in
Lancashire, in the year 1532. He went to Oxford at the
age of 15, and in 1550 was elected fellow of Oriel College.
In 1556, being then only 24 years old, he was chosen prin¬
cipal of St Mary’s Hall, and one of the proctors of the uni¬
versity. In 1558 he was made canon of York; but, upon
Queen Elizabeth’s accession to the throne, he left England,
and settled at Louvaine, in an English college, of which he
became the chief support. In 1565 he visited his native
country; but on account of his extreme activity in the pro¬
pagation of the Roman Catholic religion, he was obliged to
fly the kingdom in 1568. He went first to Mechlin, and
then to Douay, where he was made doctor of divinity.
Soon after he was appointed canon of Cambray, and then
canon of Rheims. In 1587 he was created cardinal wdth
the title of St Martin in Montibus, and obtained from the
king of Spain a rich abbey in the kingdom of Naples, and
afterwards the bishopric of Mechlin. It is supposed to have
been by his advice and instigation that Philip II. attempted
to invade England. He died on the 20th of October 1594,
aged 63, and was buried in the English college at Rome’.
He was a man of considerable learning, and an elegant
writer. He wrote many books in defence of the Romish
religion. The most remarkable are, 1. A defence of the
Twelve Martyrs in one Year. Tho. Alfield was hanged
Alaric.
ALA
for bringing into England and publishing this and others of Aland
Alan’s works in the year 1584. 2. A Declaration of the
Sentence of Sextus V., &c.; a work intended to explain the
P«pe’s bull for the excommunication of Queen Elizabeth,
and to exhort the people of England to take up arms in fa¬
vour of the Spaniards. Many thousand copies of this book,
printed at Antwerp, were put on board the Armada; but
the enterprise failing, they were afterwards destroyed. 3.
Of the Worship due to Saints and their Relics, 1583. This
treatise, which was answered by Lord Burleigh, is esteemed
the most elegant of the cardinal’s writings.
ALAND, a group of islands at the entrance of the Gulf
of Bothnia, between Lat. 59. 50. and 60. 32. N. and Long.
19. 10. and 21. 7. E. It consists of more than 80 inhabited,
and more than 200 uninhabited islets, and rocks, most of
which rise to a considerable elevation above the level of the
sea. The surface is either a thin layer of clay, a rich mould,
slate-stone, or sand. The arable soil produces rye and
barley sufficient for home consumption, with hops, potatoes,
and various culinary vegetables. The pasture grounds
are generally very poor, yet they maintain considerable num¬
bers of sheep, goats, and beeves. The fisheries are also
productive, and waterfowl abound. The climate, though keen,
and often severe, is more temperate than that of Finland.
The inhabitants amount to about 14,000, mostly Swedes ;
9000 of them being settled in Aland, the largest of the
group. These islands were ceded by Sweden to Russia in
1809. Several of the harbours have been fortified, and are
the station of a large military force, and a numerous flotilla.
ALANJE, a small town of Spain, 33 miles from Badajoz,
with medicinal baths, which in 1844 afforded relief or cure to
388 out of 427 patients.
ALANT, in Heraldry, is a mastiff dog with short ears.
AL ARAF, in the Mahometan Theology, the partition
wall that separates heaven from hell. The word is plural,
and is derived from the Arabic verb arafa, to distinguish ;
in the singular it is written al arf It gives the denomina¬
tion to the seventh chapter of the Koran, wherein mention
is made of this wall. Mahomet seems to have borrow ed this
idea either from the great gulf of separation mentioned in
the New Testament, or from the Jewish writers, who also
speak of a thin wall dividing heaven from hell. Mahometan
writers differ extremely as to the persons who are to be
found on Al Araf. Some take it for a sort of limbus for the
patriarchs, prophets, &c.; others place here those whose
good and evil works so exactly balance each other that they
deserve neither reward nor punishment; others imagine this
intermediate space to be possessed by those who, going to
war without their parents’ leave, and suffering martyrdom
there, are excluded paradise for their disobedience, yet
escape hell because they are martyrs.
ALARIC I., a celebrated general of the Visigoths, sprung
from one of the noblest families of that people, and after¬
wards elected their king. He is first noticed in history as
the leader of the Gothic auxiliaries of Theodosius the Great,
a.d. 394. After the death of that emperor, the Goths re¬
volted from his son, and Alaric entered Greece at the head
of200,000 men. His march was arrested by the Thessalians
on the river Peneus, but he forced his way into Greece, and
returned into Epirus laden with spoil. Five years afterwards
he marched through Pannonia into Italy, where he was
defeated by Stilicho in the bloody battle of Pollentia. Driven
out of Italy, he obtained from Honorius the praefecture of
Illyricum. On the murder of Stilicho, Alaric, a.d. 400,
again invaded Italy, and sat down before the walls of Rome ;
but he accepted a ransom and raised the siege. After a
fruitless negotiation with the feeble Honorius, he raised a
competitor to the purple, whom he soon degraded, and ob¬
tained oossession of Rome by the treachery of the slaves and
ALA ALA 439
Alaric domestics of the Romans. The imperial city was given up
II to be plundered by his followers, and though ecclesiastical
Alasco. writers have celebrated the piety and clemency of Alaric, it
cannot be denied that the unfortunate inhabitants sustained
the greatest outrages from this ruthless barbarian. This
memorable event took place on the 24th August 410. The
rest of Italy was also ravaged, and the conqueror intended
to pass into Sicily, when death put an end to his career at
Cosenza in 411. The inhuman rites attending his funeral
have been forcibly described by Gibbon.—See Zosimus;
Claudian ; Jornandes ; Gibbon; and the article Roman
History.
Alaric II., eighth king of the Visigoths in Spain, suc¬
ceeded his father Evaric in 484. He was careful to main¬
tain the peace which his father had concluded with the
Franks; but the ambitious Clovis, eager to possess himself
of the rich Gothic provinces in Gaul, took arms against him,
and in a battle near Poitiers, gained a complete victory,
slaying Alaric w ith his own hand, a.d. 507. With Amalaric
his son ended the Gothic dynasty in France.
During the reign of Alaric, and under his authority, was
compiled the digest of laws known as the Breviarium Alari-
cianum, or Code of Alaric.
ALARM, in the Military Art, denotes either the appre¬
hension of being suddenly attacked, or the notice thereof
signified by firing a cannon, firelock, or the like. False alarms
are frequently made use of to harass the enemy, by keeping
them constantly under arms. Sometimes also this method
is taken to try the vigilance of the picquet-guard, and what
might be expected from them in case of real danger.
Alarm, in Fencing, is the same with what is otherwise
called an appeal or challenge.
AbARM-Bell, that rung upon any sudden emergency, as a
fire, mutiny, or the like.
A FAR 6, a town in the islandof Minorca, wdth a population
of 4081, and manufactures of oil, brandy, soap, linen, &e.
In the neighbourhood is an air volcano, called el Bujlador,
or the Blower.
ALASCANI, in Church History, a sect of Anti-Luther¬
ans, whose distinguishing tenet, besides their denying bap¬
tism, is said to have been this, that the words, Tins is my
body, in the institution of the eucharist, are not to be under¬
stood of the bread, but of the whole action or celebration of
the Supper. They are said to have taken the name from
Alasco, superintendent of the foreign church in England.
See the next article.
ALASCO, John, a Polish nobleman of the 16th century,
who, imbibing the reformed opinions, was expelled his
country, and became preacher to a Protestant congregation
at Embden; but foreseeing persecution there, he came to
England abo ut the year 1551, while the reformation was carry¬
ing on under Edward VI. The publication of the Interim
driving the Protestants to such places as afforded them tole¬
ration, 380 were naturalised in Britain, and obtained a char¬
ter of incorporation, by which they were erected into an eccle¬
siastical establishment, independent of the church of Eng¬
land. The church of the Augustin friars was granted them,
with the revenues, for the maintenance of Alasco as super¬
intendent, with four assistant ministers, subject to the appro¬
val of the king. This congregation lived undisturbed until
the accession of Queen Mary, when they were all banished.
They w ere kindly received, and permitted to settle at Emb¬
den ; and Alasco at last, after an absence of tw enty years,
returned, by the favour of Sigismund, to his own country,
where he died in 1560. Alasco was much esteemed by
Erasmus, and the historians of his time speak greatly in his
praise. He wrote a considerable number of theological
treatises in defence of the doctrines of the Swiss Reformers.
His real name was Lascki.
ALA-SHER. See Philadelphia, in Asiatic Turkey. Ala-Sher
ALASHKA, or Aliaska, a long narrow peninsula on II
the north-west coast of North America, forming apparently ^ " ava';
a continental continuation of the chain of the Aleutian islands.
It consists mostly of a ridge of steep rocky mountains, which
in some parts attain a great elevation. At its eastern extre¬
mity, N. Lat. 60°, there is an active volcano 14,000 feet in
height, and at the western extremity there are several cones
of great elevation, which have been seen burning, and are
covered for two thirds of their upper portions with perpetual
snow. At the same extremity, the island ot Unimak, sepa¬
rated only by a narrow strait, has enormous volcanoes, one
of them named Chichaldinsk, rising in a regular cone to the
height of 8083 feet.
ALASSIO, a seaport in the duchy of Genoa, in the Sar¬
dinian kingdom, with 6000 inhabitants, who equip several
vessels annually to the coral fishery on the shores of the
island of Sardinia.
ALASSONA, a town in European Turkey, with 3000
inhabitants. It is in the pashalic of Trikala, the ancient
Thessaly. A great fair is held here.
AL ATAMAHA, a large river of North America, which,
rising in the Appalachian Mountains, runs south-east through
the province of Georgia, and falls into the Atlantic Ocean,
below the town of Frederica. It is formed by the junction
of the Oakmutgee and Oconee, and is navigable for steam¬
boats for 300 miles from its mouth.
ALATRIUM, now Alatri, a town in the Roman Cam-
pagna, six miles north of Frosinone, wdth considerable re¬
mains of its ancient fortifications, and other objects of anti¬
quity. Pop. 8000.
ALAUDA, Lark, a numerous genus of birds. See
Ornithology.
Alauda, was the name given by Caesar to one of his
transalpine legions about 55 years b.c., probably from the
crest of their "helmets resembling that on the head of the
lark.—Suet. Cces. 24.
ALAUTA or Alt, a considerable river of Turkey in
Europe, which, after watering the north-east part of Tran¬
sylvania and part of Wallachia, falls into the Danube almost
opposite to Nicopolis.
ALAVA, a province in the north of Spain, one of those
three usually denominated Provincias Vascongadas, or
Basques, which enjoy privileges that distinguish them from
the other dominions of the Spanish monarchy, and speak a
language most remote from the Castilian, generally called
by the natives Vascuence, and by other people the Basque.
This province is of a triangular shape, bounded on the north
by Guipuzcoa and Biscay, on the east by Navarre, on the
south and south-west by Rioja, from which it is divided by
the river Ebro, and on the west by the northern part
of Old Castile. The extent of this province is 814 geo¬
graphical square miles; and the population, by the census
of 1849, amounted to 81,397 souls, giving a density of
inhabitants somewdiat exceeding the general average of
Spain.
The surface of the province is very mountainous, and is
abundantly clothed with woods and lofty trees. Its valleys
are fertile. The soil yields more corn than the subsistence
of its inhabitants requires, as well as flax, hemp, some oil,
and a kind of wine called chacoli, which is drunk when
new, and will not long retain its qualities. The mountains
abound in iron-ore; and there were once extensive manu¬
factories of iron goods, though they have of late decreased,
owing to the destruction of the forests which supplied them
with fuel; besides which, their productions are charged with
heavy imposts on their introduction into Castile. I he salt¬
works of Anana are among the largest in Spain, and yield
a yearly average of 50,000 bushels, which is said, how ever, to
440
Alay
ALB
be not more than one-eighth of what they are capable of pro-
Albacete (,lUC^nS‘ There are numerous weavers of coarse cloths and
v t j blankets over the whole province. Shoes and hats are manu¬
factured; but these articles, like the ironware, have expe¬
rienced a sensible declension of late years. The capital of the
province is Vittoria, situated on the river Zadora, which emp¬
ties itself into the Ebro. The other rivers are the Ayuda,
v/hich runs into the Zadora; and the Omecillo, which emp¬
ties itself into the Ebro.
ALAY, signifying, in the Turkish language, “ The Tri¬
umph,” a ceremony which accompanies the assembling to¬
gether the forces of that vast empire upon the breaking out
of a war. It consists of the most insipid buffoonery, and is
attended with acts of the most shocking barbarity.
ALA YOU, a Spanish town, in the island of Minorca,
with a trade in linen, brandy, flour, wine, &c. Pop. 4722.
ALB, or Alee, in the Romish Church, a vestment of
white linen hanging down to the feet, and answering to the
surplice of the English clergy. In the ancient church it was
usual with those newly baptized to wear an alb, or white
vestment; and hence the Sunday after Easter was called
dominica in ulhis, on account of the albs worn by the bap¬
tized on Easter-day.
Alb is also the name of a Turkish coin, otherwise called
asper.
ALBA, a province in the duchy of Piedmont, in the con¬
tinental Sardinian dominions. It is a fine plain of 366 square
miles, or 234,240 acres, producing abundant harvests of corn,
wine, fruits, oil, and truffles, besides the best silk. The cattle
are not numerous. There are no mines, but quarries of
marble, slate, and rock-salt. The inhabitants amount to
150,000, living in two cities and 75 towns and villages.
There is scarcely any demand for labour, but that which
agriculture requires.
Alba, a city of Italy, capital of the province of the same
name, in Piedmont. It is situated on the river Tanaro, be¬
tween Asti and Cherasco ; is the seat of a bishop, and con¬
tains, besides the cathedral, six churches and seven reli¬
gious establishments for the two sexes of ecclesiastics. Pon.
8286. Long. 8. 3. E. Lat. 44. 36. N.
Alba de tormes, a district in the east of the province of
Salamanca in Spain, with an agricultural population ofT4,l 62.
Its chief town of the same name gave their title to the
Dukes of Alva. The remains of their once magnificent
castle stand on an eminence near the town, overlooking the
plain of the Tormes. Pop. 2176. Here the French, under
Kellermann, defeated the Spaniards, Nov. 26. 1809.
Alba Firma, or Album, in our old customs, denoted
rent paid in silver, and not in corn, which was called black
mail
Alba Longa, in Ancient Geography, a colony from La-
vimum in Latium, fifteen miles south-east from Rome, esta-
bhshed by Ascamus, the son of Tineas, at the foot of the
Mons Albanus. It was called Alba, from a white sow found
by /Eneas, which farrowed thirty white pigs on that spot;
which circumstance was interpreted to portend the building
of a city there m thirty years after. (Propertius.) The epi¬
thet Longa was added on account of its length. It was the
royal residence till the building of Rome, as was foretold by
Ancluses, (Virgil); was destroyed by Tullius Hostilius, all but
the fane or temple; and the inhabitants were transplanted
to Rome, (otrabo.)
Alba Terra, one of the numerous names for the philoso¬
pher’s stone. 1
ALBACE1E, one of the new provinces of Spain, in the
north-west of the ancient province of Murcia. The extent
of the actual province is small; Pop. 19,000; but the judicial
audiencia of Albacete embraces Murcia, Ciudad Real, and
Cuenca, including a population of nearly one million. ’
ALB
Its chief town of the same name is a place of great traffic Albahurim
from its central situation, and its importance as the seat of II
the high court of appeal. From the extent and celebrity of Albani.
its steel-manufactures, it has been called the Sheffield of
Spain, but the designation is but comparatively applicable.
An impoitant article of export is saffron, which the province
produces in great abundance. Pop. of the town 13,143.
ALBAHURIM, figura sexdecim laterum, a figure of
great importance, according to astrological physicians, who
built their prognostics on it.
ALBAN, St, is said to have been the first person who
suffered martyrdom for Christianity in Britain ; he is there¬
fore usually styled the protomartyr of this island. He was
born at Verulam, and flourished towards the end of the third
century. In his youth he took a journey to Rome in com¬
pany with Amphibalus, a monk of Caerleon, and served seven
years as a soldier under the emperor Diocletian. On his
return home he settled at Verulam, and, through the ex¬
ample and instructions of Amphibalus, renounced the errors
of Paganism, in which he had been educated, and became
a convert to the Christian religion. It is generally agreed
that Alban suffered martyrdom during the great persecution
under the reign oi Diocletian ; but authors differ as to the
year when it happened. Bede and others fix it in 286;
some refer it to the year 296; but Usher reckons it amongst
the events of 303. Between 400 and 500 years after St
Alban s death, Offii, King of the Mercians, built a large and
stately monastery to his memory; and the town of St Albans,
in Hertfordshire, takes its name from our protomartyr.
ALBANENSES, in Church History, the same with Al-
bigenses. See Albigenses.
ALBANI, in Roman Antiquity, a college of the Salii,
or priests of Mars ; so called from Mount Albanus, the place
of their residence.
Albani, Cardinal Gian Francesco, was elected Pope in
November 1700, as the successor of Innocent XII. After
his election, he hesitated about accepting the high office; but
after some days ascended the chair of St Peter by the title
of Clement XL Whatever were his reasons for hesitation,
he became one of the most active and zealous pontiffs in
supporting the prerogatives and pretensions of the Holy
See; which embroiled him with Victor Amadeus of Savoy,
with Naples, a,nd with Austria. But his most noted in¬
terference was in the religious dissensions in France; when
by his bull entitled “ \ ineam Domini,” he confirmed the
edict of his predecessors against the Jansenists; but the
issuing of his celebrated bull “ Unigenitus,” in 1713, set the
kingdom of France in a flame. In this he condemned as
heretical 101 propositions in Quesnel’s Reflections Morales
sur le Nouveau Testament, in which that author had main- '
tained various opinions of St Augustin and the older fathers,
which favoured the Jansenist doctrines on Grace and Free
Will.
After a severe struggle and keen debates, Le Tellier, the
Jesuit confessor of Louis XIV., persuaded his master to re¬
ceive the bull; and it was at length registered by the Par¬
liament of Paris ; but these questions had for several years
estranged France from the Holy See. ‘
Anothei affair which troubled this pope was the disputes
concerning the Jesuit missionaries in China, who had risen
high in the consideration of the Imperial government, and
seemed too independent of the court of Rome. Clement
sent as his legate Cardinal Tournon in 1702; but he died
at Macao, and his successor, Father Mezzbarba, was but
coldly received at Pekin, and soon after ordered to quit
China, at the instigation, as it was alleged, of the Jesuits;
a source of deep mortification to this aspiring pontiff.
Clement warmly espoused the cause of the exiled house
of Stuart, and furnished the son of James II. with money
ALB
Albani for his ill-advised attempt on Britain in 1715. After the
II failure of that expedition, he offered the prince an asylum
Albania.^ ^ Urtime^ where, as the Chevalier de St George, he had
from the Pope a pension of 30,000 scudi; and, on his mar¬
riage with Clementina, daughter of the heroic John Sobieski,
gave him a palace at Rome for his residence. This Pope
died in March 1721.
Clement was a scholar, and wrote an excellent Latin
style. His Homilies have been translated into Italian by
Cescimbeni.
Albani, or Albano, Francesco, a celebrated Italian
painter, was born in Bologna in 1578, and died in 1660.
His father was a silk-merchant, and intended to bring up
his son to the same occupation; but the young Albani was
already, at the age of 12, filled with so strong an inclination
for painting, that on the death of his father, he devoted
himself entirely to art. His first master was Denys Cal¬
vert, with whom Guido Reni was at the same time a pupil.
He was soon left by Calvert entirely to the care of Guido,
and contracted with him a close friendship. He followed
Guido to the school of the Caracci; but after this, owing to
mutual rivalry, their friendship began gradually to cool.
They kept up for a long time a keen competition, and their
mutual emulation called forth some of their best productions.
Notwithstanding this rivalry, they still spoke of each other
with the highest esteem. Albani, after having greatly im-
’ pro ved himself in the school of the Caracci, went to Rome,
where he opened an academy and resided for many years.
Here he painted, after the designs of Ann. Caracci, the
whole of the frescoes in the chapel of St Diego in the
church of San Giacomo degli Spagnuoli, besides numerous
other pictures. On the death of his wife, he returned to
Bologna, where he married a second time, and resided till
his death in the enjoyment of much domestic happiness and
general esteem.
Albani was naturally of a happy and amiable disposition,
and his paintings breathe the same soft and joyous spirit.
“ In point of original invention,” says Lanzi, “ he is superior
to Domenichino, perhaps to any other of the school; and
in his representation of female forms, according to Mengs,
he has no equal. By some he is denominated the Anacreon
of painting. Like that poet, with his short odes, so Albani,
from his small paintings, acquired great reputation ; and as
the one sings Venus and the Loves, and maids and boys, so
does the artist hold up to the eye the same delicate and
graceful subjects. Nature, indeed, formed, the perusal of
the poets inclined, and fortune encouraged his genius for
this kind of painting ; and possessing a consort and twelve
children, all of surprising beauty, he was, at the same time,
' blest with the finest models for the pursuit of his studies.
He had a villa most delightfully situated, which farther pre¬
sented him with a variety of objects enabling him to repre¬
sent the beautiful rural views so familiar to his eye. Passeri
greatly extols his talent in this branch, remarking that
where others, being desirous of suiting figures to the land¬
scape, or its various objects to one another, most frequently
alter their natural colour, he invariably preserves the green
of his trees, the clearness of his waters, and the serenity of
the air, under the most lovely aspect, and contrives to unite
them with the most enchanting power of harmony.” The
most of his works are at Bologna. Among the most cele¬
brated of his pictures are those of the Four Elements;
those of Diana and Venus in the Florentine gallery; the
Toilet of Venus, in the Louvre'; Venus landing at Oyihera,
in the Ghigi palace at Rome, &c. Among the best of his
sacred subjects are a St Sebastian and an Assumption of
the Virgin, both in the church of St Sebastian at Rome.
ALBANIA, a country of considerable extent, which,
though frequently ruled by turbulent and nearly indepen-
VOL. II.
ALB 441
dent chiefs, ranks as one of the provinces of the Turkish Albania,
empire. It extends from the thirty-ninth to the forty-third
degree of north latitude, for the space of about 250 miles,
along the Mediterranean and the Gulf of Venice. The ex¬
tent inland nowhere exceeds 100 miles, and is in the
southern part not more than 30. The chain of Pindus,
called now the mountains of Sagori, of Metzovo, and of
Suli, separate it by an ill-defined line from Macedonia and
Thessaly. The Turks divided it into pashalics, of which
the principal were those of Scutari, Ochrida, Vallona, and
Butrinto ; but these distinctions, amid late revolutions, have
been in a great measure obliterated. The divisions chiefly
recognised are those formed by the varieties of the native
tribes. Colonel Leake, who is considered one of the best-
informed authorities on this head, divides them into the
Ngege, or Ghegides, whose principal towns are Dulcigno,
Scutari, and Durazzo ; the Toske or Toskides, who occupy
Berat and Elbasan ; the Liape, a poor and predatory race,
who inhabit the mountains between the Toske and Delvino;
and the Tsami, who inhabit the most southerly district, and
whose principal towns are Suli and Paramithia. In 1838,
it was divided by the Turks into six sanjaks, besides a num¬
ber of smaller divisions.
Albania nearly coincides with the ancient Epirus, but
comprising part of Macedonia, Illyria, and Chaonia. This
country was then, as now, distinguished by the rude valour
of its inhabitants. Its remote situation, and the want ot
union among its tribes, generally prevented it from acting
any conspicuous part in Grecian politics. The only re¬
markable exception occurs in the reign of Pyrrhus II., who
was justly ranked with the greatest captains of antiquity.
After his death the country was again split into a number
of petty states, which were unable to resist the united
strength of Macedon ; and to that kingdom Epirus con¬
tinued subject, till both were alike subdued by the Roman
arms.
It was during the time of the Greek empire that the
name of Albania was first given to this district. During
the decline of the empire the Albanians gradually rose to
distinction, and at last to independence. Their valour en¬
abled them to maintain their ground against the Bulgarians,
who had occupied all the neighbouring districts of Greece.
Nor were they less successful against the Turks, a more
formidable enemy. Under the command of the celebrated
George Castriot, commonly called Scanderbeg, they baffled
all the efforts of Mahomet II. the conqueror of Constanti¬
nople. That powerful monarch entered Albania only to
experience a succession of defeats, and was at length com¬
pelled to acknowledge its independence by a formal treaty.
On the death of Scanderbeg, the Turks redoubled their
efforts against Albania, which was at length reduced to a
state of nominal subjection. The siege of Scutari, in 1478,
formed the termination of this memorable struggle. The
subjection, however, was always imperfect; revolts were
frequent, and the inhabitants of the mountainous districts
still preserved their independence. It was by the motives
of pay and plunder, rather than by compulsion, that these
hardy soldiers were allured into the Turkish ranks. In
proportion as the Ottoman empire declined in vigour, its
hold of Albania became less firm; and the vigorous and
enterprising genius of Ali Pasha again converted this de¬
pendency into what might almost be called a separate king¬
dom.
Ali was born at Tepellene, a small town in the interior
of Albania. His father held the rank of a pasha of two tails,
but was not possessed of any extensive power; and he died
when Ali was only fifteen. In a district so turbulent, and
filled with warlike and hostile leaders, the young chief was
necessarily placed in a very critical situation. He was him-
442 ALBANIA.
Albania, self accustomed to boast, that he began his fortune with
sixty paras and a musket; and an Albanian who attended a
late traveller (Mr Hobhouse) declared, that he remembered
to have seen Ali with his jacket out at elbows. Ali was ere
long driven from Tepellene, his native place, and was aban¬
doned by almost all his followers. A plan was next formed
for his destruction, by the inhabitants of Gardiki, a neigh¬
bouring town ; and for this purpose they surrounded, in the
night time, a village where he had taken refuge. Ali escaped
through a garden, but his mother and sister fell into the
hands of the Gardikiotes, and were treated with every species
of indignity; wrongs for which he afterwards took a dread¬
ful vengeance. His address and activity enabled him gra¬
dually to repair his fortunes. He insinuated himself into the
favour of Coul Pasha, then the principal chief of Albania,
whose daughter he at length married. Having thus been
enabled to collect some followers, he succeeded in surpris¬
ing Yanina, the capital, and in prevailing upon the Porte to
recognise him as pasha of that important district. From
this time he took the lead among the Albanian chiefs ; em¬
ploying sometimes force, sometimes money, and sometimes
treachery, to increase his authority, and add to the extent
of his dominions.
The most formidable adversaries with whom Ali had to
contend were the Suliotes, a people placed in the southern
extremity of Albania. They inhabit an almost inaccessible
range of mountains, beneath whose gloomy shade winds a river,
which Dr Holland conjectures, on very plausible grounds,
to be the Acheron of the ancients. ( Travels in the Ionian
Isles and Albania?) The strength of their native bulwarks,
their passion for war, and contempt of death, made them
the terror of Albania, which they frequently invaded; while
no foreign power had ever ventured to scale the tremendous
barriers by which they were guarded. Ali at length suc¬
ceeded, partly by force and partly by bribery, in gaining the
passes which led into their country; and the whole nation,
after a furious resistance, was reduced to subjection, and
partly extirpated.
In 1811 and 1812 Ali attacked and defeated the pashas
of Berat and Delvino; by which means he gained posses¬
sion of some of the finest parts of Albania, and a population
of between 200,000 and 300,000 souls. Tepellene, his
native place, now fell into his power; and now also it was
that he obtained the means of inflicting signal vengeance
on Gardiki. With his accustomed duplicity he pretended
a complete oblivion of all grounds of resentment, until he
had surrounded and inclosed the city with his troops; when
upwards of 700 of those of the inhabitants who were sup¬
posed to have been most deeply involved in the ancient
guilt, were dragged into a large khan near the city, and
bound together with cords. On a signal given by Ali, the
Albanian soldiery, who were stationed on the walls of the
khan, began a discharge of musketry, which continued until
the destruction of the whole 700 was completed.
1 he dominions of Ali were not confined within the limits
of Albania; he extended his sway over the mountainous
district of Macedonia, nearly the whole of Thessaly, and
great part of Livadia. He was kept in check by Ismael
Bey, who possessed an authority nearly as independent over
the plains of Macedonia. In Albania, his power was almost
absolute; and while little regard was paid to the imperial
firman, a letter with the signature of Ali commanded im¬
plicit obedience. The Albanians were enthusiastically at¬
tached to him; they viewed him as a native sovereign ; they
admired the energy of his character, and, when they heard
of any other chief, commonly remarked, “ he has not a head
like Ali.”
The natives estimated Ali’s military force as high as
50,000, 60,000, or even 100,000 men. This could only
apply to the case of a general levy en masse, in the event of Albania,
invasion. It does not appear that Ali ever brought into the 'wvw
field a greater disposable force than 15,000. His standing
army was supposed to be about 10,000, of whom 4000 or
5000 were stationed round his capital Yanina. The amount
of his revenues was still more uncertain. They arose from
the following sources :—1. A land-tax, amounting generally
to about 10 per cent, of the produce ; 2. a tax on cities and
towns, levied in the form of requisition; 3. the customs,
which he raised to six per cent.; 4. the inheritance of all
who died without male heirs.
Ali’s figure was corpulent and unwieldy, his neck short,
his stature about five feet nine inches. The expression of
his countenance was striking and majestic; and his fea¬
tures gave no indications of those terrible qualities by which
he was characterised. His abilities were certainly of no mean
order. He displayed that union of deep thought and con¬
trivance, with prompt and decisive action, which indicate a
mind equally formed for politics and for war. He was re¬
markable for his address, both in gaining friends, and in
lulling asleep the suspicions of his bitterest enemies. But,
if his abilities were of a superior order, his moral qualities
were of a kind which rendered him an object of fear and
detestation. His cruelty rather resembled that of an Indian
savage than of even the least civilised European. Impal¬
ing and roasting alive were among the common punishments
reserved for those who had unhappily offended him. The
fierceness of his cruelty was only exceeded by the depth of
his dissimulation. It was impossible for the most skilful ob¬
server to conjecture, from his outward deportment, the real
sentiments with which he regarded any individual. The
only observable difference consisted in a peculiar kindness
of manner towards those unfortunates whose cruel doom he
had silently and unrelentingly sealed.
Ali’s ordinary residence was near Yanina, in an immense
building which combines the characters of a palace and a
fortress. The outer courts were irregularly crowded with
Albanian soldiers, and with persons of all descriptions, who
attended upon him, or had petitions to present. Each peti¬
tioner in approaching, knelt and kissed his garment. He
exercised in person the whole judicial authority, and his de¬
cisions, though necessarily given too promptly, are, however,
said to have been guided by an apparent wish of arriving at
the truth, and of doing justice. He rose at six in the morn¬
ing, and, with the exception of an hour at dinner, and an
hour at supper, spent the whole day in business. His habits
at table were extremely temperate, though he was not so
strict a Mussulman as to decline the use of wine. His
harem contained 390 females of various descriptions. It
formed an edifice entirely distinct from the rest of the se¬
raglio, and is said to have been furnished in a style of the
most gorgeous magnificence; but no European ever found
admission into it.
Although the government of Ali was completely despot-
ical, yet, viewed comparatively, it appears to have been
better for Albania than the terrible anarchy to which it
was formerly exposed.
The progress of this enterprising chief was viewed by
the Porte with jealousy and alarm, though it was found pru¬
dent to maintain an outward good understanding with him,
by investing him with the government of the provinces
which he had subdued. The Sultan having in vain attempted
to induce Ali to repair to Constantinople, with the secret
intention of despatching him, at length sent against him
Pacho Bey, a former adherent of Ali, but afterwards one of
his bitterest opponents. A recent and daring attempt, by
two hired agents of Ali, to assassinate this person, furnished
sufficient ground for placing Ali under the ban of the em¬
pire. He soon found himself deserted by the tribes in whom
ALBANIA.
443
Albania, he had trusted, and Pacho Bey reached Yanina without
firing a gun. The ferocious Ali ordered the capital to be
given up to indiscriminate plunder by his bandit followers,
and retreated to p,n impregnable castle in the midst of the
lake, where be bade defiance to his enemies ; who, after an
ineffectual blockade, were obliged to retreat. Mahmoud,
highly dissatisfied with the result of these operations, in¬
vested Chourschid, Pasha of the Morea, with the supreme
command. Having assembled all the forces of the surround¬
ing pashalics, he again hemmed in Ali within the precincts
of his castle. The tower into which Ali had retired with
his wives and treasures being closely beset, he surrendered
to Chourschid, under a solemn promise that his life should
be spared, and that he should have an honourable retreat;
but scarcely had the agreement been concluded when a fir¬
man arrived from the Porte decreeing his immediate death.
In the grand insurrection of Greece, the Albanians, ac¬
customed to view with disdain the Ottoman yoke, showed a
considerable disposition to make common cause with the
Greeks ; and their co-operation would have almost insured
success. But the Greeks, imprudently and unhappily, could
not divest themselves of the feelings of enmity cherished
during the long series of wars which Ali had waged against
them. At the siege of Tripolizza overtures were made to
them by a corps of 3000 Albanians, who formed part of the
garrison ; but the Greeks, having succeeded in entering the
place, began a dreadful and indiscriminate massacre, in
which the Albanians were equally involved. At the siege
of Arta, although the capture was much facilitated by the
coming over of a corps of Albanians, the Greeks treated
them extremely ill. The Albanian nation was thus forcibly
thrown into the arms of the Porte, to which it has since
continued nominally subject.
The inhabitants of Albania are estimated at 800,000, of
which a considerable proportion are Turks and Greeks; but
the basis of the population consists of the original race,
called Arnauts. This remarkable people differ completely
from every other included within the limits of the Turkish
empire. Their conversion to Mahometan tenets has been
very imperfect, and chiefly induced by political motives. In
every family the males usually go to the mosque, the fe¬
males to church; and some members of a family are seen
in the most amicable manner eating from the same table,
and even from the same plate, meats forbidden to the others.
With the Turks, accordingly, infidel and Albanian are terms
nearly synonymous. Ali did not appear to make religion a
ground of any the slightest distinction between the differ¬
ent classes of his subjects.
The native Albanian is of a middle stature; his face is
oval, with high cheek-bones ; his neck long, his chest full
and broad. His air is erect and majestic to a degree which
never fails to strike the traveller. He holds in utter con¬
tempt that dissimulation which is characteristic of the Greek,
and piques himself upon giving utterance to every senti¬
ment without the smallest reserve. Equally remote from
the grave and sluggish deportment of the Turk, he is gay,
lively, and active. Averse, however, to regular industry,
his whole delight is in arms and plunder. He goes con¬
stantly armed; and there are few Albanians who, in the
prime of their life, have not belonged to some of the nume¬
rous bands of robbers who infest the mountains of their na¬
tive country, of Thessaly, and of Macedonia. This profes¬
sion carries with it no disgrace : it is common for the Alba¬
nian to mention circumstances which occurred “when he
was a robber.” In proportion as the trade of robbing be¬
comes overstocked, part of those engaged in it seek employ¬
ment in the service of the sultan, and of the different pashas
throughout the Turkish empire ; by all of whom the Alba¬
nians are regarded as the most valuable of their troops.
An Albanian military force, according to the description
of Dr Holland, cannot so properly be called an army, as a
tumultuous assemblage of armed men. There is no regular
distribution into corps; nor is much regard paid to the
authority of any officer, with the single exception of the
pasha himself. Yet such is their activity and intrepidity,
that they have sometimes proved formidable to the best-dis¬
ciplined European armies. The main strength of the Turk¬
ish infantry in the Russian campaigns consisted of Alba¬
nians.
This fierce and haughty race display a greater degree of
contempt for the female sex than is usual even among the
most barbarous nations. The females are literally regarded
as inferior animals, and treated as such; but in the country
districts they are not confined or veiled, as is customary in
Mahometan countries.
The dress of the Albanian consists of a cotton shirt, a
jacket, a mantle, sandals, and a red cap; to which is added
a large capote, or great coat, as a shelter from the weather.
Every part except the shirt consists of woollen. As they
have usually one suit, which they wear day and night, it soon
exhibits a dreadful spectacle of dirt and vermin, and at
length literally falls to pieces. The dress of the females is
more various, and often fantastical. A singular custom pre¬
vails among the girls, of stringing together the pieces of
money which they have collected for their portion, and
wearing them upon their heads. Some of them have their
hair hanging down in braids to a great length, loaded with
this species of ornament.
Yanina, the present capital, is beautifully situated on the
banks of a small lake, inclosed within a circuit of lofty moun¬
tains. The houses in general are not externally either
splendid or elegant; and they are built in the most irregular
manner, with scarcely any approach to the form of streets.
The intermixture, however, of gardens and trees gives to
the city a fine appearance from a distance; particularly
when combined with the magnificent background which
everywhere crowns the landscape. There is a considerable
number of Greeks at Yanina, who display an active and in¬
telligent character, and cultivate with ardour the different
branches of science and literature. The total number of
inhabitants is estimated at upwards of 36,000.
The commerce of Albania is chiefly carried on through
Arta, a small city situated on a gulf of the same name, in
the most southern district of the country. The principal
merchants, however, are Greeks residing at Yanina, among
whom a very active commercial spirit appears to prevail.
The mercantile houses of this city have often branches in
other countries, particularly Germany and Russia; and
several of them suffered considerably by the conflagration
of Moscow. Under the continental system of Napoleon,
Malta became the great channel for the trade of Albania,
and, notwithstanding the subsequent political changes, pro¬
bably retains it to a certain extent. The exports consist
almost entirely of unmanufactured produce. Notwithstand¬
ing its mountainous character, the fertility of its plains af¬
fords a surplus of grain, of which a considerable quantity is
sent to Italy, the Ionian Isles, Malta, and other places.
Wool is exported chiefly unmanufactured, but partly also
wrought into coarse cloth. Other important articles of ex¬
port are, oil, tobacco of good quality, cotton and cotton yarn,
chiefly from Thessaly. Some cargoes of wood for building
and fire are annually sent to Malta. The chief imports con¬
sist of woollen cloths, used for winter coverings. For this
purpose the preference is given to a coarser and cheaper
species than any that is usually manufactured in Great
Britain. This is supplied from Germany. Albania imports
also guns, gunpowder, hardware, coffee, and sugar. On the
8th of October, an annual fair is opened in the neighbour-
Albania.
444 ALB
Albania hood of Yanina, and continues for fourteen days, when the
imported articles are exchanged for native commodities,
v ans'y which then pour in from every quarter.
” The reader will find much interesting information in re¬
gard to this country, and its late ruler, in the Travels of Mr
Hobhouse and of Dr Holland. The latter resided for some
time at All’s court, where, in quality of physician, he en¬
joyed the privilege of a familiar intercourse with that extra¬
ordinary personage ; and in the pages of Colonel Leake, we
have still later notices of this country. (h. m.)
Albania, a country of Asia, bounded on the west by
Iberia; on the east by the Caspian Sea; on the north by
Sarmatia; on the south by Armenia and the river Cyrus,
now Kur, which, springing from the Moschian Mountains
that separate Colchis from Armenia, falls into the Caspian
Sea within a small distance from the southern borders of
this country. The whole country, formerly called Albania,
now goes under the names of Daghistan, Schirwan, and
Leghistan, and is extremely fruitful and pleasant. The
ancient historians take notice of the Albanian men as
tall, strong-bodied, and, generally speaking, of a very grace¬
ful appearance ; far excelling all other nations in comeliness
as well as stature. Modern travellers extol the beauty of
the women. The Albanians were anciently an independent
and pretty powerful people ; but we find no mention made
of their kings till the reign of Alexander the Great, to whom
the king of Albania is said to have presented a dog of ex¬
traordinary fierceness and size. It does not appear that the
Albanians were ever conquered by the Romans, even when
their power was at the greatest height; though, when they
ventured to engage in war with that powerful empire, they
were always defeated, as might naturally be expected.
ALBANO, a city near the lake of the same name, in the
Campagna di Roma, in the Papal territories. It is much
admired for the picturesque scenery around it. It is well
built, and the Roman aqueduct and other monuments of
antiquity are in tolerable preservation. The city, contains
a cathedral, four monasteries, a nunnery, and 5600 inha¬
bitants. Long. 12. 43. 47. E. Lat. 41. 48. 50. N.
Albano, Lake of, about thirteen miles S.E. from Rome,
is of a beautiful oval form, surrounded with high wooded
banks, and about seven miles in circumference. It has
long been a favourite object to the painter and the traveller;
and on a cliff overhanging the lake is Castel Gandolfo, the
only summer residence of the sovereign pontiffs, to which
they retire during the unwholesome season at Rome. It
has evidently been the crater of an extinct volcano. In
the fourth century of ancient Rome, during the siege of
Yeii, the rise of the waters of this lake was so extraordinary,
that the oracle of Delphi was consulted, and it gave no hope
of success against Veii, while the Alban lake was allowed
thus to swell. This prompted the Romans to drain the lake
by an emissory or tunnel cut through the rock, a mile and
a half in length, 4 feet wide, and 6 high, which is still
perfect. As the nature of the peperino rock is crumbling,
the cut is carefully cased with solid masonry. Its upper
end is about the level of the ordinary surface of the lake,
which is 920 feet above the level of the sea. Ten years
after this work was finished, Veii succumbed to her hated
rival.
Albano is also a town in the kingdom of Naples, re¬
markable for the fertility of the surrounding territory, and
for the nobility of the inhabitants.
ALBANS, St, a market-town of Hertfordshire, stands on
the north side of the Ver, on the opposite side to the Roman
city of Verulamia. It is chiefly remarkable for its immense
Abbey church, the longest ecclesiastical structure in Great
Britain. It was founded by the king of Mercia on his con¬
version to Christianity in the year 790; but the present
ALB
building contains specimens of every style of English archi- Albanus
tecture. In the older portions, we find heavy circular arches, II
devoid of all ornament, springing from rude square piers, Albarraein
and sometimes large arches, divided by two interior arches, ^
that rest on a low circular pier. This style is by some
termed Saxon ; but our best antiquaries now consider it as
only early Norman. Some of the piers are clustered, show¬
ing a much later kind of architecture. This church is 556
feet long, by 174 feet in breadth at the transepts. The
tower which surmounts it is only 150 feet in height; but
from being on a moderate hill in a flat country, is visible
from a great distance. The vast quantity of Roman bricks
used in this structure is very striking; these were derived
from the remains of the Roman Verulamia, which were ex¬
tensively destroyed by the 8th and 9th abbots of St Albans,
Ealdred and Eadmer, who rebuilt the church, and whose
researches, according to Camden, were rewarded by the
discovery in the ruins of great treasures of gold and silver,
coins, and ancient MSS. Among the latter was said to be
the famous Book of St Albans, the life of the saint in
British, afterwards translated by a monk into Latin. The
church contained, it is said, the bones of St Alban, but cer¬
tainly those of Offa, and of the good Duke Humphrey of
Gloucester, whose tomb was discovered in the last century.
His bones show him to have been tall and vigorous. The
town is divided into three parishes, St Albans, St Michaels,
and St Peters. In St Michael’s church, a small structure
within the precincts of the ancient Verulam, is the tomb of
the illustrious Lord Bacon; and in St Peter’s church were
deposited the bodies of the nobles who fell in the two battles
of St Albans, in the civil wars of the two Roses. St Albans
is twenty miles from London, in Lat. 51. 46. Long. 0.21. W.
The population in 1851 was 7000; and the number of in¬
habited houses 1361. It has hitherto returned two mem¬
bers to parliament; but in consequence of the gross corrup¬
tion practised in electing the members, it is believed that it
will shortly be deprived of that privilege, if not altogether
disfranchised.
ALBANUS Mons, in Ancient Geography, now called
Mont Albano, a mountain 14 miles from Rome, near the
site of Alba Longa. It rises about 2000 feet above the
surface of the lake.
ALBANY, the capital of the state of New York in North
America, on the western bank of the river Hudson, about
145 miles above the city of New York. Placed on one of
the noblest rivers of that part of America, and backed by a
rich country, it has every natural requisite for commercial
importance. These natural advantages have been increased
by canals connecting it with Lakes Erie and Champlain; while
a tissue of railways unites it with Boston and the valley of the
Mohawk. It contains many handsome buildings, and valu¬
able institutions of various kinds. Of its public buildings,
the principal are the capital, a handsome stone edifice 115
feet in length by 90 in width, with richly furnished apart¬
ments for the Senate and Assembly, &c.; the city hall, a su¬
perb building of white marble, surmounted with a large
gilded dome; the exchange, &c. On 17th August 1848,
a dreadful fire broke out which consumed one-eighth of the
city. Its population in 1850 amounted to 50,771. Lat. 42.
39. N. Long. 73. 32. W.
Albany, a port and trading station of the Hudson’s Bay
Company, on the south-western shore of that sea, in Lat.
52. 20. N. Long. 82. 20. W.
Albany, a district in the eastern part of the British colony
of the Cape of Good Hope, with an area of 2000 square
miles, and a population of about 12,000. See Good Hope,
Cape of.
ALBARRACIN, a judicial district of the province of
Teruel, in Spain. Pop. about 20,000. The country is cold,
ALB
Albarracin mountainous, and barren, but produces iron, and wool of a
II very fine quality.
Alberoni. Albarracin, Sla. Maria de, the chief town of the above
district, on the banks of the Guadalaviar. It is the see of a
bishop ; and was once a place of great strength and impor¬
tance, but its old fortifications are for the most part in ruins,
and its population scarcely amounts to 2000.
ALBARIUM Opus, in Antiquity, the incrustation or
covering of the interior of houses with white plaster, plain or
ornamental. This is otherwise called opus album. It dif¬
fered from Tectorium, which is a common name given to all
roofing or ceiling, including even that formed of lime and
sand, or lime and marble.
ALBATEGNI, an Arabic prince of Batan, in Mesopo¬
tamia, and a celebrated astronomer, who lived about the year
880, as appears by his observations. He is also called Mu-
hammed ben Geber Albatani, Mahomet the son of Geber,
and Muhamedes Aractensis. He made astronomical obser¬
vations at Antioch, and at Racah or Aracta, a town of Chal¬
dea. He is highly spoken of by Dr Halley, as a man of
great genius, and an excellent observer. He received the
title of the Arabian Ptolemy.
Instead of the tables of Ptolemy, which were imperfect, he
computed new ones: these were adapted to the meridian of
Aracta or Racah, and were long used as the best among the
Arabs. He also composed in Arabic a work under the title
of The Science of the Stars, comprising all parts of astro¬
nomy, according to his own observations and those of Pto¬
lemy. This work was translated into Latin by Plato of Ti-
bur, and published at Nuremberg in 1537, with some addi¬
tions and demonstrations of Regiomontanus. It was reprinted
at Bologna in 1645, with this author’s notes. Dr Halley
detected many faults in these additions. {Philosophical
Transactions for 1693, No. 204.) In this work Albategni
gives the motion of the sun’s apogee since Ptolemy’s time,
as well as the motion of the stars, which he makes one de¬
gree in 70 years. He makes the longitude of the first star
of Aries to be 18° 2', and the obliquity of the ecliptic 23°
35'. Upon Albategni’s observations were founded the Al-
phonsine tables of the moon’s motion.
ALBATI Equi, an appellation given to such horses, in
the games of the ancient circus, as wore white furniture.
ALBATROSS. See Ornithology, Index.
ALBAYDA, the name of a district, town, and river, in
the province of Valencia in Spain. The district contains
about 23,000 inhabitants, is extremely fertile and richly cul¬
tivated, and produces a great abundance of wine. Popula¬
tion of the town, 3130.
ALBAZIN, a town of Greater Tartary, with a strong
castle. It is situated upon the river Amur or Yamour, and
belongs to the Russians. Long. 103. 30. E. Lat. 54. N.
ALBEMARLE. See Aumale.
Albemarle, a county of Virginia, 700 square miles in
extent, and in 1850 containing 25,684 inhabitants.
Albemarle Sound, an arm of the sea, 60 miles long and
10 wide, on the coast of N. Carolina.
ALBENGA, a seaport town of Italy, about 45 miles S.W.
of Genoa. It is the see of a bishop, and is a very ancient,
handsome town, but not well peopled, on account of the in¬
salubrity of the air. It is seated in a well-cultivated and
beautiful plain ; and the suburbs are surrounded with olive-
trees. Pop. 4735. Long. 8. 13. E. Lat. 44. 4. N.
ALBERIQUE, a district and town in the south of the
rovince of Valencia, in Spain. Population of district about
6,000, of the town 3000. The chief products are silk,
rice, and fruit.
ALBERONI, Julius, the son of a poor gardener m the
suburbs of Placentia, born in 1664, who, by his great abili¬
ties and good fortune, rose from this low origin to the em-
A L B 445
ployment of first minister of state at the court of Spain, and Albert
to the dignity of cardinal. He roused that kingdom out of II
the lethargy it had sunk into for a century past, awakened
the attention and raised the astonishment of all Europe by v ° ",
his projects, one of which was to set the Pretender on the
throne of Great Britain. He was at length deprived of his em¬
ployment, and banished to Rome. He died in 17o2 at the ad¬
vanced age of 87. His Testament Politique, collected from
his memoirs and letters, was published at Lausanne in 1 <53.
ALBERT, a name borne by a large number of German
princes, both temporal and spiritual, the more important of
whom will be referred to under the several countries to
which they belonged.
Albert, Margrave of Brandenburg, and the last grand
master of the Teutonic order, laid aside the habit of his order,
embraced Lutheranism, and concluded a peace at Cracow
1525, by which he was acknowledged duke of the east part of
Prussia (formerly called for that reason Ducal Prussia), but
to be held as a fief of Poland, and to descend to his male heirs.
He was born in 1490; married in 1527 Dorothea, a princess
of Denmark, and died in 1568. See Prussia.
ALBERTI, Leon Battista, one of the most distin¬
guished men of his age, was descended of the noble and
ancient family of the Alberti of Florence, where most pro¬
bably he was born, about the year 1404. Having received
from his father an excellent education, at twenty years
of age he produced a Latin comedy entitled Philodoxius,
which, from its classic style, was generally believed to be
the work of an ancient poet; and indeed, by a mistake, it
was afterwards edited and published as such by the younger
Aldus. Alberti was originally of a powerful frame, and ex¬
celled in feats of strength and agility; but his constitution
was irreparably injured by a severe illness in early life. The
energy of his mind, however, suffered no diminution; and
he pursued his studies with extraordinary ardour. He is
generally regarded as one of the restorers of the ancient
style of architecture, and has been called by some writers
the Florentine Vitruvius. He was much employed by Pope
Nicolas V. in his buildings ; and specimens of his skill are
to be seen at Rome, Florence, Mantua, and Rimini. He
was also distinguished as a mathematician, a poet, and a
philosopher. His writings in the various departments of
science are numerous : his treatises on sculpture and paint¬
ing, in particular, are highly esteemed; but his most cele¬
brated work is the treatise on architecture, De Re AEdiji-
catorid, which has been translated into Italian, French,
and English. A splendid edition of this work in English and
Italian,°by Leoni, was published at London in 1726, in 3
vols. folio. This most accomplished man appears to have pos¬
sessed an amiable and generous disposition, and was greatly
respected and esteemed by his contemporaries. He died at
Florence in his 85th year; and it is supposed that his remains
were laid in the family sepulchre of the Alberti, which is still
shown in that city. His life has been written by Poretti.
ALBERTUS MAGNUS {Albert the Great), one of
the most celebrated philosophers and theologians of the mid¬
dle ages, was born of the family of the Counts of Bollstadt,
at Lauingen in Suabia. The date of his birth, according to
the most probable calculation, is in 1193. He began his
studies at Padua; where he became acquainted with Jor-
danus the General of the Dominicans, by whose influence
he was led in 1222 to enter that order. After going through
the regular course of philosophy and theology, he taught
successively at Ratisbon, Strasburg, Friburg in Brisgau,
Hildesheim, and Cologne. At the latter place, which be¬
came his favourite residence, he numbered among his pu¬
pils two future saints, Thomas of Cantimprato, and t e
“ angelic” Aquinas. Aquinas followed him, when in 124o
he repaired to Paris for the purpose of obtaining the degree
446 ALB
Albesia of doctor \magister~\. During the requisite term of three
Albi years spent in public lecturing, Albert’s instructions drew so
v / large a concourse of scholars that he was obliged, in the an¬
cient fashion, to teach in the open air. The name of the place
Maubert (a contraction of magister or magnus, and Aubert),
and that of the neighbouring Rue de Maitre-Albert, still
preserve the record of these Aristotelic hours.
On his return to Cologne he was made regent of the
school of the Dominicans ; and in 1254 he was elected Pro¬
vincial of his order, the duties of which office he discharged
with unwearied zeal, visiting on foot all the bounds of his
extensive jurisdiction. During this residence at Cologne,
he is said to have fabricated the famous speaking automaton,
which, together with his scientific acquirement sand alche-
mistical pursuits, gained him the reputation of a magician.
This curious machine is said to have so provoked the pious
horror of the “ angelic doctor” by its diabolical jargon, that
he broke it in pieces with his staff. In 1255, Albert was
called to Rome to defend the privileges of his order against
the University of Paris; a mission which he fulfilled with
partial success; leaving its completion to his friend Aquinas.
At Rome he discharged the office of reader to the Pope,
lecturing on the Gospel of John and the Epistles. In 1260
he was made Bishop of Ratisbon; but the troublesome du¬
ties of this office suited ill with his retired and studious ha¬
bits, and after three years he resigned it. He retired once
more to Cologne, where he continued to teach till within a
few years of his death. During this period he was frequently
delegated with episcopal authority ; and on one occasion he
travelled at the request of Urban IV. through Germany and
Bohemia, preaching the crusade. He died in 1280 at the
advanced age of 87; and was buried in the choir of the Do¬
minican church at Cologne. His tomb, which had the fame
of working miracles, was opened in 1483, in presence of the
general of the Dominicans, and his bones taken out to be
distributed as relics.
Albert is chiefly remarkable as having been beyond ques¬
tion the most learned man of his age, and as the first who
gave its decided direction to the general tendency of specu¬
lative intelligence towards the system of Aristotle. Without
according to him the possession of profound or original
genius, we may well sympathise in the admiration that be¬
stowed on him the title of Great; did we only consider the
fact, in connection with the time in which he lived, that his
writings, ranging over the domains of natural history, meta¬
physics, and theology, and containing a body of knowledge,
however imperfect or unmethodical, yet marvellous in its uni¬
versality, occupy no less than 21 folio volumes. They were
published at Lyons in 1651, edited, under superior authority,
a m ie>rre Jammy> a Dominican monk. A detailed list of
Albert s works, the genuineness of many of which it is im¬
possible to determine, is to be found in the Scriptor. Ord.
I redicat. of Quetif and Echard, vol. i. p. 171.
8 Were distinguished by the name of Albertists.
ii i t. A, in Antiquitg, a kind of shields, otherwise
called JJecumana.
ALBI or Alby, an arrondissement in the south-west of
r ranee, in the department of the Tarn, comprehendin°- an
extent of 558 square miles, or 357,276 acres. It is divided
tiC^n-t0nS and 92 comrnunes, and in 1846 contained
91,232 inhabitants.
Albi, a city in the above arrondissement, the capital of
the Albigeois. It is built on the river Tarn, 35 miles N.E.
of Toulouse. The cathedral is dedicated to St Cecilia, and
has one of the finest choirs in the kingdom. Here is a very
valuable silver shrine, of exquisite mosaic work : it contains
the relics of St Clair, the first bishop of the city. The
chapel of that saint is magnificent, and adorned with paint¬
ings. La Lice is a fine promenade without the city, dis-
A L B
tinguished by a terrace above a deep mall, which serves in- Albigeois
stead of a fosse, and bordered with two rows of very fine
trees. At one end is the convent of the Dominicans. The Albigen-
archbishop’s palace is a very beautiful edifice. The river ses‘
washes its walls, and serves both for ornament and defence.
Pop. in 1846, 12,452. Long. 2. 9. E. Lat. 43. 56. N.
ALBIGEOIS, L’,an ancient territory of France, in Upper
Languedoc, about twenty-seven miles in length, and twenty
in breadth, abounding in sheep, corn, wood, grapes, saffron,
and plums. There is a considerable trade in dried prunes
grapes, a coarse sort of cloth, and wine of Gaillac. These
wines are the only sort in this district that are fit for exporta¬
tion : they are carried down to Bourdeaux, and generally
sold to the British. There are likewise several coal-mines.
ALBIGENSES, in Church History, a sect or party of
i cformers, about Toulouse and Albigeois, in Languedoc, who
sprung up in the 12th century, and distinguished themselves
by theii opposition to the discipline and ceremonies of the
Romish church.
The name is supposed to have been derived, either from
there being great numbers of them in the diocese of Albi, or
because they were condemned by a council held in that city.
It does not indeed appear that they were known by this
name before the time of that council. They were also called
Albiani, Albigesei, Albii, and Albanenses, though some dis¬
tinguish these last from them. Other names given to them
aie Cathari, Abelardists, Berengarians, Bulgarians, &c.;
some on account of the qualities they assumed; others from
that of the country from whence it is pretended they were
derived; and others on account of persons of note who adopt¬
ed their cause, as Peter de Brius, Arnold of Brescia, Abelard,
Henry, &c. Berengarius, if not Wycliffe himself, is by some
ranked in the number. The Albigenses are frequently con¬
founded with the Waldenses; from whom, however, they
differ in many respects, both as being prior to them in
point of time, as having their origin in a different country,
and as being charged with different heresies, particularly
Manicheism, with which the Waldenses are not charged.
From that imputation, however, several Protestant writers
have vindicated them. Dr Allix shows that a great number
of Manichees did spread over the western countries from Bul¬
garia, and settled in Italy, Languedoc, and other places,
where there were also Albigenses; by which means, being
both under the imputation of heresy, they came, either by
ignorance or malice, to be confounded, and called by the
same common name, though in reality entirely different.
Grave errors were imputed to them by their malicious
opponents: such as that they admitted two Christs; one evil,
who appeared on earth ; the other good who has not yet ap¬
peared : that they denied the resurrection of the body, and
maintained human souls to be demons imprisoned in our bodies,
by way of punishment for their sins : that they condemned
all the sacraments of the church, rejected baptism as useless,
held the eucharist in abhorrence, excluded the use of con¬
fessions and penance, maintained marriage unlawful, laughed
at purgatory, prayers for the dead, images, crucifixes, &c.
There were likewise said to be two classes of them, the Per¬
fect and the Believers. The Perfect boasted of their living
in continence, of eating neither flesh, eggs, nor cheese. The
Believers lived like other men, and were even loose in their
morals; but they were persuaded they should be saved by
the faith of the perfect, and that none were damned who re¬
ceived imposition of hands from them. But from these
charges also they are generally acquitted by Protestants, who
consider them as the pious inventions of the Romish church,
which accounts it no sin, but rather meritorious by any means
to blacken heretics.
However this be, the Albigenses grew so formidable, that
the Catholics agreed upon a holy league or crusade against
ALB
Albigen- them. They were at first supported by Raymond Count of
ses Toulouse. Pope Innocent III., desirous to suppress them,
P sent legates into their country, who even inflicted capital
in0S'7 punishment on pertinacious heretics. These legates were
known by the name of Inquisitors. On the murder of one
of these, the pope proclaimed a crusade against the Albi-
genses, and their supporter Raymond VI., Countof Toulouse.
The French barons took the field under Simon de Mont-
fort (Earl of Leicester) in 1209 ; and Raymond found it his
interest to side with them. Soon after, however, finding
himself plundered by the crusaders, he proclaimed war against
them, and was joined by his relation the king of Aragon,
who lost his life in the first battle. The defeat of his army
was followed by the surrender of the city of Toulouse, and
the conquest of the greater part of Languedoc and Provence.
The war was attended with circumstances of the greatest
atrocity: at the massacre of Beziers, Arnald the pope’s
legate, on being asked how the heretics and the orthodox
were to be distinguished, replied—“ Slay all, and God will
find his own.” Montfort was killed at the siege of Toulouse
in 1218, and Raymond died four years afterwards. Their
sons renewed the war; but at last the Count of Toulouse
was compelled to make peace in 1229. From this time the
Albigenses gradually dwindled, till the time of the Refor¬
mation, when such of them as were left fell in with the
Vaudois, and became conformable to the doctrine of Zuin-
glius and the discipline of Geneva.—Moshehris Eccles. Hist;
General Hist, of Languedoc, Paris, 1730.
Albigenses is also a name sometimes given to the fol¬
lowers of Peter Vaud or Waldo. See Valdenses.
ALBINI, in Antiquity, the workmen employed in what
was called opus albarium. They made a different profes¬
sion from the dealbatores or whiteners.
ALBINOS, the name by which the Portuguese call the
white Moors, who are looked upon by the negroes as mon¬
sters. At a distance they might be taken for Europeans ;
but on a nearer view, their white colour appears like that
of persons affected with leprosy.
In Saussure’s Voyages dans les Alpes is the following
account of the two boys at Chamouni, who have been called
Albinos:—“ The elder, who was at the end of the year
1785 about twenty or twenty-one years of age, had a dull
look, with lips somewhat thick, but nothing else in his fea¬
tures to distinguish him from other people. The other, who
is two years younger, is rather a more agreeable figure; he
is gay and sprightly, and seems not to want wit. But
their eyes are not blue; the iris is of a very distinct rose
colour: the pupil, too, when viewed in the light, seems de¬
cidedly red, which seems to demonstrate that the interior
membranes are deprived of the uvea, and of that black mu¬
cous matter that should line them. Their hair, their eye¬
brows, and eye-lashes, the down upon their skin, were all
during their infancy of the most perfect milk-white colour,
and very fine; but their hair is now of a reddish cast, and
has grown pretty strong. Their sight, too, is somewhat
strengthened, though they exaggerate to strangers their
aversion for the light, and half shut the eye-lids, to give
themselves a more extraordinary appearance; but those
who, like me, have seen them in their infancy, before they
were tutored to this deceit, and when too few people came
to Chamouni to make this affectation profitable to them,
can attest that then they were not very much offended with
the light of day. At that time they were so little desirous
of exciting the curiosity of strangers, that they hid them¬
selves to avoid such; and it was necessary to do a sort of
violence to them before they could be prevailed on to allow
themselves to be inspected. It is also well known at Cha¬
mouni, that when they were of a proper age they were un¬
able to tend the cattle like the other children at the same
ALB 447
age; and that one of their uncles maintained them out of Albinos,
charity, at a time of life when others were capable of gain-
ing a subsistence by their labour.
“ I am therefore of opinion, that we may consider these
two lads to be albinos; for if they have not the thick lips
and flat noses of the white negroes, it is because they are
albinos of Europe, not of Africa. This infirmity affects the
eyes, the complexion, and the colour of the hair; it even
diminishes the strength, but does not alter the conformation
of the features. Besides, there are certainly in this malady
various degrees—some may have less strength, and be less
able to endure the light; but these circumstances in those
of Chamouni are marked with characters sufficiently strong
to entitle them to the unhappy advantage of being classed
with that variety of the human species denominated al¬
binos.
“ I at first imagined that this disease might be referred
to a particular sort of organic debility; that a relaxation of
the lymphatic vessels within the eye might suffer the globules
of the blood to enter too abundantly into the iris, the uvea,
and even into the retina, which might occasion the redness
of the iris and of the pupil. The same debility seemed also
to account for the intolerance of the light, and for the white¬
ness of the hair.
“ But a learned physiologist, M. Blumenbach, professor
in the university of Gottingen, who has made many pro¬
found observations on the organs of sight, and has considered
with great attention the albinos of Chamouni, attributes their
infirmity to a different cause.
“ The study of comparative anatomy has furnished him
with frequent opportunities of observing this phenomenon ;
he has found it in brutes, in white dogs, and in owls; he
says it is generally to be seen in the warm-blooded ani¬
mals, but that he has never met with it in those with cold
blood.
“ From his observations, he is of opinion that the redness
of the iris, and of the other internal parts of the eye, as well
as the extreme sensibility that accompanies this redness, is
owing to the total privation of that brown or blackish
mucus, which, about the fifth week after conception, covers
all the interior parts of the eye in its sound state. He ob¬
serves that Simon Pontius, in his treatise de Coloribus Ocu-
lorum, long ago remarked, that in blue eyes the interior
membranes were less abundantly provided with this black
mucus, and were therefore more sensible to the action of
light. This sensibility of blue eyes agrees very well, says
M. Blumenbach, with northern people, during their long
twilight; while, on the contrary, the deep black in the eyes
of negroes enables them to support the splendour of the
sunbeams in the torrid zone.
“ As to the connection between this red colour of their
eyes and the whiteness of the skin and hair, the same learned
physiologist says, that it is owing to a similarity of structure,
consensus ex similitudine fabricce. He asserts that this
black mucus is formed only in the delicate cellular sub¬
stance, which has numerous bloodvessels contiguous to it,
but contains no fat, like the inside of the eye, the skin of
negroes, the spotted palate of several domestic animals, &c.
And, lastly, he says that the colour of the hair generally
corresponds with that of the iris—Gazette Litt. de Got-
tingue, Oct. 1784.
“ At the very time that M. Blumenbach was reading this
memoir to the Royal Society of Gottingen, M. Buzzi, sur¬
geon to the hospital at Milan, an eleve of the celebrated ana¬
tomist Moscati, published in the Opuscoli Scelti de Milan,
1784, tom. vii. p. 11, a very interesting memoir, in which
he demonstrates by dissection what Blumenbach had only
supposed.
“ A peasant of about thirty years of age died in the hos-
448
ALB
ALB
Albinos.
pital of Milan of a pulmonary disorder. His body being
exposed to view, was exceedingly remarkable for the un¬
common whiteness of the skin, of the hair of the beard, and
of all the other covered parts of the body. M. Buzzi, who
had long desired an opportunity of dissecting such a subject,
immediately seized upon this. He found the iris of the eyes
perfectly white, and the pupil of a rose colour. The eyes
were dissected with the greatest possible care, and were
found entirely destitute of that black membrane which ana¬
tomists call the uvea ; it was not to be seen either behind
the iris or under the retina. Within the eye there was only
found the choroid coat, extremely thin, and tinged of a pale
red colour, by vessels covered with discoloured blood. What
was more extraordinary, the skin, when detached from dif¬
ferent parts of the body, seemed almost entirely divested of
the rete mucosum; maceration did not discover the least
vestige of this, not even in the wrinkles of the abdomen,
where it is most abundant and most visible.
“ M. Buzzi likewise accounts for the whiteness of the skin
and of the hair, from the absence of the rete mucosum, which,
according to him, gives the colour to the cuticle, and to the
hairs that are scattered over it. Among other proofs of this
opinion, he alleges a well-known fact, that if the skin of the
blackest horse be accidentally destroyed in any part of the
body, the hairs that afterwards grow on that part are always
white, because the rete mucosum which tinges those hairs
are never regenerated with the skin.
“ The proximate cause of the whiteness of albinos, and
the colour of their eyes, seems therefore pretty evidently to
depend on the absence of the rete mucosum ; but what is the
remote cause ?
“ M. Buzzi relates a singular fact, which seems to throw
some light on this subject.
“ A woman of Milan, called Calcagni, had seven sons.
The two eldest had brown hair and black eyes ; the three
next had white hair, white skins, and red eyes ; the two last
resembled the two eldest. It is said that this woman, dur¬
ing the three pregnancies that produced the albinos, had a
continual and immoderate appetite for milk, which she took
in great quantities ; but that, when she was with child of
the other four children, she had no such desire. It is not,
however, ascertained that this preternatural appetite was
not itself the effect of a certain heat, or internal disease which
destroyed the rete mucosum in the children before they were
born.
“ The albinos of Chamouni are also the offspring of pa¬
rents with dark skins and black eyes. They have three sis¬
ters by the same father and mother, who are also brunettes.
One of them that I saw had the eyes of a dark brown, and
the hair almost black. They are said, however, to be all
afflicted with a weakness of sight. When the lads are mar¬
ried, it will be curious to observe how the eyes of their chil¬
dren will be formed. The experiment would be particularly
decisive if they were married to women like themselves.
But this faulty conformation seems to be more rare among
women than among men ; for the four of Milan, the two of
Chamouni, the one described by Maupertuis, the other by
Helvetius, and almost all the instances of these singular
productions, have been of our sex. It is known, however,
that there are races of men and women affected with this
disease, and that these races perpetuate themselves in Gui¬
nea, in Java, at Panama, &c.
“ Upon the whole, this degeneration does not seem to be
owing to the air of the mountains ; for though I have tra¬
versed the greatest part of the Alps, and the other moun¬
tains of Europe, these are the only individuals of that kind
that I ever met with.”
Very perfect albinos, exactly answering to those described
by Saussure, occur in our own island. A Welsh family in
Albion.
which every alternate child was an albino, is described Albinova-
by Dr Traill of Liverpool, in Nicholson’s Journal, vol. xix. nus
p. 81; and several other instances have since occurred in
Britain.
ALBINO VAN US, C. Pedo, a Latin poet, whom Ovid
calls sidereus Pedo, the starry, on account of the loftiness
of his style. There is now nothing of his extant except
three elegies, of doubtful genuineness, and a fragment in
Seneca.
ALBINUS or Aldus, the name of a noble Roman fa¬
mily, the head of the gens Postumia. It produced many
consuls and distinguished men. The first of the name, sur-
named Regillensis, commanded, according to Livy, as dic¬
tator, in the great battle of the Lake Regillus; but Niebuhr
considers the name to have been derived merely from the
place of his residence.
Albinus, Bernhard Siegfred, a celebrated physician and
anatomist, was born of an illustrious family at Frankfort-
on-the-Oder in 1697. His father was then professor of the
practice of medicine in the university of Frankfort; but in
the year 1702 he repaired to Leyden, being nominated pro¬
fessor of anatomy and surgery in that university. Here his
son had an opportunity of studying under Boerhaave and
other eminent masters, who, from the singular abilities which
he then displayed, had no difficulty in prognosticating his
future eminence. But while he was distinguished in every
branch of literature, his attention was particularly turned to
anatomy and surgery. His peculiar attachment to these
branches of knowledge gained him the intimate friendship
of Ruysch and Rau, who at that time flourished in Ley¬
den ; and the latter, so justly celebrated as a lithotomist, is
said to have seldom performed a capital operation without
inviting him to be present. Having finished his studies at
Leyden, he went to Paris, where he attended the lectures
of Du Verney, Vaillant, and other celebrated professors.
But he had scarcely spent a year there when he was invited
by the curators of the university of Leyden to be a lecturer
on anatomy and surgery at that place. Though contrary to
his own inclination, he complied with their request, and
upon that occasion was created doctor of physic without any
examination. Soon after, upon the death of his father, he
was appointed to succeed him as professor of anatomy ; and
upon being admitted into that office on the 9th of Novem¬
ber 1721, he delivered an oration De vera via ad fahricce
humani corporis cognitionem ducente, which was heard with
universal approbation. In the capacity of a professor, he
not only bestowed the greatest attention upon the instruc¬
tion of the youth intrusted to his care, but on the improve¬
ment of the medical art. With this view he published many
important discoveries of his own; and, by elegant editions,
turned the attentions of physicians to works of merit which
might otherwise have been neglected. By these means his
fame was soon extended over Europe ; and the societies of
London, Petersburg, and Haarlem cheerfully received him
as an associate. In 1745 he was appointed professor of the
practice of medicine at Leyden, and was succeeded in the
anatomical chair by his brother, Frid. Bern. Albinus. He
was twice rector of the university, and as often he refused
that high honour when it was voluntarily offered him. At
length, worn out by long service and intense study, he died
on the 9th of September 1770, in the 74th year of his age.
Albinus, Clodius, a native of Africa, was a distinguished
military commander in the reigns of Marcus Aurelius, Corn-
modus, and Pertinax. On the death of Pertinax he was
proclaimed emperor by the legions in Britain and Gaul, but
was defeated and slain by his formidable competitor Severus,
in a battle near Lyons, A.D. 197.
ALBION, the ancient name of Britain. See Britain.
Albion, New, a name given by Sir Francis Drake to Cali-
ALB
Albireo fornia on the north-west coast of America, which he dis-
|| covered and took possession of in the year 1578. Captain
Albufera. Cook visited this coast in 1778, and landed in a place situ-
v--'' ate in Long. 235. 20. E. Lat. 44. 33. N. In the year 1792
it was again visited by Captain Vancouver, who was em¬
ployed in surveying the western coast of North America.
The name is now applied to that part of the coast which
lies between 43° and 48° N. Lat.
ALBIREO, in Astronomy, a star of the third or fourth
magnitude, in the constellation Cygnus.
ALBIS, in Ancient Geography, now the Elbe, which di¬
vided Ancient Germany in the middle, and was the bound¬
ary of this country, so far as it was known to the Romans.
All beyond they owned to be uncertain, no Roman except
Drusus, Tiberius, and D. Ahenobarbus having penetrated
so far as the Elbe.
ALBITE, a species of felspar, called also Cleavlandite.
See Mineralogy.
ALBOGALERUS, in Roman Antiquity, a white cap
worn by the jiamen Dialis, on the top of which was an or¬
nament of olive branches.
ALBOIN, King of the Lombards. See Lombards.
AL BORAK, amongst the Mahometan writers, the beast
on which Mahomet rode in his journeys to heaven. The
Arab commentators give many fables concerning this ex¬
traordinary mode of conveyance. It is represented as of
an intermediate shape and size between an ass and a mule.
A place, it seems, was secured for it in Paradise, at the inter¬
cession of Mahomet; which, however, was in some measure
extorted from the prophet, by A1 Borak’s refusing to let him
mount when the angel Gabriel was come to conduct him.
ALB ORAN, a small and barren rocky islet in the Me¬
diterranean sea, 66 miles S.S.W. of Almeria in Spain, Lat.
35. 58. N., Long. 3. 1. W.
ALB OX, a town of Spain, in the province of Almeria.
It is well-built and healthy, and contains 7425 inhabitants.
Principal manufactures, oil, flour, pottery, woollen and linen
stuffs. The latter give employment to about 400 looms
chiefly worked by women.
ALBRECHTSBERGER, Johann George, a musician,
born at Kloster-Neuburg, Vienna, in 1729. He was a very
learned contrapuntist, and became court organist at Vienna,
was a member of the Academy, and had the honour of be¬
ing the insti’uctor of Beethoven. He died in 1809. Twenty-
seven of his numerous compositions have been printed. His
excellent Guide to Composition, with Examples, was first
published at Leipsic, in 1790; and a collection of his writ¬
ings on harmony, in 3 vols., appeared at Vienna in 1826.
ALBRIC, Albricius, or Alfricus, a learned British
physician and philosopher, who flourished at London about
the end of the eleventh century, or, according to others, in
the beginning of the thirteenth. The following works of his
are cited by Bale: [^Script. Illustr. Magn. Brit.~\ -1. De
Deorum Imaginihus; 2. De Ratione Veneni; 3. Lirtutes
Antiquorum; 4. Canones Speculativi. The first alone has
been published, and is to be found in the Mythographi
Latini, Amsterdam, 1681.
ALBUERA, a small village of Spain, in the province of
Estremadura, 12 miles S.S.E. of Badajos. It has been ren¬
dered celebrated by a victory gained there on the 16th of
May 1811, by the English, Portuguese, and Spaniards, un¬
der Marshal Beresford, over the French army, commanded
by Marshal Soult.
ALBUFEIRA, a Portuguese town, on a bay in the pro¬
vince of Algarve, containing 2665 inhabitants. Its harbour
is capable of containing large ships, and is well defended by
a castle and battery. Lat. 37. 7. N. Long. 7. 19. W.
ALBUFERA de Valencia, a lake seven miles south of
Valencia, in Spain, about twelve miles in length and four in
VOL. II.
A L C 449
breadth. It has an opening to the sea, and abounds with fish Album
and waterfowl. The banks are inhabited by fishermen. I!
On the days of St Martin and St Catalina, the public have ^AIc8eu9'y
the freedom of fishing and shooting on the lake, which on
these occasions is covered with hundreds of boats.
ALBUM, in Antiquity, a kind of white tablet or register,
wherein the names of certain magistrates, public transac¬
tions, &c., were entered. Of these there were various sorts ;
as the album decurionum, album senatorum, album judicum,
album prcetoris, fyc.
The high priest entered the chief transactions of each year
into an album, or tablet, which was hung up in his house for
the public use.
Album is also used, in later times, to denote a kind of
tablet, or pocket-book, for containing autographs, sketches,
and original compositions.
ALBUMAZAR, a celebrated Arabian astronomer of
the ninth century, born at Balkh, in Khorassan. He had
reached the age of 47 before he entered on the studies to
which he owes his fame. His principal works are An In¬
troduction to Astronomy, and the Book of Conjunction, both
published in a Latin translation at Augsburg, in 1489, and
again at Venice in 1515 ; and a work On the Revolution
cf the Years is also attributed to him.
ALBUMEN, a substance found both in animal and
vegetable matters, and in great abundance in the white of
eggs. It coagulates by heat, and becomes insoluble in
water after that process. See Chemistry.
ALBUQUERQUE, a town of Spain, in a district of the
same name, in the province of Estremadura, on an emi¬
nence, nine miles from the frontiers of Portugal. It is de¬
fended by an almost impregnable fortress, built on a high
mountain. It was taken by the allies of Charles, king of
Spain, in 1705, but was restored to the Crown in 1715. It
has some trade in woollen and linen manufactures, and ex¬
ports cattle and fruits. Long. 7. 0. W. Lat. 38. 52. N.
Pop. 6787.
Albuquerque, Alfonso, the celebrated commander who
laid the foundations of the Portuguese power in India, was
born at Melinda, in Africa, in 1452. He died in 1515, at
the mouth of the Persian Gulf. See Portugal.—Historia
de Barros; Lafiteau, Conquetes des Portugais.
ALBURN, the English name of a compound colour,
being a mixture of white and red, or reddish brown. Skin¬
ner derives the word, in this sense, from the Latin albus,
and the Italian bruno, brown.
ALBURNUM, the soft white substance which in trees
is found between the liber or inner bark and the wood, and
in process of time acquiring solidity becomes itself the
wood. From its colour and comparative softness, it has been
styled by some writers the fat of trees, adeps arborum. Its
popular name is sap-wood.
ALCJEUS, one of the great lyric poets of Greece, was a
native of Mitylene, in Lesbos, aud flourished about the year
600 b. c. From the fragments of his poems which have
come down to us, we learn that his life was greatly mixed
up with the political disputes and internal feuds of his na¬
tive city. He sided with the nobles, and took an active
part against the tyrants, who at that time set themselves up
in Mitylene. He was obliged, in consequence, to quit his
native country, and spend the rest of his life in exile. The
date of his death is unknown. His poems, which were com¬
posed in the Aiolian dialect, were collected afterwards, and
apparently divided into ten books. The subjects, as we can
still see from the fragments, were of the most varied kind:
some of his poems were hymns to the gods; others were of
a martial or political character; others again breathed an
ardent love of liberty and hatred of the tyrants ; and lastly,
some were of an erotic kind, and appear to have been par-
450 A L C
Alcaeus ticularly remarkable for the fervour of the passion they de¬
li scribed. Horace looks upon Alcaeus as his great model,
Alcala. an(j }laSj in one passage {Od.ii. 13. 26. et seq '.), given a fine
picture of the poetical powers of the ^Eolian bard. The care
which Alcaeus bestowed upon the construction of his verses
was probably the reason why one kind of metre, the Alcaic,
was named after him. Not one of his compositions has come
down to us entire, but a complete collection of all the extant
fragments may be found in Bergk’s “ Poetae Lyrici Greed”
Lipsiae, 1852, 8vo. (l. s.)
Algous, an Athenian comic poet, or rather a writer of
what is termed mixed comedy. He left ten pieces, one of
which, Pasiphae, he produced when he contended with Aris¬
tophanes, in the year b.c. 388.
Alcaeus, of Messene, the author of 22 Epigrams in the
Greek Anthology. He was contemporary with Philip III.,
king of Macedon, whom he did not spare in his Epigrams,
and who replied to one of them in another, containing a
broad hint of a dreadful retaliation if he should fall into his
hands.
ALCAICS, in Andent Poetry, a name given to several
kinds of verse, from Alcaeus, their alleged inventor.
The first kind consists of five feet, viz. a spondee or
iambic, an iambic, a long syllable, a dactyle, another dac-
tyle. Such are the following lines of Horace:
Omnes | eojdem | cogimur, j omnium
Versa\tur ur\na | serins, J ocius,
Sors exitura.
The second kind consists of two dactyles and two tro¬
chees ; as,
Exili\um imposi\tura | cymbce.
Besides these two, which are called dactylic Alcaics,
there is another, simply styled Alcaic, consisting of an
epitrite, a choriambus, another choriambus, and a bacchius.
The following is of this species:
Cur timet fla\vum Tiberim | tangere, cur j olivum?
Alcaic Ode, a kind of manly ode, composed of several
strophes, each consisting of four verses; the first two of
which are always alca'ics of the first kind; the third verse
is an iambic dimeter hypercatalectic, or consisting of four
feet and a long syllable; and the fourth verse is an alca'ic
of the second kind. The following strophe is of this species,
which Horace calls “ minaces Alccd camence”
Non possidentem multa vocaveris
Recte beatum; rectius occupat
Nomen beati, qui deorum
Muneribus sapienter uti, &c.
ALCAID, Alcayde, or Alcalde, in the polity of the
Moors, Spaniards, and Portuguese, a magistrate or officer of
justice, answering nearly to the French provost and the
British justice of peace. The alcaid among the Moors is
vested with supreme jurisdiction, both in civil and criminal
cases. Alcalde is still the title of the mayors of Spanish
towns.
ALCALA de Guadaira, a town of Spain, in Andalucia,
upon the river Guadaira, with 7000 inhabitants, chiefly en¬
gaged in agriculture and the making of bread. It has abun¬
dance of springs, from which water is conveyed to Seville by
an aqueduct. Long. 5. 47. W. Lat. 37. 15. N.
Alcala de Henares, a city of Spain, on the river
Henares, in the province of New Castile. It was formerly
celebrated for its university, which has latterly been trans¬
ferred to Madrid. This university was founded by Car¬
dinal Ximenes, and it was here that the famous edition of
the Holy Bible, known as the Complutensian Polyglot,
was prepared. Alcala contains 5153 inhabitants, and has
a military school for the artillery and engineer corps.
Among many distinguished men to whom it had the honour
A L C
of giving birth are, the poet Figueroa, the naturalist Busta- Alcala
mente de la Camara, the historian Solis, and last and great- II
est of all, Cervantes. Alcantara.
Alcala de los Gazules, a town of Seville in Spain, 27 ^
miles N.W. of Cadiz, in a picturesque mountainous district.
It has about 6000 inhabitants, chiefly engaged in agriculture.
Alcala la Peal, a city of Andalucia in Spain, 18 miles
S.W. of Jaen. It stands between two mountain ridges, at
an elevation of about 3000 feet above the sea. It has a fine
abbey, two parish churches, and two convents, and a popula¬
tion chiefly agricultural, of about 7000. Alonso de Alcala, a
celebrated physician and jurist of the sixteenth century, was
born here. In 1810 the Spaniards were defeated here by
the French.
ALCALY, or Alcali, or Alkali. See Chemistry,
Index.
ALCAMENES (’AA/cayaeV^s), a famous Athenian sculp¬
tor, a pupil of Phidias, who is celebrated for his skill in art
by Cicero, Pliny, Pausanias, Lucian, &c. He appears as
one of the great triumvirate of Greek sculptors, Phidias,
Alcamenes, and Polycletus. He competed with his master
in a statue of Minerva. It would appear that in this at¬
tempt his style was exquisite in finish, but that he failed in
the spirit of his work, when compared to that of his mighty
master. His statue of Venus Urania, that adorned her tem¬
ple at Athens, was reckoned his masterpiece. He flourished
about 430 years B. c.
ALCAMO, a city of Sicily, on the river Freddo or St
Bartholomew, in the intendancy of Trapani. It is a parlia¬
mentary city, in a district of peculiar fertility, which pro¬
duces some of the best wines of the island. It contains a
very strong castle, many churches and monasteries, and
13,000 inhabitants. Near to it are remains of the ancient
Segesta, with its temple and theatre in good preservation;
and near the sea are some celebrated warm baths.
ALCANIZ, a Spanish town upon the Guadaloupe, in
the province of Teruel, with a fine town-house, a college,
three parish churches, six monasteries, one hospital, and
5100 inhabitants. The surrounding country is wild, but
rich in olives, mulberry trees, and alum.
ALCANNA, or Alkanna, in Commerce, a powder pre¬
pared from the leaves of the Egyptian privet, in which the
people of Cairo drive a considerable trade. It is much used
by the Turkish women, to give a golden colour to their nails
and hair. In dyeing, it gives a yellow colour when steeped
with common water, and a red when infused in vinegar.
There is also an oil extracted from the berries of alcanna,
which is sometimes used in medicine.
ALCANTARA, the Interamnium of the Romans, a
town of Estremadura in Spain, on the left bank of the
Tagus, with 4273 inhabitants. Alcantara {Arabice, A1
Kantrah, i. e. the bridge), derived its name from the magni¬
ficent Roman bridge which spanned the Tagus at this point;
and which was erected, according to the inscription, in a.d.
104, at the joint expense of the several towns therein men¬
tioned, in honour of the Emperor Trajan, who was a native
of Spain. This noble monument of antiquity was injured
by the English, and afterwards, with gratuitous barbarism,
blown up by the French general Victor, during the campaign
of 1809. It was repaired with timber in 1818, and again
burnt in 1836 to prevent the passage of the Carlist troops.
Lat. 39. 41. N. Long. 6. 44. W.
Knights of Alcantara, one of the five military orders of
Spain, which took its name from the above-mentioned city.
They make a very considerable figure in the history of the
expeditions against the Moors. The knights of Alcantara
make the same vows as those of Calatrava, and are only dis¬
tinguished from them by this, that the cross fleur-de-lis,
which they bear over a large white cloak, is of a green
A L C
A L C
451
Aloaraz colour. They possess 37 commanderies. By the terms of
|| the surrender of Alcantara to this order, it was stipulated
Alcazar, tlurt there should be a confraternity between the two orders,
with the same practices and observances in noth ; and that
the order of Alcantara should be subject to be visited by
the grand master of Calatrava. But the former soon re¬
leased themselves from this engagement, on pretence that
their grand master had not been called to the election of
that of Calatrava, as had been likewise stipulated in the
articles. After the expulsion of the Moors, and the taking
of Granada, the sovereignty of the order of Alcantara and
that of Calatrava was settled in the crown of Castile by
Ferdinand and Isabella. In 1540 the knights of Alcantara
sued for leave to marry, which was granted them.
ALCARAZ, a small city of La Mancha, in Spain, now
in the province of Albacete. The judicial district of the
same name contains 28,000 inhabitants. It is a very moun¬
tainous region, interspersed with fertile valleys. The prin¬
cipal mountain chain is the Sierra de Alcaraz, a prolongation
of the Sierra Morena. The city stands near the river Guar-
damena, and has the remains of a once strong castle, and of
a magnificent Roman aqueduct. It is mentioned by
Ptolemy under the name of Urcesa, converted by the Arabs
into A1 Karrasch. Pop. 7325.
ALCAUDETE, a town of Andalucia, in Spain, in the
province of Jaen, in a fertile territory, producing wine, oil,
corn, and abundance of fruits. It has a castle, two parish
churches, four monasteries, and 6499 inhabitants.
ALCAYAL A was a duty imposed in Spain and its colo¬
nies on all transfers of property, whether public or private.
It was originally imposed in 1341, as an ad valorem tax ot
10, increased afterwards to 14, per cent., charged on all
commodities, whether raw or manufactured, as often as they
were sold or exchanged, being always rated according to
their selling price. The levying of this tax required a mul¬
titude of revenue officers sufficient to guard the transporta¬
tion of goods not only from one province to another, but
from one shop to another. It subjected not only the deal¬
ers in some sort of goods, but those in all sorts, every farmer,
every manufacturer, every merchant and shopkeeper, to the
continual visits and examination of the tax-gatherers. This
monstrous impost was permitted to ruin the industry and
commerce of the greater part of the kingdom down to the
invasion of Napoleon. Catalonia and Aragon purchased
from Philip V. an exemption from the alcavala, and from
another pernicious tax called the milliones (duties on
butcher-meat, and other articles of provisions), by the sub¬
stitution of a tax on the rents of lands and houses, and on
profits, and the wages of labour. Extremely onerous as this
latter tax was, Catalonia and Aragon were in a compara¬
tively flourishing state, in consequence of their exemption
from the oppressive alcavala.—McCulloch on Taxation.
ALCAZAR de San Juan, a Spanish town in a district of
the same name, in the province of Ciudad Real, and diocese
of Toledo. It contains 7540 inhabitants. It has manufac¬
tures of soap, saltpetre, and gunpowder. 4 his is the Alee
of the Romans, taken by T. Sempronius Gracchus after a
victory over the Celtiberians, b.c. 180.—Livy, xl. 48, 49.
Alcazar do Sal, a town of Portugal, in Estremadura,
with a castle said to be impregnable. It is fortified both
by art and nature, being built on the top of a rock exceed¬
ingly steep on ail sides. The salt produced here, whence
the town takes its name, is of remarkable whiteness. I he
fields produce large quantities of rushes, of which mats are
made, which are transported out of the kingdom. Pop.
4000. Long. 9. 10. W. Lat. 38. 18. N.
Alcazar Kebir, a city of Barbary, seated about two
leagues from Larache, in Asga, a province of the kingdom of
Fez. It was of great note, and the seat of the governor of
this part of the kingdom. It was built by Jacob Almanzor, Alcazar
king of Fez, about the -year 1180, and designed for a ma-
gazine and place of rendezvous for the great preparations f ^ em;
he was making to enter Granada in Spain, and to make
good the footing which Joseph Almanzor had got some
time before. It is said his father first invaded Spain with
300,000 men, most of whom he was obliged to bring back
to Africa to quell a rebellion that had broken out in Marocco.
This done, he returned to Spain again with an army, as is
said, of 200,000 horse and 300,000 foot. The city is now
fallen greatly to decay, so that of fifteen mosques, two only
are used, probably in consequence of the bad situation ot
the town ; for it stands so low, that it is excessively hot in
summer, and in winter almost overflowed with water. Po¬
pulation about 5000. Near this city there is a high ridge ot
mountains running towards Tetuan, whose inhabitants were
never brought entirely under subjection. Not far from this
is the river Elmahassen, famous for the battle fought be¬
tween Don Sebastian, king of Portugal, and the Moors, in
which the Portuguese were defeated, and their king slain.
Long. 12. 35. W. Lat. 35. 15. N.
Alcazar, Luis de, a learned Spanish Jesuit, born at Se¬
ville in 1554. His ingenuity was chiefly directed to the in¬
terpretation of the Apocalypse, on which subject he wrote
various treatises. He was greatly beloved in his native city,
where he died in 1613.
ALCEDO, the genus Kingfisher, in Ornithology.
Alcedo, Antonio de, a Spanish geographer of the West
Indies, whose work printed, in 5 vols. 4to, in 1786-9, was
suppressed by the government. It was translated into Eng¬
lish in 1812-15 bv Mr G. A. Thompson ; but is now entirely
superseded.
ALCESTER, a parish and market town in the county of
Warwick, 13 miles W.S.W. of Warwick, with 2027 inha¬
bitants, who manufacture needles and fish-hooks. It was
the ancient Alauna.
ALCESTIS, the daughter of Pelias, and wife of Admetus
king of Pherae in Thessaly, who consented to die in place ot
her husband, and was afterwards restored to life by Hercules.
This beautiful instance of female devotion forms the subject
of one of the best plays of Euripides.
ALCHADEB, a Spanish rabbi, who flourished about the
end of the 15th century. He was celebrated as an astro¬
nomer, but his works, with one exception, exist only in MS.
ALCHEMY, a word of equally doubtful origin with the
science which it denotes. The prefix al suggests an Arabic
source, and the word has accordingly been explained as sig¬
nifying the chemistry, with reference to the “ great projec¬
tion,” as the terminating and highest result of the science.
It is impossible now to connect the hermetic art of the
Egyptians, and the traces of alchemy in the later history
of Rome, with its first historical development in the middle
ages, beginning in the eighth century with the Arabian
Gebir. From the Arabians it passed into Europe; and the
period from the eleventh to the sixteenth century inclusive
constitutes the proper reign of alchemy. During this period
it numbered among its adepts the great names of Roger
Bacon, Albertus Magnus, Aquinas, Raymond Lully, Ar-
nauld of Villa Nova, Basil Valentine, and Paracelsus. Fiom
these, the genuine and highest type of alchemists, we must
take our estimate of the art, and not from the baser class of
visionaries and impostors with whom the name has too long
been universally associated. These men, then, will be foun
to have been in reality laborious experimental chemists, anc
their belief in the particular doctrines of alchemy to lave
been the very natural offspring of the contact ot hig i spe¬
culative intellect, in a dark and enthusiastic age, wit t e
wonders of a science pregnant above all others in marve s
and in mystery. That these men contributed little to our
452 A L C
Alciati real knowledge of nature, even if true, might well be ac-
. I[ counted for, by the fact that the trammels of spiritual autho-
/ ci ia es-rjty still fettered the human mind, and that the jealous guar-
dianship of superstition too faithfully bounded the inquiries
of a bold curiosity. Modern science, however, stands in¬
debted in no small degree to the alchemy of the middle
ages.
The peculiar objects of the enthusiastic and patient pur¬
suit of the alchemist were, 1st, the alkahest, or universal sol¬
vent, an element to which modern chemistry has made a
kind of approximation. 2d, the transmutation of metals, an
idea under different forms, which will be found to pervade
the whole course of chemical inquiry. “ The improvements,”
says Sir Humphry Davy, “ taking place in the methods of
examining bodies, are constantly changing the opinions of
chemists with respect to their nature; and there is no rea¬
son to suppose that any real indestructible principle has yet
been discovered. Matter may ultimately be found to be the
same in essence, differing only in the arrangement of its
particles; or two or three simple substances may produce
all the varieties of compound bodies.” The possibility of
the realisation of this idea still remains, however, to be de¬
monstrated. ?>d. The elixir vitae, or universal medicine, for
the cure of all diseases, and the indefinite prolongation of
human life, an idea which, we may remark, has not been pe¬
culiar to the alchemists, having substantially been held by
Bacon and Descartes. For fuller historical particulars see
Chemistry, History.
ALCIATI, Andrea, an eminent Italian jurist, who was
born near Milan, in 1492, and died in 1550. He mixed
much of polite learning in the explication of the laws, and
happily drove out the barbarity of language which till then
had reigned in the lectures and writings of lawyers: for
which Thuanus highly praises him. He published a great
many law-books, and some notes upon Tacitus. His Em¬
blems have been much admired, and translated into French,
Italian, and Spanish. His History of Milan appeared after
his death.
ALCIBIADES, the celebrated Athenian general, son
of Clinias and Deinomache, was born at Athens about the
year 450 b.c. Of high birth, princely fortune, and surpass¬
ing personal beauty, he was eminently distinguished for the
brilliancy and versatility of his talents; but his youth was
disgraced by debauchery and excess, from which his friend
Socrates strove in vain to reclaim him. Mutual services had
cemented their friendship ;.6,Socrates having rescued him
from death at the battle of ;Potidaea, as he afterwards saved
the life of Socrates at 4frat of Delium. On the death of
Cleon, in 422, he became one of the leaders in the Athe¬
nian commonwealth, and the head of the war party, in op¬
position to Nicias. He warmly advocated the Sicilian ex-
TVT^^°n’ w^llc^ was chosen a joint commander with
Aicias and Lamachus. Shortly after his arrival there, he
Mas recalled to Athens, to stand his trial respecting the
mysterious mutilation of the Hermes busts, with which act
of impiety he was charged as a ringleader previously to his
departure; but contriving to escape from the state vessel
that was conveying him, he proceeded to Sparta, where he
acted as the avowed enemy of his country. Sentence of
death was passed upon him at Athens, and his property
confiscated. The machinations of Agis II. obliged him to
leave Sparta; and taking refuge with Tissaphernes, he in¬
duced that commander to desert the Spartans, and declare
himself in favour of the Athenians, who thereupon recalled
Alcibiades from exile. Before he returned, however, the
Athenians under his command gained the victories of Cy-
nossema, Abvdos, and Cyzicus, and took possession of Chal-
cedon and Byzantium; after which, in 407, he entered
Athens in triumph, and was appointed commander of all the
A L c
land and sea forces. But the year following he was super-Alcidamas
seded, in consequence of the defeat of his fleet at Notium, II
occasioned by the rashness of his lieutenant Antiochus, and Alcman-
he retired into voluntary exile to his fortified domain at
Bisanthe. Before the fatal battle of TEgos-Potamos, he gave
an ineffectual warning to the Athenian leaders. After the
fall of Athens, he was banished and took refuge with Phar-
nabazus, and was about to proceed to the court of Ar-
taxerxes, when assassins, hired either by the Spartans or by
the brothers of a lady whom he had seduced, fired his house
in the night; and in attempting to escape, he was slain with
darts, in the forty-sixth year of his age, b.c. 404. He left
a son, of his own name, by his wife Hipparete.
ALCIDAMAS, a Greek rhetorician, who gave instruc¬
tions in eloquence at Athens, where he resided between the
years b.c. 432 and 411. His chief works are lost; but there
are two orations extant that pass under his name.— See
Reiske’s Oratores Grceci; and Bekker’s Oratores Attici.
ALCTDES, a name of Amphitryon, son of Alcaeus, and
more especially of Hercules the grandson of Alcaeus.
ALCINOUS, a Platonic philosopher of uncertain date,
author of a work entitled Ettito/x^ tmv ILVarcovos SoyyaTwv,
which has been translated into English by Stanley in his
History of Philosophy. The best edition of the Greek
original is that by Fisher, Lips. 1783, 8vo.
Alcinous, a mythical king of the Phaeacians, in the
island of Scheria or Drepane, which it would be difficult to
identify with any modern island, was son of Nausithous, and
grandson of Neptune and Peribcea. This king has been
immortalised in the Odyssey. He received Ulysses with
much civility, when a storm had cast him on his coast. Flis
people loved pleasure and good cheer, yet were skilful sea¬
men ; and Alcinous is described as a good prince.
ALCIPHRON, the most eminent of the Greek epistolary
writers, was probably a contemporary of Lucian. His letters,
of which 116 have been published, are written in the purest
Attic dialect: the imaginary authors of them are country
people, fisherwomen, courtesans, and parasites ; who express
their sentiments and opinions on familiar subjects in refined
and elegant language, yet without any very apparent incon¬
sistency. The new Attic comedy being the principal source
from which Alciphron derived his information, these letters
are valuable as delineating the private life of the Athenians
at that period. The best editions are by Bergler, Lips.
1715, and Wagner, Lips. 1798.
ALCIRA, the ancient Sucro, a Spanish town upon an
island in the river Jucar, in the province of Valencia. It is
surrounded with walls, and has two parish churches, six
monasteries, one hospital, four poorhouses, and 13,000 in
habitants. Its principal productions are silk, rice, and or¬
anges, which are exported to Seville, France, and England.
ALCM/EON, a philosopher of Crotona, who lived about
550 b.c. He is said to have been a pupil of Pythagoras,
and according to some he was the first who dissected the
human body. His writings are lost, but his opinions may
be gathered from Stobaeus, Plutarch, and Galen.
ALCMAER, a city of the United Provinces, in North
Holland, seated about four miles from the sea, 15 from
Haarlem, and 18 from Amsterdam. The streets and houses
are extremely neat and regular, and the public buildings
very beautiful. The church of St Lawrence is a fine Gothic
building of the fifteenth century, with a beautiful porch.
Alcmaer has a court of primary jurisdiction, a college, a
theatre, &c. In 1850 the number of inhabitants was 10,148.
ALCMAN, sometimes also called Alcmaeon, one of the
most ancient, and, in the opinion of the Alexandrian critics,
the most distinguished among the lyric poets of Greece.
According to one account he was by birth a Lydian, while
others state that he was a native of Sparta, where, at any
A L C
A L C
453
Alcor.
Alcmanian rate, he lived from a very early age. The time at which he
» flourished is uncertain, though it is generally assumed that
it was the period between the years 620 and 640 b.C. Ale¬
man may in some respects be regarded as the father of lyric
poetry among the Greeks, and it was probably for this rea¬
son that the Alexandrian critics put him at the head of their
lyric canon. His poems, which seem to have formed a col¬
lection of six books, are known to us only from a number
of small fragments. Many of them were of an erotic cha¬
racter, but others of them were hymns, and scolia. All were
written in the vigorous broad dialect of the Dorians. The
best collection of these fragments was published by F. G.
Welcker, Giesen, 1815, 4to; they are also contained in
Bergk’s “PoetcR Lyrici Greed” 1852, 8vo. (l. S.)
ALCMANIAN, an ancient lyric kind of verse, consist¬
ing of two dactyles and two trochees: as,—
Virgini|6ws pue\risque\canto.
It derived its name from the poet above mentioned.
ALCMENA, the daughter of Electryon, king of Mycenae,
and wife of Amphitryon. She was the mother of Hercules
by Zeus, who assumed the likeness of her husband during
his absence; and at the same birth she bore Iphicles by
Amphitryon.
ALCOB AZA, a town of Portugal, to the north of Lisbon,
in the province of Estremadura, at the confluence of the
two rivers Alcoa and Baza. It is celebrated for its monastery,
one of the richest and most splendid establishments in the
kingdom. It contains 295 houses and 2000 inhabitants.
ALCOCK, John, doctor of laws, and bishop of Ely in
the reign of Henry VIL, was born at Beverley in Yorkshire,
and educated at Cambridge. He was first made dean of
Westminster, and afterwards appointed master of the rolls.
In 1471 he was consecrated bishop of Rochester; in 14/6
he was translated to the see of Worcester; and in 1486 to
that of Ely, in the room of Dr John Morton, preferred to
the see of Canterbury. He was a prelate of great learning
and piety, and so highly esteemed by King Henry, that he
appointed him lord-president of Wales, and afterwards lord-
chancellor of England. Alcock founded a school at Kings-
ton-upon-Hull, and built the spacious hall belonging to the
episcopal palace at Ely. He was also the founder of Jesus
College in Cambridge, for a master, six fellows, and as many
scholars. This house was formerly a nunnery, dedicated to
St Radigund; and Godwin says that the building being
o-reatly decayed, and the revenues reduced almost to no¬
thing, the nuns had all forsaken it, except two; whereupon
Bishop Alcock procured a grant from the crown, and con¬
verted it into a college. But Camden and others tell us,
that the nuns of that house were so notorious for their in¬
continence, that King Henry VIL and Pope Julius II. con¬
sented to its dissolution : Bale accordingly calls this nunnery
spiritualium meretricum ccenobium, a community of spn itua
harlots. Bishop Alcock wrote several pieces, among which
are the following:—1. Mons Perfectionis ; 2. In Psalmos
Pcenitentiales; 3. Homiliae Vulgares; 4. Meditationes Piae.
He died October 1. 1500, and was buried in the chapel
built by himself in Ely cathedral.
ALCOENTRE, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Estremadura. It is within the lines of Torres Vedras, and
was occupied by the allied troops as cantonments during the
important period when those lines were the barrier that
secured the safety of the peninsula.
ALCOHOL, or Alkohol, in Chemistry, spirits of wine
highly rectified. It is also used for any highly rectified
spirit. Absolute alcohol has been obtained of a specific
gravity, 794-2. See Materia Medica.
ALCOHOLIZATION, the process of rectifying any
SP ALCOR, the name of a small star adjoining to the large
bright one in the middle of the tail of Ursa major. The Alcora
word is Arabic. It is a proverb among the Arabians, ap¬
plied to one who pretends to see small things, but overlooks
much greater : Thou canst see Alcor, and yet not see the full
Alcoran.
TYlOOTl*
ALCORA, a town of Valencia in Spain, celebrated for its
delft and porcelain manufactory. Pop. 6000.
ALCORAN, or Al-koran, the scripture or bible of the
Mahometans. The word is compounded of the Arabic par¬
ticle al, and Jtoran, derived from the verb karaa, to read.
It therefore properly signifies the reading, or rather that
which ought to be read. By this name the Mahometans de¬
note not only the entire book or volume of the Koran, but
also any particular chapter or section of it; just as the Jews
call either the whole Scripture, or any part of it, by the
name of Kara or Mikra, words of the same origin and
Besides this peculiar name, the Koran is also honoured
with several appellations common to other books of Scrip¬
ture: as alFarkan, from the wexbforaha, to divide or dis-
timulish; not, as the Mahometan doctors say, because those
books are divided into chapters or sections, or distinguish
between good and evil, but in like manner as the Jews use
the word Perek or Pirha, from the same root, to denote a
section or portion of Scripture. It is also called al Moshaf,
the volume, and al Kitah, the book, by way of eminence,
which answers to the Biblia of the Greeks; and al JJhikr,
the admonition, which name is also given to the Pentateuch
and Gospel. .
The Koran is divided into 114 larger portions of very
unequal length, which we call chapters, but the Arabians
sowar, in the singular sura, a word rarely used on any other
occasion, and properly signifying a row, order, or a regular
series; as a course of bricks in a building, or a rank ot sol¬
diers in an army; and is the same in use and impoit with
the Sura or Tora of the Jews, who also call the fifty-three
sections of the Pentateuch Sedarim, a word of the same
signification.
These chapters are not distinguished in the manuscript
copies by their numerical order, but by particular titles,
which are taken sometimes from a particular matter treated
of, or person mentioned therein ; but usually from the first
word of note, exactly in the same manner as the Jews have
named their Sedarim; though the word from which some
chapters are denominated be very far distant, towards the
middle, or perhaps the end of the chapter; which seems ridi¬
culous. But the occasion of this appears to have been, that
the verse or passage wherein such word occurs was, in point
of time, revealed and committed to writing before the other
verses of the same chapter which precede it in order; and
the title being given to the chapter before it was completed,
or the passages reduced to their present order, the verse
from whence such title was taken did not always happen to
begin the chapter. Some chapters have two or more titles,
occasioned by the difference of the copies.
Some of the chapters having been revealed at Mecca, and
others at Medina, the noting of this difference makes a part
of the title; but the reader will observe that several of the
chapters are said to have been revealed partly at Mecca
and partly at Medina; and as to others, it is yet a dispute
among the commentators to which of the two places they
belong. .
Every chapter is subdivided into smaller portions, o i try
unequal length also, which we customarily call verses, ut t. e
Arabic word is ay at, the same with the Hebrew ototh,zna
signifies signs or wonders: such as are the secrets o ot,
his attributes, works, judgments, and ordinances, de ivere
in those verses; many oi which have their particuar i
also, imposed in the same manner as those of the chapters.
454
Alcoran
ALCORAN.
Besides these unequal divisions of chapter and verse, the
Mahometans have also divided their Koran into sixteen
equal portions, which they call Ahzab, in the singular Hizb,
each divided into four equal parts; which is also an imita¬
tion of the Jews, who have an ancient division of their
Mishna into sixty portions called Massictoth. But the Koran
is more usually divided into thirty sections only, named
Ajzai from the singular Joz, each of twice the length of the
former, and in like manner subdivided into four parts.
These divisions are for the use of the readers of the Koran
in the royal temples, or in the adjoining chapels, where the
emperors and great men are interred. There are thirty of
these readers belonging to every chapel, and each reads his
section every day; so that the whole Koran is read over
once a day.
Next after the title, at the head of every chapter, except
only the ninth, is prefixed the following solemn form, by the
Mahometans called the Bismallah, In the name of the
most merciful Goi); which form they constantly place at
the beginning of all their books and writings in general, as
a peculiar mark or distinguishing characteristic of their re¬
ligion, it being counted a sort of impiety to omit it. The
Jews, for the same purpose, make use of the form, In the
name of the Lord, or In the name of the great God; and
the eastern Christians that of In the name of the Father, arid
of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. But Mahomet probably
took this form, as he did many other things, from the Per¬
sian Magi, who used to begin their books in these words,
Benam Yezdan bakshaishgher dadar; that is, In the name
of the most merciful just God.
There are twenty-nine chapters of the Koran which have
this peculiarity, that they begin with certain letters of the
alphabet, some with a single one, others with more. These
letters the Mahometans believe to be the peculiar marks of
the Koran, and to conceal several profound mysteries, the
certain understanding of which, the most intelligent confess,
has not been communicated to any mortal, their prophet only
excepted. Notwithstanding which, some will take the liberty
of guessing at their meaning by that species of Cabala called
by the Jews Notarikon, and suppose the letters to stand for
as many words, expressing the names and attributes of God,
his works, ordinances, and decrees; and therefore these mys¬
terious letters, as well as the verses themselves, seem in the
Koran to be called signs. Others explain the intent of these
letters from their nature or organ, or else from their value
in numbers, according to another species of the Jewish Ca¬
bala, called Gematria ; the uncertainty of which conjec¬
tures sufficiently appears from their disagreement. Thus,
for example, five chapters, one of which is the second, begin
'Y// / ,est? frfrers> A. L. M. which some imagine to stand for
Allah latiffimagid, God is gracious and to be glorified; or,
Ana h minni, i. e. to me and from me, viz. belongs all per¬
fection, and proceeds all good; or else for Ano Allah alam,
1 am the most wise God, taking the first letter to mark the
beginning of the first word, the second the middle of the
second word, and the third the last of the third word; or
for Allah Gabriel Mohammed, the author, revealer, and
preacher of the Koran. Others say, that as the letter A be¬
longs to the lower part of the throat, the first of the organs
or speech ; L to the palate, the middle organ ; and M to the
lips, which are the last organ; so these letters signifiy that
God is the beginning, middle, and end, or ought to be praised
in the beginning, middle, and end, of all our words and
actions: or, as the total value of those three letters, in num-
bers, is seventy-one, they signify, that, in the space of so Alcoran,
many years, the religion preached in the Koran should be v'—v—-<
fully established. The conjecture of a learned Christian is
is at least as certain as any of the former, who supposes
those letters were set there by the amanuensis, for Amar li
Mohamed, i. e. at the command of Miohammed, as the five
letters prefixed to the nineteenth chapter seem to be there
written by a Jewish scribe, for Coh yaas, Thus he com¬
manded.
The Koran is universally allowed to be written with the
utmost elegance and purity of language, in the dialect of
the tribe of Koreish, the most noble and polite of all the
Arabians, but with some mixture, though very rarely, of
other dialects. It is confessedly the standard of the Arabic
tongue, and, as the more orthodox believe and are taught by
the book itselfj inimitable by any human pen (though some
sectaries have been of another opinion) ; and therefore in¬
sisted on as a permanent miracle, greater than that of rais¬
ing the dead, and alone sufficient to convince the world of
its divine original.
And to this miracle did Mahomet himself chiefly appeal
for the confirmation of his mission, publicly challenging the
most eloquent men in Arabia, which was at that time stocked
with thousands whose sole study and ambition it was to ex¬
cel in elegance of style and composition, to produce even a
single chapter that might be compared with it.1
1 o the pomp and harmony of expression some ascribe all
the force and effect of the Koran, which they consider asa sort
of music, equally fitted with other species of that art to ra¬
vish and amaze. In this Mahomet succeeded so well, and
so strangely captivated the minds of his audience, that se¬
veral of his opponents thought it the effect of witchcraft and
enchantment, as he himself complains. Others have attri¬
buted the effect of the Koran to the frequent mention of re¬
wards and punishments,—heaven and hell occurring almost
in every page. Some suppose that the sensual pleasures of
paradise, so frequently set before the imaginations of the
readers of the Koran, were what chiefly bewitched them;
though, with regard to these, there is a great dispute whether
they are to be understood literally or spiritually. Several
have even allegorized the whole book.
The general design of the Koran was to unite the profes¬
sors of the three different religions then followed in the po¬
pulous country of Arabia (who for the most part lived pro¬
miscuously, and wandered without guides, the far greater
number being idolaters, and the rest Jews and Christians
mostly of erroneous and heterodox belief) in the knowledge
and worship of one God, under the sanction of certain laws,
and the outward signs of ceremonies partly of ancient and
partly of novel institution, enforced by the consideration o
rewards and punishments both temporal and eternal, and to
bring them all to the obedience of Mahomet, as the prophet
and ambassador of God, who, after the repeated admonitions,
promises, and threats of former ages, was at last to establish
and propagate God’s religion on earth, and to be acknow¬
ledged chief pontiff in spiritual matters, as well as supreme
prince in temporal.
The great doctrine, then, of the Koran is the unity of
God, to restore which point, Mahomet pretended, was the
chief end of his mission; it being laid down by him as a
fundamental truth, that there never was, nor ever can be,
more than one true orthodox religion. For, though the par¬
ticular laws or ceremonies are only temporary, and subject
to alteration, according to the divine directions, yet the sub-
1 As the composition and arrangement of words, however arimi+, , , ,
the best possible. In fact, Hamzah Benahmed wrote a book a-Tinst w u 'A Ca“ neve^ bf absolutely sald that any one 18
which even surpassed it, and occasioned a defection of a vreat Difrt ofthJ llfK r h aAleast e<lual elegance ; and Moselema another,
Nov. 1708, p. 404.) ^ ^ussulmans‘ {Jour, de S$av. tom. xiii. p. 280. (Euv. de Sgav.
ALCORAN.
Alcoran, stance of it being eternal truth, is not liable to change, but
continues immutably the same. And he taught, that when¬
ever this religion became neglected, or corrupted in essen¬
tials, God had the goodness to re-inform and re-admonish
mankind thereof, by several prophets, of whom Moses and
Jesus were the most distinguished, till the appearance of
Mahomet, who is their seal, and after whom no other is to be
expected. The more effectually to engage the people to
hearken to him, great part of the Koran is employed in re¬
lating examples of dreadful punishments formerly inflicted
by God on those who rejected and abused his messengers.
Several of these stories, or some circumstances of them, are
taken from the Old and New Testaments, but many more
from the apocryphal books and traditions of the Jews and
Christians of those ages, and are set up in the Koran as truths
in opposition to the Scriptures, which the Jews and Chris¬
tians are charged with having altered. But in fact few or none
of the relations or circumstances in the Koran were invented
by Mahomet, as is generally supposed, it being easy to trace
the greater part of them much higher, as the rest might be,
were more of those books extant, and were it worth while to
make the inquiry.
The rest of the Koran is taken up in prescribing neces¬
sary laws and directions, frequent admonitions to moral and
divine virtues, the worship and reverence of the Supreme
Being, and resignation to his will. One of their most learned
commentators distinguishes the contents of the Koran into
allegorical and literal. Under the former are comprehended
all the obscure, parabolical, and enigmatical passages, with
such as are repealed or abrogated ; under the latter, such as
are clear and in full force.
The most excellent moral in the whole Koran, interpre¬
ters say, is that in the chapter Al Air of, viz. “ Show mercy,
do good to all, and dispute not with the ignorantor, as
Mr Sale renders it, “ Use indulgence, command that which
is just, and withdraw far from the ignorant.” Mahomet,
according to the authors of the Keschaf, having begged of
the angel Gabriel a more ample explication of this passage,
received it in the following terms :—“ Seek him who turns
thee out, give to him who takes from thee, pardon him who
injures thee ; for God will have you plant in your souls the
roots of his chief perfections.” It is easy to see that this
commentary is copied from the Gospel. In reality, the ne¬
cessity of forgiving enemies, though frequently inculcated
in the Koran, is of a later date among the Mahometans than
among the Christians ; among those latter, than among the
heathens; and to be traced originally to the Jews. (See
Exodus xxiii. 4, 5.) But it matters not so much who had
it first, as who observes it best. The caliph Hassan, son of
Ali, being at table, a slave unfortunately let fall a dish of
meat, reeking hot, which scalded him severely. The slave
fell on his knees, rehearsing these words of the Koran:
“ Paradise is for those who restrain their anger.” “ I am
not angry with thee,” answered the caliph. “ And for those
who forgive offences against them,” continues the slave.
“ I forgive thee thine,” replies the caliph. “ But, above all,
for those who return good for evil,” adds the slave. “ I
set thee at liberty,” rejoined the caliph; “ and I give thee
ten dinars.”
There are also a great number of occasional passages in
the Koran, relating only to particular emergencies. For
in the piecemeal method of receiving his revelation, Maho¬
met had this advantage, that whenever he happened to be
particularly perplexed with any thing, he had a certain re¬
source in some new morsel of revelation. It was an admir¬
able contrivance of his to bring down the whole Koran at
once only to the lowest heaven, not to earth; since, had
the whole been published at once, innumerable objections
would have been made, which it would have been impos-
455
sible for him to solve; but as he received it by parcels, as Alcoran.
God saw fit they should be published for the conversion and
instruction of the people, he had a sure way to answer all
emergencies, and to extricate himself with honour from any
difficulty which might occur.
It is the general and orthodox belief among the Maho¬
metans that the Koran is of divine original; nay, that it is
eternal and uncreated, remaining, as some express it, in the
very essence of God ; that the first transcript has been from
everlasting by God’s throne, written on a table of vast size,
called the preserved table, in which are also recorded the di¬
vine decrees, past and future ; that a copy from this table,
in one volume, on paper, was, by the ministry of the angel
Gabriel, sent down to the lowest heaven, in the month of
Ramadan, on the night of power; from whence Gabriel re¬
vealed it to Mahomet by parcels, some at Mecca, and some
at Medina, at different times, during the space of 23 years,
as the exigency of affairs required; giving him, however,
the consolation to show him the whole (which, they say, was
bound in silk, and adorned with gold and precious stones of
paradise) once a-year; but that in the last year of his life
he had the favour to see it twice. They say that few chap¬
ters were delivered entire, the greater part being revealed
piecemeal, and written down from time to time by the pro¬
phet’s amanuensis in such a part of such and such a chap¬
ter till they were completed, according to the directions of
the angel. The first parcel that was revealed is generally
agreed to have been the first five verses of the 46th chapter.
After the new-revealed passages had been from the pro¬
phet’s mouth taken down in writing by his scribe, they were
published to his followers, several of whom took copies for
their private use, but the far greater number got them by
heart. The originals, when returned, were put promis¬
cuously into a chest, observing no order of time ; for which
reason it is uncertain when many passages were revealed.
When Mahomet died, he left his revelations in the same
disorder, and not digested into the method, such as it is, in
which we now find them. This was the work of his succes¬
sor, Abu Bekr, who, considering that a great number of
passages were committed to the memory of Mahomet’s fol¬
lowers, many of whom were slain in the wars, ordered the
whole to be collected, not only from the palm-leaves and
skins on which they had been written, and which were kept
between two boards or covers, but also from the mouths of
such as had learned them by heart; and this transcript, when
completed, he committed to the custody of Hassa, the
daughter of Omar, one of the prophet’s widows.
From this relation it is generally imagined that Abu Bekr
was really the compiler of the Koran, though, for aught that
appears to the contrary, Mahomet left the chapters complete
as we now have them, excepting such passages as his suc¬
cessor might add or correct from those who had committed
them to memory ; what Abu Bekr did else being perhaps no
more than to range the chapters in their present order, which
he seems to have done without any regard to time, having
generally placed the longest first.
However, in the 30th year of the Hegira, Othman being
then caliph, and observing the great disagreement in the
copies of the Koran in the several provinces of the empire,
—those of Irak, for example, following the reading of Abu
Musaal Ashari, and the Syrians that of Makdad Ebn Aswad,
—he, by the advice of the companions, ordered a great num¬
ber of copies to be transcribed from that of Abu Bekr, in
Hassa’s care, under the inspection of Zeid Ebn Thabet,
Abd’allah Ebn Zobair, Said Ebn al As, and Abd’alrahman
Ebn al Hareth the Makhzumite ; whom he directed, that
wherever they disagreed about any word, they should write
it in the dialect of the Koreish, in which it was at first de¬
livered. These copies, when made, were dispersed in the
456 A L C
Alcoran, several provinces of the empire, and the old ones burnt
and suppressed. Though many tilings in Hassa’s copy were
corrected by the above-mentioned revisers, yet some few
various readings still occur.
“ The most prominent feature of the Koran, that point
of excellence in which the partiality of its admirers has ever
delighted to view it, is the sublime notion it generally im¬
presses of the nature and attributes of God. If its author
had really derived these just conceptions from the inspira¬
tion of that Being whom they attempt to describe, they
would not have been surrounded, as they now are on every
side, with error and absurdity. But it might easily be proved,
that whatever it justly defines of the Divine attributes, was
borrowed from our Holy Scriptures; which even from its
first promulgation, but especially from the completion of the
New Testament, has extended the views and enlightened
the understandings of mankind; and thus furnished them
with arms which have too often, though ineffectually, been
turned against itself by its ungenerous enemies.
“ In this instance particularly, the copy is far below the
great original, both in the propriety of its images and the
force of its descriptions. Our Holy Scriptures are the only
compositions that can enable the dim sight of mortality to
penetrate into the invisible world, and to behold a glimpse
of the Divine perfections. Accordingly, when they would
represent to us the happiness of heaven, they describe it,
not by any thing minute and particular, but by something
general and great,—something that, without descending to
any determinate object, may at once, by its beauty and im¬
mensity excite our wishes and elevate our affections. Though
in the prophetical and evangelical writings the joys that shall
attend us in a future state are often mentioned with ardent
admiration, they are expressed rather by allusion than
similitude, rather by indefinite and figurative terms than
by any thing fixed and determinate. ‘ Eye hath not seen,
nor ear heard, neither have entered into the heart of man,
the things which God hath prepared for them that love him.’
(1 Cor. ii. 9.) What a reverence and astonishment does
this passage excite in every hearer of taste and piety ! What
energy, and at the same time what simplicity, in the ex¬
pression ! How sublime, and at the same time how obscure,
is the imagery!
“ Different was the conduct of Mahomet in his descrip¬
tions of heaven and of paradise. Unassisted by the neces¬
sary influence of virtuous intentions and divine inspiration,
he was neither desirous, nor indeed able, to exalt the minds of
men to sublime conceptions or to rational expectations. By
attempting to explain what is inconceivable, to describe
what is ineffable, and to materialize what in itself is spirit¬
ual, he absurdly and impiously aimed to sensualize the purity
of the Divine essence. Thus he fabricated a system of in¬
coherence, a religion of depravity, totally repugnant indeed
to the nature of that Being who, as he pretended, was its
object; but therefore more likely to accord with the appe¬
tites and conceptions of a corrupt and sensual age.
T. hat we may not appear to exalt our Scriptures thus
far above the Koran by an unreasonable preference, we shall
produce a part of the second chapter of the latter, which is
deservedly admired by the Mahometans, who wear it en¬
graved on their ornaments, and recite it in their prayers.
‘ God! there is no God but he; the living, the self-susbisting:
neither slumber nor sleep seizeth on him : to him belongeth
whatsoever is in heaven and on earth. Who is he that can
intercede with him but through his good pleasure? He
knoweth that which is past, and that which is to come. His
throne is extended over heaven and earth, and the preser¬
vation of both is to him no burden. He is the high, the
mighty.’” {Sale's Kor. ii. p. 30, 4to edit.)
Alcoran is also figuratively applied to certain other books
A L C
full of impieties and impostures. In this sense we meet with Alcoy
the Alcoran of the Cordeliers, which once made a great noise; II
wherein St Francis is extravagantly magnified, and put on AKuin.
a level with Jesus Christ. The Alcoran of the Cordeliers V-*-
is properly an extract of a very scarce book, entitled The
Conformity of the Life of the seraphic father St Francis
with the Life of Christ, published in 1510, 4to ; and again
at Bologna in folio. Erasmus Albertus, being by the elector
of Brandenburg appointed to visit a monastery of Francis¬
cans, found this book; and being struck with the extreme
folly and absurdity of it, collected a number of curiosities
out of it, and published them under the title of the Alcoran
of the Franciscans, with a preface by Martin Luther.
ALCOY, one of the most thriving manufacturing cities
of Spain, on an elevated site near the river of the same
name, in the province of Alicante, and 24 miles north of the
town of that name. It manufactures an annual average of
23,000 pieces of cloth, and 200,000 reams of paper. Pop.
about 20,000.
ALCUIN, in Latin Albinus, surnamed Flaccus, an emi¬
nent ecclesiastic, and the reviver of learning in the eighth
century. He was born, it is supposed, in Yorkshire, about
735. He was educated at York, under the direction of
Archbishop Egbert, as we learn from his own letters, in
which he frequently calls that great prelate his beloved
master, and the clergy of York the companions of his youth¬
ful studies. As he survived Bede about 70 years, it is
hardly possible that he could have received any part of his
education under him, as some writers of literary history have
affirmed; and it is worthy of observation, that he never
calls that great man his master, though he speaks of him
with the highest veneration. It is not well known to what
preferments he had attained in the church before he left
England, though some say he was abbot of Canterbury. He
was sent to Rome by Eanbald, the successor of Ethelbert,
and in returning, at Parma he met Charlemagne, who,
as Alcuin had already visited the French court, was no
stranger to his extraordinary merit. The emperor con¬
tracted so great an esteem and friendship for him, that he
earnestly solicited, and at length prevailed upon him, to
settle in his court and become his preceptor in the sciences.
Alcuin accordingly instructed that great prince in rhetoric,
logic, mathematics, and divinity, which rendered him one
of his greatest favourities. Fie particularly distinguished
himself by his writings in defence of the orthodox faith
against the heresiarch Felix D’Urgel; and on more than
one occasion was employed in important missions between
Charlemagne and Offa king of Mercia. “ France,” says
one of our best writers of literary history, “ is indebted to
Alcuin for all the polite learning it boasted of in that and
the following ages. The universities of Paris, Tours, Ful-
den, Soissons, and many others, owe to him their origin and
increase, those of which he was not the superior and founder
being at least enlightened by his doctrine and example, and
enriched by the benefits he procured for them from Charle¬
magne.” After Alcuin had spent many years in the most
intimate familiarity with the greatest prince of his age, he
at length, with great difficulty, obtained leave to retire from
court to his abbey of St Martin, at Tours; where he re¬
remained till his death, a.d. 804. In his retirement he
kept up a constant correspondence with Charlemagne, from
which it appears that both were animated with the most
ardent love to learning and religion, and constantly em¬
ployed in contriving and executing the noblest designs for
their advancement. Alcuin composed many treatises on a
great variety of subjects, in a style much superior in purity
and elegance to that of the generality of writers in the age
in which he flourished. His works were collected and pub¬
lished by Du Chesne, in one volume folio, Paris, 1617: a
A L D
A L D
457
Alcyonia better edition is that of Froben, 2 vols. folio, Ratisbon,
II 1777. They consist of, 1. Tracts upon Scripture; 2.
Alderman, tracts upon doctrine, discipline, and morality; 3. Histo-
rical treatises, letters, and poems. It is not improbable that
Alcuin was the writer of the famous Caroline Books.
ALCYONIA, a family of marine animal bodies of the
order of Zoophytes, included in the polypifera. They are
distinct from sponges, but are allied to them. See Zoology.
ALCYONIUM Stagnum, in Ancient Geography, a lake
in the territory of Corinth, whose depth was unfathomable,
and in vain attempted to be discovered by Nero. Through
this lake Bacchus is said to have descended to hell to bring
back Semele. (Pausanias.)
ALCYONIUS, Peter, a learned Italian, born in 1487.
He was, for a considerable time, corrector of the press to
Aldus Manutius, and afterwards Professor of Greek at Flo¬
rence. His treatise on banishment entitled Medices Legatus,
sive de Exsilio, written in imitation of the style of Cicero,
brought upon him, though unjustly, the charge of plagiarism.
Paulus Manutius, who bore him no goodwill, was the author
of this insinuation, and says that Alcyonius made away with
the only existing MS. of Cicero’s Treatise De Gloria, to
save detection ; but the accusation has been satisfactorily
refuted. Alcyonius composed two excellent orations on the
taking of Rome, representing very strongly the injustice of
Charles Y. and the barbarity of his soldiers. There is also
an oration ascribed to him, on the knights who died at the
siege of Rhodes.
ALDBOROUGH, a small town in the wapentake of
Claro, in the West Riding of Yorkshire. It is on the river
Ure, and is supposed to be the ancient Isurium Brig an-
tium. Near it are some remains of a druidical temple. It
formerly returned two members to parliament, but has been
disfranchised. Population of parish in 1851, 2438.
ALDEBARAN, in Astronomy, a star of the first mag¬
nitude, called in English the hull's eye, as making the eye^
of the constellation Taurus. Its longitude is 6. 32. 9. ot
Gemini, and its latitude 5. 29. 40. south.
ALDEBURGH, a market-town in the hundred of
Plomesgate, in the county of Suffolk, chiefly inhabited by
fishermen, and now much frequented as a bathing place.
It formerly returned two members to parliament, but was
disfranchised by the Act of Reform. I he poet Cx’abbe was
born here. Population of parish in 1851, 1627.
ALDEGREVER, Heinrich, an eminent engraver of
Westphalia, a pupil of Albert Durer, whom he imitated
closely. His works are very numerous, chiefly from his
own designs; so that he is considered also as a painter.
His works date from 1522 to 1562.
ALDER, Betula alnus. The wood of this tree, which
thrives in moist soils, is used on account ot its durability,
when of considerable dimensions, for piles, mill-work, pumps,
and sluices. On account of its variegated colour it is occa¬
sionally used in turnery; but one of its most important uses
is the excellent charcoal it affords for gunpowder. I he
bark is astringent, and is used in preparing leather ; and the
plant has also been used as a dye.
ALDERHOLM, an island of Sweden, formed by the
three arms of a river running through Gefle, a town of Nord-
land, in Sweden, 80 miles north from Stockholm. Here is
a wharf, a repository for planks and deals, two packing¬
houses, a large custom-house for taking toll of the ships, an
arsenal for cannon, and a granary. Lat. 60. 40. N.
ALDERMAN, a word derived from the Anglo-Saxon
ealdorman, compounded of the comparative degree of the
word eald (old), and man. The term implies the possession
of an office of rank or dignity. Earls and governors of pro¬
vinces and other persons of distinction received this title
among the Anglo-Saxons. Thus we meet with the titles of
VOL. II.
aldermannus totius Anglice, aldermannus regis, comitatis, Alderney.
civitatis, hurgi, castelli, hundredisive wapentachii, etnovem- V'—
decimorum. According to Spelman, the aldermannus totius
Anglice seems to have been the same officer who was after¬
wards styled capitalis justiciarius Anglice, or chief justice
of England; the aldermannus regis seems to have been an
occasional magistrate, answering to our justice of assize ;
and the aldermannus comitatus, a magistrate who held a
middle rank between what was afterwards called the earl
and the sheriff: he sat at the trial of causes with the bishop;
the latter proceeding according to ecclesiastical law, and the
former declaring and expounding the common law of the
land.
In modern times aldermen are office-bearers in the muni¬
cipal corporations of England and Wales, and Ireland. Be¬
fore the passing of the Municipal Corporations Act, their
functions varied according to the charters of the different
burghs. By the statute 5th and 6th Will. IV. c. 76, and 3d and
4th Viet. c. 118, the aldermen are elected by the councillors
from among themselves (in Ireland, by the burgesses), for
six years, one-half going out every three years. The num¬
ber of councillors in each borough varies from 12 to 48,
according to its magnitude. One-fourth of the municipal
council consists of aldermen, and three-fourths of councillors.
In the municipal corporations of Scotland there is no such
title as alderman, the office-bearers of corresponding rank
there being termed bailies.
The corporation of London was not included in the Burgh
Reform Act; and the antiquated system remains there in
full force. The court of aldermen consists of twenty-six,
including the lord-mayor; the twenty-five aldermen are
elected for life by the freemen of the different wards ; when
one dies or resigns a wardmote is called, who return two
persons, one of whom the Court of Aldermen elect to sup¬
ply the vacancy. The city is divided into twenty-six
wards; twenty-four of these send up one alderman each ;
the other two between them choose a twenty-fifth; the
twenty-sixth serves for the independent borough of South¬
wark, and is appointed by the other aldermen, who gene¬
rally select the senior from among themselves when a vacancy
occurs.
The lord-mayor is elected from such of the aldermen as
have served the office of sheriff; from these the Common-
hall, which consists of the freemen of the various wards,
elect two; and the aldermen select one of these for the
mayoralty.
The Court of Aldermen act as magistrates for the city of
London, and also possess authority of a judicial nature in
the affairs of the corporation. They are constituent mem¬
bers of the Court of Common Council, which is the legis¬
lative body of the corporation ; but the other members of
the Common Council, which consists of 264 members, are
elected annually by the freemen.
ALDERNEY, an island in the English channel, subject
to the crown of Great Britain. It is about eight miles in
compass, and is separated from Cape la Hogue, in Normandy,
by a narrow strait, called the Race of Alderney, which is a
very dangerous passage in stormy weather, when the two
currents meet; otherwise it is safe, and has depth of water
for the largest ships. Through this strait the French fleet
made their escape after their defeat at La Hogue in 1692.
It is a healthful island, is fruitful both in corn and pasture,
and is remarkable for its fine breed of cows. The town, of
the same name, is the seat of the population, amounting in
1851 to 3333. It has but one harbour, called Crabby, which
is at a good distance from the town, and is only fit for small
vessels. To the westlies the range of rocks called the Caskets,
so dangerous to mariners. Long. 2. 7. V • Lat. 49. 45. N.
The extension of the sea-wall of the break-water was com-
3 M
458 A L D
Aldhelm menced in 1850; to be completed in eight years, at the
I! estimated cost of L.620,000.
v , <jre^' t ALDHELM, or Adelm, St, bishop of Shireburn, in the
time of the Saxon Heptarchy. He is said to have been the
son of Kenred, brother to Ina, king of the West Saxons ; but
in the opinion of William of Malmesbury, his father was no
more than a distant relation to the king. Having received
the first part of his education in the school of one Maldulph,
a learned Scot, he travelled into France and Italy for his
improvement. On his return home he studied some time
under Adrian, abbot of St Augustin’s, in Canterbury, the
most learned professor of the sciences who had ever been
in England. The fame of his learning soon spread, not only
in England, but in foreign countries. Learned men sent
him their writings for his criticism ; among others, Prince
Arcivil, a son of the king of Scotland, who sent his compo¬
sitions to Aldhelm, “ entreating him to give them the last
polish by rubbing off their Scotch rust.” He was the first
Englishman who wrote in the Latin language, both in prose
and verse; and composed a book for the instruction of his
countrymen in the prosody of that language. Bede says
that Aldhelm “ was a man of universal erudition, having an
elegant style, and being wonderfully well acquainted with
books, both on philosophical and religious subjects.” In fact,
considering the cloud of ignorance by which he was sur¬
rounded, and the great difficulty of acquiring knowledge
without proper instruction, Aldhelm was a very extraordi¬
nary man. From one of his letters to Hedda, bishop of
Winchester, concerning the nature of his studies whilst at
Canterbury, he appears to have been indefatigably deter¬
mined to acquire every species of learning in his power. For
a copy of this curious epistle, see Henry’s History, vol. ii.
p. 320. King Alfred the Great declared that Aldhelm was
the best of all the Saxon poets ; and that a favourite song,
which was universally sung in his time, near 200 years after
its author’s death, was of his composition. He was a musi¬
cian as well as a poet, and made his own songs the medium
of instruction and refinement to his barbarous countrymen.
After having governed the monastery of Malmesbury, of
which he was the founder, about thirty years, he was made
bishop of Shireburn, where he died A.i). 709.—He wrote,
1. De octo Vitiis principalibus. This treatise is extant in
the Bibliotheca Patrum of Canisius. 2. TEnigmatum versus
mille. This, with several others of his poems, was publish¬
ed by Martin Delrio at Mentz, 1701, 8vo. 3. A book ad¬
dressed to a certain king of Northumberland, named Alfrid,
on various subjects. 4. De Vita Monachorum. 5. De
Laude Sanctorum. 7. De Arithmetica. 7. De Astrologia.
8. A book against the mistake of the Britons concerning
the celebration of Easter; printed by Sonius, 1576. 9. De
Laude Virginitatis; manuscript, in Bennet College, Cam¬
bridge; published among Bede’s Opuscula. Besides these,
he wrote many sonnets, epistles, and homilies in the Saxon
language.
ALDINE. See Manutius, Aldus.
ALDPORT, an ancient name for Manchester.
ALDRED, abbot of Tavistock, was promoted to the
bishopric of Worcester in the year 1046. He had great
influence over Edward the Confessor, and procured his re¬
conciliation to Sweyn, the son of Earl Godwin, who had re¬
volted against him. He also restored the union and friend¬
ship between King Edward and Griffith, king of Wales. In
the year 1050, he went to Jerusalem, which no archbishop
or bishop of England had ever done before. On his return
to England, he was sent in the year 1054 as ambassador to
the emperor Henry II. He staid a whole year in Ger¬
many, and was very honourably entertained by Herman
archbishop of Cologne, from whom he learned much relat¬
ing to ecclesiastical discipline, of which he made use on his
A L D
return to his own diocese. On the death of Kinsius, arch- Aldrich,
bishop of York, 1060, Aldred was elected in his stead, and
was permitted to retain the see of Worcester with the arch¬
bishopric of York, as some of his predecessors had done.
He was afterwards, however, deprived of it by the pope.
On the death of Edward the Confessor in 1066, Aldred
was to have placed the crown on the head of Harold, but
before the ceremony could take place, the battle of Hast¬
ings intervened. He officiated at the coronation of William
the Conqueror, and gained great favour with that monarch,
over whose imperious spirit he seems to have exercised a
remarkable influence. At the end of a year, however, he
broke his allegiance, by escaping into Scotland with Edgar
Atheling. He died in September 1069, broken-hearted,
according to William of Malmesbury, by the tyranny of the
Conqueror. Stubbs, again, ascribes his death to grief at the
invasion of the Danes.
ALDRICH, Dr Henry, an eminent English divine and
philosopher, born at London in 1647, was educated at West¬
minster school under the famous Dr Busby, and admitted
of Christ-church College, Oxford. He had a great share
in the controversy with the Papists in the reign of James II.;
and Bishop Burnet ranks him among those who examined
all the points of Popery with a solidity of judgment, clear¬
ness of argument, depth of learning, and vivacity of writing,
far beyond any who had before that time written in our
language. He rendered himself so conspicuous, that at the
Revolution, when Massey the Popish dean of Christ-church
fled, his deanery was conferred on him. In this station he
behaved in an exemplary manner, and that fabric owes much
of its beauty to his ingenuity. He published, besides some
other pieces, a System of Logic, still in use as a text-book
in Oxford; and the revising of Clarendon’s History of the
Rebellion was intrusted to him and Bishop Sprat. Besides
his preferments above mentioned, Dr Aldrich was also rector
of Wem, in Shropshire. He was chosen prolocutor of the
convocation in 1702. He died at Christ-church on the 14th
of December 1710. Sir John Hawkins has favoured the
public with several particulars relative to Dr Aldrich’s skill
in music. He composed many services for the church, which
are well known ; as are also his anthems, nearly twenty in
number. He adapted, with great skill and judgment, English
words to many of the notes of Palestrina, Carissimi, Victoria,
and other Italian composers for the church, some of which
are frequently sung in our cathedrals as anthems. By his
happy talent of naturalizing the compositions of the old Ita¬
lian masters, and accommodating them to an English ear, he
increased the stores of his own church.
Dr Aldrich is of some note as a Latin poet. In the Musce
Anglicance we find two elegant copies of verses by him; one
on the accession of King William III., and the other on the
death of the Duke of Gloucester. Sir John Flawkins has
preserved a humorous translation by him of the well-known
English ballad,
A soldier and a sailor,
A tinker and a tailor, &c.
The following epigram, entitled “ Causae Bibendi,” is
likewise ascribed to Dr Aldrich :—
<$Vc 'bene quid memini, Causes sunt quinque bibendi;
Hospitis Adventus, preesens Sitis, atque futura,
Aut Vini Bonitas, aut queelibet altera Causa.
The epigram has been thus translated:—
If on my theme I rightly think,
There are five reasons why men drink;
Good wine, a friend, because I’m dry,
Or lest I should be by and by,
Or any other reason why.
The translation is not equal to the original. It is evident
from the verses cited and referred to, that Dr Aldrich was
A L D
Aldrich of a very cheerful and pleasant turn of mind. Having never
II been married, he appropriated his income to works of hos-
Aldrovan- pitality and beneficence, and the encouragement of learning.
v us' ^ j His modesty and humility prevented him fi’om prefixing his
name to the learned tracts which he published during his
life. He was buried in the cathedral, according to his own
wish, without any memorial.
Aldrich, Robert, bishop of Carlisle, was born at Burn¬
ham, in Buckinghamshire, about the year 1493, and edu¬
cated at Eton school, from whence, in 1507, he was elected
scholar of King’s College, Cambridge, where he took his
degree in arts, and was afterwards proctor of the univer¬
sity. In 1525 he was appointed master of Eton school, then
became fellow of that college, and finally provost. In 1529
he went to Oxford, where he took his degree of B.D., and
in the following year that of D.D. In 1531 he was made
archdeacon of Colchester, in 1534 canon of Windsor, and
the same year registrar of the order of the Garter. He
was consecrated bishop of Carlisle in the year 1537, and
died at Horncastle in Lincolnshire in 1556. He wrote, 1.
Epistola ad Gul. Hormannum, in Latin verse, printed in Her¬
man’s Antibossicon, Lond. 1521, of which book Pitts erro¬
neously makes Aldrich the author ; 2. Epigrammata varia ;
3. Latin verses, and another epistle to Horman, prefixed to
the Vulgaria Puerorum of that author, Lond. 1519, 4to; 4.
Answers to certain queries concerning the abuses of the
mass, and the receiving of the sacrament.
ALDROVANDUS, Ulysses, professor of philosophy
and physic at Bologna, was born there in 1522. He was
a most curious inquirer into natural history, and travelled
into the most distant countries on purpose to inform him¬
self of their natural productions. Minerals, metals, plants,
and animals, were the objects of his curious researches;
but he applied himself chiefly to birds, and was at a great
expense to have figures of them drawn from the life. Au-
bert le Mire says that he gave a certain painter, famous
in that art, a yearly salary of 200 crowns, for 30 years and
upwards ; and that he employed, at his own expense, Lo¬
renzo Bennino and Cornelius Swintus, as well as the famous
engraver Christopher Coriolanus. These expenses ruined
his fortune, and at length reduced him to the utmost neces¬
sity ; and it is said that he died blind in an hospital at Bo¬
logna, at the age of 85. Mr Bayle observes, that antiquity
does not furnish us with an instance of a design so exten¬
sive and so laborious as that of Aldrovandus, with regard to
natural history; that Pliny has treated of more kinds of
subjects, but only touches lightly on them, saying but a little
upon any thing, whereas Aldrovandus has collected all he
could meet with. His compilation, or that compiled upon
his plan, consists of 13 volumes in folio, several of which
were printed after his death. He himself published his Or¬
nithology, or History of Birds, in three folio volumes, in
1599 ; and his seven books of Insects, which make another
volume of the same size. The volume of Serpents, three
of Quadrupeds, one of Fishes, that of exsanguious Animals,
the History of Monsters, with the Supplement to that of
Animals, the Treatise of Metals, and the Dendrology, or
History of Trees, were published at several times after the
death of Aldrovandus, by the care of different persons. He
himself is the sole author only of the first six volumes of
this work, the rest having been finished and compiled by
others upon his plan. In this extensive plan he not only re¬
lates what he has read in naturalists, but remarks also
what historians have written, legislators ordained, and poets
feigned. He explains also the different uses which may be
made of the things he treats of, in common life, in medicine,
architecture, and other arts ; in short, he speaks of morality,
proverbs, devices, riddles, hieroglyphics, and many other
things which relate to his subject.
ALE
459
Ale.
ALDSTON-MOOR, a market-town of the Ward of Aldston-
Leath, in the county of Cumberland. It is on the banks of M°or
the Tyne, in a picturesque district, abounding in mines of
lead, which produce also some silver and copper. The mar- ,
ket is held on Saturday. Pop. in 1851, 2005.
ALE, a fermented liquor obtained from an infusion of
malt, and differing from beer chiefly in having a less pro¬
portion of hops. This liquor, the natural substitute of wine
in such countries as could not produce the grape, is said to
have originally been made in Egypt, the first planted king¬
dom, on the dispersion from the East, that was supposed un¬
able to produce grapes. The natives of Spain, the inhabi¬
tants of France, and the aborigines of Britain, all used an
infusion of barley for their ordinary liquor; and it was called
by the various names of Ceelia and Ceria in the first country,
Cerevisia in the second, and Curmi in the last; all literally
importing only the strong water.
“ All the several nations,” says Pliny, “ who inhabit the
west of Europe, have a liquor with which they intoxicate
themselves, made of corn and water. The manner of mak¬
ing this liquor is sometimes different in Gaul, Spain, and
other countries, and is called by many various names ; but
its nature and properties are everywhere the same. The
people of Spain, in particular, brew the liquor so well that
it will keep good a long time. So exquisite is the cun¬
ning of mankind in gratifying their vicious appetites, that
they have thus invented a method to make water itself in¬
toxicate.” The method in which the ancient Britons and
other Celtic nations made their ale is thus described by Isi-
dorus and Orosius :—“ The grain is steeped in water, and
made to germinate, by which its spirits are excited and set
at liberty; it is then dried and ground; after which it is
infused in a certain quantity of water; which, being fer¬
mented, becomes a pleasant, warming, strengthening, and
intoxicating liquor.” This ale was most commonly made of
barley, but sometimes of wheat, oats, and millet.
Anciently the Welsh and Scots had also two kinds of ale,
called common ale and spiced ale ; and their value was thus
ascertained by law: “ If a farmer had no mead, he shall pay
two casks of spiced ale, or four casks of common ale, for
one cask of mead.” By this law a cask of spiced ale, nine
palms in height and eighteen palms in diameter, was valued
at a sum of money equal in value to L.7, 10s. of our pre¬
sent money; and a cask of common ale of the same dimen¬
sions at a sum equal to L.3, 15s. This is a sufficient proof
that even common ale at that period was an article of luxury
among the Welsh, which could only be obtained by the
great and opulent. Wine seems to have been quite unknown
even to the kings of Wales at that period, as it is not so
much as once mentioned in their laws; though Giraldus
Cambrensis, who flourished about a century after the Con¬
quest, informs us that there was a vineyard in his time at
Maenarper, near Pembroke, in South Wales.
Ale was the favourite liquor of the Anglo-Saxons and
Danes, as it had been of their ancestors the ancient Ger¬
mans. Before their conversion to Christianity, they believed
that drinking large and frequent draughts of ale was one of
the chief felicities which those heroes enjoyed who were
admitted into the hall of Odin. Scotland has long been
celebrated for the manufacture of ale. The quantity brewed
in Edinburgh and Leith for the year ending 10th October
1852, is estimated at 259,982 barrels. For further details
see Brewing, Scotland, Edinburgh, &c.
Ale, Medicated, that wherein medicinal herbs have been
infused or added during the fermentation.
Ale-Conner, an officer in London, who inspects the mea¬
sures used in public houses. There are four ale-conners, who
are all chosen by the liverymen in common-hall on Mid¬
summer-day.
460 ALE
Ale AtE-Silver, a tax paid annually to the lord-mayor of
II. London by all who sell ale within the city.
Cam1Uus ALEA, in Homan Antiquity, denotes in general all man-
v r * ner of games of chance, but, in a more restricted sense, was
used for a particular game played with dice and tables, not
unlike our backgammon.
ALEANDRO, Geeomino, cardinal and archbishop of
Brindisi, was born in 1480, and distinguished himself by his
fiery zeal against the Reformation. Being sent into Ger¬
many as the pope’s nuncio in 1519, he acted as occasion
served, in the character both of ambassador and doctor, and
opposed Luther in the diet of Worms with bitter vehemence.
His violent conduct alienated him from Erasmus, who had
been his early friend. He published several works, and died
at Rome in 1542.
Aleandro, Geromino, grand-nephew of the former, a
jurist, antiquarian, and poet, was born at Motta, near Friuli,
in 1574. He was long employed as secretary to Cardinal
Ottavio Bandini, and afterwards to Cardinal Barberini, in
whose service he died, at Rome, in 1629. He was one of
the first members of the Academy of Humourists, wrote
a learned treatise in Italian on the device of the society,
and displayed his genius on many different subjects. Bar¬
berini gave him a magnificent funeral at the Academy of
Humourists.
ALECTO, one of the Furies, daughter of Acheron and
Night, or, as others would have it, of Pluto and Proser¬
pine.
ALECTORIA, a stone said to be formed in the gall¬
bladder of old cocks, to which the ancients ascribe many
fabulous virtues. This is otherwise called Alectorius lapis,
sometimes Alectorolithos, in English the cock-stone. The
more modern naturalists hold the alectorius lapis to be ori¬
ginally swallowed down, not generated in, the stomach and
gizzards of cocks and capons. It is known that many of the
fowl kind make a practice of swallowing pebbles, which are
supposed to be of service in the business of trituration and
digestion.
ALECTOROMANTIA, in Antiquity, a species of di¬
vination performed by means of a cock. This is otherwise
called Alectryomancy, of which there appear to have been
different species. But that most spoken of by authors was
in the following manner: a circle was described on the
ground, and divided into twenty-four equal portions; in
each of these spaces was written one of the letters of the
alphabet, and on each of the letters was laid a grain of
wheat; after which, a cock being turned loose in the circle,
particular notice was taken of the grains picked up by the
cock, because the letters under them, being formed into a
word, made the answer desired. It was thus, according to
Zonaras, that Libanius and Jamblicus sought who should
succeed the emperor Valcns ; and the cock eating the grains
answering to the spaces ©EGA, several whose names began
with those letters, as Theodotus, Theodistes, Theodulus,
&c. were put to death; which, however, did not hinder the
succession of Theodosius. But the story, however current,
is but ill supported: it has been called in question by some,
and refuted by others, from the silence of Marcellinus, So¬
crates, and other historians of that time.
A-LEE, in the sea-language, a term used when the wind,
crossing or flanking the line of a ship’s course, presses upon
the masts and sails so as to make her incline to what is then
called the lee-side. When the helm is moved over to this
side, it is said to be a-lee or hard a-lee.
ALEGAR, acetic acid, produced by fermenting ale, as
vinegar is produced from wine.
ALEIUS Campus, from akr\, wandering, in Ancient Geo¬
graphy, a plain in Cilicia, on this side of the river Pyramus,
near the mountain Chimaera. It derived the name from
ALE
Bellerophon’s wandering and perishing there, after being Aleman
thrown off Pegasus. II
ALEMAN, Louis, archbishop of Arles, and cardinal of Alembert.
St Cecilia, was born in 1390, and died in 1452. He pre- '“r
sided, along with Cardinal Julian, in the council of Basil,
which deposed Eugenius IV. and elected the antipope Felix
V. He is much commended by iEneas Sylvius, as a man
extremely well formed for presiding in such assemblies,—
firm and vigorous, illustrious by his virtue, learned, and of
an admirable memory in recapitulating all that the orators
and disputants had said. At the request of the canons and
Celestine monks of Avignon, and the solicitation of the car¬
dinal of Clermont, legate a latere of Clement VIL, he was
beatified by the pope in the year 1527.
Aleman, Mateo, a remarkable Spanish writer, born at
Sevilla, about the middle of the sixteenth century; best
known to us by his racy and amusing Adventures of Guz¬
man Alfarache, published in 1599 ; a work highly esteemed
for the purity and elegance of its Castilian style, though the
delineations are often coarse and indelicate. This and several
succeeding works of the same kind, under the feigned adven¬
tures of rogues and vagabonds, cover a sly satire on the cor¬
ruption of Spanish manners in the time of Philip II. It
was from this, and the novel of Espinel, entitled The Life of
Squire Mareos Olregon, that Le Sage borrowed many of
the characters and adventures in his admirable Gil Bias.
Aleman also wrote a Life of St Antonio de Padona; and
having visited Mexico, he there published an Ortografia
Castelland in 1609, which has obtained some reputation.
He died in the reign of Philip III.
ALEMANNI,a large German tribe on the Upper Rhine,
where they are first mentioned by Dion Cassius in the reign
of the Emperor Caracalla, who gained, in a.d. 213, a victory
over them on the banks of the Maine, and thence assumed
the surname Alemannicus. The origin of this tribe, and
the country from which they came, are unknown; but we
have a distinct statement, which is apparently confirmed by
the very name of the people, that they had flocked together
from all parts, and were a mixed race. They proved most
formidable enemies to the Romans as well as to the Gauls,
their western neighbours, who to this day apply the name
Alemanni (Allemands) to all the Germans indiscriminately,
though the Alemanni, properly so called, occupied only the
country between the Maine and the Danube. In the reign
of Aurelian, a.d. 270, they attempted to invade Italy, but
were repulsed. After the death of that emperor, however,
they renewed their attacks by invading Gaul, and ravaging
the country at different times. Several undertakings against
them were of little avail, until in a.d. 357 the Emperor Ju¬
lian completely defeated them in the neighbourhood of Stras-
burg, where all their forces were assembled under seven
chiefs. This and other defeats, however, did not break the
power of the Alemanni, who being pressed on by other bar¬
barians in the north were forced to advance southward and
westward to conquer new countries for themselves. Hence,
after the middle of the 5th century, we find them established
not only in the country now called Suabia, but also in a
part of Switzerland and in Alsace. In these countries the
Alemanni have maintained themselves ever since; and the
greater part of the modern Suabians and the northern Swiss
are descendants of that ancient race. (l. s.)
ALEMBERT, Jeanle Rond d’, an eminent French phi¬
losopher, was born at Paris in 1717. He derived the name
of Jean le Rond from that of the church near which, after his
birth, he was exposed as a foundling. Flis father, informed of
this circumstance, listened to the voice of nature and duty,
took measures for the proper education of his child, and for
his future subsistence in a state of ease and independence.
He received his first education in the College of the Four
ALE
D'Alem- Nations, among the Jansenists, where he gave early marks
bert. of capacity and genius. In the first year of his philosophical
v/—^ studies he composed a Commentary on the Epistle of St
Paul to the Romans. The Jansenists considered this pro¬
duction as an omen that portended to the party of Port-
Royal a restoration to some part of their ancient splendour,
and hoped to find one day in M. d’Alembert a second Pas¬
cal. To render this resemblance more complete, they en¬
gaged their rising pupil in the study of the mathematics;
but they soon perceived that his growing attachment to this
science was likely to disappoint the hopes they had formed
with respect to his future destination: they therefore en¬
deavoured to divert him from this line ; but their endeavours
were fruitless.
On his leaving college, he found himself alone and un¬
connected with the world; and sought an asylum in the house
of his nurse. He comforted himself with the hope that his
fortune, though not ample, would better the condition and
subsistence of that family, which was the only one that he
could consider as his own. Here, therefore, he took up his re¬
sidence, resolving to apply himself entirely to the study of geo¬
metry; and here he lived, during the space of forty years, with
the greatest simplicity, discovering the augmentation of his
means only by increasing displays of his beneficence, conceal¬
ing his growing reputation and celebrity from these honest
people, and making their plain and uncouth manners the
subject of good-natured pleasantry and philosophical obser¬
vation. His good nurse perceived his ardent activity, heard
him mentioned as the writer of many books, but never took
it into her head that he was a great man, and rather beheld
him with a kind of compassion. “ You will never,” said she
to him one day, “ be any thing but aphilosophe'i and what
is a philosopher ?—a fool, who toils and plagues himself
during his life, that people may talk of him when he is no
MORE.”
As M. d’Alembert’s fortune did not far exceed the de¬
mands of necessity, his friends advised him to think of a pro¬
fession that might enable him to augment it. He accord¬
ingly turned his views to the law, and took his degrees in that
profession; but soon abandoned this plan, and applied to the
study of medicine. Geometry, however, was always draw¬
ing him back to his former pursuits ; and after many ineffec¬
tual efforts to resist its attractions, he renounced all views of
a lucrative profession, and give himselt over entirely to ma¬
thematics and poverty.
In the year 1741 he was admitted member of the Aca¬
demy of Sciences; for which distinguished literary promotion,
at such an early age, he had prepared the way by correcting
i rpjjg the errors of a celebrated work,1 which was deemed classical
lyse Demon- in France in the line of geometry. He afterwards set him-
tree of self to examine, with deep attention and assiduity, what must
F. Beniau. ^jjg motion of a body which passes from one fluid into
another more dense, in a direction not perpendicular to the
surface separating the two fluids. Every one knows the
phenomenon which happens in this case, and which amuses
children under the denomination of Ducks and Drakes; but
M. d’Alembert was the first who explained it in a satisfac¬
tory and philosophical manner.
Two years after his election to a place in the Academy he
published his treatise on Dynamics. The new principle de¬
veloped in this treatise consisted in establishing equality at
each instant between the changes that the motion ot a body
has undergone, and the forces or powers which have been
employed to produce them; or, to express the thing other¬
wise, in separating into two parts the action of the moving
powers, and considered the one as producing alone the mo¬
tion of the body in the second instant, and the other as em¬
ployed to destroy that which it had in the first.
So early as the year 1744, M. d’Alembert had applied this
ALE 461
principle to the theory of the equilibrium and the motion of b’Alem-
fluids ; and all the problems before solved by geometricians ^ tert ;
became in some measure its corollaries. The discovery of
this new principle was followed by that of a new calculus,
the first trials of which were published in a Discourse on the
General Theory of the Winds, to which the prize-medal was
adjudged by the Academy of Berlin in the year 1746, and
which was a new and brilliant addition to the fame of M.
d’Alembert.
He availed himself of the favourable circumstance of the
king of Prussia having just terminated a glorious campaign
by an honourable peace, and in allusion to this, dedicated
his work to that prince in the three following Latin verses:—
Hccc ego de ventis, dum ventorum ocyor alis
Palantes agit Austriacos Fredericus, et orbi,
hisignis lauro, ramum prcetendit olivce.
Swifter than wind, while of the winds I write,
The foes of conquering Frederick speed their flight;
While laurel o’er the hero’s temple bends.
To the tir’d world the olive branch he sends.
This flattering dedication procured the philosopher a po¬
lite letter from Frederick, and a place among his literary
friends.
In the year 1747 D’Alembert applied his new calculus of
Partial Differences to the problem of vibrating chords, the
solution of which, as well as the theory of the oscillation of
the air and the propagation of sound, had been given but
incompletely by the geometricians who preceded him, and
these his masters or his rivals.
In the year 1749 he furnished a method of applying his
principles to the motion of any body of a given figure ; and
he solved the problem of the precession of the equinoxes,
determined its quantity, and explained the phenomenon of
the nutation of the terrestrial axis, discovered by Dr Bradley.
In 1752 M. d’Alembert published a treatise on the Re¬
sistance of Fluids, to which he gave the modest title of an
Essay, but which contains a multitude of original ideas and
new observations. About the same time he published, in
the Memoirs of the Academy of Berlin, Researches con¬
cerning the Integral Calculus, which is greatly indebted to
him for the rapid progress it has made in the present cen¬
tury.
While the studies of M. d’Alembert were confined to
geometry, he was little known or celebrated in his native
country. His connections were limited to a small society of
select friends : he had never seen any man in high office ex¬
cept Marquis d’Argenson. Satisfied with an income which
furnished him with the necessaries of life, he did not aspire
after opulence or honours; nor had they been hitherto be¬
stowed upon him, as it is easier to confer them on those who
solicit them, than to look out for men who deserve them.
His cheerful conversation, his smart and lively sallies, a
happy knack at telling a story, a singular mixture of malice
of speech with goodness of heart, and of delicacy of wit with
simplicity of manners, rendered him a pleasing and interest¬
ing companion; and his company, consequently, was much
sought after in the fashionable circles. His reputation at
length made its way to the throne, and rendered him the
object of royal attention and beneficence. He received also
a pension from government, which he owed to the friend¬
ship of M. d’Argenson.
The tranquillity of M. d’Alembert was abated when his
fame grew more extensive, and when it was known beyond
the circle of his friends, that a fine and enlightened taste for
literature and philosophy accompanied his mathematical
genius. Our author’s eulogist ascribes to envy, detraction,
and to other motives equally ungenerous, all the disapproba¬
tion, opposition, and censure that M. d’Alembert met with
on account of the publication of the famous Encyclopedical
462 ALE
^bert”1" Dictionary J^r*:s and Sciences, in conjunction with Dide-
v jCr j rot. None surely will refuse the well-deserved tribute of
applause to the eminent displays of genius, judgment, and
true literary taste, with which M. d’Alembert has enriched
the great work now mentioned. Among others, the Pre¬
liminary Discourse which he has affixed to it, concerning the
rise, progress, connections, and affinities of all the branches
of human knowledge, is perhaps one of the first productions
of which the philosophy of the present age can boast, and
will be regarded as a striking specimen of just arrangement
and sound criticism, and also as a model of accurate thinking
and elegant writing.
Some time after this D’Alembert published his Philoso¬
phical, Historical, and Philological Miscellanies. These
were followed by the Memoirs of Christina, Queen of Swe¬
den, in which M. d’Alembert showed that he was acquainted
with the natural rights of mankind, and was bold enough to
assert them. His Essay on the Intercourse of Men of Let¬
ters with Persons high in Hank and Office wounded the
former to the quick, as it exposed to the eyes of the public
the ignominy of those servile chains which they feared to
shake off or were proud to wear. A lady of the court hear¬
ing one day the author accused of having exaggerated the
despotism of the great, and the submission they require, an¬
swered slyly, If he had consulted me, I would have told him
still more of the matter.
M. d’Alembert gave very elegant specimens of his lite¬
rary abilities in his translations of some select pieces of Ta¬
citus. But these occupations did not divert him from his
mathematical studies; for about the same time he enriched
the Encyclopedic with a multitude of excellent articles in
that line, and composed his Researches o?i several important
points of the System of the World, in which he carried to a
higher degree of perfection the solution of the problem of
the perturbations of the planets, that had several years be¬
fore been presented to the Academy.
In 1759 he published his Elements of Philosophy; a
work extolled as remarkable for its precision and perspi¬
cuity ; in which, however, are some tenets, relative both to
metaphysics and moral science, that are far from being ad¬
missible.
The resentment that was kindled, and the disputes that
followed it, by the article Geneva, inserted in the Encyclo¬
pedic, are well known. M. d’Alembert did not leave this
field of controversy with flying colours. Voltaire was an
auxiliary in the contest; but as, in point of candour and
decency, he had no reputation to lose, and as he weakened
the blow of his enemies by throwing both them and the
spectators into fits of laughter, the issue of the war gave him
little uneasiness. It fell more heavily on D’Alembert, and
exposed him, even at home, to much contradiction and op¬
position.
It was on this occasion that the late king of Prussia offered
him an honourable asylum at his court, and the place of presi¬
dent of his academy ; and was not offended at his refusal of
these distinctions, but cultivated an intimate friendship with
him during the rest of his life. He had refused, some time
before this, a proposal made by the empress of Russia to in¬
trust him with the education of the grand duke; a proposal
accompanied with all the flattering offers that could tempt
a man ambitious of titles or desirous of making an ample
fortune j but the objects of his ambition were tranquillity
and study. a :
In the year 1765 he published his Dissertation on the
Destruction of the Jesuits. I his piece drew upon him a
swarm of adversaries, who confirm the merit and credit of
his work by their manner of attacking it.
Besides the works already mentioned, he published nine
volumes of memoirs and treatises under the title of Opus-
A L E
cules, in which he has solved a multitude of problems rela- Alembic
tive to astronomy, mathematics, and natural philosophy; of ||
which our panegyrist gives a particular account, more es- Alentej°-
pecially of those which exhibit new subjects, or new methods
of investigation.
He published also Elements of Music, and rendered at
length the system of Rameau intelligible; but he did not
think the mathematical theory of the sonorous body sufficient
to account for the rules of that art. He was always fond of
music; which, on the one hand, is connected with the most
subtile and learned researches of rational mechanics; while,
on the other, its power over the senses and the soul exhibits
to philosophers phenomena no less singular, and still more
inexplicable.
In the year 1772 he was chosen secretary to the French
Academy. He formed, soon after this preferment, the de¬
sign of writing the lives of all the deceased academicians
from 1700 to 1772 ; and in the space of three years he exe¬
cuted this design, by composing 70 eloges.
M. d’Alembert died on the 29th of October 1783.
There were many amiable lines of candour, modesty, dis¬
interestedness, and beneficence, in his moral character;
which are described, with a diffusive detail, in his eloge, by
M. Condorcet, Hist. deVAcad. Roy ale des Sciences, 1783.
The scientific works of D’Alembert have never been
published in a collected form ; the best edition of his literary
works is that of 1821 in 5 vols. 8vo, which contains his cor¬
respondence with Voltaire and Frederick the Great.
ALEMBIC, a chemical vessel, usually made of glass or
copper, formerly used for distillation. The bottom part,
which contained the subject for distillation, is called, from
its shape, the cucurbit; the upper part, which receives and
condenses the steam, is called the head, the beak of which
is fitted into the neck of a receiver. Retorts, and the com¬
mon worm still, are now more generally employed.
ALEMBROTH, in the writings of the alchemists, a word
used for a sort of fixed alkaline salt, which had the power
of the famous alkahest, in dissolving bodies, and promoting
the separation of metals from their ores. It is also used for
a compound of corrosive mercury and sal ammoniac.
ALENCON, an arrondissement in the department of the
Orne, in the N.W. of France, comprehending an extent of
416 square miles, or 266,240 English acres. It is divided
into six cantons, with 72,418 inhabitants. The capital on
the river Sarthe bears the same name. It is well built, and
contains a cathedral, a church of the 8th century, a court¬
house, and a theatre. It was the ancient seat of the counts
and dukes of Alenqon. Its manufactures include tanning,
spinning, bleaching, printing calicoes, and lace-making.
Pop. 13,533.
ALENIO, Gulioi, a Jesuit missionary, born at Brescia,
in 1582. He travelled into the East, and arrived at Macao
in 1610. From thence he travelled through the Chinese
empire, where he continued to propagate the Christian re¬
ligion for 36 years. He was the first who planted the faith
in the province of Xansi, and he built several churches in
the province of Fokien. He died in 1649, leaving behind
him several works in the Chinese language.
ALENQUER a fortified town of Portuguese Estrema-
dura, 26 miles N.N.E. of Lisbon, with extensive manufac¬
ture of paper, and 3200 inhabitants.
ALENTEJO, one of the provinces into which the king¬
dom of Portugal is divided, deriving its name from its situ¬
ation on the banks of the Tagus, in the Portuguese language
Tejo. On the north it is bounded by the Portuguese Estre-
madura and Beira; on the east by Spanish Estremadura and
Andalucia ; on the south by Algarve ; and on the west by
the Atlantic Ocean, except in that part where the district
or Setubal, which is a port of Portuguese Estremadura, in-
ALE
Aleppo, terposes between it and the sea. Its extent is 883 square
leagues, and in 1841 the number of its inhabitants was
277,590. It is the largest province in the kingdom. Its sur¬
face is very unequal: towards Spanish Estremadura the soil
is moderately fruitful, but towards Algarve the country is
covered with extensive forests of oak, cork, holm, and other
trees, especially on the northern sides of the Sierras de Mon-
chique and Caldeiraon. The climate is considered unhealthy,
especially in the summer months, when the waters, which
are abundant, become stagnant. The province produces
abundance of cattle ; it yields more wheat than it consumes,
and in part supplies Lisbon with that necessary. It grows
sufficient wine for its own consumption, but is deficient in
oil, which is occasionally supplied from Spanish Estremadura
and Andalucia. The natural boundary, on the side of Spain,
is the river Guadiana; but the territory of Olivenza, extend¬
ing over 110 square leagues, on the eastern side of that river,
has, ever since the thirteenth century, been a part of Portu¬
gal ; and the possession of it has been and still is an object
of greater jealousy to the two nations, than its value to either
will justify. The only rivers of this province which empty
themselves into the ocean are the Tagus and the Odemira :
the latter enters it near Villa Nova de Milfontes, and is
navigable five leagues from its mouth to the town of its own
name. The other streams run, some to the Guadiana, and
the others to the Tagus. As this province presents a fron¬
tier to Spain, it is most abundantly provided with fortified
places, which, if in a good state and well garrisoned, would
become formidable auxiliaries in either offensive or defensive
warfare; but in the late invasion by the armies of France,
they were found to be of little practical benefit. This pro¬
vince is between Lat. 37. 20. and 39. 34. N.
ALEPPO, or Halab, a town of Syria, the capital of a
pashalic, of which the limits are not exactly defined, is situ¬
ated in the vast plain which extends from the Orontes to the
Euphrates, and which towards the south terminates in the
desert. It is built on eight hills or eminences, and is inter¬
sected by the Koeick, which in winter swells into a large
stream, overflowing its bridges, and the neighbouring gardens
which cover its banks. This river terminates 18 miles be¬
yond Aleppo, in a morass which is haunted by wild boars
and pelicans. The city itself is above miles in circum¬
ference, and is surrounded by an ancient strong stone-wall
40 feet high. Including the suburbs, the city is about 7 or 8
miles in compass. The wall is flanked by frequent towers ;
but the ditch is partly filled up with rubbish or occupied by
kitchen-gardens, and the city being commanded by the ad¬
jacent heights, is entirely indefensible. The town has seven
gates, all known by different names. On one of the hills
on which the city is built, and on its north-east comer, is a
castle seated on a mount. This mount is of a conic form 200
feet high, and seems in a great measure to be raised with
the earth thrown up out of a deep broad ditch which sur¬
rounds it. The castle is entered from the south by a bridge
of seven lofty narrow arches thrown over the ditch, on which
are two gates fortified by turrets, and two more still higher
on the hill. Aleppo ranked among the cities of the Otto¬
man empire, next after Constantinople, Cairo, and Damascus;
but was nearly destroyed by the terrible earthquakes of 1822
and 1830. It is gradually recovering from these disasters.
Formerly its commerce placed it in the first rank among
the cities of Asia, and it was the grand emporium of Syria,
Arabia, Mesopotamia, and Armenia. It is still the empo¬
rium of northern Syria, and has extensive commercial rela¬
tions with Diarbekr, and the upper parts of Anatolia, with
Merdin, Mosul, and Baghdad. Since 1832 several British
merchants have established houses at Aleppo. The princi¬
pal manufacture of the city consists of various kinds of cloths,
which have been long famous throughout the East, and which
ALE 463
are still produced to a considerable amount. Some are woven Ales,
with gold and silver thread; others with silk and cotton, ^
both flowered and striped; while some consist of striped
cotton only. These stuffs employ about 4000 looms. There
are besides numerous soap, dyeing, and print works. The
chief attractions of Aleppo are its gardens, which extend
continuously about 12 miles to the south-east of the city,
They are watered by the Koikh, and produce abundance of
fruit and culinary vegetables ; but their most celebrated pro¬
duct is the pistachio-nut, which is regularly cultivated. The
city is supplied with water by an ancient aqueduct, which
conveys it from a distance of eight miles.
The air of Aleppo is dry and piercing, but at the same
time salubrious for all who are not troubled with asthmatic
complaints. The city, however, and the environs, are sub¬
ject to a singular endemic disorder, which is called the ring¬
worm or pimple of Aleppo: it is in fact a pimple which is
at first inflammatory, and at length becomes an ulcer of the
size of the nail. The usual duration of this ulcer is one
year: it commonly fixes on the face, and leaves a scar, which
disfigures almost all the inhabitants. No reason is assigned
for this malady; but M. Volney suspects it proceeds from
the quality of the water, as it is likewise frequent in the
neighbouring villages, in some parts of Diarbekr, and even
in certain districts near Damascus, where the soil and the
water have the same appearances. But the plague is a more
destructive malady, a visitation of which is anticipated by
the inhabitants every ten years. Its ravages are most deadly,
owing to the blind fatalism of the Turks, who cannot be
persuaded to take any precautions against the progress of
this dreadful disease. In the plague which immediately pre¬
ceded the year 1797, about 60,000 inhabitants were swept
off. Aleppo is of great antiquity, and is supposed to occupy
the site of the ancient Berma. It was overwhelmed by the
flood of Saracen invasion in 638, when it was taken from
the emperor Heraclius. In 1260 it was taken possession of
and wasted by the Tartars, and in 1401 by Tamerlane, who
defeated the Syrians, when it was given up to pillage. The
adjacent country is fertile, and yields grain of all sorts, with
which the city is plentifully supplied. All the fruits of
Europe, as well as those of the East, are cultivated in gar¬
dens. Its galls, the produce of Quercus infectoria, are highly
valued. Aleppo is 70 miles east of Scanderoon, on the sea-
coast, and 234 north of Damascus. Long. 37. 12. E. Lat.
36. 12. N.
Aleppo once contained 150,000 inhabitants. Colonel
Chesney computes them now at 100,000; of whom 66,500
are Turks, 19,000 Greeks, 5000 Maronites, 3000 Armenians,
2000 Syrians of a mixed race, and 4500 Jews. The Chris¬
tians enjoy not only the most perfect toleration, but have
some envied privileges. Their exemption from the Con¬
scription excited in 1850 the indignant jealousy of the Ma¬
hometans, and occasioned tumults in which some blood was
shed, and property to the amount, it is said, of L.1,000,000
sterling destroyed. The houses amount to 40,000; but the
aspect of the town, once the fairest and cleanest of Tur¬
kish cities, has been much damaged by the great earthquakes
of 1822 and 1830, and by the erection of an irregular suburb,
originally intended only for a temporary shelter.
ALES, Alexander, a celebrated divine of the rigid school
of Augsburg, was born at Edinburgh on the 23d April 1500.
He soon made considerable progress in school divinity, and
entered the lists very early against Luther, this being then
the grand field wherein all authors, young and old, used to
display their abilities. Soon after he had a share in the dis¬
pute which Patrick Hamilton maintained against the eccle¬
siastics, in favour of the new faith he had imbibed at Mar¬
burg. He endeavoured to bring him back to the Catholic
religion ; but this he could not effect, and even began him-
464 ALE
Alessandri self to doubt about his own religion, being much affected by
II the discourse of Hamilton, and still more by the constancy
Alessan- |10 s]10wej at t]ie stake. Beginning thus to waver, he was
v ria" , himself persecuted with so much violence, that he was ob¬
liged to retire into Germany, where he became at length a
perfect convert to the Protestant religion. I he change of
religion in England after the marriage of Henry VIII. with
Anne Boleyn, induced Ales to go to London in 1535. He
was highly esteemed by Cranmer, Latimer, and Thomas
Cromwell, who were at that time in high favour with the
king. Upon the fall of these favourites he was obliged to
return to Germany, where the elector of Brandenburg ap¬
pointed him professor of divinity at Frankfort on the Oder
in 1540. Having offended the court of Brandenburg by
publicly maintaining the right and duty of the civil magis¬
trate to punish fornication, he underwent a public rebuke
from the University of Wittenberg. He left Frankfort in
disgust, and returned to Leipsic, where he was chosen pro¬
fessor of divinity, and died in March 1565. He wrote va¬
rious commentaries on the Scriptures, besides many contro¬
versial works against the Roman Catholics.
ALESSANDRI, Alessandro, in Latin, Alexander ab
Alexandra, a Neapolitan lawyer, of great learning, who flou¬
rished toward the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th
century. Hefollowed the profession of the law, firstat Naples,
afterwards at Rome: but he devoted all the time he could
spare to the study of polite literature ; and at length he en¬
tirely left the bar, that he might lend a more easy and agree¬
able life with the Muses. The particulars of his life are to
gathered from his work entitled Dies Geniales. We are
there informed that he lodged at Rome, in a house that was
haunted; and he relates many surprising particulars about
the ghost. He says also, that when he was very young, he
went to the lectures of Philelphus, who explained at Rome
the Tusculan Questions of Cicero. He was there also when
Nicholas Perot and Domitius Calderinus read their lectures
upon Martial. He is supposed to have died about the year
1523, aged 62, and was buried in the monastery of the Oli¬
vets. Tiraquea wrote a learned commentary upon his work,
which was printed at Lyons in 1587, and reprinted at Ley¬
den in 1673, with the notes of Dennis Godfrey, Christopher
Colerus, and Nicholas Mercerus.
ALESSANDRIA, a city of Italy, in the Sardinian do¬
minions, situated on the right bank of the Tanaro, capital
of the province of the same name. It is the see of a bishop,
and, besides the cathedral, contains 12 churches, 2 collegiate
churches, with 17 monasteries and nunneries. It has many
fine public and private buildings. It was strongly fortified,
and in the several successive hostilities in Italy has been
attacked and defended with great fury. It has not yet re¬
covered the effects of the obstinate defence of the French
against the allies in 1799. Two great fairs are held here, when
the city becomes a mart resorted to by merchants from all parts
of Italy. It is in Long. 8. 40. E. Lat. 44. 57. N. Pop. 40,000.
Alessandria, a province of the duchy of Piedmont, in
the dominions of the king of Sardinia, bounded on the north
by Casale, on the east by Mortara, Boghera, and Tortona,
on the south-east by Genoa, on the south-west by Aqui, and
on the west by Asti. The extent is 343 square miles, or
219,520 acres. It comprehends two cities, 29 towns and
villages, and 12 hamlets. The country is a plain, with few
elevations, and very fruitful; but suffers from a deficiency
of water, though the Po and the Tanaro, with some other
rivers, pass through it. The chief productions are wheat,
maize, wine, and silk; but besides these, wood, madder,
hemp, flax, and fruit, are raised in abundance. The popu¬
lation is very dense, amounting to 117,870 persons, mostly
employed in agriculture, which is conducted on the system
pf garden cultivation.
ALE
ALESSI, Galeazzo, an eminent Italian architect, born Alessi
at Perugia in the beginning of the 16th century. He studied II
at Rome, where be became intimate with Michael Angelo ^eiitian
and the other great men who adorned that period. The v s an_y
Strada Nuova at Genoa, and various works at Bologna,
Milan, and Naples, bear testimony to his skill.
ALET, a town of France, in the department of theAude
and district of Limoux, at the foot of the Pyrenees. It is
remarkable for its baths, and for the grains of gold and silver
found in the stream which runs from the Pyrenean moun¬
tains, at the foot of which it stands. It is seated on the
river Aude, 15 miles south of Carcassone, and 37 south-west
of Narbonne. Long. 2. 15. E. Lat. 42. 59. N.
ALEUROMANCY, the same with what was otherwise
called alphitomantia, and criihomantia, an ancient kind of
divination performed by means of meal or flour.
ALEUTIAN, Aleutic, or Aleutsky Islands, so called
from the Russian word aleut, signifying a bold rock, is the
name given by the Russian discoverers to a chain of small
islands situated in the Northern Pacific Ocean, and extend¬
ing in an easterly direction between the peninsula of Kamt-
schatka, in Asiatic Russia, to the promontory of Alaska, in
North America. According to the practice of the most re¬
cent Russian geographers, we have comprehended the whole
of this archipelago under one general name, although it has
been sometimes divided into three several groups; those
nearest to the eastern coast of Kamtschatka being properly
called Aleutian, the central group the Andreanofskie or
Andrenovian, and those nearest to the American promontory
the Fox Islands. The Russian geographers usually sepa¬
rate Behring’s and Copper Island which are at the western
extremity of this chain, from the other parts of it, included
by them under the general name of Aleutian Islands; but
as there seems no good reason for this exception, it cer¬
tainly would be better to comprehend the whole under one
general denomination.
The first voyage of discovery in this remote and danger- Progress of
ous archipelago was projected by Peter the Great, whose 1'>lscoverf '
enterprising mind appears to have been strongly excited by
the question, then much agitated, relative to the distance
between the Asiatic and American continents ; the solution
of which seemed to be facilitated by the recent conquest of
Kamtschatka. A short time previous to the death of that
monarch, which took place in 1725, he drew up instructions,
with his own hand, for the conduct of an expedition, which
was to be intrusted to the command of an officer named
Behring, who had already made several voyages in the sea
of Kamtschatka by order of the crown. In 1728 Behring
set sail from the mouth of the Kamtschatka River, and coast¬
ed the eastern shores of Siberia, as far to the northward as
Lat. 67.18., but made no discovery of the opposite continent.
In 1729 he again set sail, for the purpose of prosecuting the
same enterprise, but with no better success. A third voyage
was undertaken by order of the Empress Anna in 1741, and
Behring was again selected as chief of the expedition, an¬
other vessel being intrusted to the command of Tschirikoff.
This enterprise proved more fortunate, and led the way to
all the subsequent important discoveries of the Russians in
those seas ; although the immediate results of the voyage,
upon the whole, were not deemed commensurate with the
time and expense employed in fitting out the expedition.
The principal object of the undertaking, however, appears to
have been accomplished. Tschirikoff discovered the coast of
America in the 56th degree of latitude ; and Behring, who
was separated from his companion in a storm, saw it in Lat.
58. 28. On his voyage back to Kamtschatka, Behring’s ship
was driven on the island which now bears his name, where
he soon afterwards died.
In the year 1768 Captain Krenitzin and Lieutenant Le-
"ALEUTIAN ISLANDS. 465
Aleutian yashef sailed from the mouth of the Kamtschatka River by
Islands, order of the Empress Catherine, to examine the chain of the
Aleutian Islands. This commission they accordingly exe¬
cuted very carefully, having surveyed the whole of this ar¬
chipelago, from Behring’s Island to the promontory of Al¬
aska; and, after spending the winter among the Fox Islands,
they returned to Kamtschatka in the autumn of 1769.
During his third and last voyage, in the year 1778, Captain
Cook surveyed the eastern portion of this archipelago, accu¬
rately determined the positions of some of the most remark¬
able islands, and corrected many errors of former navigators.
In the year 1785 a fresh expedition was set on foot by the
Russian government, the command of which was intrusted
to Captain Billings, an English naval officer in the Russian
service, who had accompanied Captain Cook in his last cele¬
brated voyage to the Pacific Ocean. This expedition ap¬
pears to have been suggested by Mr Coxe, who was at that
time at St Petersburg, and whose Account of the Russian
Discoveries between Asia and America had already at¬
tracted the attention of the Russian government. During
this voyage, which was not completed until the year 1796,
Captains Billings and Sarytschef explored the whole chain
of the Aleutian Islands, particularly that part of it which had
been visited by Captain Cook, and some parts of the adja¬
cent western coast of America. Ample details of the con¬
duct of this expedition have been published in the narra¬
tives of Martin Sauer, who officiated as secretary to Captain
Billings, and of Admiral Sarytschef.
With the view of ascertaining the practicability of sup¬
plying the Russian settlements in N. America and the ad¬
jacent isles by sea, instead of the tedious route by Ochotsk,
Captain Krusenstern, an experienced Russian naval officer,
who had served for a long period in the British navy, sug¬
gested the plan of an expedition from Cronstadt, round Cape
Horn, to the Aleutian Islands and the north-west coast of
America. This plan was approved of by Count Roman-
zof, the minister of commerce, and Admiral Mordwinof,
minister of the marine, and obtained the sanction of his Im¬
perial Majesty. Two vessels, the Nadeshda and the Neva,
under the command of Captain Krusenstern, the original
author of the plan, and Captain Lisiansky sailed in company
from Cronstadt, in the month of August 1803, and pro¬
ceeded to the Brazils, from whence they sailed round Cape
Horn to the Sandwich Islands. Here they separated, the
Nadeshda being ordered on a distinct mission to Japan and
China, while Captain Lisiansky, in the Neva, proceeded to
Kadyak and the American settlements. Of this voyage very
full and interesting accounts have been published by Cap¬
tains Krusenstern and Lisiansky, and by Dr Langsdorff, who
accompanied the expedition in the quality of physician.
By far the most important and best explored portion of
this archipelago is the most easterly group, called by the
Russians Lyssie Ostrova, or the Fox Islands. Of these
islands the most considerable are, Umnak, Unalashka or
Oonalashka, and Unimak, the last of which is separated by
a narrow strait from the promontory of Alaska. ^ Beyond
these, to the north-east, lies the large island of Kadyak or
Kodiak, which is generally included among the group called
Schumagin’s Islands.
The whole of the islands composing this chain are bare
and mountainous ; their coasts are rocky and surrounded by
breakers, which renders the navigation of those seas exceed¬
ingly dangerous. The land rises immediately from the
coasts to steep bald mountains, gradually ascending higher
behind each other, and assuming the appearance of chains
of mountains, running parallel to the length of the island.
Springs take their rise at the bottom of the mountains, and
either flow in broad and rapid streams into the neighbouring
sea, or, collecting in the rocky vales and glens, form ample
vol. n.
lakes, which send off their superfluous waters by natural Aleutian
canals into the adjacent bays. These islands bear evident Islands-
marks of volcanic formation, and several of them have still
active volcanoes, which continually emit smoke, and some¬
times flames.
Unalashka, one of the largest of the Fox Islands, was Island of
visited by Captain Cook during his last voyage, and seems Unalashka.
to merit particular notice. This island stretches from north¬
east to south-west and is from 70 to 80 versts in length,
but of very unequal breadth. On the north and north¬
east sides there are many bays and creeks, in some of which
are very secure harbours for vessels. A part of the south¬
west shore consists of very high, steep, inaccessible cliffs, and
another part has remained hitherto wholly unexplored. The
whole island consists of a mass of rocks, covered only with
a very thin coat of earth; the hills are of very unequal height,
and are intersected by irregular valleys, the soil of which is
commonly argillaceous, or an earth which appears washed
down from the hills. In the lower valleys there is great
abundance of grass, which would furnish very good food for
cattle; indeed, Captain Cook was of opinion that cattle might
subsist at Unalashka all the year round without being
housed; and the soil, in many places, appeared capable of
producing grain, roots, and vegetables. But the Russian
traders and the natives seem satisfied with what nature brings
forth. No wood grows on this and the neighbouring islands;
only low bushes, and shrubs of dwarf birch, willow, and al¬
der. For all the timber used for the purposes of building,
&c. they are indebted to the sea, which wafts it to their
shores from the adjacent continent of America. The in¬
habitants are rather low in stature, but plump and well¬
shaped, with short necks, swarthy chubby faces, black eyes,
small beards, and long, straight, black hair, which the men
wear loose behind and cut before, but the women tie up in
a bunch.
The principal occupations of the Aleutians are fishing andQCCUpa.
hunting, and preparing the implements necessary for both.tions.
Their baidars, baidarkas, or boats, resemble the canoes
of other savages. They consist of a skeleton ot wood over
which is stretched a leather covering made of seal-skins.
The boats of the Unalashkans are much superior in point
of beauty to those of any of the other islands : some of them
appear so transparent that one might trace the formation of
the inside, and the manner in which the rower sits. In
their form they are long and narrow, and commonly hold
only one person.
The population of Unalashka and the neighbouring islands Population
appears to have been considerable, amounting to several and go-
thousands. In 1790 Sarytcheff reckoned it at 1300. Ac-vernment-
cording to the most recent accounts, it does not appear to
amount to more than 300. This rapid depopulation is
ascribed partly to the practice of sending the best hunters
to a distance, to chace the large sea-otters, few of them
ever returning to their families; and partly to the state
of oppression under which the natives live, and the change
which has taken place in their modes of living. Cap¬
tain Cook seems to consider the natives of these islands
as originally of the same extraction with the Greenlanders
and Esquimaux. When first discovered by the Russians
they were under the government of Toigons, or chiefs, who,
however, possessed little superior distinction or dignity,
and had no revenue. At present they are all subject to the
government of the Russian settlers. Population ol the
whole group is now estimated at 8000.
Throughout the whole of the Aleutian Islands, on the Russian
island of Kadyak, and the western coast of America, the settlements
Russians have formed settlements, for the purpose of hunt- and com¬
ing and collecting furs, with which they carry on a lucra-merce-
tive commerce, particularly with the Chinese. The most
t
466 ALE ALE
Alexander, valuable fur is that of the sea-otter ; an animal which has
now become rare on these islands, in consequence of the ex¬
treme eagerness with which they have been hunted and
killed. Besides the sea-otter, there are numbers of foxes,
especially on the Fox Islands, which from that circumstance
derive their name. The black foxes found on these islands
are not so valuable as those of Siberia. The Arctic or ice fox,
called also the rock fox, and the blue fox, from the natural
colour of the fur, which is of a bluish-gray, is very common.
See Muller’s Samlung Russicher Geschichte, particularly
the third volume. Neue Nachrichten von denen neuent-
deckten Insuln in der See zwischen Asia und America, &c.
verfasset von J. L. S.—Hamburg and Leipsic, 1776. Coxes
Account of the Russian Discoveries. Tooke’s View of the
Russian Empire. The Voyages and Travels of Billings ;
Sarytcheff; Cooke; Meares; Dixon; Vancouver; LaPerouse;
Mackenzie ; Krusenstern ; Lisiansky; and Dr Langsdorff.
ALEXANDER the Great. See Macedonia.
Alexander of Aphrodisias, the most celebrated of the
Greek commentators on Aristotle, and styled by way of
pre-eminence, 6 iijrjyrjTTqs, the expositor. He was a native
of Aphrodisias, in Caria, and flourished between the 2d and
3d centuries. His first and principal work, On Fate, writ¬
ten in opposition to the stoical doctrine of necessity, was
dedicated to Severus and his son Caracalla. It has been
edited by Orelli, Zurich, 1824. His other works, which are
very voluminous, consist chiefly of commentaries on treatises
of Aristotle. They were greatly esteemed among the Ara¬
bians, who translated many of them. A list of his works,
with an account of his life, will be found in the Bihl. Arab.
Hisp. Escur. of Casiri, vol. i. p. 243.
Alexander of Hales, Alexander Halensis, surnamed
the irrefragable Doctor, a celebrated English theologian
of the thirteenth century. Like most of the scholars of
his time, he studied at Paris, where he took his degree
of Doctor, and publicly taught philosophy and theology.
Among his numerous disciples were the famous Bonaven-
tura, Aquinas, and Duns Scotus. His great work is the
system of theology known as his Summa, being a commen¬
tary on the Sentences of Peter Lombard, composed by the
express orders of Pope Innocent IV., and approved after
being submitted to the examination of 70 doctors, as a sys¬
tem of instruction for all the schools of Christendom. Of
the private history of this famous man little is known. Fie
died in 1245, and was buried in the convent of the Corde¬
liers at Paris, where he had spent the 23 last years of his life.
Alexander of Tralles. See Trallianus.
Alexander, surnamed Balas, a personage who figures
in the history of the Maccabees and in Josephus. He pro¬
fessed to be the natural son of Antiochus Epiphanes, and as
such, out of opposition to Demetrius Soter, he was recog¬
nised as king of Syria by the king of Egypt, by the Romans,
and eventually by Jonathan Maccabacus, on the part of the
Jews. Demetrius was not long after slain in battle, and
Balas obtained possession of the kingdom ; but abandoning
himself to voluptuousness and debauchery, he soon rendered
his reign odious. This encouraged Demetrius Nicator, the
eldest son of Demetrius Soter, to claim his father’s crown.
Alexander took the field against him, but was defeated
in a pitched battle, and fled with 500 cavalry to Abm in Ara¬
bia, and sought refuge with the emir Zabdieh, who mur¬
dered his confiding guest in the fifth year of his reign over
Syria. (1 Macc. xi. 13-18 ; Joseph. Antiq. xiii. 4.)
Alexander Jann^eus, second king of Judea of the
Asmolaean family, but who disgraced the blood of the heroic
Maccabees by most barbarous cruelties. He succeeded
his brother Aristobulus in 104 B.C., and died in 81 b.c.—
Josephus, Ant. Jud. xiii.
Alexander Severus, a Roman emperor who reigned
from a.d. 222 till a.d. 235. He was born about a.d. 205, in Alexander.
Phoenicia, being the son of Julia Mammaea, by her husband
Gessius Marcianus, a Syrian, or, according to others, by
Caracalla. When his cousin Elagabalus was raised to the
imperial throne, he accompanied him to Rome, where after
some time he was adopted by his cousin, and elevated to the
rank of Caesar. On his adoption by Elagabalus he received
the name Alexander (he had before been called Bassianus),
to which subsequently that of Severus was added. As the
young Caesar refused to take part in the brutal amusements
of the emperor, he drew upon himself hatred and persecu¬
tion, which were only increased by the circumstance that he
was a favourite with the soldiers. This gave rise to more
than one outbreak among the praetorians, who in March
222, murdered Elagabalus and raised Alexander Severus
to the throne. The senate and people readily acquiesced
in this decision of the praetorian guards, and conferred upon
the new emperor the highest titles and honours. He had
been carefully educated by his mother and Maesa his
grandmother, who had procured for him the ablest instruc¬
tors of the time. While on the throne he was guided by
the counsels of these two ladies, and was ever ready to listen
to the advice of men of wisdom and experience, among
whom we find the illustrious lawyers Ulpian and Paullus.
It was on the suggestion of his mother that Alexander ex¬
cluded women from the senate, and formed a privy-council of
sixteen of the wisest and most virtuous senators, of which
Ulpian became the president. Notwithstanding her j ealousy
and some disposition to cruelty, Mammaea exercised a most
salutary influence over the emperor and the affairs of the em¬
pire. Alexander himself was not wanting either in ability or in
zeal: he devoted the greater part of the day to public busi¬
ness ; and in his leisure hours refreshed himself by the study
of Virgil, Horace, Plato, and Cicero. He did away with the
superstitious abominations which had been introduced at
Rome by his predecessor, but at the same time appears to
have had a peculiar religion of his own, for we are informed
that in the chapel of his palace (the Lararium) he paid
divine honours to Abraham, Orpheus, Apollonius of Tyana,
and Jesus Christ, of all of whom images were set up there.
His reign is indeed praised on account of his great mildness,
but at the same time he always allowed the law to take its
course unimpeded, and endeavoured by all means to check
the immorality which pervaded all classes. His attempts,
however, to reform the legions and praetorians were un¬
successful ; and as the latter regarded the wise Ulpian as
the author of the measures adopted by the emperor, they
mutinied and compelled Alexander to give up that most
faithful friend and adviser to be murdered before his own
eyes, in a.d. 228. In the mean time commotions had
taken place in Asia, where the empire of the Parthians and
the kingdom of the Arsacidae had been overturned by the
Persians. The conquerors, under their king Artaxerxes, even
marched across the frontiers of the Roman empire, in con¬
sequence of which Alexander was obliged, in a.d. 232, to
undertake an expedition against the Persians. According
to some accounts he was successful, while according to
others the whole undertaking was not carried out in a very
creditable manner. It is certain, however, that the Persians
after this time for some years abstained from making inroads
into the Roman dominion. On his return from Asia, Alexan¬
der found that the northern barbarians were threatening the
frontier in another part. He accordingly hastened to the
Rhine. While he was there encamped in a place called
Sicila, the soldiers, instigated by their commander Maxi¬
minus, murdered both him and his mother, and proclaimed
the Thracian Maximinus his successor, a. d. 235. Com¬
pare Gibbon, chap. vi.; Niebuhr, Lect. on Rom. Hist. iii.
p. 273, fol. (l. s.)
ALE
Alexander. Alexander V., raised to the papal see in 1409, was
smmJ born in the island of Candia, of parents so poor that he begged
from door to door. He is praised by historians for the purity
of his morals. He died at Bologna aged 70, after a ponti¬
ficate of about ten months.
Alexander VI., Pope, Rodrigo Lenzuoli, was born of a
noble Spanish family at Valencia, in 1429, and assumed the
name of Borgia, on the elevation of his maternal uncle,
Calixtus III., to the chair of St Peter, who made Rodrigo
a cardinal at the age of 25. His private life had always
been a disgrace to his ecclesiastical profession ; and before
his election to the papacy, he had four natural children by
Vanozza, his Roman mistress, who long possessed the chief
place in his affections. That he was a man of talent has
never been denied; but his open profligacy and contempt
for decency even after he became pope, were such that his
reign is compared by Gibbon to that of Tiberius in ancient
Rome. While cardinal, he was employed in several im¬
portant negotiations, during which he contrived to amass
great wealth, and to lay the foundations of the future power
of his family. On his return from one of these embassies to
Spain and Portugal, he was shipwrecked, and was one of
the few survivors of a catastrophe in which 180 persons
perished ; among whom were three bishops, and many other
men of rank and learning. His wealth, unscrupulously used,
enabled him to attain the papacy in 1492, on the demise of
Innocent III.
We shall not dwell on the impurities and crimes that
stained the court of Alexander, which the concurrent testi¬
mony of Italian writers, represent as flagitious in the highest
degree ; but give his character in the words of Guicciardini.
“ In Alexander VI. were singular degrees of prudence and
sagacity, a sound understanding, a wonderful power of per¬
suasion, and an incredible vigilance and dexterity in all he
undertook. But these qualities were more than counter¬
balanced by his vices. In his manners he was most shame¬
less ; wholly divested of sincerity, of decency, and of truth ;
without fidelity, without religion ; in his avarice immode¬
rate ; in his ambition insatiable ; in his cruelty more than
barbarous ; with a passionate desire of elevating his nume¬
rous children by whatever means this could be accom¬
plished.” His pontificate was the signal for the recom¬
mencement of those troubles and jealousies among the
Italian potentates that had slumbered for some time, and
which paved the way for a succession of foreign oppressions
under which that fine country long groaned, commencing
with the unprincipled irruption of the French King Charles
VIII. “No sooner,” says Roscoe, “was the new pontiff
firmly seated in the chair of St Peter, than those jealousies,
intrigues, and disputes among the potentates of Italy which
had for some time ceased to agitate that country, began
again to revive, and prepared the way not only for a long
series of bloodshed and misery, but for events which over¬
turned in a great degree the political fabric of Italy, and
materially affected the rest of Europe.” The pontificate of
Alexander VI. must be considered, from the intrigues and
crimes of him and his family, as disastrous and disgraceful
to Italy. His violence and misrule for a while interrupted
the progress of reviving literature, which had begun to
spread from Italy as a centre over Europe.
The audacious villanies, however, of the pontiff’s son
Caesar Borgia, throw those of the father into the shade.
The equivocal character of his only daughter Lucrezia, has
found a chivalrous defender in the elegant historian of the
Medici. (See Appendix I. Life of Leo. X) Lucrezia was
first married to Gio. Sforza, lord of Pesaro, but divorced
from him by her father, who soon after united her to Alfonso
of Aragon, a natural son of Alfonso II. of Naples ; but two
years afterwards her unfortunate husband was assassinated
ALE 467
before the great door of the church of St Peter, as is al- Alexander,
leged with probability by the instrumentality of her brother
Caesar, who is alleged also to have murdered his own
brother Giovanni in the streets of Rome. In the following
year, 1501, she was finally married to Alfonso d’Este, the
son of the reigning Duke of Ferrara. From this time,
whatever may have been her previous character, Lucrezia
became the ornament of the court of Ferrara, the patroness
of learning, and was entrusted by her husband with the prin¬
cipal administration of his affairs during his military expedi¬
tions, in which she acquitted herself with ability and dignity.
After a life of profligacy and crime, in which he had cut
off the principal members of the Colonna, Orsini, and
Savelli families, the noblest of the Roman nobility, and had
concentrated wealth on his own family, Alexander died Aug.
18. 1503, in the 74th year of his age, by poison prepared by
himself for the destruction of the cardinal of Corneto. (t.s.t. )
Alexander VIE, Pope. See Chigi.
Alexander, St, whom St Irenaeus reckons the fifth
bishop of Rome, succeeded St Everistus in the year 109,
and died in the year 119. There is no account of his life,
and the epistles attributed to him are supposititious.
Alexander I., king of Scotland, youngest son of Mal¬
colm Canmore, succeeded his elder brother Edgar in 1107.
His kingdom was turbulent; but he contrived by energy
and valour to overcome all opposition. His most formid¬
able competitor was Angus, grandson of Lulach, son of
Macbeth’s queen; but the dangerous insurrection was put
down by the vigour of Alexander. He was no less deter¬
mined in resisting all attempts on the independence of his
crown by foreign princes. He died childless at Stirling in
1124, and was succeeded by his brother, David I. See
Scotland.
Alexander II., king of Scotland, succeeded his father
William in 1213, at 16 years of age. He made an expedi¬
tion into England, to oppose the tyranny of King John, who
returned the visit, and was offered battle by Alexander, but
refused it. He took the city of Carlisle from Henry III.,
which was afterwards exchanged for Berwick. Alexander
died in 1249, in the 51st year of his age and 35th of his
reign, and left for his successor his son,
Alexander III., who was crowned king of Scotland in
1249. The Comyns, a powerful family, took arms against
him, and, taking him prisoner, confined him at Stirling ; but
he was afterwards released by his subjects. He first married
the daughter of Henry III., king of England; and next the
daughter of the Count de Dreux; but was at length killed
by a fall from his horse, on the 10th of April 1290, after
having reigned 42, or, according to others, 37 years.
Alexander, Noel, an indefatigable writer of the 17th
century, born at Rouen, in Normandy, 1639. After finish¬
ing his studies at Rouen, he entered into the order of
Dominican friars, and was professed there in 1655. Soon
after he went to Paris, to go through a course of philosophy
and divinity in the great convent, where he distinguished
himself so greatly, that he was appointed professor of philo¬
sophy there, which office he held for twelve years. M. Col¬
bert showed him many marks of his esteem ; and being de¬
termined to omit nothing to perfect the education of his son,
afterwards archbishop of Rouen, he formed an assembly of
the most learned persons, whose conferences upon ecclesi¬
astical history might be of advantage to him. Father Alex¬
ander was invited to this assembly, where he exerted him¬
self with so much genius and ability, that he gained the
particular friendship of young Colbert, who showed him the
utmost regard as long as he lived. These conferences gave
rise to Alexander’s design of writing an ecclesiastical his¬
tory ; for being desired to reduce what was material in these
conferences to writing, he did it with so much accuracy,
468
ALE
Alexander, that the learned men who composed this assembly advised
him to undertake a complete body of church history. This
he executed with great assiduity, collecting and digesting
the materials himself, and writing even the tables with his
own hand. He at last completed his work in 1686. To¬
wards the latter part of his life he was afflicted with the loss
of his sight; a misfortune which he bore with great patience
and resignation. He died in 1724, in the 86th year of his
age.
Alexander, William, earl of Stirling, an eminent Scot¬
tish statesman and poet in the reigns of James YI. and
Charles I., who, after travelling with the Duke of Argyll as
his tutor or companion, wrote a poetical work, with the view
of alleviating the sorrows of unsuccessful love, under the
title of Aurora. He then removed to the court of James
YI., where he cultivated poetry upon the plan of the Greek
and Roman tragedians. In 1607 he published some dra¬
matic performances, entitled Monarchic Tragedies dedi¬
cated to King James. After this, he is said to have written
A Supplement to complete the third part of Sir Philip
Sidney’s Arcadia. He also wrote a poetical piece, entitled
A Parcenesis to the Prince ; and in 1614 he published his
last poem, Doomsday, or the Great Day of Judgment.
His poetical works were published by himself, in a folio
volume, under the title of Recreations ivith the Muses.
He was made gentleman-usher to Prince Charles, and mas¬
ter of the requests; was knighted ; and obtained a grant of
Nova Scotia, where he projected the settlement of a colony,
but afterwards sold it to the French. In 1626 he was made
secretary of state for Scotland, was created first viscount
and then earl of Stirling, and died in 1640.
Alexander, Paulovich, emperor of Russia, was born
on 28th December 1777. He was the son of Paul, after¬
wards emperor, by Maria, daughter of Prince Eugene of
Wiirtemberg. His early education was conducted under
his excellent mother, and afterwards was carefully directed
by his grandmother, the Empress Catherine II., who con¬
fided its general superintendence to Laharpe, of whom Alex¬
ander ever afterwards retained a grateful recollection. The
death of Catherine, in 1796, made room for the accession of
her son Paul, whose wild eccentricities were so extravagant
and prejudicial to his country, that they ended in his assas¬
sination in 1801; and Alexander was immediately placed
on the Russian throne.
The policy of the young emperor was indicated by his
concluding a peace with Britain, against which his father had
declared war; and after the recommencement of hostilities
between us and France in 1803, Alexander joined Austria
and Sweden in a coalition with Great Britain against the pre¬
tensions of France in 1805. This war was very disastrous
to the allies. The armies of Austria were totally defeated
in a succession of battles between the 6th and 13th of Octo¬
ber of that year ; and the combined Austrian and Russian
armies, under the two emperors, were defeated by Napoleon
in the great battle of Austerlitz on the 2d of December.
Austria concluded a separate treaty of peace, and Alexander
led the remains of his army into his own dominions. Bri¬
tain thus left single-handed to contend with the increased
power of France, was probably saved from the worst conse¬
quences of the contest, by the annihilation of the combined
navies of France and Spain, in the battle of Trafalgar, on
21st of October, on the very day on which General Mack
surrendered a fine Austrian army of 36,000 men at Ulm to
Napoleon.
Prussia, which had injudiciously stood neutral while France
was humbling Austria and Russia, rashly engaged in hosti¬
lities with Napoleon in 1806, while her allies, the Russians,
were still beyond the Vistula; but the defeats at Auerstadt
and Jena laid Prussia prostrate; and in the succeeding year,
ALE
the battles of Eylau and Friedland, in which the Russians Alexander.
were fairly beaten, led to the dismemberment of Prussia,
and the treaty of Tilsit with Russia. A few days after the
last battle, Alexander and Napoleon met on a raft anchored
in the river Niemen, and agreed to the articles of a treaty
which was signed at Tilsit, on July 7. Napoleon gained so
on Alexander, as to obtain his consent to a secret article of
the treaty, by which Alexander was not only to withdraw
from his connection with Britain, but to become her enemy;
and he declared war against her on the 26th of October.
For nearly five years, Alexander appeared attached to the
alliance of France; but the privations of his subjects by the
interruption of the commerce with England, and the intoler¬
able load of Napoleon’s “ Continental System,” at length in¬
duced him to return to his old alliance, and to declare war
against France on March 19. 1812. On the 24th April, he
left St Petersburg, to join his armies on the west frontier of
Lithuania. Napoleon assembled the most numerous and
magnificent army that had ever been brought together in mo¬
dern times, augmented by the unwilling levies of Prussia and
Austria, and entered Russia on the 25th of June 1812. The
first encounter was at Borodino, where there was a well-con¬
tested action, in which each army suffered the loss of 25,000
men. Kutusoff made a skilful retreat; and as the French
advanced, they found a deserted wasted country to the con¬
fines of Moscow, which Napoleon entered on the 14th Sep¬
tember ; but in a few hours the city was in flames, supplies
of every kind intercepted, and the approach of winter com¬
pelled Napoleon to leave its smoking ruins. The enter¬
prising generals, Kutusoff, Wittzenstein, and Tschichagoff,
hung on his retreat like thunderclouds; and the destruction
of his gallant army at the passage of the Berizina, and the
firmness of Alexander through the mighty contest, gave the
first blow to Napoleon’s colossal power, which had well nigh
annihilated the independence of Continental Europe.
In 1813, the advancing Russians were successively joined
by the forces of Prussia, Austria, and Sweden. Alexander
continued with the allied armies, and he was especially pre¬
sent in the battles of Dresden and Leipsic. The extraor¬
dinary military genius of Napoleon had made wonderful ex¬
ertions to repair his losses in the early part of 1814; but
the victories of Wellington in Spain, and his advance into
the heart of France, favoured the progress of the allies; and
on March 30. 1814, 150,000 men of the allied armies took
possession of Paris, which was entered next day by Alex¬
ander and the king of Prussia.
After the deposition of Napoleon, the allied sovereigns
visited England. By the treaty of Vienna, Alexander was
acknowledged king of Poland; but before the Congress of
Vienna had separated, Napoleon had escaped from Elba,
and was enthusiastically received at Paris. The two eastern
emperors and the king of Prussia remained together, until
the battle of Waterloo gave peace to Europe.
On the advance of the British and Prussians to Paris, the
three allied sovereigns again made their entry into Paris,
where they concluded, on September 26, that treaty which
has been miscalled the Holy Alliance.
After that period, Alexander was chiefly occupied in the
internal administration of his vast dominions, which certainly
advanced in every kind of improvement during the twenty-
five years of his reign, more than under any of his prede¬
cessors from the time of Peter I. The gradual abolition
of the feudal servitude of the peasantry, begun by the most
enlightened of his predecessors, was continued under Alex¬
ander. Education, agriculture, manufactures, commerce,
were also greatly extended; while literature and the fine
arts were liberally encouraged. His disposition has been
represented by his subjects as mild and merciful; yet his
influence in the affairs of Europe was not exerted in the
Alexan-
dretta
II
Alexan¬
dria.
ALE
cause of public liberty. But this could hardly be expected
from the autocrat of an unmitigated despotism in his own
territories. He will, however, bear a very favourable com¬
parison with any Russian sovereign, or even with his Euro¬
pean contemporary princes.
Early in the winter of 1825, he left St Petersburg for the
last time on a tour of inspection of his southern provinces.
About the middle of November, he was attacked by a vio¬
lent intermittent fever, which is endemical in those countries;
and when he reached Taganrog, on the Gulf of Azof, he was
alarmingly ill from reiterated accessions of the disease, which
carried him off on December 1. 1825. In foreign countries
his death has been attributed to poison; but this is refuted
by the history of his disease, and is very improbable, from his
great popularity with his countrymen. He was married in
1793, to Louisa Maria Augusta, princess of Baden, but left
no issue, and was succeeded by his second brother Nicolas,
the present emperor. (t. s. t.)
ALEXANDRETTA. See Scaoteroon.
ALEXANDRIA, called Iskanderia by the Turks, an
ancient city of Lower Egypt, and for a long time its capital.
This city was built by Alexander the Great, soon after the
overthrow of Tyre, about 333 years before Christ. It is
situated on the Mediterranean, twelve miles west of that
mouth of the Nile anciently called Canopicum, and lies in
Long. 29. 54. E. Lat. 31. 10. N.
Alexander is said to have been induced to build this city
on account of its affording a fine port, and being advanta¬
geously situated for trade. It realised his expectations; for
it soon became the emporium, not only for merchandise, but
also for all the arts and sciences of the Greeks. Alexandria,
according to Strabo, was 30 stadia in length from east to
west, and 7 or 8 stadia in breadth where narrowest. The
circumference was about 70 stadia, or 9 miles; but Pliny,
including no doubt the suburbs, reckons the circumference
15 miles. Lake Mareotis bathed its walls on the south,
and the Mediterranean on the north. It was intersected
lengthwise by straight parallel streets. This direction left
a free passage to the northern wind, which alone conveys
coolness and salubrity into Egypt. A street of 100 feet
wide began at the gate of the sea, and terminated at the
gate of Canopus. It was decorated with magnificent houses,
temples, and public buildings. In its extensive range, the
eye wandered with admiration over the marble, the porphyry,
and the obelisks, which were destined at some future day to
embellish Rome and Constantinople. The great street, the
handsomest in the world, was intersected by another of the
same breadth. From the middle of this place were to be
seen at once vessels arriving under full sail from the north
and from the south.
An artificial mole, called the Heptastadium, nearly a mile
in length, stretched from the continent to the isle of Pharos,
and divided the great harbour into two. That which is to
the northward preserved its name. A dike drawn from
the island to the rock on which the watch-tower was built,
secured it from the westerly winds. The other was called
Eunostos, or the Safe Return. The former is called at pre¬
sent the new, the latter the old harbour: they were con¬
nected with each other by two breaks in the mole, crossed
by two bridges, which could be raised at pleasure. The
palace, which advanced beyond the promontory of Lochias,
extended as far as the dike, and occupied more than a quar¬
ter of the city. Each of the Ptolemies added to its magni¬
ficence. It contained within its inclosure, the museum, an
asylum for learned men, groves, and buildings worthy of
royal majesty, and a temple where the body of Alexander
was deposited in a golden coffin. Ptolemy Sotei II. vio¬
lated this monument, carried off the golden coffin, and put
a glass one in its place. In the great harbour was the little
ALE
469
island of Anti-Rhodes, where stood a theatre and a royal Alexan-
place of residence. Within the harbour of Eunostos was a ^ dria-
smaller one called Kibotos, dug by the hand of man, which
communicated with Lake Mareotis by a canal. Between
this canal and the palace was the grand temple of Serapis,
while that of Neptune stood near the great market place.
Alexandria extended likewise along the northern banks of
the lake. Its eastern part presented to view the gymnasium,
with its porticoes of more than 600 feet long, supported by
several rows of marble pillars. Without the gate of Cano-
pus was a spacious circus for the chariot races. Beyond
that the suburb of Nicopolis ran along the sea-shore, and
seemed a second Alexandria. A superb amphitheatre was
built there, with a race-ground, for the celebration of the
quinquennalia.
Such is the description of Alexandria left us by the an¬
cients, and above all by Strabo. .
The architect employed by Alexander in this undertak¬
ing was the celebrated Dinocrates, who had acquired so much
reputation by rebuilding the temple of Diana at Ephesus.
The city was first rendered populous by Ptolemy Soter, the
son of Lagus, one of Alexander’s captains, who, after the death
of the Macedonian monarch, being appointed governor of
Egypt, soon assumed the title of king, and took up his resi¬
dence at Alexandria, about 304 years before Christ.
In the 30th year of Ptolemy’s reign he took his son Ptole¬
my Philadelphus as his partner in the empire ; and by this
prince the city of Alexandria was much embellished. In
the first year of his reign the famous watch-tower of Pharos
was finished. It had been begun several years before by his
father; and, when finished, was looked upon as °oe of the
wonders of the world. The same year, the islet of Pharos
itself, originally seven furlongs distant from the peninsula,
was joined to it by a causeway. This was the work of
Dexiphanes, who completed it at the same time that his son
put the last hand to the tower. The tower was a large
square structure of white marble, on the top of winch fires
were kept constantly burning for the direction of sailors.
The building cost 800 talents ; which, if Attic, amounted to
L.155,000; if Alexandrian, to L.248,000. This is reckon¬
ing the Attic talent at 60, and the Alexandrian at 96 minae,
and each mina equal to L.3, 4s. 7d.
The architect employed in this famous structure is said to
have fallen upon the following contrivance to usurp the whole
glory to himself. Being ordered to engrave upon it the fol¬
lowing inscription,—“ King Ptolemy to the Gods the Sa¬
viours, for the benefit of Sailors,”—instead of the king s name
he substituted his own, and then filling up the hollow of the
marble with mortar, wrote upon it the above-mentioned in¬
scription. In process of time, the mortar being worn oft, the
following inscription appeared: “ Sostratus the Cnidiax,
the son of Dexiphanes, to the Gods the Saviours, for the
benefit of Sailors.” .
This year also was remarkable for the bringing of the image
of Serapis from Pontus to Alexandria. It was set up in one
of the suburbs of the city, called Rhacotis, where a temple
was afterwards erected to his honour, suitable to the great¬
ness of that stately metropolis, and called, from the god
worshipped there, Serapeion. This structure, accoiding to
Ammianus Marcellinus, surpassed in beauty and niagnu -
cence all others in the world, except the Capitol at Rome.
Within the verge of this temple was the famous Alexandrian
library. It was founded by Ptolemy Soter, for the use of
an academy he instituted in this city ; and, by continual ad¬
ditions by his successors, became at last the finest library m
the world, containing no fewer than 700,000 volumes. ie
method followed in collecting books for this library was to
seize all those which were brought into Egypt y ree s
other foreigners. The books were transcribed in the museum
470 A L E X A
Alexan- by persons appointed for that purpose: the copies were then
v ria‘ , delivered to the proprietors, and the originals laid up in the
library. Ptolemy Euergetes, having borrowed from the
Athenians the works of Sophocles, Euripides, and iEschylus,
returned them only the copies, which he caused to be tran¬
scribed in as beautiful a manner as possible; presenting them
at the same time with fifteen talents (equal to L.2906, 5s.,
reckoning by the smaller talent) for the exchange.
As the museum was at first in that quarter of the city
called Brucheion, near the royal palace, the library was placed
there likewise; but when it came to contain 400,000volumes,
another library, within the Serapeion, was erected by way of
supplement to it, and on that account called the daughter
of the former. In this second library 300,000 volumes in
process of time were deposited; making in all 700,000. In
the war carried on by Julius Caesar against the inhabitants of
this city, the library in the Brucheion, with all its contents,
was reduced to ashes. The library in the Serapeion, how¬
ever, still remained; and here Cleopatra deposited 200,000
volumes of the Pergamenean library, which Mark Antony
presented to her. These, and others added from time to
time, rendered the new library at Alexandria more numerous
and considerable than the former; but when the temple of
Serapis was demolished under the archiepiscopate of Theo-
philus a.d. 389, the valuable library was pillaged or destroyed,
and twenty years afterwards the empty shelves excited the
regret and indignation of every intelligent spectator. After¬
wards the church and seat of the patriarchs may have been
enriched with considerable collections of books, consisting
chiefly of theological controversy, but the library no longer
contained the 400,000 or 700,000 volumes collected by the
curiosity and magnificence of the Ptolemies. For 293 years
Alexandria was the capital of the kingdom of the Ptolemies.
I his city, as we have already observed, soon became ex¬
tremely populous, and was embellished both by its own
princes and the Romans ; but, like most other noted cities
of antiquity, it has been the seat of terrible massacres. About
141 years before Christ it was almost totally depopulated by
Ptolemy Physcon. That barbarous monster, without the
least provocation, gave free liberty to his guards to plunder
his metropolis, and murder the inhabitants at their pleasure.
4 he cruelties practised on this occasion cannot be expressed,
and the few who escaped were so terrified that they fled into
other countries. Upon this, Physcon, that he might not
reign over empty houses, invited strangers from the neigh¬
bouring countries; by whom the city was repeopled, and soon
i ecovered its former splendour. On this occasion many
learned men, having been obliged to fly, proved the means
of reviving learning in Greece, Asia Minor, and the islands
o the Archipelago, and other places where it was almost
totally lost.
The new inhabitants were not treated with much more
kindness by Physcon than the old ones had been ; for, on
t leir complaining of his tyrannical behaviour, he resolved on
a geneial massacre of the young men. Accordingly, when
they were one day assembled in the gymnasium, or place of
public exercise, he ordered it to be set on fire ; so that they
all perished, either in the flames, or by the swords of the
tyrant s mercenaries, whom he had posted at all the avenues.
1 hough Julius Caesar was obliged to carry on a war for
some time against this city, it seems not to have suffered
much damage, except the burning of the library already
mentioned. Before Caesar left Alexandria, in acknowledg¬
ment of the assistance he had received from the Jews he
confirmed all their privileges there, and even engraved his
decree on a pillar of brass. This, however, did not prevent
the massacre of 50,000 of them in this city, about the year
of Christ 67.
The city of Alexandria seems to have fallen into decay
N D ft I A.
soon after this, and to have forfeited many of its ancient pri- Alexan-
vileges, though for what offence is not known; but when dria-
Hadrian visited Egypt, about the year 122, it was almost
totally ruined. He repaired both the public and private
buildings, not only restoring the inhabitants to their ancient
privileges, but heaping new favours upon them ; for which
they returned him their solemn thanks, and conferred upon
him what honours they could while he was present; though
as soon as he was gone they published the most bitter lam¬
poons against him.
The fickle and satirical humour of the Alexandrians was
highly offensive to Hadrian, though he visited it with no
punishment. Caracalla, however, did not let it pass so easily.
That tyrant, when he visited their city in the year 215, hav¬
ing become the subject of their foolish satires, ordered a ge¬
neral massacre by his numerous troops, who were dispersed
all over the city. The inhuman order being given, all were
murdered, without distinction of age or sex; so that in one
night’s time the whole city floated in blood, and every house
was filled with carcasses. The monster who occasioned
this had retired during the night to the temple of Serapis, to
implore the protection of that deity; and, not yet satiated
with slaughter, commanded the massacre to be continued all
the next day; so that very few of the inhabitants remained.
As if even this had not been sufficient, he stripped the city
of all its ancient privileges; suppressed the academy; or¬
dered all strangers who lived there to depart; and that the
few who remained might not have the satisfaction of seeing
one another, he cut off all communication of one street with
another, by walls built for that purpose, and guarded by
troops.
Notwithstanding this terrible disaster, Alexandria soon
recovered its former splendour after the death of Caracalla.
It was long esteemed the first city in the world, next to
Rome ; and we may judge of its magnificence, and the mul¬
titude of people contained in it, from the account of Diodorus
Siculus, who relates that in his time (b.c. 44) Alexandria had
on its rolls 300,000 free inhabitants. Mannert, a learned
German writer, thinks the slaves must have been at least
equally numerous ; and thus the city, in its flourishing pe¬
riods, had contained not less than 600,000 inhabitants. Ac¬
cording to Eutychius, it was on the 22d December a.d. 640,
that Amrou, Omar’s general, took it by storm after a siege
of 14 months, and with the loss of 23,000 men. Heraclius,
then emperor of Constantinople, did not send a single ship
to its assistance. This prince affords an example very rare
in history: he had displayed some vigour in the beginning
of his reign, and then suffered himself to be lulled into idle¬
ness and effeminacy. Awakened suddenly from his leth-
argy by the noise of the conquests of Chosroes, that scourge
of the East, he put himself at the head of his armies, dis¬
tinguished himself as a great captain from his very first cam¬
paign, laid waste Persia for seven years, and returned to
his capital covered with laurels : he then became a theolo¬
gian on the throne, lost all his energy, and amused himself
the rest of his life with disputing upon monotheism, whilst
the Arabs were robbing him of the finest provinces of the
empire. Deaf to the cries of the unfortunate inhabitants
of Alexandria, as he had been to those of the people of Je¬
rusalem, who defended themselves for two years, he left them
a sacrifice to the rising fortune of the indefatigable Amrou.
All their intrepid youth perished with their arms in their
hands.
The victor, astonished at his conquest, wrote to the ca¬
liph, “ I have taken the city of the west. It is of an im¬
mense extent. I cannot describe to you how many wonders
it contains. There are 4000 palaces, 4000 baths, 12,000
dealers in fresh oil, 12,000 gardeners, 40,000 Jews who pay
tribute, 400 theatres or places of amusement.”
ALE X A
Alexan- At this time, according to the Arabian historians, Alex-
dria. andria consisted of three cities, viz. Merma, or the port,
which includes Pharos and the neighbouring parts ; Alex¬
andria, properly so called, where the modern Alexandria
now stands ; and Nekita, probably the Necropolis of Jo¬
sephus and Strabo.
The following story relating to the destruction of the fa¬
mous library is told by Abulfaragius, whose account, how¬
ever, is utterly irreconcileable with the silence of all historians
of the period.—See Gibbon, Decline and Fall, fyc. c. 51.
At that time John, surnamed the Grammarian, a famous
Peripatetic philosopher, being in the city, and in high favour
with Amrou Ebn al Aas, the Saracen general, begged of
him the royal library. Amrou replied that it was not in his
power to grant such a request; but that he would write to
the caliph on that head, since, without knowing his pleasure,
he dared not to dispose of a single book. He accordingly
wrote to Omar, who was then caliph, acquainting him with
the request of his friend; to which he is said to have re¬
plied, That if those books contained the same doctrine with
the Koran, they could be of no use, since the Koran con¬
tained all necessary truths ; but if they contained anything
contrary to that book, they ought not to be suffered ; and,
therefore, whatever their contents were, he ordered them
to be destroyed. Pursuant to this order, they were distri¬
buted among the public baths, where, for the space of six
months, they served to supply the fires of those places, of
wThich there was an incredible number in Alexandria. See
Amrou.
After the city was taken, Amrou thought proper to pur¬
sue the Greeks who had fled farther up the country ; and
therefore marched out of Alexandria, leaving but a very
slender garrison in the place. The Greeks, who had before
fled on board their ships, being apprised of this, returned
on a sudden, surprised the town, and put all the Arabs they
met with to the sword; but Amrou, receiving advice of
what had happened, suddenly returned, and drove them out
of it with great slaughter ; after which the Greeks were so
intimidated, that he had nothing further to fear from them.—
A few years after, however, Amrou being deprived of his
government by the caliph Othman, the Egyptians were so
much displeased with his dismission that they showed a ten¬
dency to revolt. Constantine, the Greek emperor, having
received intelligence of their disaffection, determined on
the reduction of Alexandria. For this purpose he sent the
eunuch Manuel, his general, with a powerful army, to retake
that place ; which, by the assistance of the Greeks in the
city, who kept a secret correspondence with the imperial
forces while at sea, and joined them as soon as they had
made a descent, he effected with inconsiderable loss. The
caliph, now perceiving his mistake, immediately restored
Amrou to his former dignity. This step was very agreeable
to the natives, who, having had experience of the military
skill and bravery of this renowned general, and apprehend¬
ing that they should be called to an account by the Greeks
for their former perfidious conduct, had petitioned Othman
to send him again into Egypt.—Upon Amrou’s arrival, there¬
fore, at Alexandria, the Copts or natives, with the traitor
Al-Mokawkas (who had formerly betrayed to Amrou the for¬
tress of Mesr) at their head, not only joined him, but sup¬
plied him with all kinds of provisions, exciting him to attack
the Greeks without delay. This he did; and after a most
obstinate struggle, which lasted several days, drove them into
the town, where, for some time, they defended themselves
with great bravery, and repelled the utmost efforts of the
besiegers. This so exasperated Amrou that he swore, if
God enabled him to conquer the Greeks, he would throw
down the walls of the city, and make it as easy of access as
the house of a prostitute. Nor did he fail to execute his
N D R I A. 471
threat; for, having taken the town by storm, he quite dis- Alexan-
mantled it, entirely demolishing the walls and fortifications. dria-
The lives of the citizens, however, were spared, at least as
far as lay in the general’s power ; but many of them were
put to the sword by the soldiers on their first entrance. In
one quarter particularly, Amrou found them butchering the
Alexandrians with unrelenting barbarity; to which, how¬
ever, by his seasonable interposition, he put a stop, and on
that spot erected a mosque, which he called the mosque of
mercy.
From this time Alexandria never recovered its former
splendour. It continued under the dominion of the caliphs
till the year 924, when it was taken by the Magrebians,
two years after its great church had been destroyed by fire.
This church was called by the Arabs Al Kaisaria or Cce-
sarea, and had formerly been a pagan temple, erected in
honour of Saturn by Cleopatra.
The city was soon after abandoned by the Magrebians;
but in 928 they again made themselves masters of it. Their
fleet being afterwards defeated by that of the caliph, Abul
Kasem the Magrebian general retired from Alexandria,
leaving there only a garrison of 300 men ; of which Tha-
maal, the caliph’s admiral, being apprised, he in a few days
appeared before the town, and carried off the remainder of
the inhabitants to an island of the Nile called Aboukir. This
was done to prevent Abul Kasem from meeting with any
entertainment at Alexandria, in case he should think proper
to return. According to Eutychius, above 200,000 of the
miserable inhabitants perished this year.
What contributed to raise Alexandria to the extraordi¬
nary height of splendour it enjoyed for a long time, was its
being the centre of commerce between the eastern and
western parts of the world. It was with the view of becom¬
ing master of this lucrative trade that Alexander built this
city, after having extirpated the Tyrians, who formerly en¬
grossed all the traffic of the East. Of the immense riches
which that trade afforded, we may form an idea from con¬
sidering that the Romans accounted it a point of policy to
oppress the Egyptians, especially the Alexandrians. Ex¬
travagant accounts have been given of the wealth of Alex¬
andria ; but according to Strabo, the revenue of all Egypt
under the last and most indolent of the Ptolemies, amounted
only to 12,500 talents, or about two millions and a half of
our money. This was afterwards considerably increased by
the more exact economy of the Romans, and the increase
of the trade of Ethiopia and India.
Though the revolutions which happened in the govern¬
ment of Egypt after it fell into the hands of the Mahomet¬
ans frequently affected this city to a very great degree, yet
still the excellence of its port, and the innumerable conve¬
niences resulting from the East India trade to the possessors
of Egypt, preserved it from total destruction, even when in
the hands of the most barbarous nations. Thus, in the 13th
century, when the European nations began to acquire a taste
for the elegancies of life, the old mart of Alexandria began
to revive; and the port, though far from recovering its for¬
mer magnificence, grew once more famous by becoming the
centre of commerce: but having fallen under the dominion
of the Turks, and the passage round the Cape of Good Hope
being discovered by the Portuguese in 1497, a fatal blow
was given to the Alexandrian commerce, and the city thence¬
forward rapidly declined.
Alexandria, Modern, is built upon a neck of land be¬
tween the two ports. That to the westward, the ancient
Eunostos, now the old port, is by far the best. It stretches
from the town westward to Marabout, nearly six miles, is
about a mile and a half wide, and has three entrances. The
first, or that nearest the city, has seventeen feet of water,
and is about two miles south-west from the large building
472 A L E X A
Alexan- situated a little to the westward of the town, called the
dria- palace. The entrance, however, is difficult. The eastern
side of the second or middle entrance is marked by buoys,
which lie about two miles and three quarters south-west
from the palace : it is about a quarter of a mile wide, and
has, where shallowest, twenty-seven feet of water. The
third or western entrance, which is the best, has its western
boundary about three eighths of a mile from the east end
of Marabout Island, is about half a mile wide, and has at its
shallowest part from twenty-five to twenty-seven feet of watei.
The new or Asiatic harbour is on the eastern side of the
town. The space for anchorage in it is very limited; and
being exposed to the north winds, with a foul and rocky
bottom, the cables of vessels soon chafe and part, by
which serious accidents sometimes happen, from the violent
collision of the vessels thus driven from their moorings.
The country around Alexandria is entirely destitute of
water. That necessary is supplied from the Nile by the ka-
lidj, a canal of 12 leagues, which conveys it every year at
the time of the inundation. It fills the vaults or reservoirs
dug under the ancient city; and this provision serves till the
next year. It is evident, therefore, that were a foreign
power to take possession, the canal would be shut, and all
supplies of water cut off. It is this canal alone which con¬
nects Alexandria with Egypt; for, from its situation without
the Delta, and the nature of the soil, it really belongs to the
deserts of Africa. Its environs on the western and southern
side are sandy, flat, and sterile, without trees or houses ; on
the eastern side the country is broken and undulating, and
adorned in the vicinity of the town with well-cultivated gar¬
dens. The famous tower of Pharos has long since been
demolished, and a castle, called Pharillon, built in its place.
The causeway which joined the island to the continent is
broken down, and its place supplied by a strong bridge of
several arches.
Some parts of the Saracenic walls of the city are yet
standing, and present a fine specimen of ancient masonry.
They were flanked with large towers, about 200 paces distant
from each other, with small towers in the middle. Below were
some extensive casemates, which might serve for galleries
to walk in. In the lower part of one of the towers was a large
square hall, the roof of which was supported by thick columns
of Thebaic syenite. Above were several rooms, over which
were platforms more than 20 paces square. The ancient re¬
servoirs, vaulted with so much art, which extend under the
whole town, remain almost entire at the end of 2000 years.
Of Caesar’s palace there remain only a few porphyry pil¬
lars, and the front, which is almost entire, and very beau¬
tiful. The palace of Cleopatra was built upon the walls
facing the port, with a gallery on the outside, supported by
several fine columns. Not far from this palace are two
obelisks, vulgarly called Cleopatra’s Needles. They are of
Thebaic stone, and covered with hieroglyphics. One is
overturned, defaced, and lying under the sand; the other
is on its plinth. These two obelisks, each of which is a
single stone, measured 70 feet high, by 7 feet 7 inches at
the base. Denon, who went to Egypt along with the French
army in 1798, supposed that these columns decorated the
entrance of the palace of the Ptolemies, the ruins of which
still exist at no great distance from the place of the obelisks.
Towards the gate of Rosetta are five columns of marble, on
the place formerly occupied by the porticoes of the gymna¬
sium. The rest of the colonnade, the design of which was
discoverable 150 years ago by Maillet, has since been de¬
stroyed by the barbarism of the Turks.
But what most engages the attention of travellers is the
pillar of Pompey, as it is commonly called, situated at a
quarter of a league from the southern gate. It is composed
of red granite. The capital, which is Corinthian, with palm
N D R I A.
leaves, and not indented, is nine feet high. The shaft and Alexan-
the upper member of the base are of one piece of nearly 90 dria-
feet long and 9 in diameter. The base is a square of about
15 feet on each side. This block of marble, 60 feet in cir¬
cumference, rests on two layers of stone bound together with
lead; which, however, has not prevented the Arabs from
forcing out several of them, to search for an imaginary trea¬
sure. The whole column is 98 feet 9 inches high; 29 feet
8 inches in circumference; and the diameter at the top of the
capital measures 16 feet 6 inches. It is perfectly polished,
and only a little shivered on the eastern side. Nothing can
equal the majesty of this monument: seen from a distance, it
overtops the town, and serves as a signal for vessels. On a
nearer approach, it produces an astonishment mixed with
awe. One can never be tired with admiring this beautiful
column, the length of the shaft, or the extraordinary sim¬
plicity of the pedestal. This last has been somewhat
damaged by the instruments of travellers, who are curious
to possess a relic of this antiquity. The column was con¬
sidered inaccessible, till it was scaled about half a century
ago by the wild frolic of a party of English sailors, who con¬
ceived the project of emptying a bowel of punch on the top of
this celebrated monument. Dexterously availing themselves
of the movements of a paper kite, they succeeded in fasten¬
ing a rope to the summit, by which they ascended, and per¬
formed this great achievement. They discovered a foot and
ankle, the only remnant of a gigantic statue which had ori¬
ginally adorned it. It was ascended by Captain W. H.
Smyth, R.N. in 1822, for the purpose of ascertaining, by a
series of angles taken from its summit, whether, as he had
imagined, it had been erected as a mark at the north end of
the degree of the meridian measured by Eratosthenes. At
that time it was ascended by many persons ; and Mr Mad¬
den mentions an English lady who breakfasted and wrote a
letter from this elevated position. At the base, on the west
side of the pedestal, some English officers found a Greek
inscription, from which it would appear to have been erected
in the time, and to the honour, of the emperor Diocletian;
although the monolithic shaft appears of far greater antiquity.
The island of the Pharos, called by the Arabs, Rondah-
el-Tyn, or the Garden of Fig-trees, lies in a N.E. and S.W.
direction, to the N. of the city, and consists of a dry saline
soil, and dazzling white calcareous rocks, bordered with reefs,
especially on the S.W. side. At its north-eastern extremity
is situate the castle, a large and lofty square building, which,
previous to 1842 was surmounted by a lighthouse in the form
of a minaret, a substitute for the ancient magnificent struc¬
ture, which stood on a rock in the eastern harbour. The
castle has been strongly fortified, and occupies a small island
joined to the larger one by a dike, constructed in part of
ancient granite columns laid crosswise. A new lighthouse
was erected in 1842, on the most westerly point of the
island. It has a fixed light, 180 feet above the level of the
sea, which in clear weather is visible at a distance of nearly
20 miles. The high coasts of the island shelter the old har¬
bour from the violent winds that blow between N.W. and
N.E. At its south-western extremity, called Ras-el-Tyn,
or Fig-tree point, there is a naval hospital, capable of
holding 300 beds, with spacious, lofty, and well-aired apart¬
ments. The foundations of the ancient Pharos are to be
seen in a calm day below water.
On the south-west side of the city, at a mile’s distance,
are situate the catacombs, the ancient burial-place of Alex¬
andria ; a remarkable object, although they cannot be com¬
pared to those of the ancient Thebes. The Baron de Tott,
in describing these, observes “ that Nature not having fur¬
nished this part of Egypt with a ridge of rocks, like that
which runs parallel with the Nile above Delta, the ancient
inhabitants of Alexandria could only have an imitation by
ALE
digging into a bed of solid rock; and thus they formed a
Necropolis, or City of the Dead. The excavation is from
30 to 40 feet wide, 200 long, and 25 deep, and is terminated
by gentle declivities at each end. The two sides, cut per¬
pendicularly, contain several openings, about 10 or 12 feet
in width and height, hollowed horizontally; and which form,
by their different branches, subterranean streets. One ol
these, which curiosity has disencumbered from the ruins and
sands that render the entrance of others difficult or impos¬
sible, contains no mummies, but only the places they occu¬
pied. The order in which they were ranged is still to be
seen. Niches, 20 inches square, sunk six feet horizontally,
narrowed at the bottom, and separated from each other by
partitions in the rock seven or eight inches thick, divided
into checkers the two walls of this subterranean vault. It
is natural to suppose, from this disposition, that each mummy
was introduced with the feet foremost into the cell intended
for its reception; and that new streets were opened, in pro¬
portion as these dead inhabitants of Necropolis increased.”
This observation, he adds, which throws a light on the cata¬
combs of Memphis, may perhaps likewise explain the vast
size and multitude, as well as the different elevations, of the
pyramids in Upper and Lower Egypt.
About seventy paces from Pompey’s pillar is the canal of
the Nile, which was dug by the ancient Egyptians, to con¬
vey the water of the Nile to Alexandria, and fill the cisterns
under the city. This canal had ceased altogether to be
navigable, till Mahommed Ali spent immense labour and
cost in restoring it. The work was begun in 1819, and
completed within a year, at a melancholy sacrifice of human
life. Unfortunately, the Italian engineers whom he em¬
ployed were entirely destitute of the skill necessary to con¬
duct so great and arduous an undertaking. They took no
measures to protect the canal against the fresh influx of mud
from the Nile, so that it was soon choked up, and still re¬
quires frequent cleaning out. It now. forms the regular line
of communication between Alexandria and the Nile foi the
overland passage to India. The distance between Alexan¬
dria and Atfeh, where passengers embark on the Nile, is
48 English miles.
Alexandria, in modern times, until its complete foitihca-
tion by Mahommed Ali, has never ranked as a place of
strength. Accordingly, when attacked by Bonaparte in 1 /98,
it surrendered almost without a blow. The French were
very industrious in forming the place, if not into a regular
fortress, yet into a very strong entrenched position. They ap¬
pear to have succeeded. In 1801 Sir Ralph Abercromby un¬
dertook his memorable expedition. On the 13th and 21st
March he gained, in the plain before Alexandria, two sue-
cessive victories, of which the last was most complete and
signal, though purchased by the life of the distinguishe
commander. Yet it was still not considered possible to
carry Alexandria, unless by regular siege; the conclusion
of which, on the 2d September, was accompanied by a gene¬
ral convention for the evacuation of Egypt by the French
armies. i r i
In 1807 a British force under the command of Ueneral
Frazer landed and took possession of Alexandria without
resistance ; but being repulsed in two successive attempts
upon Rosetta, they finally evacuated it on the 23d Sep¬
tember of the same year.
It has recently begun to recover some degree of prosperity,
from its being an important station on the overland route to
India, by which the distance is shortened more than a half,
and rendered comparatively safe and expeditious. Steamers
from England, Marseilles, Trieste, and Constantinople sail
reo’ularly'to and from Alexandria; and the goods, mails, and
passengers which they convey, pass by the Mahmoodeeh
canal and the Nile, through Cairo and the desert, to and
vol. n.
ALE
from Suez, which communicates with India by the Red Sea
steamers. The consequence has been a rapid increase of
population, and enlargement of the town. In the Turkish
quarter, however, the streets are still narrow and irregular,
and the greater part of the houses very humble and poor.
In the Frank or European quarter, the houses are clean and
whitewashed, generally elegant and well-built, in wide, airy
streets, and it contains a large new square, where are found
the principal hotels and most of the consulates. 1 he houses
are built of brick or of stone, dug from the ruins of the an¬
cient city. In the environs there are a number of hand¬
some villas, with well-inclosed gardens. Its exports are
chiefly corn, cotton, flax, wool, rice, opium, senna, and other
African products; and its imports are cotton, woollen, and
silk goods, hardware, iron, machinery, coals, &c. In the
year 1847, 2019 vessels of the united burden of 409,516
tons entered its port; of which 465 vessels, of 136,499 tons,
were British; and in 1849, 1651 vessels, of which 336 were
British. In 1843 the value of its imports was L.1,005,412,
and of its exports, L.1,321,268. It has a new palace, a cus¬
tom-house, and two theatres; a naval arsenal, a marine hos¬
pital, a dry dock, a military and a naval school, several
mosques, synagogues, and Christian churches ; and since
1840 a Protestant church. Its population amounts to about
60,000 exclusive of the military, and is of a very mixed
character, consisting of Turks, Copts, Armenians, Greeks,
Syrians, Jews, and Europeans.
Alexandria is about forty leagues north-west of Cairo.
A railway is at present (1853) in the course of construc¬
tion between these two places. Long. 30. 10. E. Lat. 31.
12. N.
Alexandria, a city of Virginia, in N. America, capital
of the county of the same name, and lately in the district of
Columbia. It is beautifully situated on the right bank cf
the river Potomac, six miles south of Washington. It is
neat and well-built, has a good harbour, and a considerable
trade in flour. The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal begins
here, which must tend to increase the prosperity of the
town. In 1850 the population amounted to 8795; and
that of the county to 10,216.
Alexandria, a city of Russia, capital of the circle of that
name in the province of Cherson. It is situated on the river
Inguletz, and contains 270 houses and 1200 inhabitants.
Great quantities of maize are grown in the neighbourhood;
and the sheep are of the broad-tailed kind, like those of the
Cape of Good Hope. Long. 33. 3. E. Lat. 48.22. N.
Alexandria, in Ancient Geography, a city of Aracho-
sia, called also Alexandropolis, on the river Arachotus
(Stephanus, Isidorus Characenus).—Another Alexandria in
Gedrosia, built by Leonnatus by order of Alexander (Pliny).
—A third Alexandria in Aria, situated at the lake Arias
(Ptolemy); but, according to Pliny, built by Alexander on
the river Arius.—A fourth in Bactriana (Pliny).—A fifth
Alexandria, an inland town of Caramania (Pliny, Ptolemy,
Ammian).—A sixth Alexandria, or Alexandropolis, in Sog-
diana (Isidorus Characenus).—A seventh in India, at the
confluence of the Acesines and Indus (Arrian).—An eighth,
called also Alexandretta, near the Sinus Issicus, on the
confines of Syria and Cilicia, now Scanderoon, the port town
to Aleppo.—A ninth Alexandria of Margiana, which being
demolished by the barbarians, was rebuilt by Antiochus the
son of Seleucus, and called Antwchia of Syria (Pliny);
watered by the river Margus, which is divided into several
channels, for the purpose of watering the country which was
called Zotale. The city was seventy stadia in circuit, ac¬
cording to Pliny ; who adds, that after the defeat of Crassus,
the captives were conveyed to this place by Orodes, the king of
the Parthians.—A tenth, of the Oxiana, built on the Oxus by
Alexander, on the confines of Bactria (Pliny). An eleventh,
’ 3 o
474
ALEXANDRIAN.
.Alexan- built by Alexander at the foot of Mount Paropamisus, which
^ was called Caucasus (Pliny, Arrian).—A twelfth Alexan-
j dria in Troas, called also Troas and Antigonia (Pliny).—
' * A thirteenth on the Jaxartes, the boundary of Alexander’s
victories towards Scythia, and the last that he built on that
side.
ALEXANDRIAN MS., Codex Alexandrinus, the ap¬
pellation given to a manuscript of the Sacred Scriptures of
the Old and New Testaments now in the British Museum.
This venerable Greek MS. was presented to our Charles I.,
through the hands of his ambassador to the Porte, Sir
Thomas Rowe, by Cyrillus Lucaris, patriarch of Constan¬
tinople, in 1628. The donor had then recently brought it
from Alexandria, whence its name. It remained in the
royal library of our sovereigns, until transferred to the
Museum in 1753. It is contained in four small folio vol¬
umes, written on vellum in double columns ; the first three
containing the Old Testament, the last the New Testa¬
ment. The Old, however, is more perfect than the New :
for the beginning of the Gospel of St Matthew is lost, the
MS. commencing with the 6th verse of chapter xxv. There
are several lacurue in the Gospel of St John, as vi. 50, viii.
52 ; and a still larger one in 2d Epistle to Corinthians, from
chap. iv. 13. to xii. 6. (See Woide’s Prolegomena^) Oc¬
casionally too, single letters have disappeared, from the
operations of the bookbinder. The characters are uncial,
well rounded, and carefully written. There are no inter¬
spaces dividing words, no aspirates, nor accents, few con¬
tractions ; and no instances of Stichometry, or division into
lines to be read without pauses, an improvement introduced
by Euthalius, about the year 462 ; from which last circum¬
stance Woide and many other critics believe this MS. to be
at least older than that period. An Arabic inscription on
the reverse of the leaf containing a list of the books of both
Testaments, states that it was written by the martyred
Thekla. Whether this be true or not, the manuscript
bears marks of an Egyptian origin, from Egyptian ortho¬
graphy, the confusion of vowels with nearly similar sounds,
and Alexandrian forms of inflection of some tenses, as of the
2d Aorist. That the MS. is very ancient is undoubted,
though able critics are divided whether it ought to be re¬
ferred to the early part of the fourth or beginning of the
sixth century; but it seems most probably written before
the middle of the fifth. Besides the books of the Old Tes¬
tament which we regard as canonical, it contains the Apo¬
cryphal books, with the exception of the story of Susannah,
and of Bel and the Dragon ; but it contains the 3d and 4th
books of Maccabees. These books are somewhat differently
arranged from that of our version, or of the Vulgate of St
Jerome. The psalms are divided into 151, with 15 hymns.
As an introduction to them, the MS. contains the Epistle
of Athanasius to Marcellinus, contained in 1277 lines; with
the hypothesis of Eusebius on the Psalms. These three
volumes, with very valuable prolegomena and notes, have
been printed in facsimile of the MS. at the expense of the
British Museum, by the Rev. H. H. Baber, lately librarian
to that institution. Half of the third volume is occupied
with Baber s most valuable notes. The facsimile of the
New Testament published by Woide, in 1786, contains
very excellent prolegomena and critical remarks on the MS.,
the general accuracy of which are admitted, thouo-h his
deductions as to the age of the transcript have been much
canvassed. This publication renders a collation of the MS.
of the New Testament unnecessary ; and his volume is now
considered as completing this important work. In the 4th
volume of the MS. we have the books of the New Testa¬
ment in nearly the order usually adopted ; except that the
Epistle of Paul to the Hebrews immediately follows 2d
Thessalonians; and that the Epistle of James, the two of
Peter, the three of John, and that of Jude, are included under Alexan-
the Catholicce placed between the Acts and the Epistles of drian
Paul. The MS. contains also the whole of the 1st and part MS-
of the 2d Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians, which fol-
low the Apocalypse, and are succeeded by the 8 Psalms of
Solomon. We may remark that the well-known verses about
the three witnesses in the 5th chapter of the 1st Epistle of
St John, are not in this MS., nor indeed in almost any of the
very ancient Codices ; whence its genuineness is doubted
by most critics. See Burnet’s Travels, Letter I.
To those who desire a more minute account of the Alex¬
andrian manuscript, we must refer them to the prolego¬
mena and notes of Baber and Woide, while we shall add
the table of contents of the four volumes (as given in the
first volume), with the corresponding designations in the
English Bible.
Tom. I.
Pemns Koct^ou 
’E£oSo? ’Aiyoirrov 
AeVLTLKOV  
ApcOgoL 
Aeurepovofua   
Irjcrovs Navi)  
Kpirai   
Pv6  
BatriXecov a 
Bao-iAeSv /S'  
BatriAecov y  
Bao-iAeSv o  
UapaAzLTroyeva a  
IIapaAct7ro/x,eVa (f  
Genesis.
Exodus.
Leviticus.
Numbers.
Deuteronomy.
Joshua, son of Nun.
Judges.
Ruth.
Samuel I. or Kings I.
Samuel II. or Kings II.
Kings I. or Kings III.
Kings II. or Kings IV.
Chronicles I.
Chronicles II.
Tom. II.
npo^rai 15 (16 Prophets).
’Dcr^e  Hosea.
’Ap,tbs Amos.
Mt^atas Micah.
’IwyA Joel.
’AftSaiov  Obadiah.
Twvas Jonah.
Naovp,  Nahum.
’AyftcLKovy  Habakkuk.
~%o(f)ovlas  Zephaniah.
'Ayyaios   Haggai.
Za^apaias...  Zachariah.
MaAa^tas  Malachi.
Tlcratas Isaiah.
Tepe/xias Jeremiah.
®pr]V7)yaTa  Lamentations.
Te^e/coyA  Ezekiel.
AavieA   Daniel.
’Eo-0?7p    Esther.
To)/3it  Tobit.
’IvSeitf   Judith.
’E<x£pas a  Esdras I.
Eo-£pas /S' Esdras II., including
Neegia, and part of the canonical Book of Ezra.
MaKKajSuoi/ d Maccabees I.
Ma.K/cajSitoi' ft Maccabees II.
MaKKa(3ui)v y  Maccabees III.
MaKKa/Siwv   ’. Maccabees IV.
Tom. III.
’AOavacnov ’'ETrio-roAy— Epistle of Athanasius to Marcellinus
on the Psalms.
’Evcrefiiov 'YTroflccris Hypothesis of Eusebius on the
Psalms.
'kaArepiov peer ’ASwv Psalms 151, Hymns 15.
ALEXANDRIAN.
Alexan- Iw/3    Job.
drian Ilapot/Aiai  Proverbs.
School. ’EKKA^crtacTT^s Ecclesiastes.
’Acr/xara ’Acr/xarw  Canticles.
2o^>ia 7] TLavap'qros  Wisdom prayed for, or Wisdom of
Solomon.
%o(f)La ’Irjrrov viov Ztpa^ Ecclesiasticus, or Wisdom of Jesus,
son of Sirach.
Notts H. H. Baber fill 264 pages, or about half this
volume.
Tom. IV.
ToayyeXtfov Kara Mar^atov Matthew.
’EoayycXiaiv Kara Map/cov... Mark.
’EoayycAtw Kara Aovnav.... Luke.
’EoayyeAwov Kara hj)o.w7jV John.
npa^ts ’AttootoAwv  Acts of the Apostles.
TbriaroAcu, KafloAiKai £'.... Seven Catholic Epistles, com¬
prehending those of James,
2 of Peter, 3 of John, and
1 of Jude.
’ETTioToAai IlauAou iS' Fourteen Epistles of Paul.
’AttokoAvi^is Ttoawov   Revelation of John.
KA^ptevros ’ETricrroA^ d  1st Epistle of Clement to the
Corinthians.
KAiyptevros ’EtticttoA'^ .... 2d Epistle of Clement to the
Corinthians.
^aApiot SoAopiovros V Eight Psalms of Solomon.
(t. s.t.)
Alexandrian School. At the time when Greece,
by a series of disasters, was deprived of her ancient inde¬
pendence, the glorious era of her poetry was already past;
and that intellectual pre-eminence which she had enjoyed
for so long a period, was now to find a powerful rival in
the city of Alexandria, which, under the Graeco-Egyptian
dynasty of the Lagidae, was destined to attain a high celebrity
as the seat of letters. At the end of the fourth century be¬
fore Christ, Ptolemy Soter drew around him at Alexandria
many philosophers and men of letters from different parts of
Greece ; and the work thus commenced by the son of Lagus,
was continued after him by Ptolemy Philadelphus, and
Ptolemy Euergetes, in succession. Ptolemy Soter, animated
with a laudable ambition, founded the Museum, a vast es¬
tablishment in connection with the royal residence, and
thither the learned of all countries were welcomed. That
every facility might be afforded them for cultivating the se¬
veral* branches of science and literature, this prince collected
from all parts of the world the most celebrated literary pro¬
ductions, and thus laid the foundation of that famous library,
which excited the admiration of the ancients, and of which
the destruction has given rise to so many contradictory re¬
ports. The office of librarian was first held by Demetrius
Phalereus. The library and museum, with its theatre for
lectures and public assemblies, were connected with the pa¬
lace by long colonnades of marble, and magnificently adorned
by obelisks, sphinxes, and other trophies from the Pharaonic
cities. The museum was provided with private apartments
for the accommodation of the members, and contained a great
saloon in which they took their repasts in common. To this
establishment was attached a botanic garden enriched with
tropical flora; and also a menagerie of the rarest animals.
The museum was governed by a president who was nomi¬
nated by the Ptolemies, and afterwards by the Caesars. An
exterior peristyle or corridor was devoted to exercise and
ambulatory lectures. Ptolemy Philadelphus instituted, in
honour of Apollo, those literary contests called Ludi Musa-
rum et Apollinis, at which public prizes were adjudged to
the successful competitors. This prince also made very con-
475
siderable additions to the library, of which an account has Alexan-
already been given. See Alexandria. drian
Alexandria and its school appear to have soon recovered
from the disasters of civil war; for in the second century of
our era the learned assembled there in great numbers; and
a new school of philosophy arose, which, from the third down
to the close of the fifth century, attempted to supply the
human intellect with a standing ground between the scepti¬
cism that followed the decline of Grecian philosophy on the
one hand, and the rapidly spreading, and finally victorious,
influence of Christianity on the other. The term “ Alexan¬
drian School” is applied in a loose sense to the whole body
of eminent men who, in all the departments of knowledge,
conferred lustre on the capital of the Ptolemies ; but as a
characteristic designation, it is more strictly confined to that
particular section of its philosophers known as the Neo-Pla-
tonists. This philosophy, as the name implies, was a new
development of Platonism, in a form and combination suited
to the exigency of the time, and is specially remarkable as
an advance from the more purely rational point of view of
the Greeks towards the sphere of religious ideas—as a tran¬
sition stage between the grossness of pagan superstition, and
the spiritual reign of Christianity. Setting out from the
higher doctrines of Plato, which formed at once its starting
point and its unifying centre, it sought by a broad electicism
to harmonize, 1^, All philosophy; 2d, All religion. Its
first step was the reconciliation, in a higher unity, of Pla¬
tonism and Aristotelianism; it next set itself to harmonise all
the old religious beliefs, by bringing in the mysticism of the
East to interpret their higher meaning; and thus it presented
the new and peculiar phenomenon of Grecian dialectics
applied to oriental theosophy, of philosophy and religion
for the first time in alliance. To Christianity its relation
was one of direct hostility; while at the same time, it ap¬
proached it on the side of its higher mysteries, and repre¬
sented itself as possessed of all that was true in the new reli¬
gion. Neo-Platonism and Christianity (so far at least as the
Alexandrian theology is concerned) exercised on each other
a mutually modifying influence.
The first beginning of this remarkable electicism dates
with the Jew Philo in the first century ; but it does not ap¬
pear as a distinct and influential movement till the opening
of the school of Ammonius Saccas (a.d. 193), followed by
the more decided and comprehensive development of Neo-
Platonism by his disciple Plotinus (a.d. 200-270). In the
next generation it was represented by Porphyry and 1am-
blichus; somewhat later by Hierocles; and it finally attained
its culmination with Proclus (a.d. ’412-485), in whose per¬
son the philosophy of Alexandria, and of the Old World,
became extinct. Neo-Platonism thus presents three periods
or stages of development: its metaphysics are chiefly repre¬
sented by Plotinus; its logic and theosophy by Porphyry and
lamblichus; and the systematic combination of its parts gave
employment to the genius of Proclus.
For a more particular account of their doctrines, see
Ammonius, Plotinus, &c.
But Alexandria was not distinguished alone by its philo¬
sophical school. At the same period also arose those new
systems of cosmography which prepared the way for the geo¬
graphy of the moderns, and gave a fresh impulse to research
and discovery. Under the infamous Caracalla the museum
was suppressed, and from a.d. 257 to 267, pestilence, con¬
flagrations, and civil wars, gave a blow to this seat of learn¬
ing, from which it recovered with difficulty. The library,
however, still subsisted, and continued to augment, until
fanaticism completed its ruin. In 391 a bloody struggle
took place between the Pagans and the Christians, the
priests on either side fomenting the division ; and during this
contest the magnificent Serapeion was terribly devastated.
476 ALE
.Alexan- Whether any part of the library was preserved cannot now
School ke ascertained, but in the sixth century Alexandria became
v ^) famous for its medical school, and doubtless a new library
must have been formed. The story of its destruction by
the command of Omar has been already mentioned.
The system of instruction pursued at Alexandria must
not be confounded with the modern, nor yet with the an¬
cient academical course, for the promulgation of a systema¬
tic doctrine, or a positive science. There was not at any
given period a regular school for the teaching of fixed ge¬
neral principles. The views of the Greeks differed from
those of the Christian philosophers as well as from those of
the Jews. Nor were mental philosophy and letters the sole
objects of study with the Alexandrians; they also engaged
in the natural and exact sciences, in philology, medicine,
and anatomy. The latter science, indeed, may be said to
have been created by them, notwithstanding that the dissec¬
tion of the human body was repugnant to the religious pre¬
judices of the Greeks. In short, at this school every branch
of knowledge was represented, and some of its learned men
may truly be styled encyclopaedists, whose studies embraced
the whole circle of the sciences, and who drew their infor¬
mation from the literature of all countries. If the produc¬
tions of Greece chiefly occupied the shelves of the library,
it is certain that native works, and the written documents of
other countries, existed in great numbers at Alexandria.
These works were sometimes translated into the Greek
tongue; as, for example, the version of the Hebrew Scrip¬
tures known as the Septuagint. Alexandria, in its earlier
period, was almost exclusively a school of grammar and
criticism, to which sciences the learned devoted themselves
with unwearied assiduity. Hence the Alexandrians soon
became the arbiters of the Greek language ; and by de¬
voting their labours to the writings of the ancients, they
became the restorers of learning, producing correct editions
of their works, often accompanied with learned commen¬
taries of great value, though occasionally they are chargeable
with prolixity and excessive refinement. The name of
Aristarchus of Samothrace is proverbial in literary criticism ;
and in the same category must be placed Zenodotus of
Ephesus, Eratosthenes of Gyrene the celebrated geometer
and astronomer, Aristophanes of Byzantium, Crates of
Mallos, Dionysius of Thrace, Apollonius the sophist, Didy-
mus, and Zoilus. In the same department must also be
noticed the learned dictionaries and laborious lucubrations
of Harpocration, of Julius Pollux, Hephaestion, Hesychius,
and Ammonius. The studies of these men comprehended
not only grammar, but likewise criticism, the science of the
scholiast, the drama, metrical verse, and archaeology. Though
occasionally heavy, their erudition was real and profound;
and to this class of men we are indebted for elaborate edi¬
tions of Thucydides, Plato, Aristotle, and other ancient
classics. Admirably fitted as they were for the task, they
omitted nothing that could serve to elucidate the ancient
text. The natural result, however, of this incessant appli¬
cation to the study of the ancients, was to limit the original
productions of the Alexandrians. With the exceptions of
the curious chronicles of Manetho, and the Chronogra-
phia of Eratosthenes (of which works the fragments which
remain have acquired deep interest by the hieroglyphical dis¬
coveries of Young and Champollion), the Alexandrians have
bequeathed to us no valuable work on Egyptian history;
their researches being chiefly directed to the traditional his¬
tories of the several Greek states, and the obscure question
of their origin. In poetry they devoted themselves rather
to the niceties of style and artifices of combination than to
the nobler part of that art. W ith those works of unapproach¬
able excellence ever before their eyes, they laboured to be¬
come original inventors, and in default of genius, they fell
ALE
into exaggeration and affectation. It would be erroneous, Alexan.
however, to include in this censure all the poets of the Alex- drian
andrian school, or to ascribe an equal degree of merit to II.
the names of Apollonius Rhodius, Lycophron, Aratus, Ni- ■Alexis*
cander, Euphorion, Callimachus, Theocritus, Philetas, Pha-
nodes, Scynmus, and Dionysius. Besides these poets, Alex¬
andria possessed a Pleiad of seven tragedians, famous in
their day; but there appears to be little reason to regret the
loss of their works.
The natural sciences were cultivated at Alexandria with
great success. Herophilus and Erasistratus were distin¬
guished anatomists: Demosthenes Philalethes wrote the
first work on diseases of the eye : Zopyrus and Cratevas
were the improvers of pharmacy, especially of that branch
known as rhizotomy: and here also Asclepiades, Soranus,
and the celebrated Galen, received instruction in the heal¬
ing art. But yet greater was its fame as a mathematical
school. Among its scholars were Euclid, the father of sci¬
entific geometry; Apollonius of Perga, whose work on
the conic sections still exists ; Nicomachus, the first scien¬
tific arithmetician ; and it is well known that at Alexandria
were made those improvements in the theory of the calen¬
dar which were afterwards adopted into the Julian calendar.
Here also Claudius Ptolemy (whose system of geography
and astronomy was followed until the time of Copernicus)
composed his Magna Syntaxis, Aratus his Phcenomena,
Menelaus his Sphcerica; and to these must be added the
names of Eratosthenes, Hipparchus, and Aristyllus. The
studies of some of these philosophers embraced every variety
of human learning. Their knowledge was frequently pro¬
found on subjects of the most opposite nature,—as, for ex¬
ample, we find Eratosthenes celebrated not only as a geo¬
meter and astronomer, but also as a geographer, philosopher,
historian, and grammarian; and \he Deipnosophista: of Athe-
nseus is an inexhaustible mine of learning on subjects the
most widely divei'sified, in philology, poetry, history, and
archaeology. Among the interpreters of Sacred Writ were the
(Hellenizing) Jews, Aristobulus and Philo, while the Christian
school of Theology flourished under the successive care of
Pantaenus, Clement, and Origen. At a later period, the
Christian school of Alexandria was adorned by the talents
of Athanasius, Gregory of Nazianzen, Julius Africanus,
Hesychius, Cyril, Synesius, and a host of others.—Essai
Historique sur VEcole d’Alexandrie, par M. Jacob Matter,
Paris, 1820, 2 vols. 8vo.
Alexandrian, or Alexandrine, in Poetry, a kind of verse
consisting of 12, or of 12 and 13 syllables alternately; so
called from a poem on the life of Alexander, written in this
kind of verse by a French poet of the 12th century. Alex¬
andrines are sometimes used by most nations of Europe, but
chiefly by the French, whose tragedies are generally com¬
posed of Alexandrines. A well known example of an Alex¬
andrian verse is given in Pope’s Essay on Criticism:—
A needless Alexandrine ends the song.
That like a wounded snake drags its slow length along.
ALEXICACUS, the averter of evil, an epithet of Jupi¬
ter, Apollo, and Neptune.
ALEXIN, a circle of the province of Tula, in Russia in
Europe, to the south of Moscow and east of Kaluga. It is
a level district, watered by the river Oka and its tributary
streams, of moderate fertility, and abundantly supplied with
wood. It comprehends one city and 74 parishes, contain¬
ing 241 villages and about 90,000 inhabitants. The capi¬
tal of the circle, of the same name, is built on the river Oka,
has four churches, with 2000 inhabitants, some of whom
manufacture hats and soap. It is in Long. 36. 30. E. and
Lat. 54. 42. N.
ALEXIS, an ancient comic poet, born about B.c. 390
at Thurii in Magna Graecia, the uncle and instructor of
ALE
Alexis Menander. He lived 106 years, and wrote 245 plays, the
II fragments extant bearing testimony to their wit and elegance.
Aleyn. They were frequently translated by the Latin comic writers.
——See Meineke, Fragm. Com. vol. 1.
Alexis, a Piedmontese (whose real name, according to
Haller, was Hieronimo Rosello), the reputed author of the
Book of Secrets. It was printed at Basil in 1536, in 8vo,
and translated from Italian into Latin by Wecher. It has
also been translated into most European languages; and in an
abridged form was long a popular book. There is a preface
to the piece, wherein Alexis informs us that he was born of
a noble family; that he had from his most early years ap¬
plied himself to study ; that he had learned many languages;
that having an extreme curiosity to be acquainted with the
secrets of nature, he had collected as much as he could dur¬
ing his travels for 57 years; that he piqued himself upon
not communicating his secrets to any person ; but that when
he was 82 years of age, having seen a poor man who had
died of a sickness which might have been cured had he
communicated his secret to the surgeon who took care of
him, he was touched with such a remorse of conscience, that
he lived almost like a hermit; and it was in this solitude
that he arranged his secrets in such order as to make them
fit to be published.
Alexis, or Alexei Michailoicitz, Czar of Russia, the se¬
cond sovereign of the house of Romanoff, father of Peter I.,
was one of the most eminent princes of that country. He
was born at Moscow in 1630, anddied in 1674. See Russia.
ALEXIUS L, the nephew of Isaac Comnenus, the first
Byzantine emperor of the family of which Alexius was the
most distinguished member. In early life he signalised him¬
self in arms against the enemies of his country; but the
mean jealousies of the ministers of the emperor Nicolas III.,
surnamed Botaniates, drove him to take up arms against a
sovereign whose throne he had thrice gallantly defended
against powerful insurgent leaders ; and he ascended the
throne of Constantinople in 1081. His character has been
too partially drawn by the pen of his favourite daughter
Anna Comnena, who has, however, justly remarked that the
disorders of the times were both the misfortune and glory
of Alexius, and that he paid the penalty of the judgments
of heaven on the vices of his predecessors. In his reign the
conquering Turks extended their desolating career from
Persia to the Hellespont; on the north the empire was
pressed upon by the hordes of barbarians from the Danube ;
on the west it was assailed by the daring valour of the Nor¬
mans ; while Europe precipitated itself on Asia through the
route of Constantinople, in the madness of the first crusade.
Amid these storms Alexius steered the reeling vessel of the
state with a dexterous and courageous hand, though his
policy was by the Latins ascribed to cowardice or treachery.
His was undoubtedly a very difficult game, which it required
no common ability to bring to a safe conclusion ; and he had
the policy to derive solid advantages from the wild valour of
the crusaders. Yet Alexius outlived the love of his subjects,
and their patience was well-nigh exhausted in the latter part of
his long reign. The noble families were irritated by the pro¬
fusion of his numerous relations ; the people by his severity
and exactions; while the clergy murmured at his unscru¬
pulous application of the wealth of the church to the defence
of the state, though they applauded his defence of religion
by his eloquence, his pen, and his sword. Alexius died on
the 15th of August 1118. (T- S*T-)
ALEYN, Charles, an English poet in the reign of Charles
I. He published two poems, entitled The Battailes of Cressy
and Poictiers, and several other pieces and translations. He
succeeded his father as clerk of the ordnance, and was com¬
missary-general of the artillery to the king at the battle of
Edgehill. He died in 1640.
ALE 477
ALFAQUES, a seaport in the province of Catalonia, in Alfaques
Spain. It is on a peninsula formed by the river Ebro, near II
its mouth. The government has expended vast sums on its Alfergan.
improvement, but without correspondent success, chiefly
owing to the insalubrity of the situation.
Alfaques, among the Moors, the name generally used
for their clergy, or those who teach the Mahometan religion ;
in opposition to the Morabites, who answer to monks among
Christians.
ALFARABIUS, a celebrated eastern philosopher of the
tenth century, was born at Farab, now called Othrar, a city
of Asia Minor. The date of his birth is unknown. He studied
for some time at Baghdad, then the chief seat of learning;
and afterwards travelled, in order to form an acquaintance
with the learned of other countries.
A great revolution of sentiment in regard to letters had
taken place, in the preceding century, among the followers
of Mahomet. Under the caliphs of the house of Abbas,
men of learning were raised to a degree of favour and con¬
sequence which has never been enjoyed by that class, under
the sovereigns of any other country, in any age of the world.
Every little court, too, had its circle of men of letters, who
were always admitted to the society of the prince, and for
the most part liberally supported by his bounty. Thus,
when Alfarabius, after he had finished his travels, settled at
Damascus, he was received with open arms by its sovereign,
who bestowed upon him a pension, which he continued to
enjoy till his death, in the year 950.
But to gain the notice of princes, or to acquire wealth,
formed none of the aims of this philosopher. He is said to
have led a very retired and ascetic life, rather contemning
than seeking after the good things of the world. “ He con¬
stantly slept, even during winter, upon straw; his counte¬
nance was always sorrowful, and he found no consolation in
anything but philosophy.” (Enfield’s History of Philosophy,
b. v. c. 1.) His works were numerous, and very various in
their subjects: his speculations seem, indeed, from the list
of his writings, to have embraced the whole circle of the
sciences. He is particularly deserving of notice, as having
been perhaps the first compiler of an Encyclopcedia. Such
is the title of one of his works, of which there is a copy in
manuscript in the library of the Escurial. It contains, ac¬
cording to the brief notice of it given in Casiri’s valuable
account of the Arabic manuscripts in that collection, a clear
and comprehensive definition and compendium of all the
arts and sciences; and it appears to have been regarded in
the East as the most valuable of Alfarabius’s compositions.
It would have been agreeable to the lovers of literary history
to have possessed some more detailed view of the extent,
plan, and contents of an Encyclopaedia written by an Arabian
so many centuries before any work of that description was
thought of in Europe.
Next to this in estimation appears to have been his treatise
on Music, in which he is said to have applied the principles
of physics to correct the errors of musical theorists, and to
regulate the construction of musical instruments. {Biog.
Universelle, tom. i.) Casiri gives a complete list of his
writings, but it is too long to be copied in this place. (See
Bihl. Arabico-Hispana Escurialensis, tom. i.) Some of his
pieces were published in Latin at Paris in 1633, under the
title of Opuscula Varia Alfarabii.
ALFARO, a town of Spain, at the confluence of the Al¬
bania, with the Ebro, in the province of Logrono. It is sur¬
rounded with walls, and has four gates, one church, and four
monasteries. It manufactures cloth, saltpetre, brandy, &c.
Pop. 6450.
ALFERGAN, or Alfragan, an Arabian astronomer,
who lived under the reign of the caliph Almamoun, and who,
on account of his skill in calculation, was surnamed the Cal-
478 ALP
Alfet culator. He wrote an Introduction to Astronomy, which
\lfieri conta^ns little that is original, being chiefly compiled from
v ^ eri'! the Almagest of Ptolemy. He was also the author of a
/ treatise on Dials, and of an account of the construction and
use of the Astrolabe. These two pieces still remain in
manuscript; but there have been three different Latin trans¬
lations of his astronomical work published. The first, by
Joannes Hispalensis, appeared at Ferrara in 1493, and was
afterwards reprinted at Nuremberg in 1537, with a preface
by Melanchthon. The second, by John Christman, was
published at Frankfort in 1590. The third, and the best,
by Golius, professor of mathematics and oriental languages
at Leyden, was published at Amsterdam in 1669, with the
Arabic text, and notes by the translator, which are extremely
curious: but these notes extend no farther than the ninth
chapter, as the author did not live to complete this part of
his undertaking. The work itself contains thirty short
chapters.
ALFET, an ancient ordeal, in which the accused person
plunged his arm up to the elbow into a caldron of boiling
water.
ALFIERI, Vittorio, chiefly celebrated as the authorwho
raised the Italian tragic drama from its previous state of
degradation, was born on the 17th January 1749, at the
town of Asti, in Piedmont. He lost his father in early in¬
fancy ; but he continued to reside with his mother, who
married a second time, till his tenth year, when he was placed
at the academy of Turin. After he had passed a twelve-
month at the academy, he went on a short visit to a relation
who dwelt at Coni; and during his stay there he made his
first poetical attempt, in a sonnet chiefly borrowed from lines
in Ariosto and Metastasio, the only poets he had at that
time read. When thirteen years of age, he was induced to
commence the study of civil and canonical lawbut the
attempt only served to disgust him with every species of
application, and to increase his relish for the perusal of French
romances.
By the death of his uncle, who had hitherto taken some
charge of his education and conduct, he was left, at the age
of fourteen, to enjoy without control his vast paternal in¬
heritance, augmented by the recent accession of his uncle’s
fortune. He now began to attend the riding-school, where
he acquired that rage for horses and equestrian exercise
which continued to be one of his strongest passions till the
close of his existence.
After some time spent in alternate fits of extravagant dis¬
sipation and ill-directed study, he was seized with a desire
of travelling; and having obtained permission from the king,
he departed, in 1766, under the care of an English precep¬
tor. Restless and unquiet, he posted with the utmost ra¬
pidity through the towns of Italy ; and his improvement was
such as was to be expected from his mode of travelling and
his previous habits. Dissatisfied with himself, he felt as
little relish for spectacles or entertainments as for literature;
and was as little amused by the gaiety of a carnival at Naples,
as he was impressed by the remains of antiquity at Rome,
or the exhibitions of modern art at Florence and Bologna.
This indifference and insensibility did not, however, arise
from defect of talent or the natural powers of taste, but from
the want of some serious passion, or some ennobling or praise¬
worthy pursuit. Hoping to find in foreign countries some
relief from the tedium and ennui with which he was op¬
pressed, and being anxious to become acquainted with the
French theatre, he proceeded to Paris ; but his feelings were
only those of disgust or indifference for the dramas which he
saw represented in that capital. He seems, indeed, to have
been completely dissatisfied with every thing he witnessed
in France, and contracted a dislike to its people, which his
intercourse in future years rather contributed to augment
A L F
than diminish. In Holland he became deeply enamoured Alfieri.
of a married lady, who returned his attachment, but who was
soon obliged to accompany her husband to Switzerland.
Alfieri whose feelings were of the most impetuous descrip¬
tion, was in despair at this separation, and returned to his
own country in the utmost anguish and despondency of
mind. While under this depression of spirits, he was in¬
duced to seek alleviation from works of literature ; and the
perusal of Plutarch s Lives, which he read with profound
emotion, inspired him with an enthusiastic passion for free¬
dom and independence. Under the influence of this rage for
liberty he recommenced his travels; and his only gratifica¬
tion, in the absence of freedom among the Continental states,
appears to have been derived from contemplating the wild
and sterile regions of the north of Sweden, where gloomy
forests, lakes, and precipices, conspired to excite those su¬
blime and melancholy ideas which were congenial to his dis¬
position. Human manners and human institutions he seems
invariably to have surveyed with an eye of passion or pre¬
judice, instead of viewing them with the calmness of a philo¬
sopher, who meditates how they may be rectified, or what
lessons may be drawn from them. In every country his
soul felt as if confined by the bonds of society: he every¬
where panted for something more free in governments, more
elevated in sentiment, more devoted in love, and more per¬
fect in friendship. In search of this ideal world he posted
through various countries, more with the rapidity of a courier
than of one who travels for amusement or instruction. Dur-
ing a journey to London, he engaged in an intrigue with a
married lady of high rank ; and having been detected, the
publicity of a rencounter with the injured husband, and of a
divorce, which followed, united to the knowledge he now ac¬
quired of the abandoned character of the woman to whom he
was ardently attached, rendered it expedient and desirable
for him to quit England. He then visited Spain and Portu¬
gal, where he became acquainted with the Abbe Caluso, who
remained through life the most attached and estimable friend
he ever possessed. In 1772 Alfieri returned to Turin, where
he again became enamoured of a lady, whom he loved with
his usual ardour, and who seems to have been as undeserv¬
ing of a sincere attachment as those he had hitherto adored.
In the course of a long attendance on his mistress, during
a malady with which she was afflicted, he one day wrote a
dialogue, or scene of a drama, which he left at this lady’s
house. About a year after, on a difference taking place be¬
tween them, this piece was returned to him. Having then
retouched and extended it to five acts, it was performed at
Turin in 1775, under the title of Cleopatra, whose amours
had always been a favourite subject with Italian dramatists.
From this moment Alfieri was seized with an immeasur¬
able thirst of theatrical fame, and the remainder of his life
was devoted to its attainment. His first two tragedies, Fi¬
lippo and Polinice, were originally written in French prose;
and when he came to versify them in Italian, he found that,
from his Lombard origin, and long intercourse with foreigners,
he expressed himself with feebleness and inaccuracy. Ac¬
cordingly, with the view of improving his Italian style, he
went to Tuscany, and, during an alternate residence at
Florence and Sienna, he completed his Filippo and Polinice,
and conceived the plan of various other dramas. While
thus employed, he became acquainted with the countess
of Albany, who then resided with her husband at Flo¬
rence. For her he formed an attachment which, if less
violent than his former loves, appears to have been more
permanent. With this motive to remain at Florence, he
could not endure the chains by which his vast possessions
bound him to Piedmont. He therefore resigned his whole
property to his sister, the Countess Cumiana, reserving an
annuity which scarcely amounted to a half of his original
A L F I E R I.
479
Alfieri. revenues. At this period the Countess of Albany, urged by
the ill treatment she received from her husband, sought
refuge in Rome, where she at length received permission
from the pope to live apart from her tormentor. Alfieri fol¬
lowed the countess to that capital, where he completed four¬
teen tragedies, four of which were now for the first time
printed at Sienna.
At length, however, it was thought proper that, by leav¬
ing Rome, he should remove the aspersions which had been
thrown on the object of his affections. During the year
1783 he therefore travelled through different states of Italy,
and published six additional tragedies. The interests of his
love and literary glory had not diminished his rage for horses,
which seems to have been at least the third passion of his
soul. He came to England solely for the purpose of pur¬
chasing a number of these animals, which he carried with
him to Italy. On his return he learned that the Countess
of Albany had gone to Colmar in Alsace, where he joined
her, and resided with her under the same roof during the
rest of his life. They chiefly passed their time between
Alsace and Paris, but at length took up their abode entirely
in that metropolis. While here, Alfieri made arrangements
with Didot for an edition of his tragedies ; but was soon after
forced to quit Paris by the storms of the Revolution. He
recrossed the Alps with the countess, and finally settled at
Florence. The last ten years of his life, which he spent in
that city, seem to have been the happiest of his existence.
During that long period his tranquillity was only interrupted
by the entrance of the revolutionary armies into Florence in
1799. Though an enemy of kings, the aristocratic feelings
of Alfieri rendered him also a decided foe to the principles
and leaders of the French Revolution ; and he rejected, with
the utmost contempt, those advances which were made with
a view to bring him over to their cause. The concluding
years of his life were laudably employed in the study of the
Greek literature, and in perfecting a series of comedies.
His assiduous labour on this subject, which he pursued with
his characteristic impetuosity, exhausted his strength, and
brought on a malady, for which he would not adopt the pre¬
scriptions of his physicians, but obstinately persisted in em¬
ploying remedies of his own. Under this regimen his dis¬
order rapidly increased, and at length terminated his life on
the 8th October 1803, in the fifty-fifth year of his age.
The character of Alfieri may be best appreciated from the
portrait which he has drawn of himself in his own Memoirs
of his Life. He was evidently of an irritable, impetuous, and
almost ungovernable temper. Pride, which seems to have
been a ruling sentiment, may account for many apparent in¬
consistencies of his character. While it made him abhor
kings, because superior to himself, it led him to detest those
republicans who, by too near an approach, contaminated
aristocratic dignity; and it induced him, while yet undis¬
tinguished himself, and panting for literary fame, to decline
a proffered introduction to Metastasio and Rousseau. But as
all his bad qualities were greatly softened by the cultivation
of literature, it may be presumed that a better education,
and an earlier employment of his faculties, would have ren¬
dered him a much more amiable character. His application
to study gradually tranquillized his temper and softened his
manners, leaving him at the same time in perfect possession
of those good qualities which he had inherited from nature,
—a warm and disinterested attachment to his family and
friends, united to a generosity, vigour, and elevation of cha¬
racter, which rendered him not unworthy to embody in his
dramas the actions and sentiments of Grecian heroes.
To these dramas Alfieri is chiefly indebted for the high
reputation to which he has attained. Before his time the
Italian language, so harmonious in the Sonnets of Petrarch,
and so energetic in the Commedia of Dante, had been in¬
variably languid and prosaic in dramatic dialogue. The pe¬
dantic and inanimate tragedies of the sixteenth century were ^
followed, during the iron age of Italian literature, by dramas,
of which extravagance in the sentiments and improbability
in the action were the chief characteristics. The prodigi¬
ous success of the Merope of Maffei, which appeared in the
commencement of the last century, may be attributed more
to a comparison with such productions, than to intrinsic
merit. In this degradation of tragic taste, the appearance
of the tragedies of Alfieri was perhaps the most important
literary event that had occurred in Italy during the eighteenth
century. On these tragedies it is difficult to pronounce a
judgment, as the taste and system of the author underwent
considerable change and modification during the intervals
which elapsed between the three periods of their publica¬
tion. An excessive harshness of style, an asperity of senti¬
ment, and total want of poetical ornament, are the charac¬
teristics of his first four tragedies, Filippo, Polinice, Anti¬
gone, and Virginia. These faults were in some measure
corrected in the six tragedies which he gave to the world
some years after, and in those which he published along with
Saul, the drama which enjoyed the greatest success of all
his productions ; a popularity which may be partly attributed
to the severe and unadorned manner of Alfieri being well
adapted to the patriarchal simplicity of the age in which the
scene of the tragedy is placed. But though there be a con¬
siderable difference in his dramas, there are certain obser¬
vations applicable to them all. None of the plots are of his
own invention. They are founded either on mythological
fable or history; most of them had been previously treated
by the Greek dramatists, or by Seneca. Rosmunda, the
only one which could be supposed of his own contrivance,
and which is certainly the least happy effusion of his genius,
is partly founded on the eighteenth novel of the third part
of Bandello, and partly on Prevost’s Mtmoires d'un Homme
de Qualite. But whatever subjects he chooses, his dramas
are always formed on the Grecian model, and breathe a free¬
dom and independence worthy of an Athenian poet. In¬
deed, his Agide and Bruto may rather be considered ora¬
torical declamations and dialogues on liberty, than tragedies.
The unities of time and place are not so scrupulously ob¬
served in his as in the ancient dramas; but he has rigidly
adhered to a unity of action and interest. He occupies his
scene with one great action and one ruling passion, and re¬
moves from it every accessary event or feeling. In this
excessive zeal for the observance of unity, he seems to have
forgotton that its charm consists in producing a common re¬
lation between multiplied feelings, and not in the bare ex¬
hibition of one, divested of those various accompaniments
which give harmony to the whole. Consistently with that
austere and simple manner which he considered the chief
excellence of dramatic composition, he excluded from his
scene all coups de thedtre, all philosophical reflections, and
that highly ornamented versification which had been so as¬
siduously cultivated by his predecessors. In his anxiety,
however, to avoid all superfluous ornament, he has stripped
his dramas of the embellishments of imagination ; and for the
harmony and flow of poetical language he has substituted,
even in his best {performances, a style which, though correct
and pure, is generally harsh, elaborate, and abrupt; often
strained into unnatural energy, or condensed into factitious
conciseness. The chief excellence of Alfieri consists in
powerful delineation of dramatic character. In his Filippo
he has represented, almost with the masterly touches of
Tacitus, the sombre character, the dark mysterious counsels,
the suspensa semper et obscura verba, of the modern Tibe¬
rius. In Polinice, the characters of the rival brothers are
beautifully contrasted ; in Maria Stuarda, that unfortunate
queen is represented unsuspicious, impatient of contradiction,
Alfieri.
480 ALE
Alford and violent in her attachments. In Mirra, the character of
II Ciniro is perfect as a father and king, and Cecri is a model
v ie ' y of the virtues of a wife and mother. In the representation
()f f]la^ species of mental alienation where the judgment has
perished, but traces of character still remain, he is peculiarly
happy. The insanity of Saul is skilfully managed; and the
horrid joy of Orestes in killing Tlgisthus rises finely and na¬
turally to madness, in finding that, at the same time, he had
inadvertently slain his mother.
Whatever may be the merits or defects of Alfieri, he may
be considered as the founder of a new school in the Italian
drama. His country hailed him as her sole tragic poet; and
his successors in the same path of literature have regarded
his bold, austere, and rapid manner, as the genuine model of
tragic composition.
Besides his tragedies, Alfieri published during his life
many sonnets, five odes on American independence, and the
poem of Etruria, founded on the assassination of Alexander
I. duke of Florence. Of his prose works the most distin¬
guished for animation and eloquence is the Panegyric on
Trajan, composed in a transport of indignation at the sup¬
posed feebleness of Pliny’s exdogium. The two books en¬
titled La Tirannide and the Essays on Literature and Go¬
vernment, are remarkable for elegance and vigour of style,
but are too evidently imitations of the manner of Machiavel.
His Antigallican, which was written at the same time with
his Defence of Louis XVI., comprehends an historical and
satirical view of the French Revolution. The posthumous
works of Alfieri consist of satires, six political comedies, and
the Memoirs of his LAfe—a work which will always be read
with interest, in spite of the cold and languid gravity with
which he delineates the most interesting adventures and
the strongest passions of his agitated life.—See Mem. di.
Vit. Alfieri; Sismondi de la Lit. du Midi de VEurope;
Walker’s Memoir on Italian Tragedy; Giorn. de Pisa.
tom. Iviii. (j. c. D.)
ALFORD, a town in Lincolnshire, 24 miles N.N.E. of
Boston. It has a free grammar school, founded in 1576,
with fellowships in Magdalen College, Cambridge: and some
breweries, tanneries, and rope-works. In the vicinity is the
medicinal spring called Holy Well, discovered in 1670.
Pop. in 1851, 2262.
Alford, Michael, an English Jesuit, whose real name was
Griffiths, was born at London in 1587. This work entitled
Annales Ecclesiastici et Civiles Eritannorum, Saxonum et
Anglorum, is valuable to the student of early English history.
ALFRED, or TElfred, the Great, king of England, was
the fifth and youngest son of TEthelwolfj king of the West
Saxons, and was born at Wantage, in Berkshire, in 849
He distinguished himself during the reign of his brother
Ethelred in several engagements against the Danes, and
upon his death succeeded to the crown, in the year 871, and
the 22d of his age. On his accession to the throne he found
himself involved in a dangerous war with the Danes, and
placed in circumstances fitted to call forth all the great qualities
by which he was distinguished. The Danes had already pene¬
trated into the heart of his kingdom; and before he had been
a month upon the throne, he was obliged to take the field
against those formidable enemies. After many battles gained
on both sides, he was at length reduced to the greatest dis¬
tress, and was entirely abandoned by his subjects. In this
situation Alfred, laying aside the useless insignia of royalty,
took shelter in the house of one of his own herdsmen. He
afterwards retired to TEthelingey, in Somersetshire, the mo¬
dern Athelney, where he built a fort for the security of him¬
self and family, and his few faithful followers. When he had
been about a year in this retreat, having been informed that
some of his subjects had routed a great army of the Danes,
killed their chief, and taken their magical standard, he issued
ALE
his letters, giving notice where he was, and inviting his no- Alfred,
bility to come and consult with him. Before they came to a
final determination, Alfred, putting on the habit of a harper,
went into the enemy’s camp, where, without suspicion, he
was everywhere admitted, and introduced to play before
their chief. Having thus acquired an exact knowledge of
their situation, he returned in great secrecy to his nobility,
whom he ordered to their respective homes, there to draw
together each man as great a force as he could; appointing
a day for a general rendezvous at the forest of Selwood in
Wiltshire. This affair was transacted so secretly and expe¬
ditiously, that the king, at the head of his army, was close
upon the Danes before they had the least intelligence of
his design. Alfred, taking advantage of their surprise and
terror, fell upon them, and totally defeated them at TEthen-
dune, now Eddington. Those who escaped fled to a neigh¬
bouring castle, where they were soon besieged, and obliged
to surrender at discretion. Alfred granted them better terms
than they had reason to expect. He agreed to give up the
whole kingdom of the East Angles to such as would embrace
the Christian religion, on condition that they would oblige
the rest of their countrymen to quit the island, and, as much
as was in their power, prevent the landing of any more
foreigners. For the performance of this treaty he took host¬
ages ; and when, in pursuance of the stipulation, Godrun
the Danish chief came, with thirty of his chief officers, to be
baptized, Alfred answered for him at the font, and gave him
the name of AEthelstane ; and certain laws were drawn up
betwixt the king and Godrun for the regulation and govern¬
ment of the Danes settled in England. In 884 a fresh
swarm of Danes landed in Kent and laid siege to Rochester;
but the king coming to the relief of that city, they were ob¬
liged to abandon their design. Alfred had now great success,
which was chiefly owing to his fleet, an advantage of his
own creating. Having secured the sea-coasts, he fortified
the rest of the kingdom with castles and walled towns ; and
he besieged and recovered from the Danes the city of Lon¬
don, which he resolved to repair, and to keep as a frontier.
After some years’ respite, Alfred was again called into the
field; for a body of Danes, being worsted in the west of
France, came with a fleet of 250 sail on the coast of Kent,
and having landed, fixed themselves at Appuldre. Shortly
after, another fleet of eighty vessels coming up the Thames,
the men landed, and built a fort at Milton. Before Alfred
marched against the enemy, he obliged the Danes settled in
Northumberland and Essex to give him hostages for their
good behaviour. He then moved towards the invaders, and
pitched his camp between their armies, to prevent their junc¬
tion, A great body, howrever, moved off to Essex, and cross¬
ing the river, came to Farnham in Surrey, where they were
defeated by the king’s forces. Meanwhile the Danes set¬
tled in Northumberland, in breach of treaty, and notwith¬
standing the hostages given, equipped two fleets, and after
plundering the northern and southern coasts, sailed to Exeter
and besieged it. The king, as soon as he received the in¬
telligence, marched against them; but before he reached
Exeter they had got possession of it. He kept them, how¬
ever, blocked up on all sides, and reduced them at last to
such extremities that they were obliged to eat their horses,
and were even ready to devour each other. Being at length
rendered desperate, they made a general sally on the be¬
siegers ; but were defeated, though with great loss on the
king’s side. The remainder of this body of Danes fled into
Essex, to the fort they had built there, and to their ships.
Before Alfred had time to recruit himself, Laf, another
Danish leader, came with a great army out of Northumber¬
land, and ravaged all before him, marching on to the city of
Werheal in the west (supposed to be Chester), where they
remained the rest of the year. The year following they in-
ALFRED.
481
Alfred, vaded North Wales ; and after having plundered and de-
stroyed every thing, they divided, one body returning to
Northumberland, another into the territories of the East An¬
gles, from whence they proceeded to Essex, and took pos¬
session of a small island called Meresig. Here they did not
long remain ; for having separated, some sailed up the river
Thames, and others up the Lea road, where, drawing up
their ships, they built a fort not far from London, which
proved a great check upon the citizens, who went in a body
and attacked it, but were repulsed with great loss. At
harvest-time the king himself was obliged to encamp with a
body of troops in the neighbourhood of the city, in order to
cover the reapers from the excursions of the Danes. As he
was one day riding by the side of the river Lea, after some
observations he began to think that the Danish ships might
be laid quite dry. This he attempted; and having succeeded,
the Danes were forced to desert their fort and ships, and
march away to the banks of the Severn, where they built a
fort, and wintered at a place called Quatbrig.1 Such of the
Danish ships as could be got off, the Londoners carried into
their own road; the rest they burned and destroyed.
Alfred enjoyed a profound peace during the last three
years of his reign, which he chiefly employed in establishing
and regulating his government, for the security of himself
and his successors, as well as the ease and benefit of his sub¬
jects in general. After a troubled reign of 28 years, he died
on the 28th of October a.d. 900, and was buried at Win¬
chester, in Hyde Abbey. A monument of porphyry was
erected over his tomb.
All our historians agree in characterising him as perhaps
the wisest, best, and greatest king that ever reigned in Eng¬
land ; and it is also generally allowed, that he not only di¬
gested several particular laws still in existence, but that he
laid the first foundation of our present constitution. There
is great reason to believe that we are indebted to this prince
for trial by jury; and the Doomsday Book, which is pre¬
served in the Exchequer, is thought to be no more than
another edition of Alfred’s book of Winchester, which con¬
tained a survey of the kingdom. It is said also that he was
the first who divided the kingdom into shires. What is
ascribed to him is not a bare division of the country, but
the settling of a new form of judicature; for after having
divided his dominions into shires, he subdivided each shire
into three parts, called trythings. There are some remains
of these ancient divisions in the ridings of Yorkshire, the
laths of Kent, and the three parts of Lincolnshire. Each
trything was divided into hundveds or wupantcikp.s; and
these again into tythings or dwellings of ten householders.
Each of these householders stood engaged to the king as a
pledge for the good behaviour of his family, and all the ten
were mutually pledges for each other; so that if any one of
the tythings was suspected of an offence, if the head boroughs
or chiefs of the tythings would not be security for him, he
was imprisoned; and, if he made his escape,, the tything
and hundred were fined to the king. Each shire was under
the government of an earl, under whom was the neve, his
deputy, since, from his office, called shvrc-neve, or sheriff.
And so effectual were these regulations, that it is said he
caused bracelets of gold to be hung up in the highways, as
a challenge to robbers; and that they remained untouched.
In private life Alfred was singularly amiable ; of so equal
a temper, that he never suffered either sadness or unbecom¬
ing gaiety to disturb his mind; but appeared always of a
calm yet cheerful disposition, familiar to his friends, just
even to his enemies, kind and tender to all. He was a re¬
markable economist of his time ; and Asser has given us an
account of the method he took for dividing and keeping an
account of it. He caused six wax-candles to be made, each
of 12 inches long, and of as many ounces weight; on the
candles the inches were regularly marked, and having found
that one of them burned just four hours, he committed them
to the care of the keepers of his chapel, who from time to
time gave him notice how the hours went.
This prince, we are told, was 12 years of age before a
master could be procured in the western kingdom to teach
him the alphabet; such was the state of learning when Al¬
fred began to reign. He had felt the misery of ignorance,
and determined even to rival his contemporary Charlemagne
in the encouragement of literature. He is supposed to have
appointed persons to read lectures at Oxford, and is thence
considered as the founder of that university. By other suit¬
able measures and by his general encouragement of learning
and abilities, he did everything in his power to diffuse know¬
ledge throughout his dominions. Nor was this end promoted
more by his countenance and encouragement than by his
own example and his writings ; for notwithstanding the late¬
ness of his education he had acquired extraordinary erudi¬
tion ; and, had he not been illustrious as a king, he would
have been famous as an author. His works are, 1. Brevi-
Alfreton
II
Algaiola.
arium quoddam collectum ex Legibus Trojanorum, &c. lib.
i.; a Breviary collected out of the Laws of the Trojans,
Greeks, Britons, Saxons, and Danes. Leland saw this book
in the Saxon tongue, at Christ Church, in Hampshire. 2.
Visi-Saxonum Leges, lib. i. Pitts tells us that it is in Ben-
net College library, at Cambridge. 3. Instituia qucedam,
lib. i. This is mentioned by Pitts, and seems to be the
second capitulation with Godrun. 4. Contra Judices Ini-
quos, lib. i. 5. Acta Magistratuum suorum, lib. i. This
is supposed to be the Book of Judgments mentioned by
Horne, and was in all probability a kind of Reports intended
for the use of succeeding ages. 6. Regum Fortunes varies,
lib. i. 7. Dicta Sapientum, lib. i. 8. Parabolce et Sales,
lib. i. 9. Collectiones Chronicorum. 10. Epistolce ad Wulf-
sigium Episcopum, lib. i. 11. Manuals Meditationum.
Besides those original works, he translated many authors
from the Latin, &c., into the Saxon language, viz., 1. Bede’s
History of England, 2. Paulus Orosius’s History of the
Pagans. 3. St Gregory’s Pastoral, &c. The first of these,
with his prefaces to the others, together with his laws, were
printed at Cambridge, 1644. His laws are likewise inserted
in Spelman’s Councils. 4. Boethius’s Consolations of Philo¬
sophy. Dr Plot tells us King Alfred translated it at Wood-
stock, as he found in a MS. in the Cotton Library. 5. /Esop’s
Fables ; which he is said to have translated from the Greek
both into Latin and Saxon. 6. The Psalms of David. This
was the last work the king attempted, and was unfinished at
the time of his death. It was, however, completed by another
hand, and published at London in 1640, in quarto, by Sir
John Spelman. Several others are mentioned by Malms-
bury, and the old history of Ely asserts that he translated
the Old and New Testaments.
ALFRETON, a small town in Derbyshire, 13 miles
from Derby. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in the
manufacture of earthenware and stockings. In the vicinity
are ironworks and collieries.
ALGAl. See Cryptogamia.
ALGAIOLA, a small seaport town in the island of Cor¬
sica, fortified with walls and bastions. It was almost destroyed
\
1 The king’s contrivance is thought to have produced the meadow between Hertford and Bow; for at Hertford was the Danish fort,
and from thence they made frequent excursions on the inhabitants of London. Authors are not agreed as to the method the king pur¬
sued in laying dry the Danish ships. Dugdale supposes that he did it by straightening the channels; but Henry of Huntingdon al eges
that he cut several canals, which exhausted its water.
3 p
VOL. II.
482 A L G
Algardi by the malcontents in 1731, but has since been repaired.
I! Long. 8. 52. E. Lat. 42. 37. N.
Algebra.^ ALGARDI, Alessandro, a painter and excellent sculp-
J tor of Bologna, was born, according to some accounts, in
1602 ; and died in 1654. His best sculptures are in St
Peter’s at Rome, and in his native city.
ALGAROTH, in Chemistry, is a white oxide of anti¬
mony, which is obtained by washing the butter or chloride
with pure water.
ALGAROTTI, Francesco, Count, was born at Venice
in 1712. Led by curiosity, as well as a desire of improve¬
ment, he travelled early into foreign countries ; and in 1733
visited Paris. Here he composed his Newtonian Philosophy
for the Ladies, as Fontenelle had done his Cartesian Astro¬
nomy, in the work entitled The Plurality of Worlds. He
was much honoured by Frederick the Great, who, when
crowned at Konigsberg in 1740, created Algarotti a count
of Prussia. He died at Pisa the 23d of May 1764, and
ordered his own mausoleum, with this inscription, Hie jacet
Algarottus, sed non omnis. He is allowed to have been a
very great connoisseur in painting, sculpture, and architec¬
ture ; and he contributed much to the reformation of the
Italian opera. His works, which are numerous, and upon a
variety of subjects, abound with vivacity, elegance, and wit.
They were printed at Leghorn in 1764, in 6 vols. 12mo.
ALGARVE, a province of Portugal, the most southern
of the kingdom. It is divided from the Spanish province
of Andalucia by the river Guadiana. On the north it is
bounded by the province of Alentejo, and on the south and
west by the Atlantic Ocean. It is one of the smallest divi¬
sions ofPortugal, and very thinly peopled; its extent being 232
square leagues, and the number of inhabitants 130,329. On
the northern part, towards Alentejo, the Sierras de Caldey-
raron and Monchique rise to a great height. The roads are
very bad, the soil unfruitful, and the inhabitants few in those
districts. Numerous flocks of goats are bred, and some
A L G
other cattle are pastured. The country on the coast is more Algazel
fruitful, and produces abundant harvests of grapes, figs, II
oranges, lemons, olives, and almonds, considerable quantities •Algebra-
of which are shipped from the seaport to the different coun- v-***''
tries in the north of Europe. Very little wheat or other
corn is grown in this province, but the inhabitants draw their
principal supply from the adjoining provinces of Spain. On
the coasts the people derive their subsistence in a great
measure from the fisheries ; and both the tunny and sardines
are caught in very considerable quantities. The rivers are
of short course, running from north to south, and at their
mouths vessels may enter at high tide ; but the harbours on
the whole coast are bad, though near Tavira, the principal
city, some islands afford shelter, and allow of good anchorage
for large vessels behind them. The whole of the foreign
trade from the various ports in Algarve is carried on by the
vessels of other countries, as there are scarcely any other
than fishing boats owned by the inhabitants of the ports.
The name Algarve is derived from an Arabic word which
signifies westward. The province is designated by the name
of kingdom, and gives one of the titles to the Portuguese
monarch. This province contains 4 cities, 14 towns, 63
villages, 71 parishes, and 25,503 houses. It is situated be¬
tween Lat. 36.56. and 37.30. N.
ALGAZEL. See Alghazzali.
ALGAZI, the name of several learned rabbis. Chajim
Algazi, who lived about the beginning of the seventeenth
century, wrote a book entitled Neshiboth Mishpat, or The
Paths of Judgment, printed at Constantinople in 1669.
Samuel-ben-Isaac Algazi was a native of Candia, and lived
about the middle of the sixteenth century. His principal
work was a chronology, Toledoth Adam, or the Generations
of Adam, printed at Venice in 1587. Solomon-ben-Abra¬
ham Algazi was a native of the Levant, and died in 1683.
He was for some time chief rabbi at Mentz, and wrote a large
number of works on the Talmud.
ALGEBRA.
INTRODUCTION.
A LGEBRA is a branch of the mathematics, which has
for its object whatever can be expressed by num¬
ber, either exactly or by approximation.
In this respect, and also in its employing arbitrary signs
to denote the things of which it treats, it agrees with
arithmetic. The analogy between the two sciences in¬
duced Sir Isaac Newton to denominate it Universal Arith¬
metic ; but by the application of algebra to geometry, the
science has acquired a new character and new powers,
which render this appellation too limited, and not suffi¬
ciently descriptive of its nature. In its present state it
is nearly alike related to arithmetic and geometry. In
its application to both sciences, the reasoning is carried on
by general symbols: its true character consists in this,
that the results of its operations do not exhibit the indi¬
vidual values of the quantities which are the subject of in¬
vestigation, such as we obtain in arithmetical calculations
or geometrical constructions. They only indicate the
operations, whether arithmetical or geometrical, which
ought to be performed on the given quantities, to obtain
the value of the quantities sought.
It has been a question much agitated, at what period
and in what country was algebra invented ? Who were
the earliest writers on the subject ? What was the pro¬
gress of its improvement ? And lastly, by what means,
and at what period, was the science diffused over Europe ?
It was a common opinion in the 17th century, that the
ancient Greek mathematicians must have possessed an
analysis of the nature of modern algebra, by which they
discovered the theorems and solutions of the problems
which we so much admire in their writings; but that they
carefully concealed their instruments of investigation, and
gave only the results, with synthetic demonstrations.
This opinion is, however, now exploded. A more inti¬
mate acquaintance with the writings of the ancient geo¬
meters has shown that they had an analysis, but that it
was purely geometrical, and essentially different from our
algebra.
Although there be no reason to suppose that the great
geometers of antiquity derived any aid in their discove¬
ries from the algebraic analysis, yet we find, that at a
considerably later period it was known to a certain ex¬
tent among the Greeks.
About the middle of the 4th century of the Christian
era, a period when the mathematical sciences were on the
decline, and their cultivators, instead of producing origi¬
nal works of genius, contented themselves with commen¬
taries on the works of their more illustrious predecessors,
there was a valuable addition made to the fabric of
ancient learning.
ALGEBRA.
Algebra. This was the treatise of Diophantus on arithmetic,
which originally consisted of thirteen books, but of which
only the first six, and an incomplete book on polygonal
numbers, supposed to be the thirteenth, have descended
to our times.
This precious fragment does not exhibit any thing like
a complete treatise on algebra. It rather is an applica¬
tion of its doctrines to a peculiar class of arithmetical
questions, which belong to what is now called the inde¬
terminate analysis.
Diophantus may have been the inventor of the Greek
algebra, but it is more likely that its principles were not
unknown before his time; and that, taking the science in
the state he found it as the basis of his labours, he en¬
riched it with new applications. The elegant solutions of
Diophantus show that he possessed great address in the
particular branch of which he treated, and that he was
able to resolve determinate equations of the second de¬
gree. Probably this was the greatest extent to which
the science had been carried among the Greeks. Indeed,
in no country did it pass this limit, until it had been trans¬
planted into Italy on the revival of learning.
The celebrated Hypatia, the daughter of Theon, com¬
posed a commentary on the work of Diophantus. This,
however, is now lost, as well as a similar labour of this
illustrious and ill-fated lady on the Conics of Apollonius.
It is commonly known that she fell a sacrifice to the fury
of a fanatical mob about the beginning of the 5th century.
About the middle of the 16th century, the work of
Diophantus, written in the Greek language, was disco¬
vered at Rome in the Vatican library, where probably it
had been carried from Greece when the Turks possessed
themselves of Constantinople. A Latin translation, with¬
out the original text, was given to the world by Xylander
in 1575; and a more complete translation, by Bachet de
Mezeriac (one of the oldest members of the French aca¬
demy), accompanied by a commentary, appeared in 1621.
Bachet was eminently skilful in the indeterminate analysis,
and therefore well qualified for the work he had under¬
taken ; but the text of Diophantus was so much injured,
that he was frequently obliged to divine the meaning of
the author, or supply the deficiency. At a later period,
the celebrated French mathematician Fermat, in addition
to the commentary of Bachet, added notes of his own on
the writings of the Greek algebraist. These are extremely
valuable, on account of Fermat’s profound knowledge of
this particular branch of analysis. This edition, the best
which exists, appeared in 1670.
Although the revival of the writings of Diophantus was
an important event in the history of the mathematics,
yet it was not from them that algebra became first
known in Europe. This important invention, as well as
the numeral characters and decimal arithmetic, was re¬
ceived from the Arabians. That ingenious people fully
appreciated the value of the sciences; for at a period
when all Europe was enveloped in the darkness of igno¬
rance, they preserved from extinction the lamp of know¬
ledge. They carefully collected the writings of the Greek
mathematicians; they translated them into their language,
and illustrated them with commentaries. It was through
the medium of the Arabic tongue that the elements of
Euclid were first introduced into Europe; and a part of
the writings of Apollonius are only known at the present
day by a translation from the Arabic, the Greek original
being probably irrecoverably lost. The Arabians ascribe
the invention of their algebra to one of their mathemati¬
cians, Mahommed-Ben-Musa, or Moses, called also Ma-
hommed of Buziana, who flourished about the middle of
the 9th century, in the reign of the Caliph Almamon.
483
It is certain that this person composed a treatise on Algebra,
this subject, because an Italian translation was known atv~*A'-'v^
one time to have existed in Europe, although it be now
lost. Fortunately, however, a copy of the Arabic original
is preserved in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, bearing
a date of transcription corresponding to the year 1342.
The title-page identifies its author with the ancient Ara¬
bian. A marginal note concurs in this testimony, and
farther declares the work to be the first treatise composed
on algebra among the faithful; and the preface, besides
indicating the author, intimates that he was encouraged
by Almamon, commander of the faithful, to compile a
compendious treatise of calculation by algebra.
The circumstance of this treatise professing to be only
a compilation, and, moreover, the first Arabian work of the
kind, has led to an opinion that it was collected from
books in some other language. As the author was inti¬
mately acquainted with the astronomy and computations
of the Hindoos, he may have derived his knowledge of
algebra from the same quarter. Hence we may conclude,
with some probability, that the Arabian algebra was ori¬
ginally derived from India.
The algebraic analysis having been once introduced
among the Arabians, it was cultivated by their own wri¬
ters. One of these, Mahommed Abulwafa, who flourished
in the last forty years of the 10th century, composed
commentaries on the writers who had preceded him. He
also translated the writings of Diophantus. Probably this
was the first translation that was made of the Greek alge¬
braist into the Arabian tongue.
It is remarkable, that although the mathematical sci¬
ences were received with avidity, and sedulously culti¬
vated during a long period, by the Arabians, yet in their
hands they received hardly any improvement. It might
have been expected that an acquaintance with the writ¬
ings of Diophantus would have produced some change in
their algebra. This, however, did not happen : their al¬
gebra continued nearly in the same state, from their ear¬
liest writer on the subject, to one of their latest, Behau-
din, who lived between the years 953 and 1031.
Writers on the history of algebra were long under a mis¬
take as to the time and manner of its introduction into Eu¬
rope. It has now, however, been ascertained that the sci¬
ence was brought into Italy by Leonardo, a merchant of
Pisa. This ingenious man resided in his youth in Barbary,
and there learned the Indian method of accounting by the
nine numeral characters. Commercial affairs led him to
travel into Egypt, Syria, Greece, and Sicily, where we
may suppose he made himself acquainted with every
thing known respecting numbers. The Indian mode of
computation appeared to him to be by far the best. He
accordingly studied it carefully; and, with this knowledge,
and some additions of his own, and also taking some things
from Euclid’s Geometry, he composed a treatise on arith¬
metic. At that period algebra was regarded only as a
part of arithmetic. It was indeed the sublime doctrine of
that science; and under this view the two branches were
handled in Leonardo’s treatise, which was originally writ¬
ten in 1202, and again brought forward under a revised
form in 1228. When it is considered that this,work was
composed two centuries before the invention of printing,
and that the subject was not such as generally to interest
mankind, we need not wonder that it was but little
known; hence it has always remained in manuscript, as
well as some others by the same author. Indeed it was
not known to exist from an early period until the middle
of the last century, when it was discovered in the Maglia-
becchian library at Florence.
The extent of Leonardo’s knowledge was pretty much
484 A L G E B Ft A.
Algebra, the same as that of the preceding Arabian writers. He
could resolve equations of the first and second degree, and
he was particularly skilful in the Diophantine analysis. He
was well acquainted with geometry, and he employed its
doctrines in demonstrating his algebraic rules. Like the
Arabian writers, his reasoning was expressed m words at
length ; a mode highly unfavourable to the progress of the
art. The use of symbols, and the method, of combining
them so as to convey to the mind at a. single glance a
long process of reasoning, was an invention considerably
later than Leonardo’s time. .
Considerable attention was given to the cultivation of
algebra between the time of Leonardo and the invention
of printing. It was publicly taught by professors. Trea¬
tises were composed on the subject; and two works, of
the oriental algebraists were translated from the Arabian
language into Italian. One was entitled the Rule of Al¬
gebra, and the other was the oldest of all the Arabian
treatises, that of Mahommed-Ben-Musa of Corasan.
The earliest printed book on algebra was composed by
Lucas Paciolus, or Lucas de Burgo, a minorite friar. It
was first printed in 1494, and again in 1523. The title is
Summa de Arithmetica, Geometria, Proportioni, et Propor-
tionalita.
This is a very complete treatise on arithmetic, alge¬
bra, and geometry, for the time in which it appeared.
The author followed close on the steps of Leonardo ; and,
indeed, it is from this work that one of his lost treatises
has been restored.
Lucas de Burgo’s work is interesting, inasmuch as it
shows the state of algebra in Europe about the year
1500: probably the state of the science was nearly the
same in Arabia and Africa, from which it had been re¬
ceived.
The power of algebra as an instrument of research
is in a very great degree derived from its notation, by
which all the quantities under consideration are kept con¬
stantly in view; but in respect of convenience and bre¬
vity of expression, the algebraic analysis in the days of
Lucas de Burgo was very imperfect: the only symbols
employed were a few abbreviations of the words or names
which occurred in the processes of calculation, a kind of
short-hand, which formed a very imperfect substitute for
that compactness of expression which has been attained by
the modern notation.
The application of algebra was also at this period very
limited; it was confined almost entirely to the resolution
of certain questions of no great interest about numbers.
No idea was then entertained of that extensive applica¬
tion which it has received in modern times.
The knowledge which the early algebraists had of their
science was also circumscribed; it extended only to the
resolution of equations of the first and second degree;
and they divided the last into cases, each of which was
resolved by its own particular rule. The important ana¬
lytical fact, that the resolution of all the cases of a pro¬
blem may be comprehended in a single formula, which
may be obtained from the solution of one of its cases,
merely by a change of the signs, was not then known : in¬
deed it was long before this principle was fully compre¬
hended. Dr Halley expresses surprise, that a formula in
optics which he had found, should by a mere change of the
signs give the focus of both converging and diverging rays,
whether reflected or refracted by convex or concave spe¬
cula or lenses; and Molyneux speaks of the universality
of Halley’s formula as something that resembled magic.
The rules of algebra may be investigated by its own
principles, without any aid from geometry; and although
in some cases the two sciences may serve to illustrate the
doctrines of each other, there is now not the least neces- Algebra,
sity in the more elementary parts to call in the aid of the
latter to the former. It was otherwise in former times.
Lucas de Burgo found it to be convenient, after the ex¬
ample of Leonardo, to employ geometrical constructions
to prove the truth of his rules for resolving quadratic
equations, the nature of which he did not completely com¬
prehend ; and he was induced by the imperfect nature of
his notation to express his rules in Latin verses, which
will not now be read with the satisfaction we receive from
the perusal of the well-known poem, “ the Loves of the
Triangles.”
As it was in Italy that algebra became first known in
Europe, so it was there that it received its earliest im¬
provements. The science had been nearly stationary from
the days of Leonardo to the time of Paciolus, a period of
three centuries; but the invention of printing soon excited
a spirit of improvement in all the mathematical sciences.
Hitherto an imperfect theory of quadratic equations was
all the extent to which it had been carried. At last this
boundary was passed, and about the year 1505 a particu¬
lar case of equations of the third degree was resolved by
Scipio Ferreus, a professor of mathematics in Bononia.
This was an important step, because it showed that the
difficulty of resolving equations of the higher orders, at
least in the case of the third degree, was not insurmount¬
able, and a new field was opened for discovery. It was
then the practice among the cultivators of algebra, when
they advanced a step, to conceal it carefully from their
contemporaries, and to challenge them to resolve arithme¬
tical questions, so framed as to require for their solution a
knowledge of their own new-found rules. In this spirit
did Ferreus make a secret of his discovery: he com¬
municated it, however, to a favourite scholar, a Venetian
named Florido. About the year 1535 this person, having
taken up his residence at Venice, challenged Tartalea of
Brescia, a man of great ingenuity, to a trial of skill in the
resolution of problems by algebra. Florido framed his
questions so as to require for their solution a knowledge
of the rule which he had learned from his preceptor Fer¬
reus ; but Tartalea had, five years before this time, ad¬
vanced farther than Ferreus, and was more than a match
for Florido. He therefore accepted the challenge, and a
day was appointed when each was to propose to the other
thirty questions. Before the time came, Tartalea had re¬
sumed the study of cubic equations, and had discovered
the solution of two cases in addition to two which he
knew before. Florido’s questions were such as could be
resolved by the single rule of Ferreus; while, on the con¬
trary, those of Tartalea could only be resolved by one or
other of three rules, which he himself had found, but
which could not be resolved by the remaining rule, which
was also that known to Florido. The issue of the contest
is easily anticipated; Tartalea resolved all his adversary’s
questions in two hours, without receiving one answer
from him in return.
The celebrated Cardan was a contemporary of Tartalea.
This remarkable person was a professor of mathematics at
Milan, and a physician. He had studied algebra with great
assiduity, and had nearly finished the printing of a book on
arithmetic, algebra, and geometry; but being desirous of
enriching his work with the discoveries of Tartalea, which
at that period must have been the object of considerable
attention among literary men in Italy, he endeavoured to
draw from him a disclosure of his rules. Tartalea resist¬
ed for a time Cardan’s entreaties. At last, overcome by his
importunity, and his offer to swear on the holy Evange¬
lists, and by the honour of a gentleman, never to publish
them, and on his promising on the faith of a Christian to
ALGEBRA. 485
Algebra, commit them to cypher, so that even after his death they
would be unintelligible to any one, he ventured with much
hesitation to reveal to him his practical rules, which were
expressed by some very bad Italian verses, themselves in
no small degree enigmatical. He reserved, however, the
demonstrations. Cardan was not long in discovering the
reason of the rules, and he even greatly improved them, so
as to make them in a manner his own. From the imper¬
fect essays of Tartalea, he deduced an ingenious and sys¬
tematic method of resolving all cubic equations whatso¬
ever ; but with a remarkable disregard for the principles
of honour, and the oath he had taken, he published, in
1545, Tartalea’s discoveries, combined with his own, as a
supplement to a treatise on arithmetic and algebra, which
he had published six years before. This work is remark¬
able for being the second printed book on algebra known
to have existed.
In the following year Tartalea also published a work on
algebra, which he dedicated to Henry VIII. king of Eng-
land. .
It is to be regretted that in many instances the authors
of important discoveries have been overlooked, while the
honours due to them have been transferred to others
having only secondary pretensions. The formulae for the
resolution of cubic equations are now called Cardan s rules,
notwithstanding the prior claim of Tartalea. It must be
confessed, however, that he evinced considerable selfish¬
ness in concealing his discovery; and although Cardan
cannot be absolved from the charge of bad faith, yet it
must be recollected that by his improvements in what
Tartalea communicated to him, he made the discovery in
some measure his own; and he had moreover the high
merit of being the first to publish this important improve¬
ment in algebra to the world.
The next step in the progress of algebra was the dis¬
covery of a method of resolving equations of the fourth
order. An Italian algebraist had proposed a question
which could not be resolved by the newly invented rules,
because it produced a biquadratic equation. Some sup¬
posed that it could not be at all x’esolved; but Cardan was
of a different opinion: he had a pupil named Lewis ter-
rari, a young man of great genius, and an ardent student
in the algebraic analysis: to him Cardan committed the
solution of this difficult question, and he was. not disap¬
pointed. Ferrari not only resolved the question, but he
also found a general method of resolving equations of the
fourth degree, by making them depend on the solution of
equations of the third degree.
This was another great improvement; and although the
precise nature of an equation was not then fully undei-
stood, nor was it indeed until half a century later, yet, in
the general resolution of equations, a point of progress was
then reached which the utmost efforts of modern analyses
have never been able to pass.
There was another Italian mathematician of that period
who contributed somewhat to the improvement of algebra.
This was Bombelli. He published a valuable work on the
subject in 1572, in which he brought into one view what
had been done by his predecessors. He explained the
nature of the irreducible case of cubic equations, which had
greatly perplexed Cardan, who could not resolve it by his
rule; he showed that the rule would apply sometimes to
particular examples, and that all equations of this case
admitted of a real solution; and he made the important
remark, that the algebraic problem to be resolved in this
case corresponds to the ancient problem of the trisection
of an angle. . .
There were two German mathematicians contemporary
with Cardan and Tartalea, viz. Stifelius and Scheubelius.
Their writings appeared about the middle of the 16th Algebra,
century, before they knew what had been done by the^^™^
Italians. Their improvements were chiefly in the nota¬
tion. Stifelius, in particular, introduced for the first time
the characters which indicate addition and subtraction,
and the symbol for the square root.
The first treatise on algebra in the English language
was written by Robert Recorde, teacher of mathematics
and practitioner in physic at Cambridge. At this period
it was common for physicians to unite with the healing
art the studies of mathematics, astrology, alchemy, and
chemistry. This custom was derived from the Moors,
who were equally celebrated for their skill in medicine
and calculation. In Spain, where algebra was early known,
the title of physician and algebraist were nearly synony¬
mous. Accordingly, in the romance of Don Quixotte, when
the bachelor Samson Carasco was grievously wounded in
his rencounter with the knight, an algebrista was called in
to heal his bruises.
Recorde published a treatise on arithmetic, which was
dedicated to Edward VI.; and another on algebra, with
this title, “ The Whetstone of Wit,” &c. Here, for the
first time, the modern sign for equality was introduced.
By such gradual steps did algebra advance in improve¬
ment from its first introduction by Leonardo, each suc¬
ceeding writer making some change for the better; but
with the exception of Tartalea, Cardan, and Ferrari, hardly
any one rose to the rank of an inventor. At length came
Vieta, to whom this branch of mathematical learning, as
well as others, is highly indebted. His improvements
in algebi'a were very considerable; and some of his inven¬
tions, although not then fully developed, have yet been
the germs of later discoveries. He was the first that em¬
ployed general characters to represent known as well as
unknown quantities. Simple as this step may appear, it
has yet led to important consequences. He must also be
regarded as the first that applied algebra to the improve¬
ment of geometry. The older algebraists had indeed re¬
solved geometrical problems, but each solution was parti¬
cular; whereas Vieta, by introducing general symbols,
produced general formulae, which were applicable to all
problems of the same kind, without the trouble of going
over the same process of analysis for each.
This happy application of algebra to geometry has pro¬
duced great improvements: it led Vieta to the doctrine
of angular sections, one of the most important of his dis¬
coveries, which is now expanded into the arithmetic or
calculus of sines. He also improved the theory of alge¬
braic equations, and he was the first that gave a general
method of resolving them by approximation. As he lived
between the years 1540 and 1603, his writings belong
to the latter "period of the 16th century. He printed
them at his own expense, and liberally bestowed them on
men of science.
The Flemish mathematician Albert Girard was one of
the improvers of algebra. He extended the theory of
equations somewhat farther than Vieta, but he did not
completely unfold their composition; he was the first that
showed the use of the negative sign in the resolution of
geometrical problems, and he also first spoke of imaginary
quantities, a subject not yet completely cleared up; and
he inferred by induction that every equation has precisely
as many roots as there are units in the number that ex¬
presses its degree. His algebra appeared in 1629.
The next great improver of algebra was Thomas Har¬
riot, an Englishman. As an inventor he has been the
boast of this country. The French mathematicians have
accused the British of giving discoveries to him which
were really due to Vieta. It is probable that some of
486 ALGEBRA.
Algebra, these may be justly claimed for both, because each may
-^^^-'have made the discovery for himself, without knowing
what had been done by the other. Harriot’s principal
discovery, and indeed the most important ever made in
algebra, was, that every equation may be regarded as
formed by the product of as many simple equations as
there are units in the number expressing its order. This
important doctrine, now familiar to evei’y student of alge¬
bra, was yet slowly developed: it was quite within the
reach of Vieta, who unfolded it in part, but left its com¬
plete discovery to Harriot.
We have seen the very inartificial form in which alge¬
bra first appeared in Europe. The improvements of aE
most 400 years had not given its notation that compact¬
ness and elegance of which it is susceptible. Harriot
made several changes in the notation, and added some
new signs: he thus gave to algebra greater symmetry of
form. Indeed, as it came from his hands, it differed but
little from its state at the present time.
Oughtreed, another early English algebraist, was a con¬
temporary with Harriot, but lived long after him. He wrote
a treatise on the subject, which was long taught in the
universities.
In tracing the history of algebra, we have seen, that in
the form under which it was received from the Arabs, it
was hardly distinguishable as a peculiar mode of reason¬
ing, because of the want of a suitable notation ; and that,
poor in its resources, its applicability was limited to the
resolution of a small number of uninteresting numeral
questions. We have followed it through different stages
of improvement, and we are now arrived at a period when
it was to acquire additional power as an instrument of
analysis, and to admit of new and more extended applica¬
tions. Vieta saw the great advantage that might be de¬
rived from the application of algebra to geometry. The
essay he made in his theory of angular sections, and the
rich mine of discovery thus opened, proved the import¬
ance of his labours. He did not fully explore it, but it has
seldom happened that one man began and completed a
discovery. He had, however, an able and illustrious suc¬
cessor in Descartes, who, employing in the' study of alge¬
bra that high power of intellect with which he was en¬
dowed, not only improved it as an abstract science, but,
more especially by its application to geometry, he laid the
foundation of the great discoveries which have since so
much engaged mathematicians, and made the last two
centuries ever memorable in the history of the progress
of the human mind.
Descartes’s grand improvement was the application of
algebra to the doctrine of curve lines. As in geography
we refer every place on the earth’s surface to the equator,
and to a determinate meridian, so he referred every point
of a curve to some line given by position. For example,
in a circle, every point in. the circumference might be re¬
ferred to the diameter. The perpendicular from any point
in the curve, and the distance of that perpendicular from
the centre or from the extremity of a diameter, were lines
which, although varying with every change of position in
the point from which the perpendicular was drawn, yet
had a determinate relation to each other, which was the
same for all points in the curve, which depended on its
nature, and which, therefore, served as a characteristic to
distinguish it from all other curves.
The relations of lines drawn in this way could be readily
expressed in algebraic symbols; and the combination of
these constituted what is called the equation of the curve.
This might serve as its definition; and from the equa¬
tion by the processes of algebra, all the properties of the
curve could be investigated.
Descartes’s geometry (or, as it might have been named, Algebra,
the application of algebra to geometry) appeared first in
1637. This was six years after the publication of Har¬
riot’s discoveries, which was a posthumous work. Des¬
cartes availed himself of some of Harriot’s views, particu¬
larly the manner of generating an equation without ac¬
knowledgement ; and on this account Dr Wallis, in his
algebra, has reflected with considerable severity on the
French algebraist.
This spirit has engendered a corresponding eagerness
in the French mathematicians to defend him. Montucla,
in his history of the mathematics, has evinced a strong
national prejudice in his favour; and, as usually happens,
in order to exalt him, he hardly does justice to Harriot,
the idol of his adversaries.
In treating of the claims of algebra and geometry to
be considered as kindred sciences, a question arises, why
was this relation not sooner perceived and appreciated ?
The sciences of geometry and algebra have each had a
distinct origin. The former is the more ancient, and no
doubt for this reason, that its principles are less removed
from the ordinary affairs of men. The subjects of geo¬
metry, extension, and figure are continually presented to
attention ; and the elements of the science are to a cer¬
tain extent employed in the most ordinary arts of life.
We cannot sufficiently admire the ingenuity with which
the natural geometry of the early times had been wrought
up into a system more than two thousand years ago ; but
when we consider that its assistance was wanted in the
partition of land, in the erection of houses and temples,
and numberless other cases, we need not wonder at the
early progress of the science among such an ingenious
people as the ancient Greeks.
Algebra, however, is a more refined speculation. Its
first object was number; but the properties of number are
more recondite than those of extension and figure.
In geometry, the objects of our attention are the very
figures themselves; but in algebra, the subjects of our
reasonings are represented by symbols, which have no re¬
semblance to the things they represent; hence it is not
wonderful that algebra should have a later origin, and
that it should have been slower in its progress towards
perfection.
Notwithstanding the different origin of geometry and
algebra, and their long-continued separate existence, like
some chemical substances of different natures, they have
a strong affinity; and, when united, their new properties
are entirely different from those which belong to each
apart. By their union, a new science was created, and
new instruments of invention furnished, vastly more power¬
ful than any possessed by the sciences apart.
The new views which the labours of Vieta, Harriot,
and Descartes opened in geometry and algebra were
seized with avidity by the powerful minds of men eager
in the pursuit of real knowledge. Accordingly, we find
in the seventeenth century a whole host of writers on
algebra, or algebra combined with geometry.
Our limits will not allow us to enter minutely into the
claims which each has on the gratitude of posterity. In¬
deed, in pure algebra the new inventions were not so con¬
spicuous as the discoveries made by its applications to
geometry, and the new theories which were suggested by
their union. The refined speculations of Kepler concern¬
ing the solids formed by the revolutions of curvilinear
figures, the Geometry of Indivisibles by Cavalerius, the
Arithmetic of Infinites of Wallis, and, above all, the Me¬
thod of Fluxions of Newton, and the Differential and In¬
tegral Calculus of Leibnitz, are fruits of the happy union.
All these were agitated incessantly by their inventors and
ALGEBRA. 487
Algebra, contemporaries; such men as Barrow, James Gregory,
-^V^'Wren, Cotes, Taylor, Halley, De Moivre, Maclaurin,
Stirling, and others, in this country; and abroad by Ro-
berval, Fermat, Huygens, the two Bernoullis, Herman,
Pascal, and many others.
It is at this period, then, that our sketch of the history
of algebra, at least in Europe, must terminate, because of
the great number of writers who have in one way or other
elucidated or improved different parts of the subject, either
directly, or when treating of collateral theories.
We have been as copious as our limits would permit on
the early history, because it presents the interesting spec¬
tacle of the progress of a science from an almost imper¬
ceptible beginning, until it has attained a magnitude too
great to be fully grasped by the human mind.
Of the Indian Algebra.
The attention of the learned has, within the last thirty
years, been called to a branch of the history of algebra, in
no small degree interesting; we mean the cultivation of the
science to a considerable extent, and at a remote period,
in India.
We are indebted, we believe, to Mr Reuben Burrow
for some of the earliest notices which reached Europe on
this very curious subject. His eagerness to illustrate the
history of the mathematical sciences led him to collect
oriental manuscripts, some of which, in the Persian lan¬
guage, with partial translations, were bequeathed to his
friend Mr Dalby of the Royal Military College, who com¬
municated them to such as took an interest in the subject,
about the year 1800.
In the year 1813 Mr Edward Strachey published in this
country a translation from the Persian of the Bija Gan-
nita (or Vija Ganita), a Hindoo treatise on algebra ; and in
1816 Dr John Taylor published at Bombay a translation
of Lilawati (or Lilavati), from the Sanscrit original. Tin’s
last is a treatise on arithmetic and geometry, and both are
the production of an oriental algebraist, Bhascara Acharya.
Lastly, in 1817 there came out a work entitled Algebra,
Arithmetic, and Mensuration, from the Sanscrit of Brahme-
gupta and Bhascara, translated by Henry Thomas Cole-
brooke, Esq. This contains four different treatises, origi¬
nally written in Sanscrit verse, viz. the Vija Ganita and
Lilavati of Bhascara Acharya, and the Ganitad'haya and
Cuttacad’hyaya of Brahmegupta. The first two form the
preliminary portion of Bhascara’s Course of Astronomy,
entitled Siddhanta Siromani, and the last two are the
twelfth and eighteenth chapters of a similar course of
astronomy, entitled Brahma-sidd'hanta.
The time when Bhascara wrote is fixed with great pre¬
cision, by his own testimony and other circumstances, to
a date that answers to about the year 1150 of the Chris¬
tian era. The works of Brahmegupta are extremely rare,
and the age in which he lived is less certain. Mr Davis,
an oriental scholar, who first gave the public a correct
view of the astronomical computations of the Hindoos, is
of opinion that he lived in the 7th century; and Dr
William Hunter, another diligent inquirer into Indian
science, assigns the year 628 of the Christian era as about
the time he flourished. From various arguments, Mr
Colebrooke concludes that the age of Brahmegupta was
antecedent to the earliest dawn of the culture of the
sciences among the Arabians, so that the Hindoos must
have possessed algebra before it was known to that nation.
Brahmegupta’s treatise is not, however, the earliest
work known to have been written on this subject. Ganessa,
a distinguished astronomer and mathematician, and the
most eminent scholiast of Bhascara, quotes a passage from
a much older writer, Arya-Bhatta, specifying algebra
under the designation of Vija, and making separate men- Algebra,
tion of Cuttaca, a problem subservient to the resolution
indeterminate problems of the first degree. He is under¬
stood by another of Bhascara’s commentators to be at the
head of the older writers. They appear to have been
able to resolve quadratic equations, by the process of com¬
pleting the square; and hence Mr Colebrooke presumes
that the treatise of Arya-Bhatta then extant extended
to quadratic equations in the determinate analysis, and to
indeterminate equations of the first degree, if not to those
of the second likewise, as most probably it did.
Considering the proficiency of Arya-Bhatta in astrono¬
mical science, and adverting to the fact of his having
written on algebra, and being placed at the head of alge¬
braists when the commentators of extant treatises have
occasion to mention the early and original writers on this
branch of science, he may be regarded as the great im¬
prover of the analytic art in India, and likely to have been
the person by whom it was carried to the pitch it was
found to have attained among the Hindoos, and at which
it was observed to be nearly stationary through the long
lapse of ages which have since passed; the later additions
being few and unessential in the writings of Brahmegupta,
of Bhascara, and of Jnyanaraja, though they lived at in¬
tervals of centuries from each other.
The exact period when Arya-Bhatta lived cannot be
determined with certainty; but Mr Colebrooke thinks it
probable that this earliest of known Hindoo algebraists
wrote as far back as the fifth century of the Christian
era, and perhaps earlier. He was therefore nearly as
ancient as the Grecian algebraist Diophantus, who is rec¬
koned to have flourished in the time of the emperor
Julian, or about a. d. 360. Supposing then the Hindoo
and Greek algebraists to be nearly of the same antiquity,
it must be conceded in favour of the former, that he was
farthest advanced in the science, since he knew how to
resolve equations containing several unknown quantities:
now it does not appear that Diophantus could do this.
He also had a general method for indeterminate equations,
of at least the first degree, to a knowledge of which the
Grecian algebraist had certainly not attained.
It appears from the Hindoo treatises on algebra, that
they understood well the arithmetic of surd roots; that
they were aware of the infinite quotient resulting from
the division of finite quantity by cypher ; that they knew
the general resolution of equations of the second degree,
and had touched on those of higher denomination, re¬
solving them in particular cases, and in those in which
the solution may be effected in the manner of quadratics ;
that they had found a general solution of indeterminate
equations of the first degree, and a method for deriving a
multitude of answers to problems of the second degree,
when one solution was obtained by trials: now this is as
near an approach to a general solution of such problems
as was made until the time of Lagrange. The Hindoos had
also attempted to solve indeterminate equations of higher
orders, but, as might be expected, with very little success.
We have seen how long it was before algebra was ap¬
plied to geometry in Europe: but the Hindoos not only
applied algebra both to astronomy and geometry, but
conversely applied geometry to the demonstration of al¬
gebraic rules; and indeed they cultivated algebra much
more and with greater success than geometry, as appears
by the low state of their knowledge of the one and the
high pitch of their attainments in the other.
Mr Colebrooke has instituted a comparison between the
Indian algebraist and Diophantus, and found reason to
conclude, that in the whole science the latter is very far
behind the former. He says, the points in which the
488
ALGEBRA.
Algebra. Hindoo algebra appears particularly distinguished from the
' Greek are, besides a better and more convenient algo¬
rithm, ls£, the management of equations of more than one
unknown quantity; 2d, the resolution of equations of a
higher order, in which, it they achieved little, they had
at least the merit of the attempt, and anticipated a mo¬
dern discovery in the resolution of biquadratics; 3rf, ge¬
neral methods for the resolution of indeterminate problems
of the first and second degrees, in which they went far
indeed beyond Diophantus, and anticipated discoveries
of modern algebraists; 4M, the application of algebra to
astronomical investigations and geometrical demonstra¬
tion, in which also they hit upon some matters which
have been re-invented in modern times.
When we consider that algebra made little or no
progress among the Arabians, a most ingenious people,
and particularly devoted to the study of the sciences, and
that centuries elapsed from its first introduction into Europe
until it reached any considerable degree of perfection, we
may reasonably conjecture, that it may have existed in
one shape or other in India long before the time of Arya-
Bhatta: indeed, from its close connection with their doc¬
trines of astronomy, it may be supposed to have descend¬
ed from a very remote period, along with that science.
The late learned Professor Playfair took a great interest
in this curious and interesting subject; and, adopting the
opinion of Bailly, the eloquent author of the Astronomic
Indienne, he with great ingenuity attempted to prove, in
a Memoir on the Astronomy of the Brahmins, that the ob¬
servations on which the Indian astronomy is founded
were of great antiquity, indeed more than 3000 years
before the Christian era. Again, in a later memoir, On
the Trigonometry of the Brahmins, he endeavoured to
establish, that the origin of the mathematical sciences in
Hindostan must be referred to an equally remote period.
The same judicious writer has further considered this
most curious subject in a Review of Strachey’s Transla¬
tion of Bija Gannita (Edinburgh Review, No. 42), and
again, in a Review of Colebrooke’s work on the Indian
algebra, to which we have so frequently adverted (Edin¬
burgh Review, No. 57). This last article, published in
1817, may be supposed to contain the matured opinions of
one of the most ardent, able, and we must say most candid,
inquirers into the history of Hindoo mathematical science.
There is here certainly an abatement of his first confi¬
dence in the opinions of Bailly on the Indian astronomy,
and a corresponding caution in his own opinion as to the
antiquity of the mathematical sciences. The very remote
origin of the Indian astronomy had been strongly ques¬
tioned by many in this country, and also on the Continent;
particularly by Laplace, also by Delambre in his His-
toire de TAstronomie Ancienne, tome i. p. 400, &c., and
again in Histoire de VAstronomie du Moyen Age, Biscours
Preliminaire, p. 18, &c. where he speaks slightingly of
their algebra; and in this country, Professor Leslie, in
his very learned work on The Philosophy of Arithmetic,
p. 225 and 226, calls the Lilavati “ a very poor perform¬
ance, containing merely a few scanty precepts couched
in obscure memorial verses.” We shall conclude this
slight sketch of the history of Indian algebra with the
last recorded sentiments of Professor Playfair on the ma¬
thematical science of India. “ Among many subjects of
wonder which the study of these ancient fragments can¬
not fail to suggest, it is not one of the least that algebra
has existed in India, and has been cultivated for more
than 1200 years, without any signal improvement, or the
addition of any material discovery. The works of the
ancient teachers of science have been commented on,
elucidated, and explained with skill and learning; but no
new methods have been invented, nor any new principle Algebra,
introduced. The method of resolving indeterminate pro-
blems, that constitute the highest merit of their analytical
science, were known to Brahmegupta hardly less accu¬
rately than to Bhascara; and they appear to have been
understood even by Arya-Bhatta, more ancient by seve¬
ral centuries than either. A long series of scholiasts dis¬
play in their annotations great acuteness, intelligence,
and judgment; but they never pass far beyond the line
drawn by their predecessors, which probably seemed even
to those learned and intelligent men as the barrier within
which it was to be confined. In India, indeed, every thing
seems equally insurmountable, and truth and error are
equally assured of permanence in the stations they have
once occupied. The politics, the laws, the religion, the
science, and the manners, seem all nearly the same as at
the remotest period to which history extends. Is it be¬
cause the power which brought about a certain degree of
■civilisation, and advanced science to a certain height, has
either ceased to act, or has met with such a resistance as
it is barely able to overcome ? or is it because the disco¬
veries which the Hindoos are in possession of are an in¬
heritance from some more inventive and more ancient
people, of whom no memorial remains but some of their
attainments in science?”
Writers on Algebra, with the years in which they wrote or
flourished.
Diophantus, ArithmeticorumLibri sex, flourished, a. c. 360
 First edition of his writings, 1575; the
best, 1670.
Leonardo Bonacci (his works described in Cossali)...1202
Lucas Paciolus, or De Burgo, Summa de Arithme-
tica,   1470
Rudolph, Algebra 1522
Stifelius, Arithmetica Integra, &c 1544
Cardan, Ars Magna quam vulgo Cossam vocant 1545
Ferreus 1545
Ferrari, (first resolved biquadratic equations) 1545
Tartalea, Quesiti et Inventioni diversi 1546
Scheubelius, Algebra Compendiosa 1551
Recorde, Whetstone of Wit 1557
Peletarius, De Occulta parte Numerorum 1558
Buteo, De Logistica 1559
Ramus, Arithmetics Libri duo et totidem Algebrse..l560
Pedro Nugnez or Nonius, Libro de Algebra, &C.......1567
Jossalin, De Occulta parte Mathematicorum 1576
Bombelli 1579
Clavius 1580
Bernard Solignac, Arith. Libri ii. et Algebne totidem. 1580
Stevinus, Arithmetique, &c. aussi 1’Algebre 1585
Vieta, Opera Mathematica   1600
Folinus, Algebra, sive Liber de Rebus Occultis 1619
Van Ceulen   1619
Bachet, Diophantus cum Commentariis 1621
Albert Girard, Invention Nouvelle en Algebre 1629
Ghetaldus, De Resolutione et Compositione Mathe¬
matica * 1630
Harriot, Artis Analytics Praxis 1631
Oughtreed, Clavis Mathematics 1631
Herigonius, Cursus Mathematicus 1634
Cavalerius, Geometria Indivisibilibus Continuorum... 1635
Descartes, Geometria 1637
Commentators onBescartes.—Franciscus a SchootenA
Florimond de Beaune, Erasmus Bertholinus,(
Joh. Hudde, F. Rabuel, James Bernoulli, John/"
de Witt, &c. j
Roberval, De Recognitione fEquationum, &c 1640
De Billy, Nova Geometris Clavis Algebra 1643
ALGEBRA.
489
Algebra.
Renaldinus, Opus Algebraicum flourished A.c. 1644 In addition to the preceding list of
Pascal, in his works., f. 1654 almost all of an early date, we shall add the following.
Wallis, Arithmetica Infinitorum 1655 Arbo„astj Calcul des Derivations.
 Algebra 168t> rp^ §ern0UUiS) Begnalt, Bertrand, Bezout, Bossuet, Burja,
Slusius, Mesolabum   1659 Brunacci, Babbage, Bridges, Bland, Budan, Bonnycastle,
Rhonius, Algebra (translated into English) 1659 Burdon, Barlow.
Kinckhausen, used as a text-book by Sir I.Newton....1661 Cousinj Cauchy, Coignet, Carnot.
Sir Isaac Newton, The Binomial Theorem 1666 De„raave? Dodson, Ditton.
Frenicle, Various papers in Mem. of F. Academy... 1666 FrisiuSj Brancceur, Frend.
Pell, translated and improved Rhonius’ Algebra 1668 GaugS5 Disquisitiones Arithmetics
James Gregory, Exercitationes Geometries 1668
Mercator, Logarithmotechnia 1668
Brancker 1668
Barrow, in Lectiones Geometries 1669
Kersey, Elements of Algebra   1673
Prescot, Nouveaux Elemens de Mathematiques 1675
Leibnitz, in Leipsic Acts, &c 1677
Fermat, in Varia Opera Mathematica   1679
Hemischius, Hales, Hirsch, Hutton, Holdred.
Kuhnius, Kramp, Kaestner.
Laloubre, Lorgna, Le Blond, Lee, Lacroix, Ludlam,
Legendre, L’Huillier, Leroy.
Mescher, Malebranche, Manfredi, Maseres.
Nicholson, Nieuwentiit Analysis Infinitorum. ^
Polleti, Poignard (on Magic Squares), Playfair.
Rowning, Reimer.
Bulliald, Opus Novum ad Aritbmeticam Infinitorum. 1682 suremain-Missery (on Impossible Quantities), Schonerus,
Tschirnhausen, in the Leipsic Acts 1683 saiignut.
Baker, Geometrical Key, &c ••••;—Trail, Tedenat, Thacker.
Dr Halley, in Phil. Trans .; ......1687 and 1694 v;ientj yandermonde.
Rolle, Une Methode pour la Resolution des Equa- Wells, Wilson, Wood, Woodhouse, Warren.
tions Indeterminees 1690 ’ . ,7
Raphson, Analysis iEquationum Universalis 1690 Writers on the History of Algebra.
Deschales, Cursus seu Mundus Mathematicus 1690 Wallis in his Algebra ; Montucla in Histoire des Mathe-
De Lagny, various pieces on Equations 1692 matjqUes. Bossuet, Histoire des Mathematiques; Cossali,
Alexander, Synopsis Algebraica 1693 Qrjgjne5 Trasporto in Italia, Primi Progressi in Essa
Ward, Compendium of Algebra.... 169o ^7 A]gebra5 g vols. printed in 1797; Hutton in his
 Young Mathematician’s Guide. Dictionary, and more diffusely in his Tracts, vol. ii.
De Moivre, various Memoirs in Phil. Trans 1697-1730 For the titles of works on Algebra, consult Murhard,
Sault, New Treatise of Algebra   1698 Mathematica; and for memoirs on algebra, in
Christopher, De Constructione iEquationum. ^ Academical Collections, see Reuss, Repertorium Commen-
Ozanam, Nouveaux Elemens d’Algebre 1702
Harris, Lexicon Technicum ^   1704
Guisnee, Application de 1’Algebre a la Geometrie—1705
Jones, Synopsis Palmariorum Matheseos 1706
tationum, tom. vn.
Newton, Arithmetica Universalis   1707
NOTATION AND EXPLANATION OF THE SIGNS.
    . In arithmetic there are ten characters, which being
L’Hbpital, Traite Analytique de Sections Coniques...l707 variously combined, according to certain rules, serve to
Revneau, Analyse Demontree 1708 denote all magnitudes whatever But this method of ex-
Brooke Taylor, Methodus Incrementorum 1715 pressing quantities, although of the greatest utility in
Stirling, Lbea Tertii Ordinis 1717 every branch of die mathematics (for we must always
 ? Methodus Differentialis 1730 have recourse to it in the different applications of that
Nicole on Cubic Equations, in Mem. Acad, des science to practical purposes), is yet found to be m-
Sr Wes  1717 adequate, taken by itself, to the more difficult cases of
rnvp^n6P’’al^ebra’. 1 *.’.’.*. 1727 mathematical investigation; and it is therefore necessary,
Wolfius, Algebra : Cursus Mathematicus 1732 in many inquiries concerning the relations of magnitude,
Kirby, Arithmetic and Algebra 1735 » cSS
James Gregory   .V. 1736 and more extensive system of operations, which constitute
Simpson, Algebra and various works 1740, 1742 the science of algebra.
Saunders on Algebra, 2 vols. Uo 1740 In algebra quantises of every kind may be denoted by
La Caille, Algebra in Lecons de MatMmatiques 1741 any characters whatever, but those commonly used are
De Gua on the Roots of' Equations, in Mta. Acad. the letters of the alphabet; and as m every mathematical
d^ Sciences    1741 Problem there are certain magnitudes given, in order to
rimrmit FlemenV d’Alffebre  1746 determine other magnitudes which are unknown, the first
Mflidanrin^ Akmbra .  1747 letters of the alphabet a, 5, c, &c. are used to denote
Fontaine, L’Art de Resoudre les Equations .......1747 known quantities, while those to be found are represented
Donna Maria Gaetana Agnesi, Instituzioni Analitichi 1748 by v, *, y, &c. the last letters of the alphabet.
Boscovich, in Elementa Universe Matheseos 1754 2. The sign + {plus) denotes that the quantity before
— • '* "r ‘ ^ which it is placed is to be added to some other quantity.
Thus, a-\-b denotes the sum of a and b; 3-J-5 denotes the
sum of 3 and 5, or 8.
The sign — {minus) signifies that the quantity before
ranpp ii ulc uC ia   —  which it is placed is to be subtracted. Thus, a — 5 denotes
Numlriques 1767 the excess of a above & ; 6—2 is the excess of 6 above 2.
.1770 or 4.
3. Quantities which have the sign + prefixed to them
Castillon, Arithmetica Universalis Newtoni cum Com-
mentano   
Emerson, Algebra,   
Landen, Residual Analysis, &c...... .....1/64
Lagrange, Traite de la Resolution des Equations
Euler, Algebra-
Waring, Meditationes Algebraic®, &c 1770,1776      c . - „
~ - - Compendio d’Analisi 1775 are called positive or affirmative; and such as haie the
Soladini,  r— „ ,
Paoli, Elementi d’Algebra 1794 sign — are called negative,
VOL. II.
3q
490
ALGEBRA.
^^S^bra. When quantities are considered abstractedly, the terms
positive and negative can only mean that such quantities
are to be added or subtracted; for as it is impossible to
conceive a number less than 0, it follows, that a negative
quantity by itself is unintelligible. But, in considering
the affections of magnitude, it appears, that in many cases
a certain opposition may exist in the nature of quantities.
Thus, a person’s property may be considered as a positive
quantity, and his debts as a negative quantity. Again,
any portion of a line drawn to the right hand may be con¬
sidered as positive, while a portion of the same line, con¬
tinued in the opposite direction, may be taken as nega¬
tive.
When no sign is prefixed to a quantity, -f is always
understood, or the quantity is to be considered as positive.
Quantities which have the same sign, either -f- or —,
are said to have like signs. Thus, a and -f Z> have like
signs, but -{- a and — c have unlike signs.
4. A quantity which consists of one term, is said to be
simple; but if it consist of several terms, connected by the
signs -J- or —, it is then said to be compound. Thus,
-}- a and — c are simple quantities ; and b + c, also a-\-b
— d, are compound quantities.
5. lo denote the product arising from the multiplica¬
tion of quantities. If they be simple, they are either joined
together, as if intended to form a word, or else the quan¬
tities are connected together, with the sign x interposed
between every two of them. Thus, ab, or a xb, denotes
the product of a and b; also abc, or a x & X c, denotes the
product of a, Z>, and c: the latter method is used when
the quantities to be multiplied are numbers. If some of
the quantities to be multiplied be compound, each of
them has a line drawn over it called a vinculum, and the
sign x is interposed, as before. Thus, a x c + d x de¬
notes that a is to be considered as one quantity, the sum
of c and d as a second, and the difference between e and
f as ,a third; and that these three quantities are to be
multiplied into one another. Instead of placing a line
over such compound quantities as enter a product, it is
now common among mathematical writers to inclose each
of them between two parentheses, so that the last product
may be otherwise expressed thus, a(c-i-d)(e—f): or thus,
ax (c -\-d)x (e—f).
b. A number prefixed to a letter is called a numerical
co-efficient, and denotes how often that quantity is to be
taken. Thus, 3a signifies that a is to be taken three
times. When no number is prefixed, the co-efficient is
understood to be unity.
7. The quotient arising from the division of one quantity
by another is expressed by placing the dividend above a
tension of that science, ought not to be embarrassed by Algebra,
the demonstration of its elementary rules.
Sect. I,—Fundamental Operations.
The primary operations in algebra are the same as in
common arithmetic; namely, addition, subtraction, multi¬
plication, and division ; and from the various combinations
of these four, all the others are derived.
Problem I.— To Add Quantities.
10. In addition there may be three cases: the quantities
to be added may be like, and have like signs; or they may
be like, and have unlike signs; or, lastly, they may be un¬
like.
Case 1. To add quantities which are like, and have like
signs.
Rule. Add together the co-efficients of the quantities,
prefix the common sign to the sum, and annex the let¬
ter or letters common to each term.
Examples.
C— 2ax
Add together Add together
\+ 2a f— 12ax
Sum, -f 13a Sum, — 20ax
Case 2. To add quantities which are like, but have unlike
signs.
Rule. Add the positive co-efficients into one sum, and the
negative ones into another; then subtract the least of
these sums from the greatest, prefix the sign of the
greatest to the remainder, and annex the common let¬
ter or letters as before.
Examples.
T+ 2aa? T_j_ 6a6+ 7
Add together Add together 4^+ »
(+ (q_ Tab—13
line, and the divisor below it. Thus, ~ denotes the quo¬
tient arising from the division of 12 by 3, or 4; - denotes
the quotient arising from the division of b by a. This
expression of a quotient is also called a fraction.
. ie equality of two quantities is expressed by put¬
ting the sign = between them. Thus, a + b = c —/de¬
notes that the sum of a and b is equal to the excess of
c above d.
9. Simple quantities, or the terms of compound quanti¬
ties, are said to be like, which consist of the same letter
or letters. Thus, +a6 and —bab are like quantities, but
+ ao and -f-a66 are unlike.
There are some other characters, which will be explained
when we have occasion to use them; and in what follows
we shall suppose that the operations of common arithme¬
tic are sufficiently understood; for algebra, being an ex-
Sumofthepos. -\-llax Sum of the pos. - fa/;+16
Sum of the neg. — 4a* Sum of the neg. — 4aZ»—18
Sum required, + lax Sum required, + \0ab— 2
aa + 2ax— xx —\aab
—2aa + 3a*— 4** + aab
6aa— 5a* +11** + 3aaZ»
Sum, 5aa 0 + 6** Sum, 0
Case 3. To add unlike quantities.
Ride. Put down the quantities, one after another, in any
order, with their signs and co-efficients prefixed.
Examples.
2a
3b
—4c
ax + 2ag
bb—3bz
Sum, ax + 2ag + bb—3bz
Sum, 2a + 3b—4c
Prob. II.—Zb Subtract Quantities.
11. General Rule. Change the signs of the quantities to
be subtracted, or suppose them changed, and then add
them to the other quantities, agreeably to the rules of
addition.
ira.
V
ALGEBRA.
491
Algebra. Examples.
From 5a—126 From 6a?—
Subtract 2a— 56 Subtract 2a:-f- %—2
Remainder 3a— 76
bxy—2 + Sa’— y
3^/—8— 8a’—3_y
Remainder 4a—
aa—ax—yy
66—by + zz
2xy -|-6+ 16a + 2y aa—ax—yy—66 + by—-zz
The reason of the rule for subtraction may be explained
thus. Let it be required to subtract 2jo—Sq from m-\-n.
If we subtract 2p from there will remain m -f- n—2p;
but if we are to subtract 2p—%q, which is less than 2p, it
is evident that the remainder will be greater by a quan¬
tity equal to 3q; that is, the remainder will be m-\-n
—Zp + Sq ; hence the reason of the rule is evident.
Prob. III.— To Multiply Quantities.
12. General Rule for the Signs. If the quantities to be
multiplied have like signs, the sign of the product is + ;
but if they have unlike signs, the sign of the product
is —.
The examples of multiplication may be referred to two
cases; the first is when both the quantities are simple,
and the second when one or both of them are compound.
Case 1. To multiply simple quantities.
Rule. Find the sign of the product by the general rule,
and annex to it the product of the numeral co-efficients;
then set down all the letters, one after another, as in
one word.
Examples.
T Multiply 4-a T-p 56 C— 3aa:
x JEy +C- 2 )— 4a 3 3 + lab
i Product 4-ac ^—20a6 {—21aa6a?
(—2a6
^ -1- ISabcz
Case 2. To multiply compound quantities.
Rule. Multiply every term of the multiplicand by all the
terms of the multiplier, one after another, by the pre¬
ceding rule, and collect their products into one sum,
which will be the product required.
Examples.
Multiply 4a—26-pc 2#+?/
By 3a %
Product 12aa—6a6 + 3ac Zxx + xy
—\xy—2y?/
aa—ab 66
a-j-6
aaa—aab -{- abb
-}- aab—abb -f- 666
aaa * * + 666
2xx—3xy—2yy
a—6 c
a-j-6-—c
a a—a 6 -j— ac
-|- ab —66 -p be
—ac -j- be—cc
aa * * —66 -|- 26c—cc.
The reason of the rules for the multiplication of quan¬
tities may be explained in tbe following manner:—Let it
be required to multiply a—6 by c—d; because multipli¬
cation is a repeated addition of the multiplicand as often
as the multiplier contains unity; therefore, a—6 is to be
taken as often as there are units in c—d, and the sum will Algebra,
be the product required. Now, if a—6 be taken as often
as there are units in c, the result will evidently exceed the
product required, and that by a quantity equal to a—6,
taken as often as there are units in d. But, from the na¬
ture of addition, a—6 taken as often as there are units in
c, is ca—c6, and for the same reason, a—6 taken as often
as there are units in d, is da—db ; therefore, to obtain the
product required, we must subtract da—db from ca—cb ;
but from what has been shown in subtraction, the remain¬
der will be ca—cb—da-\-db ; therefore the product aris¬
ing from the multiplication of a—6 by c—d is ca—cb—da
+ db ; hence, the reason of the general rule for the signs,
as well as the other rules, is manifest.
When several quantities are multiplied together so as to
constitute a product, each of them is called a factor of
that product: thus a, 6, and c are factors of the product
abc; also, a^-x and 6—x are factors of the product
(a-f-a?) (6—x).
The products arising from the continual multiplication
of the same quantity are called powers of that quantity,
which is called the root. Thus aa, aaa, aaaa, &c. are
powers of the root a. These powers are commonly ex¬
pressed by placing above the root, towards the right hand,
a figure, denoting how often the root is repeated. This
figure serves to denominate the power, and is called its
index or exponent. Thus, the quantity a being considered
as the root, or as the first power of a, we have aa or a2 for
its second power, aaa or a3 for its third power, aaaa or a4
for its fourth power, and so on.
The second and third powers of a quantity are gene¬
rally called its square and cube ; and the fourth, fifth, and
sixth powers are sometimes respectively called its biqua¬
drate, sursolid, and cubocube.
By considering the notation of powers, and the rules
for multiplication, it appears that powers of the same
root are multiplied by adding their exponents. Thus
a x = «4j also a:3 x x* = x7 \ and in general or
X a" — am*n.
Prob. IV.— To Divide Quantities.
13. General Rule for the Signs. If the signs of the
divisor and dividend be like, the sign of the quotient is
-f ; but if they be unlike, the sign of the quotient is —.
This rule is easily derived from the general rule for the
signs in multiplication, by considering that the quotient
must be such a quantity as, when multiplied by the divisor,
shall produce the dividend, with its proper sign.
The quotient arising from the division of one quantity
by another may be expressed by placing the dividend
above a line and the divisor below it (sect. 25); but it
may also be often expressed in a more simple manner by
the following rules.
Case 1. When the divisor is simple, and a factor of every
term of the dividend.
Rule. Divide the co-efficient of each term of the dividend
by the co-efficient of the divisor, and expunge out of
each term the letter or letters in the divisor: the result
is the quotient.
Ex. 1. Divide 12a6c by Sac.
From the method of notation, the quotient may be ex¬
pressed thus, ; but the same quotient, by the rule
3ac
just given, is more simply expressed thus, 46.
Ex. 2. Divide 16a3xy—28a2x2:2 + 4a2x3 by 4a2a:.
The quotient is 4ay—7z2-|-a:2-
If the divisor and dividend be powers of the same quan-
492
ALGEBRA.
Algebra, tity, the division will evidently be performed by subtract-
ing the exponent of the divisor from that of the dividend.
Thus a5, divided by a3, has for a quotient a5~5=a2.
Case 2. When the divisor is simple, but not a factor of
the dividend.
Rule. The quotient is expressed by a fraction, of which
the numerator is the dividend, and the denominator the
divisor.
Thus the quotient of 3ab2, divided by 2mbc, is the frac-
Sab2
tion ——
2mbc
It will sometimes happen that the quotient found thus
may be reduced to a more simple form, as shall be ex¬
plained when we come to treat of fractions.
Case 3. When the divisor is compound.
Rule 1. The terms of this dividend are to be arranged ac¬
cording to the powers of some one of its letters, and
those of the divisor according to the powers of the
same letter.
2. The first term of the dividend is to be divided by the
first term of the divisor, observing the general rule for
the signs ; and this quotient, being set down for a part
of the quotient wanted, is to be multiplied by the whole
divisor, and the product subtracted from the dividend.
If nothing remain, the division is finished; but if there
be a remainder, it is to be taken for a new dividend.
3. The first term of the new dividend is next to be divid¬
ed by the first term of the dividend, as before, and the
quotient joined to the part already found, with its pro¬
per sign. The whole divisor is also to be multiplied by
this part of the quotient, and the product subtracted
from the new dividend; and thus the operation is to be
carried on till there be no remainder, or till it appear
that there will always be a remainder.
To illustrate this rule, let it be required to divide
8a2 -j- 2ab—1562 by 2a+ 36, the operation will stand
thus:
2a + 36)8a2 + 2a6—1562(4a—56
8a2 + 12a6
—10a6—1562
—10a6—1562
Here the terms of the divisor and dividend are arranged
according to the powers of the quantity a. We now di¬
vide 8a2, the first term of the dividend, by 2a the first
term of the divisor; and thus get 4a for the first term of
the quotient. We next multiply the divisor by 4a, and
subtract the product 8a2 + 12a6 from the dividend; we
get— 10a6— 1562 for a new dividend.
By proceeding in all respects as before, we find — 56 for
the second term of the quotient, and no remainder: the
operation is therefore finished, and the whole quotient is
4a—56.
The following examples will also serve to illustrate the
manner of applying the rule.
Ex. 1.
3a—6)3a3—12a2—a26 + 10a6—262(a2 4a + 26
3a3 —a26
—12a2 +10a6
—12a2 + 4a6
+ 6a6—26s
+ 6a6—262
Ex. 2. Algebra.
a + 6)a3 + 63(a2—a6 + 62
a3+a26
—a26 + 63
—a26—a62
+ a62+63
+ a62+63
Ex. 3.
a3—63)a6—66(a3+63
a6—a363
+ a363—66
+ a363—66
Ex. 4.
1—^)1 (l+a? + a^+, &c.
1—x
+ x
-\-X—X?
+ *2
-\-X2 X3
+ X3.
14. Sometimes, as in this last example, the quotient will
never terminate: in such a case it may either be consid¬
ered as an infinite series, the law according to which the
terms are formed being in general sufficiently obvious ; or
the quotient may be completed as in arithmetical divi¬
sion, by annexing to it a fraction, the numerator of
which is the remainder, and denominator the divisor.
Thus the quotient in last example may stand thus :
1 +x + x2 +A3- ■.
1—x
The reason of the rule for division is sufficiently mani¬
fest. For, in the course of the operation, all the terms of
the quotient obtained by it are multiplied by all the terms
of the divisor, and the products successively subtracted
from the dividend, till nothing remain; that therefore
must evidently be the true quotient.
Sect. II.—Of Fractions.
15. In the operation of division, the divisor may be
sometimes less than the dividend, or may not be contain¬
ed in it an exact number of times : in either case the quo¬
tient is expressed by means of a fraction. There can be
no difficulty, however, in estimating the magnitude of
such a quotient; if, for example, it were the fraction +
we may consider it as denoting either that some unit is
divided into 7 equal parts, and that 5 of these are taken,
or that 5 times the same unit is divided into 7 equal parts,
and one of them taken.
16. In any fraction the upper number, or the dividend,
is called the numerator, and the lower number or divisor
is called the denominator. Thus, in the fraction a is
6
the numerator, and 6 the denominator.
17. If the numerator be less than the denominator,
such a fraction is called & proper fraction ; but if the nu¬
merator be either equal to, or greater than the denomina¬
tor, it is called an improper fraction ; and if a quantity be
ALGEBRA.
493
are both improper fractions ; and is a mixed quantity.
which divided by—2a; is a—x)a2—x?(a + x
a2—ax
-{■ax—x?
Jf-ax—x2
Algebra.
18. The reciprocal of a fraction is another fraction,
having its numerator and denominator respectively equal
to the denominator and numerator of the former.
Thus, - is the reciprocal of the fraction T.
a o
19. The following proposition is the foundation of the
operations relating to fractions.
If the numerator and denominator of a fraction be
either both multiplied or both divided by the same quan¬
tity, the value of that fraction is the same as before.
For, let any fraction ^=c > then, because c is the quo¬
tient arising from the division of b by a, it follows that
b—ac; and multiplying both by any quantity n, we have
nb—nac: let these equals be both divided by the same
quantity na, and the quotients will be equal, that is,
——cz=b-; hence the truth of the proposition is manifest.
na a
From this proposition, it is obvious that a fraction may
be very differently expressed, without changing its value,
and that any integer may be reduced to the form of a
fraction, by placing the product arising from its multipli¬
cation by any assumed quantity as the numerator, and the
assumed quantity as the denominator of the fraction. It
also appears that a fraction very complex in its form may
often be reduced to another of the same value, but more
simple, by finding a quantity which will divide both the
numerator and denominator, without leaving a remainder.
Such a common measure, or common divisor, may be
either simple or compound; if it be simple, it is readily
found by inspection, but if it be compound, it may be
found as in the following problem.
* *
Hence it appears that a—x is the greatest common mea¬
sure required.
Ex. 2. Required the greatest common measure of
8a2b?—10ab3 2b\ and 9a4b—9a3lP + Sa2b3—3ab\
It is evident, from inspection, that ft is a simple divisor
of both quantities; it will therefore be a factor of the
common measure required. Let the simple divisois be now
left out of each quantity, and they are reduced to 4a2—
dab + V2 and 3a3—3a26 + a^—; but as the second of
these is to be divided by the first, it must be multiplied
by 4 to make the division succeed, and the operation will
stand thus:
4a2—Bab + ^)12a3—12a2i + 4a&2—4fr3(3a
12a3—\ba2b Sati2
-j- 3a2b -j- aU2—4Z*3.
This remainder is to be divided by b, and the new divi¬
dend multiplied by 3, to make the division again succeed,
and the work will stand thus:
3a2 4- ab—4S2) 12a2— 15aJ -j- 352(4
12a2-f- 4a£>—1662
—igaS+lQ^2.
This remainder is to be divided by — 19&, which being
done, and the last divisor taken as a dividend as before,
the rest of the operation will be as follows:
a—b)3a2+ a&—4&2(3a + 46
3a2—3ab
20. Prob. I. To find the greatest common Measure of two
Quantities.
Rule 1. Range the quantities according to the power of
some one of the letters, as taught in division, leaving
out the simple divisors of each quantity.
2. Divide that quantity which is of most dimensions by
the other one, and if there be a remainder, divide it by
its greatest simple divisor; and then divide the last
compound divisor by the resulting quantity, and if any
thing yet remain, divide it also by its greatest simple
divisor, and the last compound divisor by the result¬
ing quantity. Proceed in this way till nothing remain,
and the last divisor shall be the common measure re¬
quired.
Note. It will sometimes be necessary to multiply the di¬
vidends by simple quantities in order to make the divi¬
sions succeed.
Ex. 1. Required the greatest common measure of the
quantities cdx—x3 and a3—2a2a;-p ax2. The simple di¬
visor x being taken out of the former of these quantities,
and a out of the latter, they are reduced to d2—^2, and
a? 2ax-\-xP; and as the quantity a rises to the same di¬
mensions in both, we may take either of them as the first
divisor : let us take that which consists of several terms,
and the operation will stand thus:
a2—x3)a2—2ax -\-x?(l
4a6—li2
-}- 4a&—I^2
# *
from which it appears that the^compound divisor sought is
a—b, and remarking that the quantities proposed have
also a simple divisor b, the greatest common measure
which is required will be b (a—b).
21. The reason of the rule given in this problem may be
deduced from the following considerations.
1. If two quantities have a compound divisor common
to both, and they be either multiplied or divided by any
simple quantities, the results will each have the same
compound divisor. Thus the quantities p (a—x) and
q (a—x) have the common divisor a—x, and the quantities
n p (a—x), r q{a—x) have each the very same divisor.
2. In the operation of division, whatever quantity mea¬
sures both the divisor and dividend, the same will also
measure the remainder. For let x be such a quantity,
then the divisor and dividend may be represented by ax
and bx; let q be the quotient, and the remainder will
evidently be bx—qax, which is evidently divisible by x.
3. Whatever quantity measures both the divisor and re¬
mainder, the same will also measure the dividend; for,
let the divisor be ax, and the remainder rx, then q, denot¬
ing the quotient, the dividend will be aqx-\-rx, which, as
well as the divisor and dividend, is divisible by x.
Let us apply these observations to the last example.
From the first observation, the reason for leaving out the
simple quantities in the course of the operation, as well as
—2aa; -f- 2xP remainder,
494
ALGEBRA.
Algebra, for multiplying by certain other quantities, to make the
divisions succeed, is obvious; and from the second obser¬
vation it appears, that whatever quantity measures 4a2—
Soi-J-Z*2, and 12a3—12a2Z>-j-4aZ>2—4Z>3, the same must
measure 3a2Z>-|-aZ»2—46s, the first remainder, as also—19a6
+ lOaZ*2, the second remainder; but the only compound
divisor which this last quantity can have is a—b, which is
also found to be a divisor of 3a2-f-aZ»—4Z*2, or of
alt1—4Z>3. The first remainder, therefore, by the third ob-
Ex. 2. Reduce ax+2iC , aiso —y2 t0 wh0ie or mix-v^l^L
a-\-x x—y
ed quantities.
a*-f-2a;2 «2
hirst  =a;-l  —, the answer.
a-j-a; a-j-a;
And Xx—r/ ~x+y a whole quantity, which is the an¬
x—y
swer.
servation, a—5, must also be a divisor of 12a2—IhaS + SZ*2, ok v 77 .• ^ ^
or of the first divisor, and therefore „tn i 25:5"^V^r<’^**» Fra**"™ of Afferent Dmmni-
-- J —   ^  
or of 4a2—5ab-\-b?, the first divisor, and therefore also it
must be a divisor of 12a3—12a2Z»-f 4aZ>2—4Z*3, the first
dividend; so that a—b is the greatest common measure,
as was required.
22. Prob. II.— To Reduce a Fraction to its lowest Terms.
Rule. Divide both numerator and denominator by their
greatest common measure, which may be found by
Prob. I. 3
Ex. 1. Reduce 10 *tS ^owest terms.
It appears from inspection, that the greatest common
measure is 8ac ; and dividing both numerator and denomi¬
nator by this quantity, we have
J 24adc2 3dc
Ex. 2. Reduce to its lowest terms.
We have already found in the first example of Prob. I.
that the greatest common measure of the numerator and
denominator is a—x ; and dividing both by this quantity,
we have
nators to others of the same value which shall have a com¬
mon Denominator.
Rule. Multiply each numerator separately into all the
denominators except its own for the new numerators,
and all the denominators together for the common de¬
nominator.
Fx. 1. Reduce -y -, andjr, to fractions of equal value
which have a common denominator.
(tXdxf=adf~i
cXb x f=cbf > New numerators.
exbxd=ebd )
bxdxf—bdf Common denominator.
Hence we find and where the
new fractions have a common denominator, as was re¬
quired.
azx—xA
 ax-^-x1
a3—‘Zd2xax? “a2—ax '
In like manner we find
9q4Z>—Qq3^2 -}_ gq2#*—3aZ>4 _ 9a3-f 3aZf
Sa2#2—10aZ>3-f-2Z>4 ~ Sab—2F ’
the common measure being b (a—b\ as was shown in
Example 2. Problem I.
23. Prob. III.— To Reduce a mixed Quantity to an im¬
proper Fraction.
Rule. Multiply the integer by the denominator of the
fraction, and to the product add the numerator; and
the denominator being placed under this sum, the result
will be the improper fraction required.
Ex. 2. Reduce —aX and
Ex. 1. Let #+—, and x —
a
proper fractions.
First, tr+^ = ^£±^, the
be reduced to im-
And x-
a
a2 — 3?
a?
answer.
a2+^ 2^ — q2
x
X1
Ans.
Ex. 2. Reduce a — x-\-—^— to an improper fraction.
n-.rr+-*L-(a + X)(a~x) + X2
a + x a + x a-j-x’
z2 x2
cv-x t0 fractions of e,^ua,
value, and having a common denominator.
ax(aJrx)=.a?x-\.ao(? f
(a2—F)(a—x) = a3—asx—axa+x3f New numerators.
a—x)(a + x)=a2—a?2, the common denominator.
Hence and a2~-^_a3—a2x—a2x+x3
a—x a2—x2 a-\-x a2 a^2
26. Prob. VI.— To Add or Subtract Fractions.
Rule. Reduce the fractions to a common denominator,
and add or subtract their numerators, and the sum or
difference placed over the common denominator, is the
sum or remainder required.
Ex. 1. Add together y, y, and j.
a _adf
b~ bdf
c bcf
H~bdf
e bde
f~W
TT ace adf-)-bcf4-bde .
Hence ^? the sum required.
-, Ans.
Ex. 2. From aJ(~x subtract
a
24. Prob. IV.— To Reduce an improper Fraction to a
whole or mixed Number.
Rule. Divide the numerator by the denominator for the
integral part, and place the remainder, if any, over the
denominator, and it will be the mixed quantity required.
Ex. 1. Reduce —to a whole or mixed quantity.
a a-p#
a + x _a?+2ax+x?
I2
a2 + ax
a2
a+x'
Hence
ar-j-a2
x
—a + —, the answer required.
a2+ax
a _ 2ax -j- x2
a + x a2 -{- a# "
Ex. 3. Add together |, and
o Q 2
x+2 x —5_8x+16 + 6a;-pl2ar —60
3 ' 4 ‘ 2 24 ^
ALGEBRA.
C (t c , '
l3X\2 22 11 11 be re(luired t0 add or subtract mixeii tbus: Let ^be re(luired t0 divide ^ bJ y If ^ 18 t0
quantities, they may either be reduced to the form of divided b tbe quotient is ; but if it is to be divided
fractions by prob. 3, and then added or subtracted, or else cut
these operations may be performed first on the integer „ h the last quotient must be multiplied by 6 ; thus
quantities, and afterwards on the fractions. j n
27. Prob. VII.—To Multiply Fractions.
Rule. Multiply the numerators of the fractions for the
we have for the quotient required. Or let r = and
ad u
Uie. iviuiupiy uie nuiueiaiuis ui me iiaewwwt. . j 1A A
numerator of the product, and the denominators for the ^ = n, then a = bm and c= dn ; also ad _ oam ana
denominator of the product. ^ n y
b. d be = bdn; therefore j-t- = — =
Ex. 1. Multiply - by-.
- v — = —, the product required.
a c ac
_ _ , , , a -P* b ^ a 1 b
Ex. 2. Multiply —— by 
CL -4- J) CL
~E~ x —T
c a
d
a2 — l?
cd
-, the product.
Sect. III.—Involution and Evolution.
29. In treating of multiplication, we have observed, that
when a quantity is multiplied by itself any number of
times, the product is called a power of that quantity, while
the quantity itself, from which the powers are formed, is
V UL tile tjUailLILJ X xxv/xx* ”  1 . „
If it be required to multiply an integer by a fraction, called the root (sect. 12). Thus, a, and a , are the nrst
the integer may be considered as having unity for a de- second, and third powers of the root a ; and in like manner
nominator. Thus, (a+x) X x ^.-3ad+3dx, _L and i, denote the same powers of the root -.
Mixed quantities may be multiplied after being reduced But before considering more particularly what re-
to the form of fractions by prob. 3. Thus, (& +-^) X | lates to powers and roots, it will be proper to observe, t at
- - - - V ' the quantities 4’ &c‘ admit of being eXpreSSed
ab-\-bx x a _ cPb + abx _ ab + bx
a x a* * under a different form; for, like as the quantities a, a2, a3,
The reason of the rule for multiplication may be ex- &c. are expressed as positive powers of the root a, so the
plained thus. If | is to be multiplied by c, the product quantities \ &c. may be respectively expressed
thus, a-1, a-2, ar^, &c. and considered as negative powers
will evidently be y; but if it is only to be multiplied by of th’e
—, the former product must be divided by d, and it be
d
c . 1 1 1
30. This method of expressing the fractions -, -5,
a as powers of the root a, but with negative indices, is a
—, which is the product required. Or let^= m, conseqUenCe of the rule which has been given for the
and — — n. then a—bm and c—dn and ac—bdmn; hence,
d
a c ac
mn or T X -3= Tl'
28. Prob. VIII.— To Divide Fractions.
division of powers ; for we may consider ^ as the quotient
arising from the division of any power of a by the next
higher power ; for example, from the division of the 2d
by the 3d, and so we have ^ = ^3 ? but since Powers of
VH V X LX. J- U # JLULljLts JL I isCKsUCKStw #
. i the same quantity are divided by subtracting the exponent
Rule. Multiply the denominator of the divisor by the Gf tbe divisor fr0m that of the dividend (sect. 30), it follows,
numerator of the dividend for the numerator of the quo- 2 . 1 . ,
tient. Then multiply the numerator of the divisor by that — = a2-3 = or1; therefore the fraction - may also be
the denominator of the dividend for the denominator of a ^
the quotient. , .
Or, multiply the dividend by the reciprocal of the divisor,
the product will be the quotient required.
a c
Ex. 1. Divide by
tbe <lu0^ent re(lubed’ or6 ^ c ” be asbePore
Ex. 2. Divide
2x
by
3a2
a—b
expressed thus, arK By considering - as equal to it
1 CL^
will appear in the same manner that — -^=. or2-, and
1 a2 _ „ 1 _
proceeding in this way, we get -j _ _ ar°, ^
— a-4, &c. and so on, as far as we please. It also appears
that unity or 1 may be represented by a°, where the ex¬
ponent is a cypher, for 1 = -^ = a 2~2 = a0.
31. The rules which have been given for the multiplica¬
tion and division of powers with positive exponents will
.i .1  f 1 vro nr
3f_\^±ab/cfi-a^ df-V' the quotient_
Or-b) 2x \ba2x Sax annlv in every case, whether the exponents be positive or
If either the divisor or dividend be an integer quantity, ^^ . an([thig must evidently take place; for the mode
it may be represented as a fraction, by placing unity for a f g j ’ , which we represent fractional quantities as
denominator ; or if it be a mixed quantity, it may be re- ” 6> butPwith negative exponents, has
duced to a fraction by prob. 3, and the operation of dm- tne poweis image , I 3 _2 ,
sion performed agreeably to the rule. , been derived from those rules. Ihus, fl2Xa ora X
The reason of the rule for division may be explained
496
ALGEBRA.
g ^ = tf-213 — a, also 4-x4ora-x^-— ^~5
ar x3
= —r, and — x ^ or x «+3 = xr3^3 = xP z= 1.
X° XT
From this method of notation it appears, that any quan¬
tity may be taken from the denominator of a fraction, and
placed in the numerator, by changing the sign of its ex¬
ponent ; and hence it follows, that every fraction may also
be represented as an integer quantity. Thus, denotes
cfib—^ ($
the same thing as — or as aPb^cr3; also y——j-- may
be otherwise expressed thus, a2(x—l)-
(x—l)3
Of Involution.
32. Involution is the method of finding any power of
any assigned quantity, whether it be simple or compound:
hence its rules are easily derived from the operation of
multiplication.
Case 1. When the quantity is simple.
Rule. Multiply the exponents of the letters by the index
of the power required, and raise the co-efficient to the
same power.
Note. If the sign of the quantity be +, all its powers will
be positive ; but if it be —, then all its powers whose
exponents are even numbers are positive, and all its
powers whose exponents are odd numbers are negative.
Ex. 1. Required the cube, or third power, of 2a?x.
(2a2#)3—2 x 2 x 2a2x3#1 x3=: Sa0#3, the answer.
Ex. 2. Required the fifth power of —3a2#3.
(—3a2#3)5——2I3a10#15, the answer.
Ex. 3. Required the fourth power of — .
3lry
(—2a#2\4 16a4#8
Vwhi) =8l3y’the answer-
Case 2. When the quantity is compound.
Rule. The powers must be found by a continual multipli¬
cation of the quantity by itself.
Ex. Required the first four powers of the binomial
quantity a-j-#.
a-|-# the root, or first power.
a-j-#
a2-pa#
-j-a#-f #2
a~-j-2a#-j-#2 the square, or second power,
a-p#
a3-p 2a2#-pa#2
-j- a2#-p2a#2-p#3
a3 -p 3a2# -p 3a#2-p #3 the cube, or third power
a-p#
a4 -p 3a3# -p 3a2#2 -p a#3
-j- a3# -j- 3a2#2 -p 3a#3 ~p xA
a4-p4a3#-p6a2#2 + 4a#3-p#4 the fourth power.
If it be required to find the same powers of a—#, it will
be found that
a—# being the root, or first power; then
a2—2a#-p#2 is the square, or second power;
«3—Sa^c-pSa#2—#3, the cube, or third power ;
a4—4a3#-j-6a2#2—4a#3+#4, the fourth power.’
Hence it appears that the powers of a-p# differ from the Algebra,
powers of a—# only in this respect, that in the former
the signs of the terms are all positive, but in the latter
they are positive and negative alternately.
33. Besides the method of finding the powers of a
compound quantity by multiplication, which we have just
now explained, there is another more general, as well as
more expeditious, by which a quantity may be raised to
any power whatever without the trouble of finding any of
the inferior powers, namely, by means of what is com¬
monly called the binomial theorem. This theorem may be
expressed as follows: Let a—x be a binomial quantitj^,
which is to be raised to any power denoted by the num¬
ber n, then (a-\-x)n=.
ara-pjan-1# -p
n(n-
1
J_) ^n-2^
n(n—\)(n—2)
an-3#3
n(n—l)(n-2)(n-3)
1 • 2 • 3 -4 *
n(n—1) (n—2) (n—3) (n—4)
-r i . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 «n“5«5 + , &c.
This series will always terminate when n is any whole po¬
sitive number, by reason of some one of the factors n—1,
n—2, &c. becoming = 0; but if n be either a negative
or fractional number, the series will consist of an infinite
number of terms. As, however, we mean to treat in this
section only of the powers of quantities when their expo¬
nents are whole positive numbers, we shall make no fur¬
ther remarks upon any other: we shall afterwards give a
demonstration of the theorem, and show its application to
fractional and negative powers, in treating of infinite series.
The «th power of a—# will not differ from the same
power of a-p#, but in the signs of the terms which com¬
pose it, for it will stand thus: (a—x')n—an—jan_1#
_\ n(n—r) n(n—l)(n—2)
-a”-3#3
&c. where the signs are
1*2 1-2
«(>—1)0-2)(„_3)
+ 1 • 2 • 3 • i
-p and — alternately.
Ex. 1. Let it be required to raise a -p # to the fifth
power.
Here n, the exponent of the power, being 5, the first
term an of the general theorem will be equal to a5, the
Tl( 71 - 1 )
second nan~1x rz 5a4#, the third ^ v ^—— an~2 #2 —
a5 #2 = 10a3 #2, the fourth X) 2)
1X2
5x4x3
1 v 2 v
n(n — l)(n—2)(n—3)
1-2 • 3
a2 #3, — 10a2 #5, the fifth
5 X 4 x 3 x 2
1.2- 3-4
and the sixth and last 0 <> —2) Q —3) (” —*)
1 • 2 • 3 • 4 • 5
, 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 o 5
a" 5 x0 = rz — -   7—- a° x5 z= x5 ; the remaining
Ix2x3x4x5 6
terms of the general theorem all vanish, by reason of the
factor n — 5 z= 0 by which each of them is multiplied,
so that we get (a -p #)5 = a5 -p 5a4# -p 10a3#2 .p 10a2#3
-p5a#4 ~p #5.
Ex. 2. It is required to raise 2d — ^ to the third power.
In this case rc =: 3, so that if we put a — 2d and x = I,
we have the first term of the general theorem, or anz=.SSd3,
77/ Z
the second — an~l # zz 3 x 4c?3 x ^ = bd^z, the third
ALGEBRA.
497
^Algebra^n(ft 1) a„_2 ^2 _ 3 y 9ri X = -^—5 and the fourth
,, —1)(«—;2) „ _ 23 , . ,
and last term —2-—3—~ an~^x3 = 27 5 and since the
signs of the terms of any power of a — x are 4- and — alter-
nately, we have \ 2d—-J3 = 8c?3—4c?2 2-|—  —.
34. If the quantity to be involved consists of more than
two terms, as if p + q—r were to be raised to the second
power, put jt? = a and q —r — b, then (p-\-q — r)2 —
(a-\-l>)2 = a2 -\-2ab-\-b2 — p2 -\-2p (q — + — ^)25
but 2p (q — r)= 2pq—2pr, and by the general theorem
— r)2 — q2 — 2^4-7^, therefore we get (p-\-q — r)2
=. p?-\-2pq — 2pr-\-q2 — 2^4-7^; and by a similar me¬
thod of proceeding a quantity consisting of four or more
terms may be raised to any power.
Of Evolution.
35. Evolution is the reverse of involution, or it is the
method of finding the root of any quantity, whether sim¬
ple or compound, which is considered as a power of that
root: hence it follows that its operations, generally speak¬
ing, must be the reverse of those of involution.
To denote that the root of any quantity is to be taken,
the sign (called the radical sign) is placed before it,
and a small number placed over the sign to express the
2 _
denomination of the root. Thus a denotes the square
3 — . 4 — .
root of a, /fa its cube root, /fa its fourth root, and in ge¬
neral, /fa its 7*th root. The number placed over the radi¬
cal sign is called the index or exponent of the root, and is
usually omitted in expressing the square root: thus, either
2 _ _
/fa or »fa denotes the square root of a.
Case 1. When roots of simple quantities are to be found.
Rule. Divide the exponents of the letters by the index
of the root required, and prefix the root of the numeral
co-efficient; the result will be the root required.
Note 1. The root of any positive quantity may be either
positive or negative, if the index of the root be an even
number; but if it be an odd number, the root can be
positive only.
2. The root of a negative quantity is also negative when
the index of the root is an odd number.
3. But if the quantity be negative, and the index of the
root even, then no root can be assigned.
Ex. 1. Required the square root of 36a2*4.
Here the index of the root is 2, and the root of the
co-efficient 6, therefore VSGa2*4 = 4" ®aa;2 or -v/SSa2*4
——6a*2; for either of these quantities, when multiplied
by itself, produces 36a2*4 ; so that the root required is
z+rGa*2, where the sign denotes that the quantity to
which it is prefixed may be considered either as positive
or negative.
Ex. 2. Required the cube root of 125a6*9.
Here the index of the root is 3, and the root of the co-
3 
efficient 5, therefore /f 125a6*9rr5a2*3, the root required;
and in like manner the cube root of —125a6*9 is found to
be —5a2*3.
If it be required to extract the square root of —a2, it will
immediately appear that no such root can be assigned ; for
it can neither be +a nor —a, seeing that each of these
quantities, when squared, produces 4-a2: the root required
VOL. 11.
is therefore said to be impossible, and may be expressed Algebra.
thus: y'—   
The root of a fraction is found by extracting that root
out of both numerator and denominator. Thus the square
j. 4a2*4 . 2a*2
rootof9iy,s3ip-
Case 2. When the quantity of which the root is to be ex¬
tracted is compound.
36. I. To extract the square root.
Range the terms of the quantity according to the pow¬
ers of the letters, as in division.
Find the square root of the first term for the first part
of the root sought, subtract its square from the given
quantity, and divide the remainder by double the part al¬
ready found, and the quotient is the second term of the
root.
Add the second part to double the first, and multiply
their sum by the second part; subtract the product from
the remainder, and if nothing remain, the square root is
obtained. But if there is a remainder, it must be divided
by the double of the parts already found, and the quotient
will give the third term of the root, and so on.
Ex. 1. Required the square root of a24-2a*-I-*2.
a2 4-2a* 4-^(a 4-*, the root required.
a2
2a^-x\-\-2ax-\-xP
Xx)-\-2ax-\-xP
% *
3
Ex. 2. Required the square root of xt—2*34--*2.
* 1
'2 + l6*
. „ . 3„* l/„ 1
2*-^+ 2iI?-2+l6r_:C+4
2*2—*\ —2*3 4- f*2
X—x)—2*3+ x?
x? x \
2 2+l6
X? X l
2 2+16
* * *
To understand the reason of the rule for finding the
square root of a compound quantity, it is only necessary
to involve any quantity, as a-tf-b-^c, to the second power,
and observe the composition of its square; for we have
(a-\-b-lrc)2zza2+2abJ[-lP-\-2ac-)-2bc-\-ci \ but 2ab-\-b2
■=1(20-^ b)b and 2ac-|-2?»c4-c2=(2a4-2?>4-c)c, therefore,
(a -j- -f c)2—a2 4. (2a 4- b)b 4. (2a 4- 2?» 4- c)c ;
and from this expression the manner of deriving the rule
is obvious.
As an illustration of the common rule for extracting the
square root of any proposed number, we shall suppose that
the root of 59049 is required.
Accordingly we have (a4-?>4-e)2zr59049, and from
hence we are to find the values of a, b, and c.
3 R
498
Algebra.
ALGEBRA.
59049(200=a)
—innnn in—h v
'a2=200x 200= 40000 40=5
2a=400
5= 40
2a-{-5=440
19049
=4
Hence 243 is the root
required.
17600=(2a+5)5
2a+25= 480
c= 3
2a+25+e=483
1449
1449=(2a+25 + c)c
The same example when wrought by the common rule
(see Arithmetic) will stand thus:
59049(243 the root required.
4
root sought; subtract its cube from the whole quantity, Algebra,
and divide the remainder by three times the square of the
part already found, and the quotient is the second part of
the root.
Add together three times the square of the part of the
root already found, three times the product of that part
and the second part of the root, and the square of the se¬
cond part; multiply the sum by the second part, and sub¬
tract the product from the first remainder, and if nothing
remain, the root is obtained; but if there is a remainder,
it must be divided by three times the square of the sum
of the parts already found, and the quotient is a third term
of the root, and so on, till the whole root is obtained.
Ex. Required the cube root of a3+3a%+3aa;2+«3.
a3+3a2a;+3ax2+a?3(a+a; the root required.
44)190
176
3a2+3a#+xEficPx+3a#2+#3
3a2# + 3a#2 + #3
The reason of the preceding rule is evident from the
composition of a cube ; for if any quantity, as a + 5 + cbe
raised to the third power, we have (a + 5 + c)3=a3+(3a2
+ 3a5 + 52)5+3(a + 5)2+3(a+5)c+c2)c, and by con-
. sidering in what manner the terms a, 5, and c are deduced
and by a comparison of the two operations, the reason of from expression for the cube of their sum, we also see
the reason for the common rule for extracting the cube
root in numbers. Let it be required to find the cube
483)1449
1449
the common rule is obvious
II. To extract the cube root
37.
Range the terms of the quantity according to the pow¬
ers of some one of the letters.
Find the root of the first term, for the first part of the
root of 13312053, where the root will evidently consist of
three figures; let us suppose it to be represented by a +
5 + c, and the operation for finding the numerical values
of these quantities may stand as follows.
13312053(200=a
a3= 8000000 30=5
- 7=c
3a2= 120000
3a5= 18000
52= 900
3a2+3a5+52= 138900
3(a +5)2=158700
3(a + 5)e= 4830
c2= 49
5312053
237 the root required.
4167000= (3a2+3a5+52)5
1145053
3(a + 5)2+3(a + 5>+<?= 163579 1145053= [3(a+5)2+3(a + 5)c+c^c
The operation as performed by the common rule (see
Arithmetic) wull stand thus:
13312053(237 the root required.
8
12..
18
1389
1587. .
483 .
49
163579
5312
4167
1145053
1145053
Involve the first member of the root to a power less by
unity than the number that denominates the root re¬
quired, and multiply the power that arises by the num¬
ber itself; divide the second term of the given quan¬
tity by the product, and the quotient shall give the
second member of the root required.
Find the remaining members of the root in the same manner
by considering those already found as making one term.
Ex. Required the cube rootof#6 + 6#5—40#3+96#—64.
xG + 6#5—40#3+96#—64(#2+2#—4
(#2)3=#6
3#4)6#5
38. III. To extract any other root.
Rule. Range the quantity of which the root is to be
found, according to the powers of its letters, and extract
the root of the first term, and that shall be the first
member of the root required.
(#2+2#)3=#6 + 6#5+12#4+8#3
3#4 + , &c.)—12#4
(#2 + 2#—4)3=#6 + b#5—40#3+96#—64
ALGEBRA.
499
Algebra. In this example, the cube root of a?6, or a?, is the first
member of the root; and to find a second member, the first
is raised to the power next lower, or to the second power,
and also multiplied by 3, the index of the root required.
Thus we get 3a?1 for a divisor, by which the second term
fix5 being divided, we find 2x for the second member of
the root. We must now consider oci-\-2x as forming one
term: accordingly, having subtracted its cube from the
quantity of which the root is sought, we have —12x4—,
&c. for a new dividend ; and having also raised 3iP-\-2x to
the second power, and multiplied the result by 3, we find
Sx4-)-, &c. for a divisor. (As it is only the terms which
contain the highest powers of the dividend and divisor
that we have occasion for, the remaining terms are ex¬
pressed by &c.) Having divided —12a?1 by Sx4, we find
—A for the third term of the root; and because it appears
that x2-f-2x—4, when raised to the third power, gives a
result the very same with the proposed power, we conclude
x2-f-2x—4> to be the root sought.
39. In the preceding examples, the quantities whose
roots were to be found have been all such as could have
their roots expressed by a finite number of terms ; but it
will frequently happen that the root cannot be otherwise
assigned than by a series consisting of an infinite number
of terms. The preceding rules, however, will serve to de¬
termine any number of terms of the series. Thus, the
x2 x4
square root of c^+x2 will be found to be a+
a^
5a?8
16a5 128a7
-{-, &c., and the cube root of a3-{-x3 will
stand thus, a-
a?3
x6 5x9
10x12
-f-, &c. But
'3a2 9a5+81 a8 243a11
as the extraction of roots in the form of series can be
more easily performed by other methods, we shall refer
the reader to sect. 19, which treats of series, where this
subject is resumed.
Sect. IV.—Of Surds.
40. It has been already observed (35), that the root of
any proposed quantity is found by dividing the exponent
of the quantity by the index of the root; and the rule has
been illustrated by suitable examples, in all which, how¬
ever, the quotient expressing the exponent of the result
is a whole number; but there may be cases in which the
quotient is a fraction. Thus, if the cube root of a2 were
required, it might be expressed, agreeably to the me¬
thod of notation already explained, either thus, ^/a2,
2
or thus, a5".
Quantities which have fractional exponents are called
surds, or imperfect powers, and are said to be irrational,
in opposition to others with integral exponents, which are
called rational.
Surds may be denoted by means of the radical sign, but
it will be often more convenient to use the notation of
fractional exponents. The following examples will show
how they may be expressed either way.
y'a rr a9, a/4a62 — 26a1, — aib\
Vtf+V = (a2 + i2) 2, 5\f(a—bf - (a—bf,
=(a + 6)2 a-26-2.
VabK
The operations concerning surds depend on the follow¬
ing principle : If the numerator and denominator of a
fractional exponent be either both multiplied or both
divided by the same quantity, the value of the power is
in cm m
the same. Thus, a~» = am. For let an—b, then raising
both to the power n, am = 6n, and further, raising both to Algebra,
the power c, we get acm=bm: let the root cn be now taken,
cm n
and we find a™ = b = n-
41. Prob. I.—To Reduce a Rational Quantity to the form
of a Surd of any given denomination.
Rule. Reduce the exponent of the quantity to the form
of a fraction of the same denomination as the given
surd.
Ex. I. Reduce a2 to the form of the cube root.
Here the exponent 2 must be reduced to the form of a
fraction having 3 for a denominator, which will be the frac-
6 3  
tionf; therefore a2=a?=\/a6.
Ex. 2. Reduce 5 to the form of the cube root, and
3a62 to the form of the square root.
First, 5—53 = y'S x 5 x5 = */125,
And 3 a 6s- 32a%b$ = (32a264)2=-/g^4.
42. Pros. II.—To Reduce Surds of different denominations
to others of the same value, and of the same denomina¬
tion.
Rule. Reduce the fractional exponents to others of the
same value, and having the same common denominator.
3    1 2
Ex. 1. Reduce */a and .y/62, or a2 and 63 to other
equivalent surds of the same denomination.
The exponents §, when reduced to a common deno¬
minator, are § and 4; therefore the surds required are
A A 6  6  
a6 and 66, or >y/a3 and v/64.
Ex. 2. Reduce 32 and 2^ to surds of the same denomi¬
nation.
The new exponents are and §, therefore we have
3 2=36 — y'S3 = ^27, and 28=2« =V22 = ^4.
And in the same way the surds Am, BM, are reduced
to these two, \/An and ^/Bm.
43. Prob. III.— To Reduce Surds to their most simple
terms.
Rule. Reduce the surd into two factors, so that one of
them may be a complete power, having its exponent
divisible by the index of the surd. Extract the root of
that power, and place it before the remaining quantities,
with the proper radical sign between them.
Ex. 1. Reduce -^48 to its most simple terms.
The number 48 may be resolved into the two factors
16 and 3, of which the first is a complete square ; there¬
fore ^48= (4s X 3)2—4x32=4-v/3.
Ex. 2. Reduce \/98a% and y'24a3x + 40a3x2, each
to its most simple terms.
First,^/98a4x — (72a4 x 2x)2 rr 7a2 x (2x)2 = '7a?\/2x.
Also ^/2ia3x + 40a3#2 =(23a3(3a?+ 5x2))3=2a^3x+5x?.
44. Prob. IV.—To Add and Subtract Surds.
Rule. If the surds are of different denominations, reduce
them to others of the same denomination, by prob. 2,
500
ALGEBRA.
Algebra. and then reduce them to their simplest terms by last
problem. Then, if the surd part be the same in them
all, annex it to the sum or difference of the rational
parts, with the sign of multiplication, and it will give
the sum or difference required. But if the surd part be
not the same in all the quantities, they can only be
added or subtracted by placing the signs -j- or be¬
tween them.
Ex. 1. Required the sum_of ^27 and >/4a_
By prob._3 we find \/27=3 >/3_and >/48=4 \/3,
therefore ^27-f- 48=3 '*/3-|-4 \/3=7 V'S.
3 _ 3 —
Ex. 2. Required the sum of 3 \/£ and 5 */
s = 3 .y/f=i v'2 an(^5 = ^ y a ::::
therefore 3 -j- 5 = § V’2 + f V^2 ^ V V"2*
Ex. 3. Required the difference between v/80a4a: and
^20a2^
46. Prob. VI.— To Involve and Evolve Surds. Algebra.
Surds are involved or evolved in the same manner as
any other quantities, namely, by multiplying or dividing
their exponents by the index of the power or root re¬
quired. Thus, the square of 3 ^/3 is 3 x 3 x (3)a =
3 _ - . -
9 */ 9. The nth power of xm is xrn. The cube root
1 _ i 2. 6 _ i i
of qA/S is -(2)6= a/2 and the nth root of xm is xn‘n.
8 2 -jp
47. If a compound quantity involve one or more surds,
its powers may be found by multiplication. Thus, the
square of 3 + a/5 is found as follows :
3 +
3 +a/5
94-3a/5
+ 3a/5 + 5
\/80a4x = (42a4 X 5a;)2 = 4a2 5x, and 20a2x3 =
(22a2x2 x 5a;)2 = 2ax V5x; therefore ^80 a4 x —
a/2(W = (4a2—2ax) Vox.
45. Prob. V.—To Multiply and Divide Surds.
Rule. If they are surds of the same rational quantity, add
or subtract their exponents.
But if they are surds of different rational quantities, let
them be brought to others of the same denomination,
by prob. 2. Then, by multiplying or dividing these
rational quantities, their product or quotient may be set
under the common radical sign.
Note. If the surds have any rational co-efficients, their
product or quotient must be prefixed.
3 — 5 —
Ex. 1. Required the product of -y/a2 and y'a3.
15 
3 _ 5 — 2 3 2+3 19 4/ 19
a/a2 X a/053 = a5 Y. a? — a5 5 = alj a , Ans.
Ex. 2. Divide \Sa2— IP by y/a+6.
These surds, when reduced to the same denomina-
3 2 \/a2 — b2
tion, are (a2 — i2)8’ and (a + Z>)^. Hence 3~^/-
((a*-Vy\\ _ ((a + b)3(a — l>y\y
- V (« + &)2 ) ~\ (a + by J
— ^ (a-\-b)(a — 6) 3 ^ = ,y/(a-f 5) (a — b)3.
Ex. 3. Required the product of 5 */8 and 3 ^/5.
5 a/3X3 a/5=5X 3 X a/3 X \/5=15 X a/40=15X
y/4xl0= 30 y/10.
3   3 _
Ex. 4. Divide 8 \/56 by 4 -^2.
4“ = 2^|=2V28.
4 a/2
A A
Ex. 5, Required the product of and a;n; also the
... 1 J
quotient arising from the division of am by bn.
] 1 A i A m+n mn 
First, xm y> xn — xm n = x mn aft",
9-}-6y/5 + 5=14 + 6v/5, the square required.
48. The square root of a binomial or residual surd,
A + B, orA—B, may be found thus. Find Dzry/A2—B2,
then ^A + B=y^±5+y
and v/A=3=y
Thus the square root of 8-\-2\/l is \-\-Vl \ and the
square root of 3 — \/8 is */ 2— 1. With respect to the
extraction of the cube or any higher root, no general rule
can be given.
Sect. V.—Of Proportion.
49. In comparing together any two quantities of the
same kind in respect of magnitude, we may consider how
much the one is greater than the other, or else how many
times the one contains either the whole or some part of
the other; or, which is the same thing, we may consider
either what is the difference between the quantities, or
what is the quotient arising from the division of the one
quantity by the other: the former of these is called their
arithmetical ratio, and the latter their geometrical ratio.
These denominations, however, have been assumed arbi¬
trarily, and have little or no connection with the relations
they are intended to express.
I. Of Arithmetical Proportion.
50. When of four quantities the difference between the
first and second is equal to the difference between the
third and fourth, the quantities are called arithmetical pro¬
portionals. Such, for example, are the numbers 2, 5, 9, 12;
and, in general, the quantities a, a-\-d, b, b-\-d. If the
two middle terms are equal, the quantities constitute an
arithmetical progression.
51. The principal property of four arithmetical propor¬
tionals is this:—If four quantities be arithmetically pro¬
portional, the sum of the extreme terms is equal to the
sum of the means. Let the quantities be a, a + d,b,b-\-d;
where d is the difference between the first and second,
and also between the third and fourth, the sum of the ex¬
tremes is a + b-\-d, and that of the means a-\-d+b; so
that the truth of the proposition is evident. Hence it fol¬
lows, that if any three quantities be arithmetically propor¬
tional, the sum of the two extremes is double the mean.
52. If any three terms of four arithmetical proportion¬
als be given, the fourth may be found from the preceding
ALGEBRA.
501
Algebra, proposition. Let a, b, c, be the first, second, and fourth
terms, and let x, the third term, be required; because
a_j_c — b-\-x, therefore x — a-\-c — b. In like manner
any two of three arithmetical proportionals being supposed
given, the remaining term may be readily found.
53. If a series of quantities be such, that the difference
between any two adjacent terms is always the same, these
terms form a continued arithmetical progression. Thus, the
numbers 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, &c. form a series in continued arith¬
metical proportion, and, in general, such a series may be
represented thus:
a, a + « + 2e7, a + 3cZ, a + 4tf, a + 5rf, a + 6d, &c. where
a denotes the first term, and d the common difference.
By a little attention to this series, we readily discover
that it has the following properties :
1. The last term of the series is equal to the first term,
together with the common difference taken as often as
there are terms after the first. Thus, when the number
of terms is 7, the last term is a-\-Q>d ; and so on. Hence
if 2 denote the last term, n the number of terms, and a
and d express the first term and common difference, we
have 2=ra-f-(w—1)
2. The sum of the first and last term is equal to the
sum of any two terms at the same distance from them.
Thus, suppose the number of terms to be 7, then the last
term is a-\-§d, and the sum of the first and last 2a-\-bd;
but the same is also the sum of the second and last but
one, of the third and last but two, and so on till we come
to the middle term, which, because it is equally distant
from the extremes, must be added to itself.
From the last-mentioned property we derive a rule for
finding the sum of all the terms of the series. For if the
sum of the first and last be taken, as also the sum of the
second and last but one, of the third and last but two, and
so on along the series till we come to the sum of the last
and first terms, it is evident that we shall have as many
sums as there are terms, and each equal to the sum of the
first and last terms ; but the aggregate of those sums is
equal to all the terms of the series taken twice, there¬
fore the sum of the first and last term, taken as often as
there are terms, is equal to twice the sum of all the terms ,
so that if s denote that sum, we have 2s=n(a+z), and
s=^(a+z).
Hence the sum of the odd numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, &c.
continued to n terms, is equal to the square of the nu^1'
ber of terms. For in this case a= 1, dz=.2, z— 1 + (« 1) d
— 2n—1, therefore 5= ^ X 2n—r?.
II. Of Geometrical Proportion.
54. When, of four quantities, the quotient arising from
the division of the first by the second is equal to that
arising from the division of the third by the fourth, these
quantities are said to be in geometrical proportion, or are
called simply proportionals. "Ihus, 12, 4, 15, o, are four
numbers in geometrical proportion; and, in general, na,
a, nb, b, may express any four proportionals, for —=n, and
, nb
also -£-=n.
To denote that any four quantities a, b, c, d, are pro¬
portionals, it is common to place them thus, a : b :: c : d;
or thus, a • bzz.c \ d} which notation, when expressed in
words, is read thus, a is to ft as c to d, or the ratio of a to
ft is equal to the ratio of c to rft
The first and third terms of a proportion are called the
antecedents, and the second and fourth the consequents.
When the two middle terms of a proportion are the Algebra,
same, the remaining terms, and that quantity, constitute
three geometrical proportionals; such as 4, 6, 9, and in
general n a, a, In this case the middle quantity is called
a mean proportional between the other two.
55. The principal properties of four proportionals are
the following:
1. If four quantities be proportionals, the product of
the extremes is equal to the product of the means. Let
a, ft, c, d, be four quantities, such that a : b :: c : d; then,
from the nature of proportionals, ^et the80 equal
abd cbd
quotients be multiplied by ft d, and we have —> or
ad = be. Hence it follows, that when three quantities
are proportional, the product of the extremes is equal to
the square of the middle term. It also appears, that if
any three of four proportionals be given, the remaining
one may be found. Thus, let a, ft, c, the first three, be
o-iven, and let it be required to find x, the fourth term,
. , be
because a : b :: c : x, ax — be, and dividing by a, x — —.
This conclusion may be considered as a demonstration of
what is called the rule of three in arithmetic.
2. If four quantities be such, that the product of two of
them is equal to the product of the other two, these quan¬
tities are proportionals.
Let a, ft, c, d, be the quantities, which are such that
. ad be
ad—bc; if these equals be divided by bd, then ^
or — — — ; hence, from the definition given of proportionals
b d
(sect. 54), a -. b :: c : d. From this property of pro¬
portionals it appears, that if three quantities be such that
the square of one of them is equal to the product of the
other two, these quantities are three proportionals.
If four quantities are proportional, that is, if a : ft :: e : d,
then will each of the following combinations or arrange¬
ments of the quantities be also four proportionals.
1a'£, By inversion, b :a :: d : c.
2d, By alternation, a : c :: b : d.
N0te.—The quantities in the second case must be all
of the same kind.
3c?, By composition, a-\-b : a c + d : c,
or, a -j- ft : ft :: c -j- e?: rf.
4£ft, By division, a—ft : a :: c—d: c,
or, a—ft : ft :: c—d: d.
bih, By mixing, a-\-b •. a—ft c + d : c — d.
bth, By taking any equimultiples of the antecedents,
and also any equimultiples of the consequents,
na \ pb :nc x pd.
1th, Or, by taking any parts of the antecedents and con-
a b c d
sequents, n'p''h'p
That the preceding combinations of the quantities
a, ft, c, d, are proportionals, may be readily proved, by
taking the products of the extremes and means; for from
each of them we derive this conclusion, that ad = be,
which is known to be true, from the original assumption
of the quantities.
If four quantities be proportional, and also other four,
the product of the corresponding terms will be propor¬
tional.
Let a \b \ : c :d,
And c : f g h;
Then ae :bf::cg: ah.
502 ALGEBRA.
Algebra. For ad zz be, and eh = fg (sect. 55), therefore, multi-
plying together these equal quantities, adeh = befg, or
ae x dh z= bf x eg; therefore, by the second property
(sect. 55), ae : bf\: eg : dh.
Hence it follows, that if there be any number of pro¬
portions whatever, the products of the corresponding terms
will still be proportional.
56. If a series of quantities be so related to each other,
that the quotient arising from the division of any term by
that which follows it is always the same quantity, these
are said to be in continued geometrical proportion; such
are the numbers 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, &c. also -Jg-, &c.
and in general, a series of such quantities may be repre¬
sented thus, a, ar, ar2, ar3, at4, ar5, &c. Here a is the first
term, and r the quotient of any two adjoining terms, which
is also called the common ratio.
By inspecting this series, we find that it has the fol¬
lowing properties:
1. The last term is equal to the first, multiplied by the
common ratio raised to a power, the index of which is one
less than the number of terms. Therefore, if z denote
the last term, and n the number of terms, z — arn~x.
2. The product of the first and last term is equal to the
product of any two terms equally distant from them:
thus, supposing ar5 the last term, it is evident that
a X (M5 zz ar x Gr4 — ar2 X (w3> &c.
The sum of n terms of a geometrical series may be
found thus:
Let s zz a ar an2 -j- or3...-}- arn~x,
Then rs zz ar ar2 -J- ar3...-!- arn~x -^ar*1.
Subtract, rs — s zz arn — a;
That is, (r — 1) s zr a(rn — 1).
'y*n 
Hence s zz  — a.
r — 1
Sect. VI.—Of the Resolution of Equations involv¬
ing one Unknown Quantity.
57. The general object of algebraic investigation is to
discover certain unknown quantities, by comparing them
with other quantities which are given, or supposed to be
known. The relation between the known and unknown
quantities is either that of equality, or else such as may
be reduced to equality; and a proposition which affirms
that certain combinations of quantities are equal to one
another is called an equation. Such are the following:—
x a? _ 24
2 + 3 ~x>
Qx 3y —
The first of these equations expresses the relation between
an unknown quantity x and certain known numbers; and
the second expresses the relation which the two indefinite
quantities x and y have to each other.
58. When a quantity stands alone on one side of an
equation, the terms on the other side are said to be a value
of that quantity. Thus, in the equation x zz ay -^-b — c,
the quantity x stands alone on one side, and ay-^-b — c is
its value.
I he conditions of a problem may be such as to require
several equations and symbols of unknown quantities for
their complete expression. These, however, by rules here¬
after to be explained, may be reduced to one equation,
involving only one unknown quantity and its powers, be¬
sides the known quantities ; and the method of expressing
that quantity by means of the known quantities consti¬
tutes the theory of equations, one of the most important
as well as most intricate branches of algebraic analysis.
59. An equation is said to be resolved when the unknown
quantity is made to stand alone on one side, and only Algebra,
known quantities on the other side; and the value of the
unknown quantity is called a root of the equation.
60. Equations containing only one unknown quantity
and its powers, are divided into different orders, according
to the highest power of that quantity contained in any
one of its terms. The equation, however, is supposed to
be reduced to such a form that the unknown quantity is
found only in the numerators of the terms, and that the
exponents of its powers are expressed by positive integers.
61. If an equation contains only the first power of the
unknown quantity, it is called a simple equation, or an
equation of the first order. Such is ax-\-b zz c, where x
denotes an unknown, and a, b, c, known quantities.
If the equation contains the second power of the un¬
known quantity, it is said to be of the second degree,
or is called a quadratic equation; such is 4a^4-3« == 12,
and in general aoP-J^bx — c. If it contains the third power
of the unknown quantity, it is of the third degree, or
is a cubic equation; such are x? — 2x2 ^x z= 10, and
axP + bx? -\-ca z: d ; and so on with respect to equations of
the higher orders. A simple equation is sometimes said
to be linear, or of one dimension. In like manner, quadratic
equations are said to be of two dimensions, and cubic
equations of three dimensions.
62. When in the course of an algebraic investigation
we arrive at an equation involving only one unknown
quantity, that quantity will often be so entangled in the
different terms as to render several previous reductions
necessary before the equation can be expressed under its
characteristic form, so as to be resolved by the rules
which belong to that form.
These reductions depend upon the operations which
have been explained in the former part of this treatise,
and the application of a few self-evident principles, name¬
ly, that if equal quantities be added to or subtracted from
equal quantities, the sums or remainders will be equal; if
equal quantities be multiplied or divided by the same
quantity, the products or quotients will be equal; and,
lastly, if equal quantities be raised to the same power, or
have the same root extracted out of each, the results will
still be equal.
From these considerations are derived the following
rules, which apply alike to equations of all orders, and are
alone sufficient for the resolution of simple equations.
63. Rule 1. Any quantity may be transposed from one
side of an equation to the other, by changing its signs.
Thus, if x — 3=5,
Then #=5-J-3,
Or xzz8.
And if 3a?— 10=2a?+5,
Then 3a; — 2a?= 5 -p 10,
Or xzz 15.
Again, if ax-{-bzzcx — dx-\-e,
Then ax — cx-\- dxzze — b,
Or (a — c-\-d)x=e — b.
The reason of this rule is evident, for the transposing of
a quantity from one side of an equation to the other is
nothing more than adding the same quantity to each side
of the equation, if the sign of the quantity transposed
was —; or subtracting it, if the sign was +.
From this rule we may infer, that if any quantity be
found on each side of the equation with the same sign, it
may be left out of both. Also, that the signs of all the
terms of an equation may be changed into the contrary,
without affecting the truth of the equation.
ALGEBRA.
503
Algebra. Thus, if a-\-x=. b + a-c,
Then xz=.b-\-c;
And if a — x—b — d,
Then x — a—d—b.
64. Rule 2. If the unknown quantity in an equation be
multiplied by any quantity, that quantity may be taken
away, by dividing all the other terms of the equation
by it.
If 3xz=24f,
Then x=^—8.
If ax—b — c,
b — c b c
1 hen x— — .
a a a
Here equal quantities are divided by the same quan¬
tity, and therefore the quotients are equal.
65. Rule 3. If any term of an equation be a fraction,
its denominator may be taken away, by multiplying all
the other terms of the equation by that denominator.
If ^_7
5— ’
Then x-=.35.
If-=6 —c+rf,
a '
Then x—ab — ac -f- ad.
TP h
If a —c,
x
We have ax — b—cx.
In these examples, equal quantities are multiplied by
the same quantity, and therefore the products are equal.
66. The denominators may be taken away from several
terms of an equation by one operation, if we multiply all
the terms by any number which is a multiple of each of
these denominators.
Thus, if | + | + |=26;
let all the terms be multiplied by 12, which is a multiple
of 2, 3, and 4, and we have
12x ]2x \2x  ..
Or 6a?+4a;+3«=312;
Hence 13a;=312.
Universally, if ^ — ^+^=<7—e;
to take away the denominators a, b, c, let the whole
equation be multiplied by a b c, their product, and we
have
box — acxabx—abc (d — e),
Or (be — acab) x—abc (d — e).
From the last two rules it appears, that if all the terms
of an equation be either multiplied or divided by the same
quantity, that quantity may be left out of all the terms.
If ax—ab — ac,
Then x—b — c;
.a; b e
And if -=-+-,
a a a
Then x—b-\-c.
67. Rule 4. If the unknown quantity is found in any term
which is a surd, let that surd be made to stand alone
on one side of the equation, and the remaining terms
on the opposite side ; then involve each side to a power
denoted by the index of the surd, and thus the unknown Algebra,
quantity shall be freed from the surd expression.
nVa?+6=10, _
Then, by transposition, +*# = 10 — 6=4;
And, squaring both sides, V'xy.V«=4 x 4,
Or #=16.
Also, if V,«2 + #2 — b—x,
By trans. -v^a2 + #2 = + #,
And, squaring, a2+#2=(& + #)2=&2 + 27># + #2,
Hence a2=62+2Z>#.
3  
And if \/a2x — Wx—x,
Then a2# — 62#=#3.
68. Rule 5. If the side of the equation which contains the
unknown quantity be a perfect power, the equation may
be reduced to another of a lower order, by extracting
the root of that power out of each side of the equation.
Thus, if #3=64a3,
Then, by extracting the cube root, #=8a;
And if (a + #)2=52 — a2,
Then a + #= VlP — a2.
69. The use of the preceding rules will be further illus¬
trated by the following examples :
Ex. 1. Let 20 — 3# — 8=60 — 7#,
By rule 1, 7# — 3#=60 + 8 — 20,
Or 4#=48,
Therefore, by rule 2, #= 12.
Ex. 2. Let ax — 5=c#+c7,
By rule 1, ax — c#=5 + c7,
Or (a — c)#=5 + c7,
And by rule 2, #=^——.
J n n
Ex. 3. Let
By rule 3,
#+1 #+2_
= 16-
# + 3
2+1 + —^=32-
3#+3 + 2#+4=96
2#+6
4 ’
6#+ 18
18,
12#+12 + 8#+16=384 —6#-
Or 20#+ 28=366 —6#,
Hence, by rule 1, 26#=338,
And by rule 2, #= 13.
In this example, instead of taking away the denomina¬
tors one after another, they might have been all taken
away at once, by multiplying the given equation by 12,
which is divisible by the numbers 2,3, and 4; thus we should
have got 6#+6 + 4#+8= 192 — 3# — 9, and hence, as
before, #= 13.
Ex. 4. Let b#3 — 20#2= 16#2+2#3 ;
Then, dividing by 2#2, 3#— 10=8 + #,
And transposing, 3# — # = 8 + 10,
Or
And therefore
&
Ex. 5. Let a =c,
/ x
Then ax—b—cx.
And ax — c#=b,
Whence #=-
2#=18,
2#=9.
a—c
#2
Ex. 6. Let # — 6= 
# + 24’
Then (# — 6)(# + 24)=#2;
504
ALGEBRA.
Algebra.
That is,
Therefore
And
— 144=a?2,
18a:=144,
x—8.
Ex. 7. Letax+^^i;
1 a-\-x
'Dien (a + a;)(aa;-}-A2)=air2+ac2»
Or a2a; + a62+««2 + ^ = ««2-l-«c2»
Hence qPx^-IPx'^zcm? — o&a
ac2 — ab1
And *= a2 + 62--
jGr. 8. Let — =a;
1 + a
Then 1—x=a-\-ax.
And —x—ax—a—1,
Or, changing the signs, x+ax=.\ —a ;
1 —a
Hence x— ——.
1 +a
Ex. 9. Let v/l2 + 2 + <y/x;
Then, by rule 4, 12-}-a?=:4 + 4v/:r-{-a:>
And by transposition, 8=4>\/x,
And by division, 2=\^x,
And again, by rule 4, 4=#.
  2a2
Ex. 10. Let x+ V^+x? = ;
Then, by rule 3, x a2 -fx2 -J- a2 -\-ar?=2a2,
And by transposition, &c. x\/a?-\-a?=a2—x?.
Therefore, by rule 4, a^-j-ar4—w4 — 2a?x? -f-a4,
Whence 3a2x2—a\
a” a
And x1 — —, therefore, by rule 5, x—
Ex. 11. Let
3
1—l/L
i + Zl'
-x?
== =a
Then 1—V1—a^_a + cty^l —x?  
And 1—«—iov^I—a^-f-y/l—x? =(\a)^ \—x?,
1 — a
Whence
1 + a
-=1/1^;
(1 a)2
And, taking the square of both sides, \ {-2 = 1
Therefore, by transposition, = 1 ■ ^’
■Xs,
That is, a^ =
(l + a)2
_ (1 + a)2—(1—a)2 _ 4a
(i+^ (T+^r
Therefore x— ^a .
1 4-a
Ex. 12. Let a-\-x—Va2 J^-x^/d2 x?y
Then (a-j-a;)2=a24-a;'V^62 4-a^,
That is, a24-2aa:4-a^:=a24-a;'V^624- a^,
Therefore 2ax 4- a?2 z= x^W 4- x?.
And dividing by x, 2a + x — Vtil 4- x?.
Again, taking the squares of both sides, 4«2 4.4aa; 4-a^=
Whence 4a24-40#=&2,
IP—
And 4ax—Vi—4a2 ; so that xzz—  .
4a
In all these examples we have been able to determine
the value of the unknown quantity by the rules already
delivered, because in every case the first, or at most the
second power of that quantity, has been made to stand Algebra,
alone on one side of the equation, while the other con-L^v^,
sisted only of known quantities ; but the same methods of
reduction serve to bring equations of all degrees to a pro¬
per form for solution. Thus, if ^:= 1—p—a; 4-
V •
—; by proper reduction, we have a^4-pa^4-^ar=7’, acubic
equation, which may be resolved by rules to be afterwards
explained.
Sect. VII.—Of the Reduction of Equations in¬
volving MORE THAN ONE UNKNOWN QUANTITY.
70. Having shown in the last section in what manner
an equation involving one unknown quantity may be re¬
solved, or at least fitted for a final solution, we are next to
explain the methods by which two or more equations, in¬
volving as many unknown quantities, may at last be re¬
duced to one equation and one unknown quantity.
As the unknown quantities may be combined together
in very different ways, so as to constitute an equation, the
methods most proper for their elimination must therefore
be various. The three following, however, are of general
application, and the last of them may be used with ad¬
vantage, not only when the unknown quantity to be eli¬
minated rises to the same power in all the equations, but
also when the equations contain different powers of that
quantity.
71. Method 1. Observe which of the unknown quanti¬
ties is the least involved, and let its value be found from
each equation, by the rules of last section.
Let the values thus found be put equal to each other,
and hence new equations will arise, from which that quan¬
tity is wholly excluded. Let this operation be now re¬
peated with these equations, thus eliminating the unknown
quantities one by one, till at last an equation be found
which contains only one unknown quantity.
Ex. Let it be required to determine x and 3/from these
two equations.
2a?4-3y=r23,
5x—2y—10.
From the first equation,
2a’=23—3?/,
_ 23—3y
X~ 2 *
5# =10-f-2?/,
And
From the second equation,
And
Let these values of x be now put equal to each other,
And we have
i°+2y
x~~b~ *
Or
Therefore
And
IO4-23, _ 23—2y
5 — 2 ’
20 4- 4y— 125—\by ;
19?/= 95,
y=5:
a j • 23—3y 10 + 2w r . . c
And since x————<>r x— irom either of
2 5
these values we find x=4.
72. Method 2. Let the value of the unknown quantity
which is to be eliminated be found from that equation
wherein it is least involved. Let this value and its
powers be substituted for that quantity, and its respec¬
tive powers in the other equations; and with the new
equations thus arising, let the operation be repeated
till there remain only one equation and one unknown
quantity.
Algebra. Ex. Let the given equations, as in last method, be
2^-j-3^—23,
bx—2yrr 10.
1 r, • 23 — 3v
From the hrst equation, x— —;
ALGEBRA. 505
The value of y being substituted in either of the values Algebra,
of x, namely, 32 ^
■ or lO + ^p we find a,=:20.
By Method 2.
And this value of * being substituted in the second ^ from the ^ equation
r 23—3w ^ _
equation, we have 5 X —10’
Or 115 —15?/ —%=20;
Therefore 95=19?/,
And 5=_?y,
And hence x — ^ 9 =4, as before.
73. Method 3. Let the given equations be multiplied or
divided by such numbers or quantities, whether known
or unknown, that the term which involved the highest
power of the unknown quantity may be the same in each
equation.
Then, by adding or subtracting the equations, as occa¬
sion may require, that term will vanish, and a new equa¬
tion emerge, wherein the number of dimensions of the un¬
known quantity in some cases, and in others the number
of unknown quantities, will be diminished; and by a re¬
petition of the same or similar operations, a final equa¬
tion may be at last obtained, involving only one unknown
quantity.
Ex. Let the same example be taken, as in the illustra¬
tion of the former methods, namely,
2x -f- 3y = 23,
bx—2?y= 10 ;
and from these equations we are to determine x and y.
To eliminate x, let the first equation be multiplied by 5,
and the second by 2; thus we have
10a: +15?/= 115,
10a:— 4y= 20.
Here the term involving x is the same in both equations;
and it is obvious, that by subtracting the one from the
other, the resulting equation will contain only y, and known
numbers; for by such subtraction we find 19y=95, and
therefore y=b.
Having got the value of y, it is easy to see how x may
be found, from either of the given equations ; but it may
also be found in the same manner as we found y. For let
the first of the given equations be multiplied by 2, and the
second by 3, and we have
4a:-j-6y=46,
15a:—6y=30.
By adding these equations, we find
19a:=76, and ?y=4.
74. The following examples will serve further to illus¬
trate these different methods of eliminating the unknown
quantities from equations.
„„ 2?y
a:= 32 
let this value of x be substituted in the second, and
2y>
3
I(32-f)-i=2,
o ¥-*-!=*
Hence 198= 1 ly and y = 18.
The value of y being now substituted in either of the
given equations, we thence find a:=20, as before.
By Method 3.
The denominators of the two given equations being
taken away by rule 3 of last section, we have
3a:-F 2y=96,
9a:—5y=90.
From three times the first of these, or 9a; + 6y = 288,
let the second be subtracted, there remains
1 ly = 198 and y = 18.
The value of y being now substituted in either of the
equations 3a' + 2y = 96, 9x—5y = 90, we readily find
a: = 20.
75. Having shown in what way the different methods
of eliminating the unknown quantities may be applied, we
shall, in the remaining examples of this section, chiefly
make use of the last method, because it is the most easy
and expeditious in practice.
’x
Ex. 2. Given
I
2-12 = !+8’
x+y
.|_8=2y~* +s;7.
Ex. 1. Given
)i+i=16’Lui
(H= 4
It is required to determine x and y.
From the 1st equation, 4a:—96=2y-{-64;
From the 2d, 12x+ 12y + 20a:—480=30y—15a:-|- 1620-
These equations, when abridged, become
4a: — 2y=160,
47a:— 18y=2100.
To eliminate y; from this last equation let 9 times the
one preceding it be subtracted.
Thus we find lla:=660, and a:=60 ;
And because 2y=4a:—160=80,
Therefore y=40.
:quired x and y. j^x% 3. Given to determine x and y.
By Method 1.
2y
From the first equation, a:=32 g->
by
And from the second, a:=10-}--^ ;
Therefore 10-{--^=32 4,
Or 90 -f- 5y= 288 — 6y ;
Hence 1 ly= 198 and y= 18.
To eliminate y, let the first equation be multiplied by
/, and the second by b, and we have
bdx-\-bfy—bg.
Taking now the difference between these equations,
afx — bdx—cf— bg,
Or (of—bd)x=cf—bg,
cf—bg
And therefore
x—
of—bet
In the same manner may y be determined, by multiply-
3 s
VOL. II.
506
Algebra.
A L G E B R, A.
ing the first of the given equations by d, and the second
by a ; for we find
adx-\-bdy—cd,
adx -j- afy—ag.
And taking the difference as before, we get
bdy — afy—cd—ag,
And therefore y=Ti—
bd—aj
This last example may be considered as a general solu¬
tion of the following problem. Two equations expressing
the relation between the first powers of two unknown
quantities being given, to determine those quantities; for
whatever be the number of terms in each equation, it will
readily appear, as in example 2, that by proper reduction
they may be brought to the same form as those given in
the third example.
76. Let us next consider such equations as involve
three unknown quantities.
'x-\-y-\-z =29
Next, to eliminate y, let the first of these equations be Algebra,
multiplied by 3, and the second by 5; hence,
60* -f- \5y= 2340,
50*-|-15?/= 2100.
Subtracting now the latter equation from the former,
10*=240 and *=24,
420 — 10* „
y= 5 =60,
Therefore
And
1448—12*-
6
120.
Ex. 4. Given
I
a?-j-%4-3.z=62f. ~ A ,
\x v z r t0 find 2A and
^2+1+4 =IOf
We shall in this example proceed by the first method
for eliminating the unknown quantities.
From the first equation, *=29—y — z,
From the second, *= 62 — 2y — 3z,
From the third, *=20 — ^
Let these values of * be put equal to each other; thus
we get the two following equations :
29 — y — z= 62 — 2y — 3z,
29—y—z—20—
Again, from these equations, by transposition, &c.
?/=33—2z,
3z
Therefore
And hence, by reduction,
Whence also,
And
y=27__.
33 — 2z=27~~.
Ex. 5. Given
z=\2
y=33 — 2z=9,
*=29—y — z=8.
x y z "*
+f+X=62
2
x y z
3+I+5=W
x y z
t+|+.=38
to find *, y, and z.
4 ‘ 5^6'
Here the given equations, when cleared from fractions,
become
!2*+ 8y+ 6z=1488,
20*-j- \5y-\- 12z=2820,
30* + 24y + 20z= 4560.
To eliminate z by the third method, let the first equa¬
tion be multiplied by 10, the second by 5, and the third
by 3, the results will be these:
120*+80y +60z= 14880,
100*-j-75?/4-60z= 14100,
90* + 72y + 60z= 13680.
Let the second equation be now subtracted from the
first, and the third from the second, and we have
20*+ 5^/= 780,
10*4-3#=420.
77. From the preceding examples, it is manifest in
what manner any number of unknown quantities may be
determined by an equal number of equations, which con¬
tain only the first power of those quantities, in the nume¬
rators of the terms. Such are the followinc:
ax +^+ cz=n,
dx + cy+fz=p,
gx+hy+kz=q ;
where a, b, c, &c. represent known, and *, y, z, unknown
quantities ; and in every case the unknown quantities may
be directly found, for they will be always expressed by
whole numbers or rational fractions, provided that the
known quantities, a, b, c, &c. are also rational.
78. We shall now add a few examples, in which the
equations that result from the elimination of an unknown
quantity rise to some of the higher degrees ; and there¬
fore their final solution must be referred to the sections
which treat of those degrees.
Ex. 6. Let* — y=2, and *y + 5* — 6?/=120; it is re¬
quired to eliminate *.
From the first equation x = y + 2-, which value being
substituted in the other equation according to the second
general method (sect. 72) it becomes
, . (y+% + %+2) — 6y = 120,
that is, ?/2 + 2y + 5 ?/+10 — 6?/ = 120 ;
therefore the equation required is ?/2+<y=110.
Ex. 7. There is given x-{■ y = a, and sPyt — b, to
eliminate *.
From the first equation x=a — y, and *2=(a—yf,
And from the second *2=6 — y1;
Therefore (a — yY=b — ?/2;
That is, a? — 2ay-{-yi=b — y2.
Hence 2y2 — 2ay = b — a2; an equation involving
only y.
Ex. 8. Given to eliminate y.
From the first equation y =^
^ J a* + c ’
h — gx
And from the second y =
Therefore
bx
fx+h '
k — gx
ax + c /* + A ’
an equation in which the unknown quantity y is not found.
Ex. 9. Given W ro3a3, + ?y=fa A t0 elimi‘
\y2-\-2ax — by=\idcl — E) nate y.
As the co-efficient of y2 is unity in both equations, if
their difference be taken, the highest power of y will va¬
nish ; but to give a general solution, let the terms of the
equations be all brought to one side and made equal to 0,
thus,
y2 — (3* — a') y — x? = 9,
/if‘ — iy + 2a* — 4*2+62=0.
ALGEBRA.
507
Algebra.
In the first equation put 1 = A, — (3# — «) = B, —a?
=:C ; and in the second, l=rD, —A =: E, 2ax — 4x2 + 62
=F ; and the two become
Aw2 4-Bw 4-C 0,
D/+Ey+F=0.
To eliminate y2, let the first equation be multiplied by
D, and the second by A ; then
AD/ + B% + CD=0,
ADy2+AEy+AF=0.
Therefore, taking the difference of these equations,
(BD — AE)y + CD —AF=0,
. , AF —CD
And ^ - BD _ Ae*
Again, to find another value of y, multiply the first
equation by F, and the second by C; then
AF/+BFy+CF=0,
CD?/2+CEy+CF=0.
Therefore, subtracting as before,
(AF —CD)/ + (BF —CE)i/= 0,
And dividing by y, (AF — CD)y + BF — CE = 0.
Therefore y= ^E_Cp-
Let this value of y be put equal to the former, then
AF — CD __ CE —BF
BD —AE “ AF — CD ;
And therefore (AF — CD)2=(BD— AE) (CE — BF).
Now, as y does not enter this equation, if we restore
the values of A, B, C, &c. we have the following equa¬
tion, which involves only x and known quantities.
(b2 + 2ax — 3a?2)2 = [a + b — 3x] [ba? — (a — 3x)
(2aa?—4a^ + ft2)]. This equation, when properly reduced,
will be of the fourth order, and therefore its final resolu¬
tion belongs not to this place.
Sect. VIII.—Questions producing Simple Equations.
79. When a problem is proposed to be resolved by the
algebraic method of analysis, its true meaning ought in
the first place to be perfectly understood, so that, if ne¬
cessary, it may be freed from all superfluous and ambi¬
guous expressions, and its conditions exhibited in the
clearest point of view possible. The several quantities
concerned in the problem are next to be denoted by pro¬
per symbols, and their relation to one another expressed
agreeably to the algebraic notation. Thus we shall ob¬
tain a series of equations, which, if the question be pro¬
perly limited, will enable us to determine all the unknown
quantities required by the rules already delivered in the
two preceding sections.
80. In reducing the conditions of a problem to equa¬
tions, the following rule will be of service. Suppose that
the quantities to be determined are actually found, and
then consider by what operations the truth of the solution
may be verified; then let the same operations be per¬
formed upon the quantities, whether known or unknown,
and thus all the conditions of the problem will be reduced
to a series of equations, such as is required. For example,
suppose that it is required to find two numbers, such, that
their sum is 20, and the quotient arising from the division
of their difference by the lesser 3; then if we denote the
greater of the two numbers by x, and the lesser by y, and
proceed as if to prove the truth of the solution, we shall
have x + y for the sum of the numbers, and x — yfor
their difference. Now, as the former must be equal to 20,
and the latter divided by y equal to 3, the first condi¬
tion of the problem will be expressed by this equation,
, , X—y „ , _ . Algebra.
x-\-y—2b, and the second by ^ -=3; and from these
the values of x and y may easily be found.
81. When the conditions of a problem have been ex¬
pressed by equations, or translated from the common
language into that of algebra, we must consider whether
the problem be properly limited; for in some cases the
conditions may be such as to admit of innumerable solu¬
tions, and in others they may involve an absurdity, and
thus render the problem altogether impossible.
Now, by considering the examples of last section, it
will appear, that to determine any number of unknown
quantities, there must be given as many equations as there
are unknown quantities. These, however, must be such as
cannot be derived from each other, and they must not in¬
volve any contradiction ; for in the one case the problem
would admit of an unlimited number of answers, and in
the other case it would be impossible. For example, if it
were required to determine x and y from these two equa¬
tions, 2x — 3y = 13, 4a?—by—2b\ as the latter equation
is a consequence of the former (for each term of the one
is the half of the corresponding term of the other), it is
evident, that innumerable values of a? and y might be found
to satisfy both equations. Again, if a? and y were to be
determined from these equations, a;+ 2t/= 8, 3a? + by—2b,
it is easy to see that it is impossible to find such values of
a? and y as will satisfy both ; for, from the first, we find
3a?i=24 — by ; and from the second, 3a; = 26 — by ; and
therefore 24—6?/= 26—by, or 24 = 26, which is absurd;
and so also must have been the conditions from which
this conclusion is drawn.
82. But there is yet another case in which a problem
may be impossible; and that is, when there are more
equations than unknown quantities; for it appears, that
in this case, by the rules of last section, we would at last
find two equations, each involving the same unknown
quantity. Now, unless these happened to agree, the pro¬
blem would admit of no solution. On the whole there¬
fore it appears, that a problem is limited when the con¬
ditions furnish just as many independent equations as
there are known quantities to be determined: if there
be fewer, the problem is indeterminate; but if there be
more, the problem in general admits of no solution what¬
ever.
83. In expressing the conditions of a problem by equa¬
tions, it will sometimes be convenient to introduce as few
symbols of unknown quantities as possible. Therefore, if
two quantities be sought and their sum be given, suppose
it = s ; then if the one quantity be represented by x, the
other may be denoted by 5 — x. If, again, their difference
be given = d, the quantities may be denoted by x, and
d+x, or by x, and x — d. If their product be given = p,
V
the quantities are x, and ^; and so on.
84. We shall now apply the preceding observations to
some examples, which are so chosen as to admit of being
resolved by simple equations.
Ex. 1. What is that number, to which if there be add¬
ed its half, its third, and its fourth parts, the sum will be
50?
Let a? denote the number sought; then its half will
be its third %, and its fourth ^ ;
/i O t
Therefore x+ ^ +-+^=50.
Hence 24a?+12a?+8a?+6^=1200,
Or 50a?=1200;
Therefore x=24.
508
ALGEBRA.
Algebra. Thus it appears, that the number sought is 24, which
upon trial will be found to answer the conditions of the
question.
Ex. 2. A post is £ of its length in the mud, £ in the
water, and 10 feet above the water; what is its whole
length ?
Let its length be x feet, then the part in the mud is
and that in the water f; therefore, from the nature of
4 j
the question,
4+3 + 1°“X'
From this equation we find Tx-f 120ir 12#, and #=24.
Ex. 3. Two travellers set out at the same time from
London and York, the distance between which places is
150 miles ; the one goes 8 miles a day, and the other 7 :
in what time will they meet ?
Suppose that they meet after # days.
Then the one traveller has gone 8# miles, and the other
7# miles ; now the sum of the distances they travel is, by
the question, equal to the distance from London to York.
Therefore 8#+7#= 150,
That is, 15#= 150, and #= 10 days.
Ex. 4. A labourer engaged to serve for 40 days, upon
these conditions; that for every day he worked he was
to receive 20d., but for every day he played or was absent,
he was to forfeit 8d.: now at the end of the time he had
to receive L.l. 11s. 8d. It is required to find how many
days he worked, and how many days he was idle.
Let # be the number of days he worked ;
Then will 40—# be the number of days he was idle,
Also 20x^’=20#= the sum he earned in pence,
And 8 x (40 — #)=320 — 8#= the sum he forfeited.
Now the difference of these two was L.L 11s. 8d. or 380d.;
Therefore 20# — (320 — 8#)=380;
That is, 28#= 700.
Hence #=25= the number of days he worked,
And 40 — #=15= the number of days he was idle.
Ex. 5. A market-woman bought a certain number of
eggs at 2 a penny, and as many at 3 a penny, and sold
them all out again at 5 for 2d.; but, instead of getting her
own money for them, as she expected, she lost 4d.: what
number of eggs did she buy ?
Let # be the number of eggs of each sort;
Then will ^ be the price of the first sort,
And g = the price of the second sort.
Now, the whole number being 2#, we have
5 : 2x :: 2 : ~ = price of both sorts at 5 for 2d.;
x x 4$?
Therefore g+g g-— 41, by the question.
Hence 15#-fl0#—24#= 120,
And #= 120, the number of each sort.
Ex. 6. A bill of L.120 was paid in guineas and moidores :
the number of pieces of both sorts used was 100; how
many were there of each ?
Let the number of guineas be #;
Then the number of moidores will be 100 — #;
Also the value of the guineas, reckoned in shillings, will
be 21#, and that of the moidores 27(100—#)=2700 27#;
Therefore, by the question, 21#-j-2700 — 27#=2400. *
Hence 6#=300, and #=50 ;
So that the number of pieces of each sort was 50.
Ex. 7. A footman agreed to serve his master for L.8 Algebra,
a year and livery, but was turned away at the end of 7
months, and received only L.2. 13s. 4d. and his livery ;
what was its value ?
Suppose # the value of the livery, in pence.
Then his wages for a year were to be #+1920 pence.
But for 7 months he received # + 640 pence.
Now he was paid in proportion to the time he served ;
Therefore 12 : 7 :: #+1920 : # + 640.
And, taking the product of the extremes and means,
12#+7680=7#+13440.
Hence 5#=5760d. and #=1152d.=L.4. 16s.
Ex. 8. A person at play lost £ of his money, and then
won 3s.; after which he lost ^ of what he then had, and
then won 2s.; lastly, he lost f of what he then had; and,
this done, found he had only 12s. left: what had he at first ?
Suppose he began to play with # shillings.
x x
He lost £ of his money, or —, and had left # — —=—.
tt „ , , , i 3# „ 3#+12
He won 3s. and had then —+ 3=—^—.
He lost i of or and had left
s 4 4
3#+12 # + 4 2# + 8
4 4 ~ 4 '
tt ii j t 2# + 8 _ 2#+16
He won 2s. and had then —-— + 2=———.
iy , , „2#+16 2#+16 , , . . „
He lost 4- of  or —-+—, and had left
7 4 28
2#+16 2#+16 12#+ 96
4 28 *
And because he had now 12s. left, we have this equation,
12#+ 96 _
28 _ ’
Hence 12#=240, and #=20.
Ex. 9. Two tradesmen, A and B, are employed upon
a piece of work; A can perform it alone in 15 hours, and
B in 10 hours: in what time will they do it when work¬
ing together ?
Suppose that they can do it in # hours, and let the
whole work be denoted by 1.
X
Then 15 : # :: 1 : — = the part of the work done by A.
15
X
And 10 : # :: 1 : —, the part done by B.
Now, by the question, they are to perform the whole
work between them;
Therefore -^+A—i.
15 10
Hence 25#= 150, and #=6 hours.
Ex. 10. The sum of any two quantities being given
= s, and their difference=c?, it is required to find each
of the quantities.
Let # denote the greater of the two quantities, and y
the lesser.
Then # + ?/=«, and # — y=.d.
Taking the sum of the equations, we get 2x—s-\-d,
And, subtracting the second from the first, 2y=s — d ;
Therefore #=S-L^, and y — —^
ALGEBRA.
509
Algebra. Ex. 11. A gentleman distributing money among some
poor people, found he wanted 10s. to be able to give each
5s.; therefore he gave only 4s. to each, and had 5s. left.
Required the number of shillings and poor people.
Let the number of shillings be x, and that of the poor
people y ; then, from the nature of the question, we have
these two equations,
by—x-\-10 \y—x — 5.
From the lirst equation, x—by — 10,
And from the second, x—\y-\-b-,
Therefore by — 10—4?/-j-5 ;
Hence y=.\b, and x~iy-\-b—Q>b.
Ex. 12. A farmer kept a servant for every 40 acres of
ground he rented, and on taking a lease of 104 more
acres, he engaged 5 additional servants, after which he
had a servant for every 36 acres. Required the number
of servants and acres.
Suppose that he had at first x servants, and y acres.
. y
From the first condition of the question, ^=1^;
And from the second, x-\-b=
y-\- 104
"se-’
By comparing the values of x, as found from these
equations, we have
^+104
36
. b——
40"
Hence 40^ + 4160—7200=36y, so that 4^=3040;
Therefore y — 760, and x — —— 19.
Ex. 13. Two persons, A and B, were talking of their
ages ; says A to 13, seven years ago I was just three times
as old as you were then, and seven years hence I shall be
just twice as old as you will be. What is their present
ages ?
Let the ages of A and B be x and y respectively. Their
ages seven years ago were x — 7 and y — 7, and seven
years hence they will be * + 7 and y + 7.
Therefore by the question
x—7—3(y—7) and a’ + 7=2(y + 7).
From the first equation, x=6y—14,
And from the second, xz=.2y-\-l;
Therefore 3y—14=2y + 7; hence y=21.
And because xzz2y+7, therefore x=^9.
Ex. 14. A hare is 50 leaps before a greyhound, and
takes 4 leaps to the greyhound’s 3, but 2 of the grey¬
hound’s leaps are as much as 3 of the hare’s. How many
leaps must the greyhound take to catch the hare ?
In this example there is only one quantity required, it
will, however, be convenient to make use of two letters ;
therefore let x denote the number of leaps of the grey¬
hound, and y those of the hare; then, by considering the
proportion between the number of leaps each takes in the
same time, we have
3 : 4r.: x: y, hence 3y—4x.
Again, by considering the proportion between the number
of leaps each must take to run the same distance, we find
x: 50 +y:: 2 : 3, hence 100 2y—3x.
From the first equation we find by—3x.
And from the second by—9x—300.
Hence 9x—300=8*, and *=300.
Ex. 15. To divide the number 90 into 4 such parts, that
if the first be increased by 2, the second diminished by 2,
the third multiplied by 2, and the fourth divided by 2, the
sum, difference, product, and quotient, shall be all equal Algebra,
to each other.
In this question there are four quantities to be deter¬
mined ; but instead of introducing several letters, having
put * to denote the first of them, we may find an expres¬
sion for each of the remaining ones, as follows:
Because *-{-2=second quantity —2,
Therefore *-|-4=the second quantity ;
And because *-f-2=third X 2,
0C I 2 •
Therefore-—- = the third quantity.
And in like manner 2 (*-{-2) = the fourth quantity.
Now, by the question, the sum of all the four = 90;
Therefore *-|-* + 4'-| i p2(*-f-2)=90.
Hence 9*=162, and *=18 ;
Therefore the numbers required are 18, 22, 10, and 40.
Ex. 16. A and B together can perform a piece of work
in 12 hours, A and C in 20, and 13 and C in 15 hours; in
what time will each be able to perform it when working
separately ?
That we may have a general solution, let us suppose A
and B can perform the work in a hours, A and C in 5
hours, and B and C in c hours. Let *, y, and z, denote
the times in which A, B, and C, could perform it respec¬
tively, if each wrought alone ; and let the whole work be
represented by 1.
H H
Then * : a : : 1 : - = the part done by A |
y : a : : 1 : - = the part done by B'
Also * : 6 : : 1 : - = the part done by A /
* 1
z : 5 : : 1 : - = the part done by C 1
in a hours.
in b hours.
And y : c \ — the part done by B
z : c : . 1 : - = the part done by C
z
in c hours.
The question gives the three following equations;
a a .
- + -= L
* y
b b
* + ;=>'
y + z-X'
Let the first equation be divided by a, the second
by b, and the third by c: thus we have
111 111
1 1 1
- + Z-7-
x ' y a x ' z o y ' z c
If these be added, and their sum divided by 2, we find
1 1 1 _ J_ 1_ J_
* "^ y z —’ 2a 2Z> 2c
From this equation let each of the three preceding be
subtracted in its turn: thus we get
1 111 -f-a5 + ae—be
z ~ 2a^'26"^2c — 2abc
1 1 1 1 ab — ac + 5c
y ~ 2a 2b ^ 2c ~ 2a5c
1 1 1 1 — ab-\-ac-{-bc
x = 2a + 2b~2c~ Zabc
Hence z=:
y-
2abc
-\-ab-\- ac— be
2abc
“j— rib" GLO + bc
2abc
7200
120
7200
360
7200
!m
ALGEBRA.
= 60,
- 20,
the quantities and x2-\-2ax will be equal; and as Algebra.
x2-j-2ax is rendered a complete square, by adding to it a2, ’
so also may zf-j-px be completed into a square by add-
. p*
mg to it
= 30.
— ab-\-ac-\-bc
Sect. IX.—Of Quadratic Equations.
which is equal to a2; therefore, let
7
jp.
added to both sides of the equation x?-\-px
have
be
4
and we
4 = it + ?’or (*+1)* = T
and, extracting the square root of each side, a? ^ r=
+ q; hence
d-S'-
85. We are next to explain the resolution of equations
of the second degree, or quadratic equations. These in¬
volve the second power of the unknown quantity, and
may be divided into two kinds, pure and adfected.
I. Pure quadratic equations are such as after proper 89. From these observations we derive the following
reduction have the square of the unknown quantity in general rules for resolving adfective quadratic equations,
one term, while the remaining terms contain only known 1. Bring all the terms involving the unknown quantity
quantities. Thus, a _ 64, and -f c, are examples of to one side, and the known quantities to the other side,
pure qua ratios. and so that the term involving the square of the unknown
II. Adjected quadratic equations contain the square of quantity may be positive
the unknown quantity in one term, and its first or simple 2. if the square of the unknown quantity be multiplied
power m another ; the remaining terms consisting entire- by a co-efficient, let the other terms be divided by it, so
=at 2%n336 f0ll0m”g’ ^+Sx that ^ co-efficient of the square of the unknown qianiity
The manner of resolving a pure quadratic equation is
may be 1.
3. Add to both sides the square of half the co-efficient
of the unknown quantity itself, and the side of the equa¬
tion involving the unknown quantity will now be a com¬
plete square.
4. Extract the square root of both sides of the equa¬
tion, by which it becomes simple with respect to the un-
T , . ,1 , n ... known quantity; and by transposition, that quantity may
In extracting the square root of any quantity, it is be made to stand alone on one side of the equation, while
either83? nr ° ^ ^ °f 1 le r°0t ma/ ,be the other side consists of known quantities; and therefore
either + or —. This is an evident consequence of the the equation is resolved.
sufficiently evident. If the unknown quantity be made to
stand alone on one side, with unity as a co-efficient, while
the other side consists entirely of known quantities, and
the square root of each side be taken, we immediately ob¬
tain the value of the simple power of the unknown quan¬
tity as directed by rule 5th of sect. VI.
86.
rule for the signs in multiplication; for since by that rule
any quantity, whether positive or negative, if multiplied
by itself, will produce a positive quantity, and therefore
the square of -\-a, as well as that of — a, is -{- a2; so, on
the contrary, the square root of -{- a2 is to be considered
either as -j- « or as — a, and may accordingly be express¬
ed thus, r±=a.
87. Having remarked that the square of any quantity,
whatever be its sign, is always positive, it evidently fol¬
lows that no real quantity whatever, when multiplied by
itself, can produce a negative quantity ; therefore, if the
square root of a negative quantity be required, no such
root can be assigned. Hence it also follows, that if a pro-
Note. The square root of the first side of the equation is
always equal to the sum or difference of the unknown
quantity, and half the co-efficient of the second term.
If the sign of that term be -f, it is equal to the sum,
but if it be —, then it is equal to the difference.
Ex. 1. Given x?-\-2x=35, to determine x.
Here the co-efficient of the second term is 2; therefore,
adding the square of its half to each side, we have
x?-{-2x-\- lzr35-|-1=36,
And, extracting the square root, a?-f-1— V"36= r±= 6.
Hence x = =±z 6 — 1, that is # = -f- 5, or a? — 7, and
X 5 + 2 x 5 = 35, also — 7 x
blem requires for its solution the extraction of the square either of these numbers will be found to satisfy the
root of a negative quantity, some contradiction must ne- equation, for 5 ~
cessarily be involved, either in the condition of the pro- +2x — 7=35.
blem, or in the process of reasoning by which that solu¬
tion has been obtained.
Ex. 2. Given — 12=#, to find x.
6
88. When an adfected quadratic equation is to be re¬
solved, it may always, by proper reduction, be brought to This equation, when reduced, becomes ot?—6#=72,
one or other of the three following forms :
1. x2 J^px—q.
2. x2—px—q.
3. x?—px— —q.
But as the manner qt resolving each of the three forms
is the very same, it will be sufficient if we consider any
one of them. J
Resuming therefore the first equation, or x?^px—q,
let us compare the side of it which involves the unknown
quantity x with the square of a binomial x-\-a ; that is,
let us compare a^-f/wwith #2-f-2a#+a2=(^-|-a)2J anci
it will presently appear, that if we suppose jo=2«, or^=a,
And, by completing the square, a2—6#-j-9=724-9=81.
Hence, by extracting the square root, x — 3= 9, and
x— =±=94-3;
Therefore x = + 12, or # = — 6 ; and upon trial we
find that each of these values satisfies the original equa-
19 v 12  6 v a
tion, for - — 12 = 12, also ——£ ? — 12 = —6.
Ex. 3. Given a?2-j-28= 11#, to find #,
Then x? — 11#= — 28.
121
And, by completing the square, x2 — ll#-}-—r- =
121
4
-4
ALGEBRA.
511
• . 1 l o
Therefore, by extracting the root, x - = =rz-.
11 3
Hence x=-z±z-; that is, x— -j-7, or x= -f-4.
In the first two examples, we found one positive value
for x in each, and also one negative value; but in this
example both the values of x are positive, and, upon
trial, each of them is found to satisfy the equation; for
7X7 + 28=11 X 7, also 4X4 + 28=11 X 4.
90. As at first sight it appears remarkable, that in
every quadratic equation the unknown quantity admits
always of two distinct values or roots, it will be proper to
consider a little further the circumstances upon which
this peculiarity depends. This is the more necessary, as
the property of the unknown quantity admitting of seve¬
ral values is not peculiar to quadratics, but takes place
also in equations of the higher degrees, where the cause
of the ambiguity requires an explanation somewhat dif¬
ferent from that which we have already given in the pre¬
sent case.
91. Let us again consider the equation xP-\-2x=35,
which forms the first of the three preceding examples.
By bringing all the terms to one side, the same equation
may be also expressed thus, a?-\-2x — 35=0 ; so that we
shall have determined x, when we have found such a
number as, when substituted for it in the quantity
«2 + 2a? — 35, will render the result equal to 0. But
xP-\-2x — 35 is the product of these two factors x—A
and # + 7, as may be proved by actual multiplication;
therefore, to find x, we have (x—5) (a? + 7)=0; and
as a product can only become =0 when one of its fac¬
tors is reduced to 0, it follows that either of the two
factors a; — 5 and a?+ 7 maybe assumed =0. If x—5=0,
then a?=5; but if a; + 7=0> then x= — 7 ; so that the two
values of x, or two roots of the equation x?-j-2x=35, are
+ 5 and — 7, as we have already found in a different
manner.
92. What has been shown in a particular case is true of
any quadratic equation whatever; that is, if xP-{-px=q, or,
by bringing all the terms to one side, x?+px — ^O, it
is always possible to find two factors x — a, and a?+ 5,
such, that
x?-\-px + q=(x — d) (# + 6),
where a and b are known quantities, which depend only
upon p and q, the given numbers in the equation; and
since that to have (x — d) (a? + 6)=0, we may either as¬
sume x — <2=0 or # + 5=0, it evidently follows that the
conditions of the equation xP-\-px — q=Q, or x?-\-px=.q,
are alike satisfied by taking #= +a or x— —b.
From these considerations it follows, that # can have
only two values in a quadratic equation ; for if it could be
supposed to have three or more values, then it would
be possible to resolve xP-\-px—q into as many factors,
x—c, x—d, &c.; but the product of more than two fac¬
tors must necessarily contain the third or higher powers
of x, and as ic2 + jo#—q contains no higher power
than the second, therefore no such resolution can take
place.
93. Since it appears that xP-\-px — q may be consider¬
ed as the product of the two factors x — a and # + 5,
let us examine the nature of these factors. Accordingly,
taking their product, we find it #2 + (5 — d)x — ab ; and
since this quantity must be equal to xP-\-px — q, it follows
that b — a=j» and ab=q, or, changing the signs of the
terms of both equations, a — 5=—p, —ab——q. Now,
if we consider that +a and —b are the roots of the
equation xp -^-px—q^ it is evident that a — b is the sum
of the roots, and —their product. So that from the
equations a — 5=—p, and—ab—q, we derive the fol- Algebra,
lowing proposition relating to the roots of any quadratic
equation. The sum of the roots of any quadratic equa¬
tion xP-\-px=q is equal to —p, that is, to the co-efficient
of the second term, having its sign changed; and their
product is equal to —q, or to the latter side of the equa¬
tion, having its sign also changed.
This proposition enables us to resolve several import¬
ant questions concerning the roots of a quadratic equa¬
tion, without actually resolving that equation. Thus we
learn from it, that if q, the term which does not involve
the unknown quantity (called sometimes the absolute
number), be positive, the equation has one of its roots
positive and the other negative ; but if that term be ne¬
gative, the roots are either both positive or both negative.
It also follows, that in the former case the root which is
denoted by the least number will have the same sign with
the second term; and in the latter case, the common sign
of the roots will be the contrary to that of the second
term.
94. From this property of the roots we may also derive
a general solution to any quadratic equation xP-if-px—q ;
for we have only to determine two quantities whose sum
is —p and product —q, and these shall be the two values
of x, or the two roots of the equation.
Without considering the signs of the roots, let us call
them v and z; then
v-\-z=—p, and vz~—q.
From the square of each side of the first equation let
four times the second be subtracted, and we have
— 2vz + +=+2 + 4y, or (v — 2r)2=j92 + bq ;
therefore, v — z= =±= VpP-\-^q.
From this equation, and from the equation
>-f-z=—p, we readily obtain r=
—-jordzVp2 + 4<jr
2
_p-+-^P_+^3.. that is, if v—
2
-jP + Vy>2 + 4<7
2 ’
then z
= -/>-++!?. and if
then z
—-jo+Vp2 + 45’
2~ ’
But the value of v upon the one supposition is the same
as the value of z upon the other supposition, and vice
versa ; therefore, in reality, the only two distinct values
—^_i_V»2 + 4o' ,—p—Vjo2 + 49
of the roots f and z are ^ -and   ,
which agrees with the conclusion we have already found
(sect. 89).
95. It appears, from what has been already shown,
that the roots of a quadratic equation xP+pxzzq always
involve the quantity VpP-\-^q; hence it follows, that
j92 + 4§' must be a positive quantity; for if it were nega¬
tive, as the square root of such a quantity could not be
found, the value of x could not possibly be obtained. If,
for example, the value of x were required from this
equation, #2+13=4#, or a?2 — 4# = — 13, we should
find # = 2 r±= +— 9; and as this expression for the
roots requires us to extract the square root of — 9, the
equation from which it is derived must necessarily have
involved some contradiction. It is not difficult to see
wherein the absurdity consists; for since in this case
p — — 4, and q = — 13, the roots of the equation
ought to be both positive (sect. 93), and such that
512
ALGEBRA.
Algebra, their sum 4, while their product =r 13 (sect. 93),
which is impossible.
96. Although imaginary quantities serve no other pur¬
pose in the resolution of quadratic equations than to
show that a particular problem cannot be resolved, by
reason of some want of consistency in its data, yet they
are not upon that account to be rejected. By intro¬
ducing them into mathematical investigations, many cu¬
rious theories may be explained, and pi’oblems resolved,
in a more concise way than can be done without the use
of such quantities. This is particularly the case in the
higher parts of the mathematics.
The method which has been applied to the resolution
of quadratic equations properly so called, namely, such
as are of this form, op+px = q, will also apply to all
equations of this form,
xLn-\-pxn — q,
where the unknown quantity x is found only in two terms,
and such that its exponent in the one term is double
that in the other; for let us assume xn — y, then a?n — y2,
and therefore the equation
apn -irpxn — q becomes
y2+py = q,
a quadratic equation, from which x may be found, and
thence x, by considering that xz=.nVy.
97. Although every quadratic equation admits of two
roots, yet it will frequently happen that only one of them
can be of use, the other being excluded by the conditions
of the question. This will often be the case with respect
to the negative root; as, for example, when the unknown
quantity denotes a number of men, a number of days,
&c. And hence, in reckoning the cases of quadratic
equations, it is common to neglect this one, —q,
where the roots are both negative; for an equation of
this form can only be derived from a question which has
some fault in its enunciation, and which, by a proper
change in its form, will produce another equation having
both its roots positive.
98. The remainder of this section shall be employed
in solving some questions which produce quadratic equa¬
tions.
Ex. 1. It is required to divide the number 10 into two
such parts that the sum of their squares may be 58.
Let x be the one number ;
Then, since their sum is 10, we have 10 — x for the
other;
And by the question *2-{- (10 — x)2=58 ;
That is, 100 — 20x-\-x?—b8,
Or 2^—20*= 58— 100=—42;
Hence a?2—10* = — 21.
And completing the square, x?— 10*-|-25=25 — 21 = 4 ;
Hence, by extracting the root, *—5=zi='V/4==i=2
And *= 5=1=2,
That is, *=7, or *=3.
If we take the greatest value of *, viz. 7, the other
number 10—* will be 3 ; and if we take the least value
of *, viz. 3, then the other number is 7. Thus it appears,
that the greatest value of the one number corresponds to
the least of the other ; and indeed this must necessarily be
the case, seeing that both are alike concerned in the
question. Hence, upon the whole, the only numbers that
.vill answer the conditions of the question are 7 and 3.
Ex. 2. What two numbers are those whose product is
28 ; and such, that twice the greater, together with thrice
the lesser, is equal to 26 ?
Let * be the greatest and y the least number; then, from Algebra,
the nature of the question, we have these two equations,
xy—28, 2*-{-3?/=26.
From the first equation we have y= —,
And from the second
y-
x
26 — 2*
TT 26 — 2* 28
Hence    = —;
3 x
And, reducing, 26* — 2*2=84,
Or 2*2 — 26*= — 84,
Hence x1 — 13*= — 42.
And comp, the sq. x2— 13*-}-L|£ = JA2. — 42=^.
Hence,by extracting the root,*—-^■==±=v'i==±=^,
Therefore *= _I=|-;
That is, *=7, or*=6.
28
And since y= —, we have ?/=4, or _y=(A.
Thus we have obtained two sets of numbers, which ful¬
fil the conditions required, viz.
*=7, ?/=4 : Or *=6, ?y=Jy1.
And besides these, there can be no other numbers.
Ex. 3. A company dining together at an inn, find their
bill amount to 175 shillings ; two of them were not allow’-
ed to pay, and the rest found that their shares amounted
to 10 shillings a man more than if they had all paid. How
many were in company ?
Suppose their number to be *.
Then, if all had paid, the share of each would have been
175
*
But because only *—2 paid, the share of each was
175
*—2
Therefore, by the question,
175
175
= 10.
*—2 *
And, by reduction, 175*—175*4-350= 10*2—20*;
That is, 10*2—20*= 350,
Or xQ—2*=35.
And comp, the sq. *2—2*4-1 = 354-1=36;
Hence, by extracting the root, *24-l = =±=6.
Therefore *=4-5, or *=—7. But from the nature
of the question, the negative root can be of no use ;
therefore *=6.
Ex. 4. A mercer sold a piece of cloth for L.24, and
gained as much per cent, as the cloth cost him. What
was the price of the cloth ?
Suppose that it cost * pounds ;
Then the gain was 24 — *,
And, by the question, 100 :*::*: 24 — *.
Therefore, taking the product of the extremes and
means,
2400—100*=*2,
Or *2 4-100*= 2400 ;
And comp, the sq. *2-f-100*4-2500=4900;
Hence, taking the root, *4-50= =±=70,
And *=4-20 or —120.
Here, as in the last question, the negative root cannot
apply ; therefore *=20 pounds, the price required.
Ex. 5. A grazier bought as many sheep as cost him
L.60, out of which he reserved 15, and sold the remain¬
der for L.54, and gained 2s. each upon them. How many
sheep did he buy, and what did each cost him ?
ALGEBRA.
Algebra. Suppose that he bought x sheep;
Then each would cost him ^ ~ — shillings
Therefore, after reserving 15, he sold each of the re-
, c n 1200
maining x—15 tor 
2 shillings.
1200
Hence, he would receive for them (x — 15) (—-—[- 2)
shillings. And, because L.54z: 1080 shillings, we have by
the question
(x—15) (^ + 2) =1080;
Wliich, bv proper reduction, becomes xQ -|-45 xr=9000;
2025 38025
And, completing the square, a?2 + 45a:-| ^ — —4—*
45
2 *
iyo
Therefore, extracting the root, &c. x = — 
And, taking the positive root, x = 75, the number of
sheep; and consequently = 16 shillings, the price
75
of each.
Ex. 6. What number is that which, when divided by
the product of its two digits, the quotient is 3 ; and if 18
be added to it, the digits are inverted ?
Let x and ?/ denote the digits ; then the number itself
will be expressed by 10 and that number in which
the digits are inverted, by 10 ?/ + «. Thus the conditions
of the problem will be expressed by these two equations,
10 X+H- 3, 10 * + ?/+18 = lOy+x.
xy
10#
From the first equation we have y— ^x y>
And from the second, 7/=#+ 2 ;
10#
Therefore # -[-2—-^—p
And 3#2 + 5#—2=10#.
Hence, #2—|#=f»
And comp, sq. #2—f# + M—M + f—to ;
Therefore, taking the root, #—|=r±=^,
So that #=2, or #=—
Here it is evident that the negative root is useless;
hence, 3/=# +2=4, and 24 is the number required.
Ex. 7. Find two numbers whose product is 100, and
the difference of their square roots 3.
, 100 . . .
Let #be the one number; then —is the other.
Now by the question,-^ —V/x= 3 ;
x
- i.
Hence we have 10—#=3,y/#=3#2,
Or #4-3#2=10;
And comp, the sq. # + 3#2+f=10 + ^=‘^,
• 3 , 7
and taking the root, a:2 +-===-;
1 1
So that#2=+5, or #2=—2,
and therefore #=25, or #=4.
If #=4, the other number is -L£il=25, and if #= 25,
then the other number is 4; so that, in either case, the
two numbers which answer the conditions of the question
are 4 and 25.
Ex. 8. It is required to find two numbers, of which the
product shall be 6, and the sum of their cubes 35.
VOL. 11.
6
Let x be the one number; then - will be the other.
#
, 216
Therefore, by the question, #3 + -gy — 35;
Hence a;6-{-216=35#3,
Or a:6—35#3=—216.
This equation, by putting #3=y, becomes
t/2—35?/=—216;
Hence we find 3/=27, or 3/=8.
And since #3=t/, therefore #=3, or #=2
If # = 3, then the other number is 2, and if # = 2, the
other number is 3; so that 2 and 3 are the numbers re¬
quired.
In general, if it be required to find two numbers which
are exactly alike concerned in a question that produces a
quadratic equation, they will be the roots of that equa¬
tion. A similar observation applies to any number of
quantities which require for their determination the reso¬
lution of an equation of any degree whatever.
Sect. X.—Of Equations in genekal
99. Before we proceed to the resolution of cubic and
the higher orders of equations, it will be proper to ex¬
plain some general properties which belong to equations
of every degree, and also certain operations which must
frequently be performed upon equations before they be
fitted for a final solution.
In treating of equations in general, we shall suppose all
the terms brought to one side, and put equal to 0; so that
an equation of the fourth degree will stand thus:
^+j9#3+g1#2+##+
where # denotes an unknown quantity, and p, q, r, s,
known quantities, either positive or negative. Here the
co-efficient of the highest power of # is unity, but had it
been any other quantity, that quantity might have been
taken away, and the equation reduced to the above form,
by rules already explained (Sect. VI).
The terms being thus arranged, if such a quantity be
found as, when substituted for #, will render both sides
— 0, and therefore satisfy the equation, that quantity,
whether it be positive or negative, or even imaginary, is
to be considered as a root of the equation. But we have
seen that every quadratic equation has always two roots,
real or imaginary; we may therefore suppose that a simi¬
lar diversity will take place in all equations of a higher
degree ; and this supposition appears to be well founded,
by the following proposition, which is of great importance
in the theory of equations.
If a root of any equation, as x^-\-p3fi-\-qx-\-r-=zQ, be re¬
presented by «, the first side of that equation is divisible
by #—a ;
For since a?4 -j-y?#3 -[- g#2 -J- r# s= 0,
And also a4-j-joa3-|-g'a2-f-m + s=0;
Therefore, by subtraction,
a?4—a4+/?(#3—a3) -j- q(x?—a2) -f- r(x—a)=0.
But any quantity of this form xn—an, where n denotes
a whole positive number, is equal to
(x—aX#""1 + axf1-2 + a2#”-3 +.. • + an~2x+an~y),
as may be proved by multiplication; therefore, putting
a=4, 3, and 2 successively, we have
x*—a4=(#—a)(#3 + a#2 + a2# + «3),
ar3—a?—(#—a)(.#2 -j-a#-f- a2),
#2—a2=(#—a)(#4-a)>
# —a =(#—a) ;
and by substitution, and collecting into one term the co¬
efficients of the like powers of #, the equation becomes
3 T
513
Algebra.
514
ALGEBRA.
Algebra- ( x—a) [a,'3 (a -\-p) a? + (a2 +/>« + S') ^ + a3 + P(^ + '7a +
r~\ =0; so that, puttingp—a -\-p, rj,=a2-\-pa q, P—d’’ j»a2
+ ?a + r, we have
+j9,r5 -f- qx- -\-rx-\- s=z(x—+ ^a + /).
Hence, if the proposed equation a^+joa^ + s^+^ + s be
divided by x—a, the quotient will be ar?+jt/a?2+ q'x-{-r,
an integer quantity; and since the same mode of reason¬
ing will apply to any equation whatever, the truth of the
proposition is evident.
We have found that (x—a)(ar3-|-y/x2+q'x-f-r7) z=0; and
as a product becomes =0, when anyone of its factors =:0,
therefore the equation will have its conditions fulfilled,
not only when x — a — 0, but also when aP+pf a?-{-q'x
+ iJ= 0.
Let us now suppose that 6 is a root of this equation;
then, by reasoning exactly as in last article, and putting
p” = b -f-//, (f — b2 -\-p’b-\-q’, we shall have
a^! -\-p’x2 -f- q'x -j- / = (x — b) (sc2-\-p’'x-\-q") — 0.
By proceeding in the same manner with the quadratic
equation oft-irp" x+cf — 0, we shall find that if c denote
one of its roots, then
oP+pl' x-^-tf — (x — c) (x+c-\-p”).
So that if we put d = — (c+p”), we at last find
xii-\-pxi-\-qx2Jrrx-\-s — (x—a) (x—b)(x— c) (x — d) ;
and since each of the factors x — a, x — b, x — c,x — d
may be assumed = 0, it follows that there are four
different values of x, which will render the equation
sfi+paP+qsfi-if-rx-JrS =. 0, namely, x — a, x — b, x ■=. c,
x — d.
The mode of reasoning which has been just now em¬
ployed in a particular case, may be applied to an equa¬
tion of any order whatever; we may therefore conclude,
that every equation may be considered as the product of
as many simple factors as the number denoting its order
contains unity, and therefore, that the number of roots
in any equation is precisely equal to the exponent of the
highest power of the unknown quantity contained in that
equation.
100. By considering equations of all degrees as formed
from the products of factors x — a, x — b, x — c, &c.
we discover curious relations, which subsist between the
roots of any equation and its co-efficients. Thus, if we
limit the number of factors to four, and suppose that
a, b, c, d, are the roots of this equation of the fourth de¬
gree,
x£-\-px?-i(-qx?-\-rx-\-s — 0,
we shall also have (x — a) (x — b)(x — c)(x — d) = Q;
and therefore, by actual multiplication,
-\-ab
x-\-abcd — 0.
If we compare together the co-efficients of the same
powers of x, we find the following series of equations:
a-\-b-\-c-\-d — — p,
ob-\-ax-\-ad-\-bc-\-bd-\-cd — -\-q,
obc -(- abd -{- acd -f- bed — — r,
abed -f- s ;
and as similar results will be obtained for equations of
all degrees, we hence derive the following propositions,
which are of great importance in the theory of equations!
1. The co-efficient of the second term of any equation,"
taken with a contrary sign, is equal to the sum of all the
roots.
2. The co-efficient of the third term is equal to the
sum of the products of the roots multiplied together two Algebra,
and two.
3. The co-efficient of the fourth term, taken with a
contrary sign, is equal to the sum of the roots multiplied
together three and three; and so on in the remaining co¬
efficients, till we come to the last term of the equation,
which is equal to the product of all the roots havmg their
signs changed.
Instead of supposing an equation to be produced by
multiplying together simple equations, we may consi¬
der it as formed by the product of equations of any de¬
gree, provided that the sum of their dimensions be equal
to that of the proposed equation. Thus, an equation of
the fourth degree may be formed either from a simple
and cubic equation, or from two quadratic equations.
101. If n denote the degree of an equation, we have
shown, that by considering it as the product of simple fac¬
tors, that equation will have n divisors of the first degree;
but if we suppose the simple factors to be combined two
and two, they will form quantities of the second degree,
which are also factors of the equation; and since there
yiCYl  J ^
may be formed —\ . 2 ' suc^ combinations, any equation
will admit of * (~-~2 ^ ^v^sors ^le second degree.
For example, the equation #*+jM;3-b<7x2 + ra:-f-s~0,
which we have considered as equal to
(x—a) (x — b) (x — c) (x — d) =0,
may be formed of the product of two factors of the second
degree, in these six different ways.
By the product of (a? — a
(x — a
(x — a
■) \x—d)
x — c) (x — d),
x — b) (x — d),
x — b) (x — c),
x—a) (x — d),
x — a) (x — c),
(x — a) (x — b ).
Thus an equation of the fourth degree may have ^ * j
— 6 quadratic divisors.
By combining the simple factors three and three, we
shall have divisors of the third degree, of which the num¬
ber for an equation of the rath order will be
n(n — l)(n — 2) ,
1 . 2 ■. 3—“5 and so on-
102. When the roots of an equation are all positive, its
simple factors will have this form, x — a, x — b, x — c,
&c.; and if, for the sake of brevity, we take only these
three, the cubic equation which results from their product
will have this form,
a?3 —px2 -^qx — r— 0,
where p-=.a + b-\-c, q—ab ac-\-bc, r—abc ;
and here it appears that the signs of the terms are + and
—• alternately.
Hence we infer, that when the roots of an equation are
all positive, the signs of its terms are positive and nega¬
tive alternately.
If again the roots of the equation be all negative, and
therefore its factors x+a, x + b, x-\-c, then p, q, and r
being as before, the resulting equation will stand thus:
x3 -J- px2 -{-qx-{-r=0.
And hence we conclude, that when the roots are all ne¬
gative, there is no change whatever in the signs.
103. In general, if the roots of an equation be all real,
that equation will have as many positive roots as there
are changes of the signs from -j- to —, or from — to ;
and the remaining roots are negative. This rule, how¬
ever, does not apply when the equation has imaginary
ALGEBRA.
Algebra, roots, unless such roots be considered as either positive
'^'v'“^</or negative.
That the rule is true when applied to quadratic equa¬
tions will be evident from Sect. IX. With respect to
cubic equations, the rule also applies when the roots are
either all positive, or all negative, as we have just now
shown.
When a cubic equation has one positive root, and the
other two negative, its factors will be x — a, x-{-b, x-\-c,
and the equation itself
x?—al —abl
+n X?—ac ,r- x—abczzO.
+ CJ +^CJ
Here there must always be one change of the signs,
since the first term is positive and the last negative ; and
there can be no more than one; for if the second term is
negative, ov b-\-c less than a, then (&-}-c)2 will be less
than (b-\-c) a; but (6-|-c)2 is always greater than be,
therefore be will be much less than (64-c) a, or ab-\-ae,
so that the third term must also be negative, and there¬
fore, in this case there can be only one change of the
signs. If, again, the second term be positive, then, because
the sign of the last term is negative, whatever be the
sign of the third term, there can still be no more than
one change of the signs.
When the equation has two positive roots, and one
negative, its factors are x—a, x—b, x-\-c, and the equa¬
tion
ic3—al -l-abl
—b > x2—ac /- x-j-abc=:0.
+ c) —be)
Here there must always be two changes of the signs ;
for if a-f-6 be greater than c, the second term is negative,
and the last term being always positive, there must be
two changes, whether the sign of the third term be posi¬
tive or negative. If, again, a-\-bbe less than c, and there¬
fore the second term positive, it may be shown as before,
that ab is much less than ac-\-bc; and hence the third
term will be negative ; so that in either case there must
be two changes of the signs. We may conclude, there¬
fore, upon the whole, that in cubic equations there are
always as many positive roots as changes of the signs
from + to —, or from — to -f ; and, by the same method
of reasoning, the rule will be found to extend to all equa¬
tions whatever.
104. It appears, from the manner in which the co¬
efficients of an equation are formed from its roots, that
when the roots are all real, the co-efficients must consist
entirely of real quantities. But it does not follow, on the
contrary, that when the co-efficients are real, the roots are
also real; for we have already found, that in a quadratic
equation, x? J^-px-^q—b, where p and q denote real quan¬
tities, the roots are sometimes both imaginary.
When the roots of a quadratic equation are imaginary,
they have always this form, a-{-V—IP, a—V—IP, which
quantities may also be expressed thus, a b V —1,
a—b V—f; so that we have these two factors x — a
— £ V—I, x—a + i V—1, and taking their product,
x?—2ax
Thus we see that two imaginary factors may be of such
a form as to admit of their product being expressed by a
real quantity ; and hence the origin of imaginary roots in
quadratic equations.
105. It appears by induction, that no real equation can
be formed from imaginary factors, unless those factors be
taken in pairs, and each pair have the form xz±za—bV—1,
515
xz±ia-\-bV—1 ; for the product of three, or any odd num- Algebra,
her of imaginary factors, whatever be their form, is still
an imaginary quantity. Thus, if we take the product of
any three of these four imaginary expressions, * + a + 5
\/—1? a?-f-"5V^—T, x-^-c-^-d^/—1, a?-J-c d\/ 1,
we may form four different equations, each of which will
involve imaginary quantities. If, however, each equation
be multiplied by the remaining factor, which had not pre¬
viously entered into its composition, the product will be
found to be rational, and the same for all the four.
Hence we may deduce the three following inferences
respecting the roots of equations :
1. If an equation have imaginary roots, it must have
two, or four, or some even number of such roots.
2. If the degree of an equation be denoted by an odd
number, that equation must have at least one real root.
3. If the degree of an equation be denoted by an even
number, and that equation have one real root, it will also
have another real root.
106. We shall now explain some transformations which
are frequently necessary to prepare the higher orders of
equations for a solution.
Any equation may have its positive roots changed into
negative roots of the same value, and its negative roots
into such as are positive, by changing the signs of the
terms alternately, beginning with the second. The truth
of this remark will be evident, if we take two equations,
(x—a)(x—5)(*-f c)=0,
^_}_a)(*-}-5)(a;—c)—0,
(which are such, that the positive roots of the one have
the same values as the negative roots of the other), and
multiply together their respective factors; for these equa¬
tions will stand thus:
xP^-a^l
—b x?—ac > x-Labc—0,
-j-cj —be)
x?—ac > x—abc=0 ;
—c) —be)
where it appears that the signs of the first and third
terms are the same in each, but the signs of the second
and fourth are just the opposite of each other. And this
will be found to hold true, not only of cubic equations,
but of all equations, to whatever order they belong.
107. It will sometimes be useful to transform an equa¬
tion into another that shall have each of its roots greater
or less than the corresponding roots of the other equation,
by some given quantity.
Let (x — a)(x — Z»)(*-|-c)=0 be any proposed equation
which is to be transformed into another, having its roots
greater or less than those of the proposed equation by the
given quantity n; then, because the roots of the trans¬
formed equation are to be -\-a=±in, z±=in, and —cz±zn,
the equation itself will be
(yz+zn — a)(y=tzn — b)(y+n + c)=0.
Hence the reason of the following rule is evident.
If the new equation is to have its roots greater than
those of the proposed equation ; instead of x and its powers,
substitute y — n and its powers : but if the roots are to be
less; then, instead of x substitute ^ + w; and in either
case, a new equation will be produced, the roots of which
shall have the property required.
108. By the preceding rule, an equation may be chang¬
ed into another, which has its roots either all positive, or
all negative; but it is chiefly used in preparing cubic and
biquadratic equations for a solution, by transforming them
516
ALGEBRA.
Algebra, into others of the same degrees, but which want their
second term.
Let be any cubic equation ; if we
substitute y-f-rc for x, the equation is changed into the
following:
wS-i-Swl 2 4- Sn2l +w3
+ p) y +2pn[y+Pn~\—Q
+ q) +qn (
+ r)
Now, that this equation may want its second term, it is
evident that we have only to suppose 3ra-{-jt>z=0, or ii=
—^; for this assumption being made, and the value of n
substituted in the remaining terms, the equation becomes
y- +(?-4)y+-l£-f+r=0;
or, putting—-g- +q=q’, and + -^r — ^ + r = r', the
same equation may also stand thus,
109. In general, any equation whatever may be trans¬
formed into another, which shall want its second term, by
the following rule.
Divide the co-efficient of the second term of the propos¬
ed equation by the exponent of the first term, and add the
quotient, with its sign changed, to a new unknown quanti¬
ty ; the sum being substituted for the unknown quantity
in the proposed equation, a new equation will be produc¬
ed, which will want the second term, as required.
By this rule any adfected quadratic equation may be
readily resolved; for by transforming it into another equa¬
tion which wants the second term, we thus reduce its solu¬
tion to that of a pure quadratic. Thus, if the quadratic
equation ot? — 5a;-j-6z=0 be proposed; by substituting
y + f for x, we find
/+%+¥)
_5y—V —0, ory2 —A=0.
-f- 6 J
Hence y—ztz|-, and since x=y + ^, therefore 4-1
= -f3, or -f-2.
110. It has been shown (sect. 100) that in any equa¬
tion, the co-efficient of the second term, having its sign
changed, is equal to the sum of all the roots; or, ab¬
stracting from their signs, it is equal to the difference be¬
tween the sum of the positive and the sum of the nega¬
tive roots : Therefore, if the second term be wanting, the
sum of the positive roots in the equation must necessarily
be equal to that of the negative roots.
111. Instead of taking away the second term from an
equation, any other term may be made to vanish, by an
assumption similar to that which has been employed to
take away the second term. Thus, if in sect. 108 we as¬
sume 3?i2-{-2jm-|-§=; 0, by resolving this quadratic equa¬
tion, a value of n will be found which, when substituted
in the equation, will cause the third term to vanish; and,
by the resolution of a cubic equation, the third term may
be taken away; and so on.
112. Another species of transformation, of use in the
resolution of equations, is that by which an equation,
having the co-efficients of some of its terms expressed by
fractional quantities, is changed into another, the co-effi¬
cients of which are all integers.
J) fl T
Let j- x 0 denote an equation to be
so transformed, and let us assume y = abcx, and there-
V
fore x = ; then, by substitution, our equation becomes >
f , P
Algebra.
a^c3 aWc2
and multiplying the whole equation by a?lP<?, we have
y3 4- bcpij2 -j- cPb&qy -f- a3 J3 c?r — 0.
Thus we have an equation free from fractions, while at
the same time the co-efficient of the highest power of the
unknown quantity is unity, as before.
This transformation may always be performed by the
following rule : Instead of the unknown quantity, substi¬
tute a new unknown quantity divided by the product of
all the denominators ; then, by proper reduction, the equa¬
tion will be found to have the form required.
If, however, the equation have this form,
a3 a; -|-- = 0,
'a 'a x a
it will be sufficient to assume y = ax, and therefore x =
V
— ; for then we have
a
f , P
a+ta/+^2 y +- — o,
and y3 4-/>y2 -f aqy -j- a2r = 0;
which last equation has the form required.
Sect. XI.—Of Cubic Equations.
113. Cubic equations, as well as equations of every
higher degree, are, like quadratics, divided into two classes:
they are said to be pure when they contain only one
power of the unknown quantity; and adfected when they
contain two or more powers of that quantity.
Pure cubic equations are therefore of this form,
a3= 125, or — 27, or, in general, ofi — r ; and hence
it appears, that the value of the simple power of the un¬
known quantity may always be found without difficulty,
by extracting the cube root of each side of the equation ;
thus, from the first of the three preceding examples we
find x= -j- 5, from the second, xz= — 3, and from the third,
3 _
x p*
It would seem at first sight that the only value which
x can have in the cubic equation x?—r> or putting r=c3,
x? — c3=0, is this one, a=c; but since —-c3 may be re¬
solved into these two factors, x — c and it fol¬
lows, that besides the value of x already found, which re¬
sults from making the factor x — c=0, it has yet other
two values, which may be found by making the other fac¬
tor xP-^-cx-^-cPzzO ; and accordingly, by resolving the qua¬
dratic equation x2-\-cx= —c2, we find these values to be
c-j-^/—3^ —c——3(4 —1-4-a/—3 ,
 and   or 4-— c and
— 1 — \/ —3
 c.
3
Thus it appears, that any cubic equa¬
tion of this form, x3=c3, or x3 — <^=0, has these three
roots,
xz=c, x—
— 14-a/_3
1 —a/—3.
the first of which is real, but the two last are imaginary.
If, however, each of the imaginary values of x be raised
to the third power, the same results will be obtained as
from the real value of x : the original equation x3—c3=0
may also be reproduced, by multiplying together the three
f . — I + a/^Xs _i__a/—3
factors x — c,x —   =— <?, and x  c.
ALGEBRA.
517
Algebra. 114. Let us now consider such cubic equations as have
their terms, and which are therefore of this form,
a?3-f-Air2-f-Re + C 0,
where A, B, and C, denote known quantities, either posi¬
tive or negative.
It has been shown (sect. 108) how an equation having
all its terms may be transformed into another which wants
the second term ; therefore, assume x—y — as direct¬
ed in that article; then, by proper substitution, the above
equation will be changed into another of this form,
yi+qy-\-r=b,
where q and r denote known quantities, whether positive
or negative ; now the roots of this equation being found,
it is evident that those of the former may be readily ob-
tained by means of the assumed equation x—y —.
Resuming, therefore, the equation xp-\-qy-\-r-=.§, let
us suppose y — v-\-z, and it becomes
r3 -j- 3r2:2+2^ 1
■\-qv-\-qz > =0.
-j-r J
Thus we have a new equation, which, as it involves
two unknown quantities, v and z, may be resolved into
any two others, which will simplify the determination of
those quantities.
Now it appears, that the only way in which we can
divide that equation into two others, so as to simplify the
question, is the following :
3«22: -{- Srz2 -\-qv-\- qz— 0,
0.
The first of these may also be expressed thus,
(3vz-\-q)(y-\-z)=.0.
Hence, we must either suppose that v-\-zz=.Q, or that
3rz-p 0; but the former supposition cannot be ad¬
mitted without supposing also that y = 0, which does not
agree with the hypothesis of the equation y^-^-qy -\-rz=.0 ;
therefore we must adopt the latter. So that to determine
v and z we have these two equations,
3vz-\-qz=.0, vi-\-zi-\-rz=.0.
Q (ft
From the first, we find vzz=. — and r3r3~ ; and
from the second —r; so that to determine the
quantities r3 and 2^, we have given their sum and pro¬
duct: now this is a problem which we have already re¬
solved when treating of quadratic equations ; and by pro¬
ceeding in the same manner in the present case, we shall
find
r3 =z —ir+vgVs'3+4^ 23=—;
3   3    
*=/s/—;
and y—v-\-z
3 s   , . , -
= V—+ 27'73+2r2-
Thus we have at last obtained a value of the unknown
quantity y-, in terms of the known quantities q and r ;
therefore the equation is resolved.
115. But this is only one of three values which y may
have. Let us, for the sake of brevity, put
A = —B=—Jr—+
-I+V-S
and put
—l—V—3
Then, from what has been shown (sect. 113), it is evident Algebra,
that v and 2 have each these three values,
3 _ 3 _ 3 _
v—\Sa, vz=.a.VA, rzz/SV'A;
3  3 _ 3 _
z—VB, z = a,VB,z=f3VB.
To determine the corresponding values of v and z, we
must consider that vz =. — ^zz VAB: Now if we observe
that a/3zz 1, it will immediately appear that v-\-z has these
three values,
3 _ 3 _
v-\-z— V A +Vb,
3 _ 3 _
r-}-z=aVA -{-/3 VB,
3 _ 3 _
v-\-z=l3 VA 4-a Vb*
Hence the three values of y are also these,
3_ 3 _
y=zVA + VB,
3_ 3 _
y—aV A-\-(3VB,
3  3 _
y=fiV A 4- aV B.
The first of these formulae is commonly known by the
name of Cardan’s rule ; but it is well known that Cardan
was not the inventor, and that it ought to be attributed
to Nicholas Tartalea and Scipio Ferreus, who discovered
it much about the same time, and independently of each
other. (See the Introduction^)
The formulae given above for the roots of a cubic equa¬
tion may be put under a different form, and better adapt¬
ed to the purposes of arithmetical calculation as follows.
(I 1 A
Because vz— — therefore z— — ^ X — 
3 6 v Va
3  
hence v-\-z— Va — o5 _■: thus it appears that the three
Va
values of y may also be expressed thus:
3 /— ^
Va’
116. To show the manner of applying these formulae,
let it be required to determine x from the cubic equation
a44_3*24-9a:—13zz0:
And as this equation has all its terms, the first step to¬
wards its resolution is to transform it into another which
shall want the second term, by substituting y— 1 for x
as directed (sect. 109). The operation will stand thus :
a^=r/3 — 3?/2 4- % — 1
4-3*2= 4“ %2—3
4-9.T = + — 9
— 13= —13
The transformed equation is y3 -}- — 20=0,
which being compared with the general equation,
gives <7=6, r— —20; hence
=yio+vns,
therefore the second formula of last article gives y=*
   2
lO + VlOS—  . but as this expression
V10+^108
involves a radical quantity, let the square root of 108
be taken and added to 10, and the cube root of the sum
518
ALGEBRA.
found; thus we have 3jV/l0 + V/108 = 2*732 nearly,
2 2
and therefore ~—, ' =• = = *732; hence we
3jV/10+V108 * i6“
at last find one of the values of y to be 2.732 — *732=2.
In finding the cube root of the radical quantity
VTo+ V108, we have taken only its approximate value,
so as to have the expression for the root under a rational
form, and in this way we can always find, as near as we
please, the cube root of any surd of the form a + v'6,
where 5 is a positive number. But it will sometimes hap¬
pen that the cube root of such a surd can be expressed
exactly by another surd of the same form; and accord¬
ingly, in the present case, it appears that the cube root of
10 + V108 is I -f V3, as may be proved by actually
raising 1 + VS to the third power. Hence we find
2 __ 2 _ 2(1—V3) _
VlO + V108 ~ 1+ V3 ” (1 — VS) (1 + VS) ~
— (1 — VS); so that y = 1 -f- VS -f 1 —VS = 2, as be¬
fore.
The other two values of y will be had by substituting
- 3 — iq .
1 V3 and 1 — VS for VA and 3^/^ in the second and
third formulae of last article, and restoring the values of a
and j3. We thus have
y = —x (i+vs)+ x (i-vsj
y = - X (1 + V3)+ ~1+2V~3 X 0-V3)
— — 1 — V^9.
So that the three values of y are
+ 2, —1 + V—9, —1— V—f;
and since x=:y — 1, the corresponding values of x are
+ 1, —2+ V—9, —2— V—9.
Thus it appears that one of the roots of the proposed
equation is real, and the other two imaginary.
The two imaginary roots might have been found other¬
wise, by considering that since one root of the equation is
1, the equation must be divisible by a? — 1 (sect. 99).
Accordingly, the division being actually performed, and
the quotient put = 0, we have this quadratic equation,
+ 13 = 0 ;
which, when resolved by the rule for quadratics, gives
a? = — 2 z±= V — 9, the same imaginary value as before.
117. In the application of the preceding formulae (sect.
114 and 115) to the resolution of the equation +
r = 0, it is necessary to find the square root of +
now, when that quantity is positive, as in the equation
?/3_|_6?/ — 20 = 0, which was resolved in last article, no
difficulty occurs, for its root may be found either exactly
or to as great a degree of accuracy as we please.
As, however, the co-efficients q and r are independent
of each other, it is evident that q may be negative, and
such, that 2y<73 is greater than |r2. In this case, the ex¬
pression 2179'3+ir2 be negative, and therefore its
square root an imaginary quantity. Let us take as an
example, this equation, y3 — 6?/ + 4) = 0 ; here q = — 6,
r =_+ 4), \r — 2, 2V/3 = — B, Jr2 = + 4, V27^ + =
*/ 4 — 2V— 1; hence, by recurring to the formula?
(sect. 115), we have A=2-f-2 V—1, B =2 — V—1, and Algebra,
therefore the three roots of the equation are
3/ = y2 + 2v^rr+v/2-2V=r,
y=aj2+ 2 V— 1+/V2 — 2 V—T,
y=fis/2 + 2 V^—i + v.J2— 2vA—L
Here all the roots appear under an imaginary form;
but we are certain, from the theory of equations, as ex¬
plained in Section X. that every cubic equation must have
at least one real root. The truth is, as we shall show im¬
mediately, that in this case, so far from any of the roots
being imaginary, they are all real; for it appears by actual
involution, that the imaginary expression 2 + 2+—1 is the
cube of this other imaginary expression, — 1 + +— 1; and
in like manner, that 2—2 V— 1 is the cube of— 1 — +—1,
so that we have
3  3 _
V — +!+ 2 + 1 + 2
1—V—1 = 2.
2V— 1 = — l+V—1 —
— 1 + V—3
y= 2 
(— 1 — V—1)=1 + V3.
x (—i + V—l) +
— 1 — V— 3
X
y
1 _ v—3
x (— 1 + V—1) +
l+V—3
(— 1 —V—1)= 1 —V3.
118. We shall now prove, that as often as the roots of the
equation + gw + r = 0 are real, q is negative, and VtO3
greater than -^r2; and, on the contrary, that if -^jq3 be
greater than ^r2, the roots are all real.
Let us suppose a to be a real root of the proposed
equation;
Then a^ + g'w+r = 0,
And a3 + g'a + r = 0.
And therefore, by subtraction, w3 — a3+<7 (w — a) = 0;
hence, dividing by * — a, we have
w2+a.r+a2+g' = 0.
This quadratic equation is formed from the two re¬
maining roots of the proposed equation, and by resolving
it we find
x = — \az±z +_ 3+ _ (J'
And as, by hypothesis, all the roots are real, it is evi¬
dent that q must necessarily be negative, and greater
than fa2; for otherwise the expression V—fa2 — q would
be imaginary. Let us change the sign of q, and put
2=f«2 + d; thus the roots of the equation w3 — gw + 7*=0
will be
a, —1, ((—|— v " 2 ^ V
and here is a positive quantity.
To find an expression for r in terms of a and d, let
|a2+rf be substituted for q in the equation a3 — qa-\-r
= 0; we thence find r = — +z3+ad; so that to com¬
pare together the quantities q and r, we have these equa¬
tions,
q—\c?-\-d, r ——\az-\-ad.
In order to make this comparison, let the cube of \q be
taken, also the square of \r, the results are
At3 — eV*6 "b nra4f/++ sjt6^3*
^ + \Vd2 ;
and therefore, by subtraction,
ijqz — = -Z-cfid — + ^d3,
— — T^+s1!^),
= 3rf(K- ' ' "
■W.
1
ALGEBRA.
519
Algebra. Now the square of any real quantity being always posi-
tive, it follows that Sd(^a2 — -g^)2 will be positive when
d is positive; hence it is evident that in this case gy!?3
must be greater than J-r2, and that the contrary can¬
not be true, unless d, be negative, that is, unless that
—±aJr*/d, —\a — Vd, the two other roots of the equa¬
tion, are imaginary. If we suppose d—Q, then ;
and the roots of the equations, which in this case are also
real, are a, ——\a.
Upon the whole, therefore, we infer, that since a cubic
equation has always one real root, its roots will be all real
as often as q is negative, and greater than ; and
consequently, that in this case the formulae for the roots
must express real quantities, notwithstanding their ima¬
ginary form.
119. Let y3 — qy-\-r—§ denote any equation of the
form which has been considered in last article, namely,
that which has its roots all real; then, if we put a——\r,
l?=^jqs — one of the roots, as expressed by the first
formula, sect. 115, will be,
5 3
y~ a-\-W ——bV — 1.
This expression, although under an imaginary form, must
(as "we have shown in last article) represent a real quan¬
tity. It may happen, as in last example, sect. 117, that
the two surds which compose the root are perfect
cubes of the form (A — l)3> and (A — BV — l)3?
and then the value of y becomes
A + B\/— 1+ A—BV —1=2A.
But the rules for determining when this is the case de¬
pend upon trials, and are, besides, troublesome in the ap¬
plication ; and if we attempt by a direct process to inves¬
tigate the numerical values of A and B, we are brought
to a cubic equation of the very same form as that whose
root is required.
This imaginary expression for a real quantity has
greatly perplexed mathematicians; and much pains has
been taken to obtain the root under another form, but
without success. Accordingly, the case of cubic equa¬
tions, in which the roots are all real, is now called the ir¬
reducible case.
120. It is remarkable that the expression
Ja-\-b\/— a—b^— 1>
and in general,
t/a + bV—1 + 7a
and
Ja+bV—1-j-^/a — bV—1 =
a/C/s
2)’
note an arch of a circle, the relation between the cosine Algebra.
of the arch and the cosine of one-third of that arch, is
expressed by the following cubic equation :
a
3
Cos.3 g — I cos. ^ = i COS. a.
Let us assume cos. then, by substitution, the
a _y
3 n
equation is transformed into the following:
y.
i
3w2
cos. a,
Or ?/3 —y — riix.\ cos. a ;
and in this cubic equation, one of the roots is evidently
y — n x cos. Now from the calculus of sines it ap¬
pears that cos. a, cos. (360° — a), and cos. (360° -j- a),
are all expressed by the same quantity; therefore the
equation must have for a root not only n x cos. -, but
360°
also n x cos.
a . 360° 4- a
—, and n x cos.   —.
But
from the calculus of sines, cos
. 90'
360° — a
a . 360° 4-a . 90°-4-«
-, and cos.  —- = — sm.
3 ’  3
therefore the roots of the equation are
a . 90° — a
n x cos. g, — w x sin.
3
— « X sin.
90° +a
-6V— 1,
where n is any power of 2, admits of being reduced to
another form, in which no impossible quantity is found.
Thus, ya + iVlTi +J a —b + 2Va2+62,
2a + 2Va2 + i2 + 2Va2 + 5s;
as is easily proved by first raising the imaginary formu¬
lae to the second and fourth powers, and then taking the
square and fourth root of each. But when n is 3, it does
not seem that such reduction can possibly take place.
If each of the surds be expanded into an infinite series,
and their sum be taken, the imaginary quantity V—1
will vanish, and thus the root may be found by a direct
process. There are, however, other methods which seem
preferable. The following, which is derived from the cal¬
culus of sines, seems the best.
121. It will be demonstrated in Sect. XXV., that if a de-
Let us next suppose that ^ — <73/ = r is a cubic equa¬
tion whose roots are required, and let us compare it with
3ra2
the former equation t/3 —y—r$ X ^ cos. a ; then it is
evident, that if we assume the quantities n and cos. a,
such, that
3ft2 , .
—zzg', ft3 X f cos. a—r,
the two equations will become identical, and thus their
roots will be expressed by the very same quantities. But
from these two assumed equations we find
/ 4a 2v^ q 4r /21 i2 3
ft—*/ 1, cos. a-=:——iJ — 7=;
V 3 \/3 ft3 ^ 4^ 2qVq
and since the cosine of an arch cannot exceed unity,
2113
therefore ^ must be a proper fraction, that is, 4<t3
must exceed 27r2, or must exceed ^r2. If we now
recollect that <7 is a negative quantity, it will immediately
appear that the proposed equation must necessarily be¬
long to the irreducible case.
The rule, therefore, which we derive from the preced¬
ing analysis for resolving that case is as follows :
Let ^z3 — qy~r be the proposed equation.
Find in the trigonometrical tables an arch a, whose natu-
. . 3/V3
ral cosines- = ;
ZqVq
the roots of the equation are
COS.-,
520
ALGEBRA.
Algebra.
X sin.
90°—a
3 ’
. 90° + a
sin. ———.
These formulae will apply, whether r be positive or nega¬
tive, by proper attention to the signs. If, however, r be
negative, or the equation have this form, y* — qy——ri
the following will be more convenient:
Find in the tables an arch a, whose sine
Then the roots of the equation are
3tV3
2qVq
y-
y-
*4
4
2./JX sin.
X cos,
90° + a
3 ’
Hence it appears that the equation xt — = 0 may also Algebra,
be expressed thus:
(x — b) (x + b) (x — b v'^TI) + = 0;
so that x may have these four values,
+ —b, +bV—1, —bV—l,
two of which are real, and the others imaginary.
123. Next to pure biquadratic equations, in respect of
easiness of resolution, are such as want the second and
fourth terms, and therefore have this form,
ic4 -\-qxP-]rs — 0.
These may be resolved in the manner of quadratic equa¬
tions ; for if we put y = aft, vte have
f+qy+s = 0,
from which we find y — —  and therefore
x = z±: J— (J — V(f ~ ^
The last formulae are derived from the equation
. t Ch * Ct .
bin. - — — sin. —~ — sin. a,
3 4 3
in the same manner as the former were found from the
first equation of last article.
Ex. 1. It is required to find the roots of the equation
x3 — Sxz= 1.
„ 3/V3 3x^3. „no
Here  -=t= cos. 60°— cos. a, and
2q\/q 6x^3 2
x= 2 cos. = 2cos. 20°zz 1-8793852,
x=—2sin.
x=—2 sin.
150°
3
30°
——2 sin. 50°—— 1 -5320888,
= —2 sin. 10°= -3472964.
Ex. 2. It is required to find the roots of the equation
xt—Sxrz — 1.
u 3rV3 3V3 . . OAo .
Here -=—^=1=sin. 30°=sin. a, and
2qVq 6V3 2
30°
x = 2 sin. —zr 2 sin. 10° — -3472964,
120°
x = 2 cos. -y- = 2 cos. 40° = 1-5320888,
60°
xz=—2cos.-g-=—2cos. 20°=—1-8793852.
Sect. XII.—Of Biquadratic Equations.
124. When a biquadratic equation has all its terms,
the manner of resolving it is not so obvious as in the two
former cases, but its resolution may be always reduced
to that of a cubic equation. There are various methods
by which such a reduction may be effected. The follow-
ing, which we select as one of the most ingenious, was
first given by Euler in the Petersburg Commentaries,
and afterwards explained more fully in his Elements of
Algebra.
We have already explained, sect. 109, how an equation
which is complete in its terms may be transformed into
another of the same degree, but which wants the second
term ; therefore any biquadratic equation may be reduced
to this form,
f+pf + qy + r^G,
where the second term is wanting, and where p, q, r, de¬
note any known quantities whatever.
That we may form an equation similar to the above, let
us assume Va-j- Vb^-Vc, and also suppose that the
letters a, b, c, denote the roots of the cubic equation
Pz2-\-Qz — EzzO;
then, from the theory of equations we have
a + Z> + c——p? ab-{-ac-{-bc=Q, abc— R.
We square the assumed formula
y — VVc, and obtain
y2— a-\-b-\-c-\-2 (yab-\- Vac-j- Vbc),
or, substituting — for a_-j- 6 + c, and transposing;
y2-\-P=.2(Vab-\-Vac-lr Vbc).
Let this equation be also squared, and we have
122. When a biquadratic equation contains all its terms,
it has this form,
+Aa^-j-Ba^-J-C^-j-D — 0,
where A, B, C, D, denote any known quantities what¬
ever.
We shall first consider pure biquadratics, or such as
contain only the first and last terms, and therefore are of
this foim, ap4 — 54. In this case it is evident that x may
be readily had by two extractions of the square root; by
the first we find ift — lft, and by the second x — b. This,
however, is only one of the values which x may have; for
since a^ zz b\ therefore x* — 54 = 0; but xi 54 may
be resolved into two factors aft — b2 and aft + lft, each of
which admits of a similar resolution; for a?    1ft ~
(a —• 6)(#-f 6)and aft A-Ui = (x — b V—[)(x+bV—[).
f + 2Py2 4- P2 = 4 {ah 4. ac-\- be) 4- 8 (Va2bc 4- Valftc
■fVabft)-, and since ab-\-ac-\-bc=Qt, and
Va2bc-\-Valftc-p Vabft— Vabc (Va + Vb-\- Vc)—vTfy,
the same equation may be expressed thus:
y4 + 2P/ 4- P2= 4Q + SVWy.
Thus we have the biquadratic equation
^-f-SPy2 — 8 VRy+P2—4Qz=0,
one of the roots of which isyzz Va-\-Vb +Vc, and in
which a, b, c, are the roots of the cubic equation z3-!-?*2
4-Qz — R=0.
125. In order to apply this resolution to the proposed
equation f-{-pyi'\'9y'\-r—^> we must express the as¬
sumed co-efficients R, Q, R, by means of p, q, r, the co-
ALGEBRA.
521
Algebra, efficients of that equation. For this purpose, let us com¬
pare the equations
v4 + pif 4- qy+r—0,
+ 2Py — 8VR ?/ + P2 — 4Qz=0,
and it immediately appears that 2P = />, — 8 VR = ^
P2 — 4Q=:r,* and from these three equations we find
p n _ p*-Ar „ _ q*
P = |,Q =
16
, R ~ Hence it follows that the
64
roots of the proposed equation are generally expressed by
the formula y = 'V/a+V/6+V/c; where a, b, c, denote the
roots of this cubic equation,
^+f^+
p? — 4/-
16
z — -— — 0.
64
But to find each particular root, we must consider, that as
the square root of a number may be either positive or nega¬
tive, so each of the quantities Va, Vb,Vc, may have either
the sign + or-— prefixed to it; and hence our formula will
give eight different expressions for the root. It is, however,
to be observed, that as the product of the three quantities
Va, VT>, Vc, must be equal to VR or to — f, when q is
o
positive, their product must be a negative quantity ; and
this can only be effected by making either one or three of
them negative; again, when q is negative, their product
must be a positive quantity; so that in this case they must
either be all positive, or two of them must be negative.
These considerations enable us to determine, that four of
the eight expressions for the root belong to the case in
which q is positive, and the other four to that in which it
is negative.
126. We shall now give the result of the preceding in-
ve-stigation in the form of a practical rule ; and as the co¬
efficients of the cubic equation which has been found in¬
volve fractions, we shall transform it into another, in which
v
the co-efficients are integers, by supposing z=z-. Thus
the equation 23+|z2+ becomes> after
reduction, v3-{-2pvi+(p2—4r)v—q2=0; it also follows,
that since the roots of the former equation are a, b, c,
the roots of the latter are |, |, so that our rule may
now be expressed thus ;
Let y* +py2+qy+r~0 be any biquadratic equation
wanting its second term. Form this cubic equation,
v3 -j- 2pv2 -|- (p2—4r)y—q2=z 0,
and find its roots, which, let us denote by a, b, c.
Then the roots of the proposed biquadratic equation
when q is negative,
y=± (Va + Vb + Vc),
y—\ (Vcu-W b—V c),_
y—^ (——V7 c),
y—1 (—V a—VT)-\-V c).
when q is positive,
y—\ (—Va—V b—V c),
y=? (—+y ^ +y c),
y=j (Va—V b + Vc),
y^z | {ya 4- V b—V c).
2. Since the last term of the cubic equation is negative ; Algebra,
when its three roots are real, they must either be all po-^^^-
sitive, or two of them must be negative and one positive;
for the last term is equal to the product of all the roots
taken with contrary signs, sect. 100; so that in this last
case, two of the three quantities a, b, c, must be negative,
and therefore all the four roots of the biquadratic equa¬
tion imaginary. If, however, the two negative roots be
equal, they will destroy each other in two of the roots of
the biquadratic equation, which will then become real and
equal. Let us suppose, for example, that b and c are ne¬
gative and equal; the first two values of y in each column
become then imaginary, and the remaining values of y are
in the first set of roots, y -|Va, y——\ Va, and in the
second, y— a, y=^Va.
3. When the cubic equation has only one real and two
imaginary roots, its real roots must necessarily be positive ;
for the imaginary roots can only come from a quadratic
equation having its last term positive, Sect. IX. and there¬
fore are of this form, ?;2 +Az?-|-B=0 ; hence the simple
factor which contains the remaining root must have this
form, v—y, otherwise the last term of the cubic equation
could not be negative.
By resolving the equation ^-j-Av4-Bz=0, we find
A . /A2 ~
2-VT-B-
A2
Here, the roots being supposed imaginary, — B must
be a negative quantity. That we may simplify the form of
the roots, let us put —^=a’ an<^”4 —^2’ t^en
v=i—aztzV—/3J ——a=±=/3V—1,
and vzz——1, v——a—(SV—1.
Hence we have
flCzra-f/Sv/—1, b=a—jSs/—1, c=y ;
so that in two of the four values of y, we have a quantity
of this form,  
yu + fiv' — 1 /3V—1;
but this quantity, although it appears to be imaginary, is
indeed real; for if we first square it, and then take its
square root, it becomes
ij 2a 4- 2V cV+jP,
which is a real quantity. The other two roots involve this
other expression,   
J a+ —1—J a—/3 V—1 ;
which being treated in the same manner as the former,
becomes
127. This resolution of biquadratic equations suggests
the following general remarks upon the nature of their
roots-
1. It is evident from the form pf the roots, that if the
cubic equation
v3 4- 2/w2 -j- (p2—4r)t>—q1—0,
have all its roots real and positive, those of the biquadra¬
tic equation will be all real.
vol. n.
^ 2a—2Va2 4-/3i,
an imaginary quantity, and therefore the roots into which
it enters are imaginary.
4. We may discover from the co-efficients of the pro¬
posed biquadratic equation in what case the roots of the
cubic equation are all real. For this purpose, the latter is
to be transformed into another which shall want the second
2p
term, by assuming vzzu thus it becomes
and in this equation the three roots will be real when
27 (if+4r) is greater than ijr+tf2) *
128. As an example of the method of resolving a bi¬
quadratic equation, let it be required to determine the
roots of the following,
a4—25X2 4.60a—36=0.
3 u
522 ALGEBRA.
Algebra. By comparing this equation with the general formula, we
have p-=. — 25, q— 60, r— — 36 ; hence
2p=—50, p1—4r=769, ^=3600,
and the cubic equation to be resolved is
^,3_5ov2_^_ 76%—3600=0;
die roots of which are found, by the rules for cubics, to
be 9, 16, and 25, so that Va=3, ^5=4, Vc=5. Now in
this case q is positive, therefore
*=!(—3 —4 —5)=—6,
.t=1(—3+4+5)= + 3,
•'aC H- ^ ^ d- — -H
a-=i( + 3 + 4 —5)= + l.
129. We have now explained the particular rules by
which the roots of equations belonging to each of the first
four orders may be determined; and this is the greatest
length mathematicians have been able to go in the direct
resolution of equations; for as to those of the fifth, and
all higher degrees, no general method has hitherto been
found, either for resolving them directly, or reducing
them to others of an inferior degree.
It even appears that the formulae which express the
roots of cubic equations are not of universal application ;
for in one case, that is, when the roots are all real, they
become illusory, so that no conclusion can be drawn
from them. The same observation will also apply to the
formulae for the roots of biquadratic equations, because,
before they can be applied, it is always necessary to find
the roots of a cubic equation. But in either cubics or
biquadratic equations, even when the formulae involve no
imaginary quantities, and therefore can be always applied,
it is more convenient in practice to employ some other
methods, which we are hereafter to explain.
Sect. XIII.—Of Reciprocal Equations.
130. Although no general resolution has hitherto been
found of equations belonging to the fifth or any higher
degree, yet there are particular equations of all orders,
which, by reason of certain peculiarities in the nature of
their roots, admit of being reduced to others of a lower
degree; and thus, in some cases, equations of the higher
orders may be resolved by the rules which have been
already explained for the resolution of equations belong¬
ing to the first four orders.
When the co-efficients of the terms of an equation form
the same numerical series, whether taken in a direct or an
inverted order, as in this example,
qxa -\-px 1 = 0,
it may always be transformed into another of a degree de¬
noted by half the exponent of the highest power of the
unknown quantity, if that exponent be an even number;
or half the exponent diminished by unity, if it be an odd
number.
The same observation will also apply to any equation of
this form,
x* + pax3 -f qa2x? +pa3x+a4=0,
where the given quantity a and the unknown quantity
x are precisely alike concerned; for by substituting ay
for x, it becomes
ay +pay -j- qay -f + a4=0 ;
and dividing by a4,
yi+ptf+<n/2+py+1=0,
an equation of the same kind as the former.
131. That we may effect the proposed transformation
upon the equation
ar4 -f px3 -f- qx2 -\-px +1 = 0, Algebra,
let every two terms which are equally distant from the
extremes be collected into one, and the whole be divided
by a?, then
a;2+^r+i?0+^)+?=o.
Let us assume x4-—=zz:
* x
then a2 +2+A=2:2, and — 2.
tL
Thus the equation ar^ + ^+p (# + -) +<7=0,
becomes 22+/?z+<7 —2=0;
and since a+—=z, therefore xs—zx + 1=0.
Hence, to determine the roots of the biquadratic equa¬
tion
ic4+/?a?3 + g'a^+/ja;+1 = 0,
we have the following rule :
Form this quadratic equation,
z2-\-pz-\-q — 2=0,
and find its roots, which, let us suppose denoted by s' and
d'; then the four roots of the proposed equation will be
found by resolving two quadratic equations, viz.
x1 — z'x + 1 = 0, ic2 — z"a?+l = 0.
132. It may be observed, respecting these two quadra¬
tic equations, that since the last term of each is unity, if
we put a, a' to denote the roots of the one, and b, V those
of the other, we have, from the theory of equations, a a?
= 1, and therefore a'=-; also b 1/= 1, and b'zz\ : now a,
a b
a’, b, U are also the roots of the equation
ar4 -j-px? + qx2-\-px +1=0.
Hence it appears that the proposed equation has this
peculiar property, that one half of its roots are the reci¬
procals of the other half; and to that circumstance we
are indebted for the simplicity of its resolution.
133. The following equation,
xG -\-px5 + qxA + rxJ+qx2 -\-px +1=0,
which is of the sixth order, admits of a resolution in all
respects similar to the former; for, by putting it under
this form,
(^+i) +? (*+s) +,'=0’
and putting also x + so that a?2—zx-{-1 = 0, we
have a^+^-=22 — 2,
^+^3-=2:3 —3(*+ ^)=^—Sz’
Hence, by substitution, the proposed equation is trans¬
formed into the following cubic equation,
z3+jft22+(<7 — 3)2+t- — 2p= 0;
therefore, putting zr, z”, z"f, to denote its roots, the six
roots of the proposed equation will be had by resolving
these three quadratics,
x? — 2';r+l = 0, a?2 — z"a;+l=0, x? — 2'"*+ 1=0;
and here it is evident, as in the former case, that the roots
of each quadratic equation are the reciprocals of each
other, so that the one half of the roots of the proposed
equation are the reciprocals of the other half.
The method of resolution we have employed in the two
preceding examples is general for all equations whatever,
in which the terms placed at equal distances from the first
ALGEBRA.
■a;
Algtjia. and last have the same co-efficients, and which are called
reciprocal equations, because any such equation has the
same form when you substitute for x its reciprocal,
134. If the greatest exponent of the unknown quantity
in a reciprocal equation is an odd number, as in this
example,
xP-^-px^-if-qa^^-qxP-^px-^ 1 = 0,
the equation will always be satisfied by substituting — 1
for x ; hence, — 1 must be a root of the equation, and
therefore the equation must be divisible by x-\-\. Ac¬
cordingly, if the division be actually performed, we shall
have in the present case
— l)*3— (p — q— l)o^-l-()9— 1)^+ 1 = 0,
another reciprocal equation, in which the greatest expon¬
ent of x is an even number, and therefore resolvable in the
manner we have already explained.
135. As an application of the theory of reciprocal equa¬
tion, let it be proposed to find x from this equation,
a^-j- I
where a denotes a given number.
Every expression of the form xn-\-1 is divisible by x-{-1
when n is an odd number. In the present case, the nume¬
rator and denominator being divided by a;-j- 1, the equa¬
tion becomes
ir4— ar3-)-a^ — x-\-1
r4-|-4«3 -f- 6a^-f-4a;-{- 1
and this again, by proper reduction,
(a—l)a^-f-(4«4- -\-(ba-\-V)x-\-a—1=0;
. . 4a4-1 6a — 1
and, putting^ = ~^ZTT
1 = 0;
a reciprocal equation, resolvable into two quadratics.
Sect.XIV.—Of Equations which have Equal Roots.
136. When an equation has two or more equal roots,
these may always be discovered, and the equation reduc¬
ed to another of an inferior degree, by a method of resolu¬
tion which is peculiar to this class of equations.
Although the method of resolution we are to employ
will apply alike to equations of every degree, having equal
roots, yet, for the sake of brevity, we shall take a bi¬
quadratic equation,
^r4 + -f ^ + ra?-f s= 0,
the roots of which may be generally denoted by a, b, c,
and d. Thus we have, from the theory of equations,
(.z—a)(x — b)(x—c){x — d)zzX^-\-pxi-\-qx2-{-rx-\rs=0.
Let us put
A =(x — a)(x — b)(x—c), Ar, = (x—a)(x — c)(x—d),
A'= (x —a)(x — b)(x—d), Am=(x—b) (a? — c)(x—d):
then, by actual multiplication, we have
A =ar3—aA
—b > x? jf-acY x — abc,
~c) +bc)
A' =ar3—a") }
—b V a^ p ad > x — abd,
—d) -\-bd)
A" =a^—al -f ac 4
—c > a^ -J- acZ a? — acd,
—d ) + ^ 4
A'"-xi—b~) +6c4
—c>3i?-\-bd>x — bed;
—d ) \-cd\
2 -|-2ac —abc
x -j- 2ad * —abd
x—acd
—bed.
and taking the sum of these four equations ;
A + A' + A" + A"'=4ar3—3a 4 -f- 2ab'
—3b
—Sc
—3g?3 -f
~\~2bd
-\-2cd
But since a, b, c, d are the roots of the equation
xi-\-px^-\-qx2 -\-rx-\-s=:0,
we have —3(a-{-6-|-c-j-rf)=3/>,
2(ai -j- ac ad -}- be -J- bd -p cd^=2^,
—(aZ»c -(- abd-j- acd -j- bed)=r ;
therefore, by substitution,
A +A'-f-A" + A'"=-p Spot? Jr2qx-\-r'
137. Let us now suppose that the proposed biquadratic
equation has two equal roots, or a—b ; then x—a=a?—b,
and since one or other of these equal factors enters each
of the four products A, A', A", A'", it is evident that
A-p A'-p A,;-p A'", or 4tf3 + 3/*T2-p29'a;-pr must be divisi¬
ble by x—a, or x—b. Thus it appears that if the pro¬
posed equation
a?4-p j»a?-f--p ra?-p s= 0
have two equal roots, each of them must also be a root of
this equation,
Ax?Y^Sp*?-\-2qx-\-r-=z0;
for when the first of these equations is divisible by (a:—a)2,
the latter is necessarily divisible by x- -a.
138. Let us next suppose that the proposed equation
has three equal roots, or a—b—c; then, two at least of the
three equal factors x—a, x—b, x—c, must enter each of
the four products A, A', A", A'"; so that in this case,
A-f-A'-p A" +A'", or 4a?3-f 3a?2+ 2^-{-?•, must be twice
divisible by x—a. Hence it follows, that as often as the
proposed equation has three equal roots, two of them must
also be equal roots of the equation
Ax? -p 3px? -p 2qx -p r— 0.
139. Proceeding in the same manner, it maybe shown,
that whatever number of equal roots are in the proposed
equation
ar4-p joa?3-p ^a?2-p ra?-p s= 0,
they will remain, except one, in this equation,
4a^ + 3px? -p 2qx + r— 0,
which may be derived from the former, by multiplying
each of its terms by the exponent of x in that term, and
then diminishing the exponent by unity.
140. If we suppose that the proposed equation has two
equal roots, or a—b, and also two other equal roots, or c—d,
then, by reasoning as before, it will appear that the equa¬
tion derived from it must have one root equal to a or b,
and another equal to c or d; so that when the former is
divisible both by (x—a)2 and (x—c)2, the latter will be
divisible by (x—a) (x—c).
141. The same mode of reasoning may be extended to
all equations whatever; so that if we suppose
xm -p Pa?”1-1 + Qxm~2 .... -pSx2-pTa?-pU=0,
an equation of the mt\i degree, to have a divisor of this
form,
(x—a)n (x—d)p (x—f)11... &c.
the equation
mxm~l + (m — 1) ~Pxm-2 Gb™-3 + 2Sa?
-p T=0,
which is of the next lower degree, will have for a divisor
(x—a)n_I (x—d)?-1 (x—fy-1 . • • &c.
and as this last product must be a divisor of both equa-
523
Algebra.
524 ALGEBRA.
Algebra, tions, it may always be discovered by the rule which has
'^v-'^been given (sect. 20) for finding the greatest common
divisor of two algebraic quantities.
142. Again, as this last equation must, in the case of
equal roots, have the same properties as the original
equation; therefore, if we multiply each of its terms by
the exponent of x, and diminish that exponent by unity,
as before, we have
m(jn—1) xm-2 + (m—1) (m — 2) Vx™-3 (m — 2)
(m—3) Qa?™-4 .... +2Sr=0,
a new equation, which has for a divisor
(x—a)n~2 (x—dy~2 (x—fy-2,
where the exponents of the factors are one less than those
of the equation from which it was derived; and as this
last divisor is also a divisor of the original equation, it
may be discovered in the same manner as the former,
namely, by finding the greatest common measure of
both equations; and so on we may proceed, as far as we
please.
143. As a particular example, let us take this equation,
a^—l 3^ +67^—171^+216a;—108=0,
and apply to it the method we have explained, in order
to discover whether it has equal roots, and if so, what
they are. We must therefore seek the greatest common
measure of the proposed equation and this other equa¬
tion, which is formed agreeably to what has been shown,
sect. 139,
5a^—52a.,3-j-201a^—342a?q-216=0 ;
and the operation being performed, we find that they
have a common divisor, a^—83^ + 21#—IB, which is of
the third degree, and consequently may have several fac¬
tors. Let us therefore try whether the last equation, and
the following,
20^—156.t2+402a;—342=0,
which is derived from it, as directed in sect. 139, have
any common divisor; and, by proceeding as before, we
find that they admit of this divisor, x—3, which is also a
factor of the last divisor, x?—8a^-f-21a;—18; and therefore
the product of remaining factors is immediately found by
division to be a?—5a;-f-6, which is evidently resolvable
into x—2 and x—3.
Thus it appears, upon the whole, that the common di¬
visor of the original equation, and that which is imme¬
diately derived from it, is (a;—2) (a;—3)2; and that the
common divisor of the second and third equations is x—3.
Hence it follows that the proposed equation has {x—2)2
for one factor, and (x—3)3 for another factor; so that the
equation itself may be expressed thus, (x—2)2 (x—3)3=0;
and the truth of this conclusion may be easily verified by
multiplication.
Sect. XV.—Resolution of Equations whose Roots
are Rational.
144. It has been shown in sect. 100, that the last term
of any equation is always the product of its roots taken
with contrary signs. Hence, when the roots are rational,
they may be discovered by the following rule:
Bring all the terms 0f the equation to one side; find
all the divisors of the last term, and substitute them suc¬
cessively for the unknown quantity. Then each divi¬
sor, which produces a result equal to 0, is a root of the
equation.
lix. 1. Let x3—4a.’2—lx-\-10=0.
The divisors of 10, the last term, are 1, 2, 5, 10, each
of which may be taken either positively or negatively; Algebra,
and these being substituted successively for x, we obtain
the following results:
By putting -flforar, 1— 4— 7-fl0= 0,
—1, —1— 4+ 7 + 10= 12,
+ 2, 8— 16—14+10=—12,
—2, —8— 16+14+10= 0,
+ 5, 125-100-35 + 10= 0.
Here the divisors which produce results equal to 0 are
+1, —2, and +5 ; therefore these are the three roots of
the proposed equation.
145. When the number of divisors to be tried is con¬
siderable, it will be convenient to transform the equation
into another, in which the last term has fewer divisors.
This may in general be done by forming an equation,
the roots of which are greater or less than those of the
proposed equation by some determinate quantity; as in the
following example:
Ex. 2. Let y1—Xy3—8y+32=0 be proposed.
Here the divisors to be tried are 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, each
taken either positively or negatively; but to prevent the
trouble of so many substitutions, transform the equation,
by putting x-\-\ for y.
Then y4=;r4 + 4;c3+ 6a^+ 4a; + 1,
—4y3= —4^—12a.’2—12a;— 4,
—8y = — 8a;— 8,
+ 32 = +32.
Therefore ar4 — 6a^—16a;+21=0
is the transformed equation, and the divisors of the last
term are + 1, —1, +3, —3, +7, —7. These being put
successively for x, we get +1 and + 3 for two roots of
the equation ; as to the two remaining roots, it is easy to
see that they must be imaginary. They may, however,
be readily exhibited by considering that the equation
xA—6a^—16a;+ 21 = 0 is divisible by the product of the
two factors x—1 and x—3, and therefore may be reduced
to a quadratic. Accordingly, by performing the division,
and putting the quotient equal 0, we have this equation,
a^ + 4a;+7=0,
the roots of which are the imaginary quantities —2 + V—3
and •—2—V—3; so that, since ?/=a;+1, the roots of the
equation y4—4^—8y+ 32=0 are these, y= +2, y= +4,
y=—l+v—3, y=—1—V—3.
If this literal equation were proposed,
x3—( 3a + b)x? + ( 2a2 + 3ab)x—2a2b—0,
by proceeding as before, we should find x—a, x=2a,
x—b for the roots.
146. To avoid the trouble of trying all the divisors of
the last term, a rule may be investigated for restricting
the number to very narrow limits as follows:
Suppose that the cubic equation a^+joa^+yr + T^O is
to be resolved. Let it be transformed into another, the
roots of which are less than those of the proposed equa¬
tion by unity. This may be done by assuming y—x—1,
and the last term of the transformed equation will be
l+j» + <7 + r. Again, by assuming y=x-\-\, another
equation will be formed whose roots exceed those of the
proposed equation by unity, and the last term of this
other transformed equation will be —1+/>—9' + r* And
it is to be observed, that these two quantities 1 +J» + 5' + ^
and—1+/>—y + r are formed from the proposed equa¬
tion a? + yr2 + yr + r by substituting successively +1
and —1 for x.
ALGEBRA.
Now the values of x are some of the divisors of r, which
is the term left in the proposed equation, when x is sup¬
posed — 0; and the values of y are some of the di¬
visors of l+Z' + S'-f** and—1+/>—7 + r respectively;
and these are in arithmetical progression, increasing by
the common difference, unity; because x—1, #, 1, are
in that progression ; and it is obvious that the same rea¬
soning will apply to an equation of any degree whatever.
Hence the following rule :
Substitute in place of the unknown quantity, succes¬
sively, three or more terms of the progression 1, 0, —1,
&c. and find all the divisors of the sums that result; then
take out all the arithmetical progressions that can be
found among these divisors, whose common difference is
1, and the values of x will be among these terms of the
progressions, which are the divisors of the result arising
from the substitution of a;=0. When the series increases,
the roots will be positive; and when it decreases, they
will be negative.
Ux. 1. Let it be required to find a root of the equation
—x2—10a;-}-6 — 0.
Substit.
Result.
XZ + ni ^ l-j
*-j] -lQ, + 6
— 4
i + 6
t + 14
Divisors.
1. 2. 4.
1. 2. 3. 6.
1. 2. 7. 14.1
Prog.
In this example there is only one progression, 4, 3, 2,
the term of which opposite to the supposition of x=0
being 3, and the series decreasing, we try if —3 substi¬
tuted for x makes the equation vanish ; and as it succeeds,
it follows that —3 is one of its roots. To find the re¬
maining roots, if x3—x?—Hkr-f-G be divided by *-(-3, and
the quotient a.-2—4.^4-2 put =0, they will appear to be
2 + V2, and 2—V2.
£!x. 2. Let the proposed equation be
+ —29a:2—9x + 180=0.
To find its roots.
Sub.
2
1
0
—1
—2
Res.
70
144
180
160
90
Divisors.
1. 2. 5. 7. 10. 14. 35. 70.
1. 2. 3. 4. 6. 8. 9. 12, &c.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 9. 10, &c,
1. 2. 4. 5. 8. 10. 16. 20, &c,
1. 2. 3. 5. 6. 9. 10. 15, &c
Progressions.
or y3—7T/2-f-140y—384=0,
?/ ^
one root of which is y=3; hence ar=j=f.
The proposed equation being now divided by x—|, is re¬
duced to this quadratic, a?—a;+ 8=0, the roots of which
are both impossible.
148. When the co-efficients of an equation are integers,
and unity that of the highest power of the unknown quan¬
tity, if its roots are not found among the divisors of the
last term, we may be certain that, whether the equation
be pure or adfected, its roots cannot be exactly express¬
ed either by whole numbers or rational fractions. rlhis
may be demonstrated by means of the following proposi¬
tion. If a prime number P be a divisor of the product ol
two numbers A and B, it will also be a divisor of at least
one of the numbers.
Let us suppose that it does not divide B, and that B is
greater than P; then, putting q for the greatest number
of times that P can be had in B, and B' for the remainder,
we have p=g' + -^-, and therefore
AB 4 AB'
-p-=?A+^r-
Hence it appears, that if P be a divisor of AB, it is
also a divisor of AB'. Now B' is less than P, for it is the
remainder which is found in dividing B by P ; therefore,
seeing we cannot divide B' by P, let P be divided by B',
and put for the quotient, also B" for the remainder.
Again, let P be divided by B", and <7" put for the quotient,
and B'" for the remainder, and so on; and as P is sup¬
posed to be a prime number, it is evident that this se¬
ries of operations may be continued till a remainder be
found equal to unity, which will at last be the case; for
the divisors are the successive remainders of the divisions,
and therefore each is less than the divisor which preceded
it. By performing these operations, we obtain the follow¬
ing series of equations;
V=r/ IS’ +TS",
V—q" B" + B"', [> and therefore <
&c.
525
Algebra.
B"=
fi
P—B”
&c.
Hence we have AB'=
AP—AB"
and
Here there are four progressions, two increasing and two
decreasing; hence, by taking their terms, which are op¬
posite to the supposition of a;=0, we have these four
numbers, +3, +4, —3, —5, to be tried as roots of the
equation, all of which are found to succeed.
147. If any of the co-efficients of the proposed equation
be a fraction, the equation may be transformed into an¬
other having the co-efficient of the highest power unity,
and those of the remaining terms integers by sect. 112,
and the roots of the transformed equation being found,
those of the proposed equation may be easily derived
from them.
For example, if the proposed equation be a? —
_j_ —6=0; let us assume Thus the equation is
transformed to
S5y
64 64+ 16 ~ ’
q’AB'_ AP—AB" AB"
p - p -A P *
Now, if AB be divisible by P, we have shown that AB',
and consequently ^'AB', is divisible by P; therefore, from
the last equation, it appeal’s that AB" must also be divi¬
sible by P.
Again, from the preceding series of equations, we have
AP—AB'" , , r
AB"=-   , and therefore
?"AB" AP—AB"
=A-
ALP
P
hence we conclude that AB'" is also divisible by P.
Proceeding in this manner, and observing that the
series of quantities B', B", B'", &c. continually decrease
till one of them = 1, it is evident that we shall at last
come to a product of this form, A X 1, which must be di¬
visible by P, and hence the truth of the proposition is
manifest.
149. It follows from this proposition, that if the prime
number P, which we have supposed not to be a divisor of
526
ALGEBRA.
Algebra. B, is at the same time not a divisor of A, it cannot be a
divisor of AB, the product of A and B.
Let — be a fraction in its lowest terms, then the num-
a
bers a and b have no common divisor; but from what has
been just now shown, it appears, that if a prime number
be not a divisor of «, it cannot be a divisor of aX a or a2;
and in like manner, that if a prime number is not a divi¬
sor of b, it cannot be a divisor of bXb, or IP; therefore
it is evident that a2 and IP have no common divisor, and
thus the fraction —^ is also in its lowest terms.
a2
Hence it follows that the square of any fractional quan¬
tity is still a fraction, and cannot possibly be a whole num¬
ber ; and, on the contrary, that the square root of a whole
number cannot possibly be a fraction; so that all such
whole numbers as are not perfect squares can neither have
their roots expressed by integers nor by fractions.
Seeing that if a prime number is not a divisor of a,
it is also not a divisor of a2; therefore, if it is not a di¬
visor of a, it cannot be a divisor of ax a2 or a3; and by
reasoning in this way, it is obvious that if a prime number
is not a divisor of a, it cannot be a divisor of an ; also, that
if it is not a divisor of b, it cannot be a divisor of bn ; there¬
fore if - is a fraction in its lowest terms, — is also a frac-
a ’ an
tion in its lowest terms; so that any power whatever of a
fraction is also a fraction ; and on the contrary, any root
of a whole number is also a whole number. Hence it fol¬
lows, that if the root of a whole number is not expressible
by an integer, such root cannot be expressed by a fraction,
but is therefore irrational or incommensurable.
150. Let us next suppose that
xn + pxn—l _|_ Qxn-2'.. + + U= 0
is any equation whatever, in which P, Q, &c. denote integer
numbers; then, if its roots are not integers, they cannot
possibly be rational fractions. For, if possible, let us sup¬
pose x=- a fraction reduced to its lowest terms ; then, by
.. + T“+U=0;
substitution,
cf* p an~^ a’
and, reducing all the terms to a common denominator,
an + pan-\h + Qan-2#2... + Tabn~l + 0;
which equation may also be expressed thus,
an -1- b( Pa«-i -f _ + Ta&»-2 U6”-1)=0,
where the equation consists of two parts, one of which is
divisible by b. But by hypothesis a and b have no com¬
mon measure, therefore an is not divisible by b, sect. 149 ;
hence it is evident that the two parts of the equation can¬
not destroy each other as they ought to do; therefore x
cannot possibly be a fraction.
Sect. Resolution of Equations by Approxi¬
mation.
151. ^ hen the roots of an equation cannot be accurate-
y expressed by rational numbers, it is necessary to have
recourse to methods of approximation; and by these we
can always determine the numerical values of the roots to
as great a degree of accuracy as we please.
Ihe application of methods of approximation is rendered
easy by means of the following propositions :
L If two numbers, either whole or fractional, be found,
which, when substituted for the unknown quantity in any
equation, produce results with contrary signs, we may
conclude that at least one root of the proposed equation
is between those numbers, and is consequently real.
Let the proposed equation be
x?— 5*2 -}-10*— 15—0,
which, by collecting the positive terms into one sum, and
the negative into another, may also be expressed thus,
tf3-)- 10* — (5*2 -j-15)=0 ;
then, to determine a root of the equation, we must find
such a number as, when substituted for *, will render
ic3-]- 10*r=5*2 15.
Let us suppose * to increase and to have every degree
of magnitude, from 0 upwards in the scale of number;
then a*3-}-10* and 5*2+ 15 will both continually increase,
but with different degrees of quickness, as appears from
the following table.
Successive values of *; 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, &c.
 of *3+10*; 0, 11, 28, 57, 104, 175, 276, &c.
   of 5*2+ 15; 15, 20, 35, 60, 95, 140, 195, &c.
By inspecting this table, it appears that while * increases
from 0 to a certain numerical value, which exceeds 3, the
positive part of the equation, or *3 -j- 10*, is always less than
the negative part, or 5xP-\- 15; so that the expression
10* — (5*2-j-15) or *3 — S*2-}- 10*— 15
must necessarily be negative.
It also appears, that when * has increased beyond that
numerical value, and which is evidently less than 4, the
positive part of the equation, instead of being less than the
negative part, is now greater, and therefore the expression
*3— 5*2-}- 10*— 15
is changed from a negative to a positive quantity.
Hence we may conclude that there is some real and
determinate value of *, which is greater than 3, but less
than 4, and which will render the positive and negative
parts of the equation equal to one another ; therefore that
value of * must be a root of the proposed equation ; and
as what has been just now shown in a particular case will
readily apply to any equation whatever, the truth of the
proposition is obvious.
152. Two limits, between which all the roots of any
equation are contained, may be determined by this other
proposition:
II. Let N be the greatest negative co-efficient in any
equation. Change the signs of the terms taken alternately,
beginning with the second, and let N' be the greatest ne¬
gative co-efficient after the signs are so changed. The
positive roots of the equation are contained between 0 and
N-j-1, and the negative roots between 0 and — N'— 1.
Suppose the equation to be
xt—pxP-\-qx<2 — rx — 5=0,
which may be also expressed thus:
Algebra.
*^1 —
P+l.
*_r *2
Then, whatever be the values of the co-efficients p, q, r,
&c. it is evident that * may be taken so great as to render
each of the quantities -, —, — as small as we please,
dC 0C d(j tX/
and therefore their sum, or —P + PL !! less
* *2 *3 x£
than 1 ; but in that case the quantity
 Pjl.PL _ s\
V *"t'*2 *3+a?V’
or *4 —px5 -j-^*2 —rx-\-s,
will be positive, and such, that the first term *4 is greater
than the sum of all the remaining terms; therefore also
x^-\-qx<2, the sum of the positive terms, will be much
greater than px5 -f-rx-^s, the sum of the negative terms
alone.
Hence it follows, that if a number be found, which when
substituted for*, renders the expression *4—px5 -\-qx‘2
— rx — s positive, and which is also such, that every
ALGEBRA.
Algebra, greater number has the same property, that number will
exceed the greatest positive root of the equation.
Now, if we suppose N to be the greatest negative co¬
efficient, it is evident that the positive part of the equa¬
tion, or rf+qx'2, is greater than px5 -\-rx-\-s, provided
that ar4 is greater than N x5 -f-Na?2 -|-Na; + N, or N (ar4-}-
^ i
x‘2 -j-a;-j-1) ; but a? + a;2 + a; +1=^——p therefore a
positive result will be obtained, if for x there be substitut¬
ed a number such that x^-^ —r^*, or a?5 — a^T^N
ar4 — N. Now this last condition will evidently be fulfill¬
ed if we take ar5 —a:4=Na74, and from this equation we find
xrrNq-l; but it further appears that the same condition
will also be fulfilled as often as a?5 — ar4"^:'Nar4, or a? — 1
-p^N, that is, a^^^Nq- 1, therefore N-j-1 must be a limit
to the greatest positive root of the proposed equation, as
was to be shown.
If_^be substituted for -fa:, the equation a^—px5 +qx<2
— rx — s—0 will be transformed into y^-^py5 J\rry
— 5=0; which equation differs from the former only in
the signs of the second, fourth, &c. terms; and as the posi¬
tive roots of this last equation are the same as the nega¬
tive roots of the proposed equation, it is evident that their
limit must be such as has been assigned.
153. From the two preceding propositions it will not be
difficult to discover, by means of a few trials, the nearest
integers to the roots of any proposed numeral equation;
and those being found, we may approximate to the roots
continually, as in the following example:
xi — ^x3 * — 3x+27=0.
Here the greatest negative co-efficient being 4, it follows,
sect. 152, that the greatest positive root is less than 5.
If — y be substituted for x, the equation is transformed to
y4.f 4^3 *_f 3y.f 27=0,
an equation having all its terms positive; therefore it can
have no positive roots, and consequently the proposed
equation can have no negative roots : its real roots must
therefore be contained between 0 and -f 5.
To determine the limits of each root in particular, let
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, be substituted successively for x ; thus we
obtain the following corresponding results :
Substitutions for x, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
Results, +27, +21, +5, — 9, +15.
Hence it appears that the equation has two real roots,
one between 2 and 3, and another between 3 and 4.
That we may approximate to the first root, let us sup-
pose a:=2 + ?/, where ^ is a fraction less than unity, and
therefore its second and higher powers but small in com¬
parison to its first power: hence, in finding an approxi¬
mate value of y, they may be rejected. Thus we have
#4= + 16 + 32y, &c.
— 4«3=—32 —48y, &c.
— 3x =— 6— 3y
+ 27 = + 27
Hence 0= 5 —19y nearly,
and y=^=*26; therefore, for a first approximation we
have
Let us next suppose a:=2*26+y ; then, rejecting as be¬
fore the second and higher powers of y1 on account of
their smallness, and retaining three decimal places, we have
ar4= +26-087 + 46-172y, &c.
— 4x3=—46-172 — 61-29iy, &c.
— 3x =— 6-780— 3y
+ 27 =+27
0 = -135 — 18-119y nearly.
Hence y= ^.^-j-g—*0075, and #= 2-26+y= 2-2675. This
value of x is true to the last figure, but a more accurate
value may be obtained by supposing #=2-2675+ 2/", and
finding the value of y" in the same manner as we have
already found those of y1 and y ; and thus the approxi¬
mation may be continued till any required degree of ac¬
curacy be obtained.
The second root of the equation, which we have al¬
ready found to be between 3 and 4, may be investigated
in the same manner as the first, and will appear to be
3-6797, the approximation being carried on to the fourth
figure of the decimal, in determining each root.
154. In the preceding example we have shown how to
approximate to the roots of an adfected equation; but the
same method will also apply to pure equations.
For example, let it be required to determine x from
this equation, #3=2.
Because x is greater than 1 and less than 2, but nearer
to the former number than to the latter, let us assume
#= 1 + y ; then, rejecting the powers of y which exceed
the first, we have #3=l + 3y, and therefore 2=l + 3y,
and y=4=-3 nearly; hence #=T3 nearly.
Let us next assume #=l"3+y, then, proceeding as
•197
before, we find 2=2-197+ 5-07y, hence y= 
——-039, and #=1-3 — -039=1-26 nearly.
To find a still nearer approximation, let us suppose
x = 1-26 + y, then, from this assumption we find y =
—-000079, and therefore #=1-259921, which value is
true to the last figure.
155. By assuming an equation of any order with literal
co-efficients, a general formula may be investigated for
approximating to the roots of equations belonging to that
particular order.
Let us take for an example the cubic equation
#3 +/;#2 + <7# + r=0,
and suppose that #=a+y, where a is nearly equal to #,
and ?/ is a small fraction. Then, by substituting a+y for
# in the proposed equation, and rejecting the powers of?/
which exceed the first, on account of their smallness, we
have
a3 +/?a2 + ^rt + r + (3a2+2pa + y)?/=0.
TT a3 + »a2 + 5,a + r
Hence y= 3a2 + 2/ya + ?
^ a3 +/)«2 + qa + r _ 2a3 + pa2 — r
an #_a 3a2 q_ 2pa + q ~~ 3d?-\-2pa + q
Let it be required to approximate to a root of the
cubic equation #3 + 2#2 + 3# — 50=0. Here/?=2, q=3,
and r— — 50; and by trials it appears that # is between
2 and 3, but nearest the latter number; therefore, for
the first approximation, a may be supposed =3, hence we
find
527
Algebra.
#=
2a3 + pep—r
. 1_22_ 61_
3a2 + 2pa + y 4 “ ‘Zl’
By substituting for a in the formula, and proceeding as
• The sign 7^ denotes that the quantities between which it is placed are unequal,
and a ^ c, that a is less than c.
Thus a b signifies that a is greater than 6,
528
ALGEBRA.
Algebra, before, a value of x would be found more exact than the here two changes of the signs, it follows that the equation Algebra.
former, and so on we may go as far as we please. has two positive roots, one between 1-2 and 1*4, and an-^v^v^
156. The method we have hitherto employed for ap- other between 1'6 and 1-8.
proximating to the roots of equations is known by the Hence it appears, that to find either value of we may
name of t/te method of successive substitutions, and was first j J
proposed by Newton. It has been since improved by assume a-zzl-f-; then, by substitution, we have
Lagrange, who has given it a form which has the advan- ^3 2
tage of showing the progress made in the approximation & ^ +%+l~0*
by each operation. This improved form we now proceed ^le limit °f the positive root of this last equation is 5,
to explain. and by substituting 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, successively for y, it will
T ~ ,1   1. „ 1.1  1 1 „    4. 1 ^ 1 M H t T H ^ „ 1 1 Ci  1 .1
explain.    v/, A, fc, .V, T, OlU^CCSBlVCiy 1UF y, ll W1JJ
Let a denote the whole number next less to the root he found to have two, one between 1 and 2, and the other
} ^ . ,, , , _ _ between 2 and 3. Therefore, for a first approximation,
we have
1 + 1, ^=1+^, that is, x=2, x—\.
To approach nearer to the first value of y, let us take
1
sought, and - a fraction, which, when added to a, com-
V
pletes the root; then x—a-\--. If this value of a: be sub-
y 1
stituted in the proposed equation, a new equation involv- ^=lH—r> and therefore
ing y will be had, which, when cleared of fractions, will ^
necessarily have a root greater than unity. y3 — Sy2 — y-j- 1 = 0.
Let b be the whole number which is next less than This last equation will be found to have only one real
,af a    u  root between 2 and 3 ; from which it appears that y-
l +j=f, and x= l-{-§=§.
Let us next suppose y=2-f hence we find
y3 _ 3y/2 _ 4y _ i _ 0,
and from this equation, y" is found to be between 4 and
5. Taking the least limit we have
y=2 + i=f, y=l+±=U, x=l+&=Z°.
It is easy to continue this process, by assuming y"=
4 + —, and so on, as far as may be judged necessary.
We return to the second value of x, which was found
==f by the first approximation, and which corresponds to
y=2. Putting y= 2 +i-, and substituting this value in
that root; then, for a first approximation, we have x=z
« + £•. But b being only an approximate value of y, in the
same manner as a is an approximate value of x, we may
suppose y=b+p; then, by substituting ^ + “, f°r 35 we
shall have a new equation, involving only y, which must
be greater than unity. Putting therefore b1 to denote the
next whole number less than the root of the equation in¬
volving y, we have + and substituting th
value in that of x, the result is
, ^
xzza-i-jj-—7
' bb'-\- 1
for a second approximate value of x.
is
To find a third value, we may take ^=*-+1; theii ifj” the equation _ V+3y+l=0, which was formerly
denote the next whole number less than we have *ount*> we Set
T 1 b'b"4-l V^+i/2 — 2i/—1=0.
!/=b'+JJ 
y- y -> whence
, , b" bb'b''+b'’+b
y—^+^+i-~ > and
x—a-
b'b"+1
b'b''+1
'bb’b"+b"+b'
and so on, to obtain more accurate approximations.
We shall apply this method to the following example:
ik3—7#+7=0.
Here the positive roots must be between 0 and 8; let us
therefore substitute successively, 0, 1, 2, . . . to 8, and
we obtain the following results:
Substitutions.
°’ l> 2» 3> 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
Results.
y’+y2 — 2y
This, as well as the corresponding equation employed in
determining the other value of x, has only one root
greater than unity, which root being between 1 and 2,
let us take y=l, we thence find
y=3, and a:=l + |=f.
Puty=l + ^-, and we thence find by substitution
y'3 _ Sy"2 — 4y — 1=0,
an equation which gives if between 4 and 5; hence, as
before,
y'—h V— s* > •
That we may proceed in the approximation, we have
only to suppose y"=4+-^, and so on.
The equation a? — 7a;+7 has also a negative root be-
-f-7’ 't"1’ +13> +43, +97, +181, +301, +463. tween — 3 and — 4; and to find a nearer value, put
But as these results have all the same sign, nothing can be 1
concluded respecting the magnitude of the roots from X~—3 — “J hence,y5 — 20/ —9^—1 = 0,and7/^20,
that circumstance alone. It is however observable, that ^ oi i c c .u c * •
while x increases from 0 to 1, the results decrease; but 215 and therefore> for the first approximation, ar =
that whatever successive magnitudes x has greater’than —3-^L = —§£. By putting y=20 + -, &c. we may Ob-
2, the results increase. We may therefore reasonably con- y
elude, that if the equation have any positive roots, they tain successive values of x, each of which will be more
must be between 1 and 2. Accordingly, by substituting exact than that which preceded it.
1*2, 1'4, 1'6, and P8, successively for a;, we find these re- 157. The successive equations which involve y, y, /,
suits, +"3-,8, 'Uob, ‘lOI, +*232; and as there are &c. have never more than one root greater than unity,
ALGEBRA.
529
Algebra, unless two or more roots of the proposed equation are
contained between the limits a and a +1; but then, as in
the preceding example, some one of the equations involv¬
ing y, yr, &c. will have more than one root greater than
unity, and from each root a series of equations may be
derived, by which we may approximate to the particular
roots of the proposed equation contained between the
limits a and a+l.
Sect. XVII.—Of Infinite Series.
158. The resolving of any proposed quantity into a
series, is a problem of considerable importance in the
application of algebra to the higher b -anches of the ma¬
thematics ; and there are various methods by which it
may be performed, suited to the particular forms of the
quantities.
Any rational fraction may be resolved into a series, by
the common operation of algebraic division, as in the fol¬
lowing examples:
Ex. 1. To change
into an infinite series.
Operation.
a — x\ax (#+—&c.
J \ a ' a1 a?
x1
+ a?2
+ ^ ——
a
+ x?
a
a?
a4
/y»4
or
Thus it appears that
ax
(a+x)
_1 2ar_j_3a?
4a? . 5a?
-T + -r — &c.
a6 cr
the law of continuation being evident.
159. A second method by which algebraic quantities,
whether rational or irrational, may be converted into
series, and which is also of very extensive use in the
higher parts of the mathematics, consists in assuming a
series with indeterminate co-efficients, and having its
terms arranged according to the powers of some quantity
contained in the proposed expression.
That we may explain this method, let us suppose that
the fraction
assume
rr A + Ba?+Ca;2 + D^3+Ea?+j &c.
the first power of x, Cx2 the terms which contain only Algebra,
the second power, and so on. Let both sides of thev
equation be multiplied by a2-\-ax-\-x2, so as to take
away the denominator of the fraction, and let the nume¬
rator a2 be transposed to the other side, so that the
whole expression may be z= 0; then
ft2 A + a2B) +«2C) +a2D) +a2El
— a2+«A j 37 +a Cba?+aD Va?, &c. = 0.
+ A) + b) + c)
Now the quantities A, B, C, D, &c. being supposed to
be entirely independent of any particular value of x, it
follows that the whole expression can only be = 0, upon
the supposition that the terms which multiply the same
powers of x are separately = 0; for if that were not the
case, it would follow that x had a determinate relation to
the quantities A, B, C, &c. which is contrary to what we
have supposed. To determine the quantities A, B, C,
&c. therefore, we have this series of equations,
a2 A — a2 — 0, hence A — 1;
a2B+aA =0,
a2C+aB + A=0,
a2D + aC + B=0,
a2E + aD + C=0,
&c.
B — — —— = — —;
a a
C = —
D=
E =
J}
a
a
D
a
&c.
a*
B^
a2 ‘
_C
■-0
1
a4’
Here the law of relation which takes place among the
quantities A, B, C, D, &c. is evident, viz. that if P, Q, R
denote any three co-efficients which immediately follow
each other,
a2 R + aQ + PnO;
and from this equation, by means of the co-efficients al-
1 „ 1
ready determined, we find F = 0, G ==
76’
Hz= —
~2 /v»3 <yA
-=x+-+-2+-3+,&c.
a — x a a2 aA
Here the law of the series being evident, the terms
may be continued at pleasure.
Ex. 2. By a like process we find
K=0, &c.
Therefore, resuming the assumed equation, and sub¬
stituting for A, B, C, &c. their respective values, we
have
■y 2 /y> ryS /y»4
, x , a?
> — 1 * + -3
a aA
a2 -j-ax-t-x2 ' a ^ ' a3 a4 ‘ ' a6 a7
As a second example of the method of indeterminate
co-efficients, let it be required to express the square
root a2 — x2 by means of a series. For this purpose we
might assume
Va2 — x2=A + Bx+Cx2 + Dx?+Ex4+, &c.;
but as we would then find the co-efficients of the odd
powers of x to be each = 0, let us rather assume
Va2 — a;2=A+Ba;2 + Ca?+Da?+, &c.
then, squaring both sides, and transposing, we have
A2 + 2AB) +2AC) +2AD)
+
is to be converted into a series
a2 -\-ax-\-x2
proceeding by the powers of x. We are therefore to
°= \
l-a*
Hence A2 — a2
2AB + 1
a2 -hax-{-x2
where A denotes those terms of the series into which x
does not at all enter, Bx the terms which contain only
VOL. 11.
l>x2 V x4 a?6 —J-,
) + B2) +2BC)
— 0, and A—a;
=0’ B=-is=-i;
2AC+BS =0. c=-g=-^;
d__B£ 1_.
U~ A _ 16a»’
&c.
AD + BC =0,
&c.
&c.
3 x
530
ALGEBRA.
Algebra, and substituting for A, B, C, &c. their values;
at xP
VcP-
 2
-xz—a—  
2a 8a3
from these equations, and divide each term of the series Algebra,
by the denominator y — z, we have
-f uvm-<2
This method of resolving a quantity into any infinite un~l-\'Un~2v... + uvn~‘2 -\.vn~l
series will be found more expeditious than any other, as -\-yz-3rz2)-\-^(,y3-\-yqz-{-yz‘A
often as the operations of division and evolution are to be +E (^+^+^2;2:2+;^;2:3+;2:4) + 9 &c.
performed at the same time, as in these expressions, Now, as this last equation must be true, whatever be
1 _ Va2—a?2 the values of y and z, we may suppose y=.z, but in that
TTriT^’ 01 Va34- .r3" c,ase l+y=1+z> or un=vn, and therefore u=v. Thus
Wa -rx + the equation is reduced to
160. The binomial theorem affords a third method of mw”1-1
resolving quantities into series; but we must first show nun~i—^~\~~^,yjt-3tyqjt^yi + 5Ey*-{-, &c.
how the theorem itself may be investigated
or to the following :
Let a-\-xbe any binomial quantity which is to be rais- m
ed to a power denoted by —, where m and n are any ^ U ~V^ -f-4 Dy3-|-5 Ey4 -j-, &c.);
numbers either positive or negative. so that, putting for um and un their values (1 and
r> , x\ '(* x , , ™ 1 + y, we have
Because a-\-xzza M_j_-1, if we put — then
^ m
X (1+^)” ; therefore, instead of a-\-x, we may
consider 1-j-y, which is somewhat more simple in its
form.
By considering some integer powers of l+a?, as
(l-|-aA rrl-{- x,
(l+x)2 = l + 2x-{-
l
>l+x)3 = l + 3x + 3x2+ aP,
fl+‘r)4 -h^x3-}-^,
&c.
it may be inferred that all powers of 1 +a? have this form,
1 + A*+Ba;2 + C^+D^+Ea:5+, &c.
where the co-efficients A, B, C, D, E, &c. are numbers
which are altogether independent of any particular value
of x. It also appears that the series cannot contain any
negative power of x; for if any of its terms had this
Q wiiH any particular value ui u, 11 roilOWS mat tile CO-effi-
form,-, then the supposit.on of *=0 would render that cient of any power of y on the one side of the equation
term indefinitely great; whereas the whole series ou<dit must e(lua^to t^ie co-efficient of the same power of y
in that case to be reduced to unity. & on o^er side. ^ Therefore, to determine A, B, C, &c.
we have the following series of equations :
z7* —
- (1 +y)”=( 1 + y)( A +2By +3Cy2 + 4D^ +5Ey + ,&c.)
_ /A-f2By+3Cy2 + 4Dy3+5E^+,&c.
\ + Ay+2 By2 + 3Cy3+4Dy4 + ,&c.
But from the equation originally assumed we have
m ..
-(i+y)»-
m m . m ^ n m „ n m
—+—Ay+— %- + —Cy3+—D^-f, &c.
Therefore
m m . m ^ n m „ m
T+TA3'+¥ ^ +T CV‘+ ^+’ &c-
 JA-}- 2By-|- 3Cy2 -{- ^tQy3 -j-SEy1-!-, &c.
” I. + Ay+2By2 + SCy3 +4Dy4 + ,&c.
And as the co-efficients of the terms have no connection
with any particular value of y, it follows that the co-effi-
  -j- n .i
Let us therefore assume
(l+y)M=l4-Ay+By2 + Cy3+Dy4+, &c.
Then we have also
(l+z)» = l + Az+Bz2 + Cz3+Dz4+Ez5+, &c.
T Ax
Let us jut (l+y)"-M, (l + z)»=v, and therefore
(1 + y)n ==um, (l+'Z)"=vm; then, taking the difference
between the two series, we have
rfl~vm=A (y~z) + B (y2 — z2) + C (y3—Z3) +D
(y-z4) + ECy3-^) +,&c. ^
Because unzzl-\-y and 1+z, by subtracting the
latter equation from the former, we have un — vn=y — z-
hence, and from the last series, it follows that ^ '
um — vm _ A (y — z) _ B (y2 — z2) C (y3—z3)
un — v» y~z + y — z + ~ y —z +
DC^-z4) , E(yW) . „
J=Tz +’&c-
But every expression of the form um — vm is divisible
by u v, when w is a whole number. Thus we have
„m~2 _j_ vm-i\
-2 4. vn~lj
so that if we substitute for ~~ v'- its value as found
A m
A = —,
n
hence A = —;
2B+ A=—A,
n
3C + 2B=—B,
n
4D + 3C=—C,
n
5E + 4D=—D,
n
&c.
b=A^ l
„ *(?-■)
D-
E=-
c(f-3)
5
&c.
A (m — n)
2n ~ ;
B (m — 2n) .
3n
C (m — 3n)
4»
__ D (m — 4rc)
5ft 5
Or, substituting for A, B, C, &c. their values as deter¬
mined from the preceding equations :
^ ^ vviicn ui a, wiiuit: IIuiiiuer. inus w
um vm= ru (um-\ um~Zv uvm-i
un   Vn — (U V) (ft”-1 4. un~2V ... 4. uvn~£
a m
A=—,
ft
B =
_m(m — ft)
1 2ft2 ’
m (m — ft) (m-
1-2 ; 3“
■ 2»)
w3 ’
un — v*
Algebra.
T\ — m im — n) (m — 2n) (m — 3«)
“1 • 2 • 3 • 4"^-’
ALGEBRA.
Because
p _ m — w) fm — 2n) (m — 3n) (m — 4re)
2 3 4 :
&c.
Resuming now the assumed equation
(l+y)"=l + A7/+B^ + Cy+, &c.
and observing that ~=]/, and (a+a;)7* — a" (1 +?/)”, we
m
have (a+a?)n expressed by the series
i + —- i A(m — w) a/2 B (m — 2n) x3
\ n a ^ 2?i H ^
C (w — 3h) a:4 D(m~4<n) x5 B \
a4 + bn +’ &C7
where A, B, C, &c. denote the co-efficients of the pre¬
ceding terms, or
<«+*/ = a”
1 * 2
therefore
r-f-2:
r3
l+f
r
1 / sV
(r+^)3_^i+£j3_ V + «/
/ ^ . VL
Let M -j- -1 be compared with (a+x)*, and we have
a— 1, x—-, m~ —3, n— 1.
r
Hence, by substituting these values of a, a?, m, n, in the
first general formula of sect. 160, we have
r , 3z 3*4z2 3-4-5^
^ } ~ r + l-2r2 _ 1-2-373+’ &C*
+ 6£2 10;23 13;2,4
r2
r4
&c.
Ex. 2. It is required to express Va-\-b in the form of
a series.
Because a^-b=a(\Jf--^j,
3 3 3 
therefore Va+b=Vax Jl 4--=cfi(l 4--)K
x ^ ^ ^ j a U
and either of these formulae may be considered as a ge- By comparing fl +—V3 with (a-\-x)n, we have a=l,
neral theorem for raising a binomial quantity a+a? to any . ' a'
+
m(m — n) (m — 2n) m—3n
'1 • 2 • 3 n3~a ” ^
u(m — n) (m — 2n) (rn — 3n)”
4 w4
+ , &c.;
power whatever.
161. In determining the value of the expression —
Q xJ i . i. ■
x=-, m=l, n=3, and y'a-j-fi
l-b 1-2^2 l’2-5b3
when u=v, it has been assumed that — is positive; but
::
b
the same conclusion will be obtained when — is negative.
For, changing into —m, and observing that
m ^ 1 1 vm—um
yrm vr-m=. — ,
um vm umvm ’
we have
1 fum—v"
J/ b b* ,
v ( +3a 9a2 ^
s-e^^s-e-Qa3
b* 5bs
1-2-5-864
3-6-9-1204
10Z.4
81a3
243a4
2
+, &c. 3
-f, &C.3
• • T
Ex. 3. It is required to resolve  i
(r3 + z3)*
into a se¬
nes.
Because
7*2
y-= % — r\ -j-2;3)“| if we raise r3 4- z3
(r3 + 2;3)
tion
W-m 1 /vm 1 /u™ vm\ \ 1" / . . . , . .
—  —— —) —  -[ —  ]. to the —f power, and multiply the resulting series
u v u v \u v ) u v \un vn) ri2^ we ghaP have the series required. Or the given
Now we have already found, that when u=:v, the frac- quantity may be reduced to a more simple form thus: be-
um—vm, mum~l , „ . , cause
——— becomes -^zr 5 therefore, in the same case,
■r3 +z3=r3 x
and
u~m—v^1 —1 mum~l —mnrm~1
un'—vn ulm ^ nun~Y nun~l ’
and from this last expression we derive the same value
—m
for M~m or (1+y) n as before, regard being had to the
change of the sign of the exponent.
162. If we suppose m to be a positive integer, and n=: 1,
the series given in last article for the powers of a-f-a; will
always terminate, as appears also from the operation of
involution; but if m be negative, or — a fraction, the — 1  
n ~ 3r3^ 3‘6r6
series will consist of an indefinite number of terms. Ex- 2z3 5z6
amples of the application of the theorem have been =1   H—7—
already given upon the first supposition, when treating of ^
involution ; we now proceed to show how it is to be ap-
Of).
therefore (r3+s3) =r£G-|--^^5,
1
Hence
;0^)
A-f
*3W
2-5-8-11212
(r3+z3)H
2z3 . 2’5z6 2‘5’8z9
3’6‘9r9 + 3-6-9-12r12
40*9 HO*12
81r9 +
243r12
—, &c.
—. &c.
plied to the expansion of algebraic quantities into series Ex. 4. It is required to find a series equal to Va +aL
upon either of the last two hypotheses. Va2 —a:2
f3 . ~ By the binomial theorem, we have
T71T. • -j* “ , „ Jjy me oinomiai tneorem, i
Ex. 1. It is required to express-^—-—by means of a ,
series. ^ VSq^ = (a£+,£)i=0+
a?
2a 8a3 ‘ 16a5
-, &c.
- = («*—X2)
r»2
i.1
x*
a ~^~2a3
Sx4
+ 8a5
A L
5x6
G E B R A.
16«7
&c.
V«2—x*
Therefore, by taking the product of the two series, and
proceeding in the operation only to such terms as involve
the 6th power of x, we find
x6
Va2 x2 7 _l_ ^
V a2—x2 a2
x4
;2 2a4 + 2a6’
&c.
Sect. XVIII.—Of the Reversion of Series.
In this case we have
z=y, «=1, b=—i c=t, d—~\, ke.
Therefore, substituting these values, we have
x=y+£+£+£+,&c.
In the equation
aTZ + i^ + c^ + j &c. — a'x+^^+c'x5+ , &c.
in which both sides are expressed by series, and it is re¬
quired to find y in terms of x, we must assume, as before,
y=Ax+Bx2+Cx3+Dx4 + , &c.
and substitute this series and its powers for y and its
163. The method of indeterminate co-efficients, which
we have already employed when treating of infinite se¬
ries, may also be applied to what is called the reverting powers in the proposed equation; afterwards, by bring
of series; that is, having any quantity expressed by an ing all the terms to one side, and making the co-efficients
infinite series composed of the powers of another quan- of each power of y = 0, a series of equations will be had
tity, to express, on the contrary, the latter quantity by
means of an infinite series composed of the powers of the
former.
Let ^=w-j-ax-fix2-f-cx3-|-c?x4-|-, &c.
Then, to revert the series, we must find the value of x
in terms of y. For this purpose, we transpose n, and put
z—y — n; then
z—ax-\-bx?-\-cofi-\-d3^-\-, kc.
Now, when x = 0, it is evident that 2—0; therefore we may
assume for x a series of this form,
X=AZ + B22 + C23 + D24 + , &c.
where the co-efficients A, B, C, D, &c. denote quantities
as yet unknown, but which are entirely independent of
the quantity x. To determine these, let the first, second,
third, &c. powers of the series
A2-l-Bz2-f-C23-}-D^4+, &c.
be found by multiplication, and substituted for x, x2, x3,
&c. respectively, in the equation
0——z-J-ax-j-fo^-f-cx3, kc.
thus we have
—z z= —z
-f-0x = aAz+aB 22-|- aCz3 -j- aDz4-J-, &c.'
■\-ba?= q-AA^-j-S^ABz3 -j-2&ACZ4-j-, &c.
+ 6B2z4
-j-cz3^ -f- cA3z3 -j- 3cA2Bz4 -f-, &c.
-{-d^zz q- dA^z* -|-,&c.
&c.
Hence, putting the co-efficients of z, z2, z3, &c. each =0,
a A—1=0, aB-j-JA2=0, aC-j-26AB-l-cA3=:0,
aD + 2JAC+6B2+3cA2B + </A4=0, &c.
these equations give
a4
B=—i.
=0
C =
a?
2W-—ac
a°
5P.
D = -
&c.
Therefore x = —z—^
■ 5abc -j- a?d
a7
■ z?
5b3 — 5abc -j- a?d
d7
z^-\-,kc.
As an example of the application of this formula, let it
be required to determine x from the equation
x2 x3 x4 „
y~x~Y + 3—T +’ &C’
•3zz
23.322-
1
:2~1,S37} kc.
Algebra.
by which the quantities A, B, C, D, &c. may be deter¬
mined.
Sect. XIX.—Of Logarithms and Exponential Quan¬
tities.
164. All positive numbers may be considered as powers
of any one given affirmative number. The powers of 2,
for instance, may become equal, either exactly, or nearer
than by any assignable difference, to all numbers what¬
ever, from 1 upwards. If the exponents be integers, we
shall have only the numbers which form the geometrical
progression, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, &c.; but the intermediate
numbers may be expressed, at least nearly, by means of
fractional exponents. Thus, the numbers from 1 to 10
may be expressed by the powers of 2 as follows:
gO -1 22.585—. 6
2J —2 22,807= 7
21.585_3 23, = 8
22 =4 25‘170zz 9
g2.322 — 5 23,322=10
In like manner may fractions be expressed by the powers
of 2. Thus,
.1 — 1 —0-5.522 .9 —__L— —9-2.3 22
x ^ 5 ^—22.322 — ^ J
■2X-337-
where it is observable that the exponents are now nega¬
tive.
In the same manner may all numbers be expressed by
the powers of 10.
100 _ i io-i _ -i
10*301 = 2 10-699 — -2
10-4 7 7 — 3 10-5 23 — .3
&c. &c.
Even a fraction might be taken in place of 2, or 10, in
the preceding examples; and such exponents might be
found as would give its powers equal to all numbers,
from 0 upwards. There are therefore no limitations with
respect to the magnitude of the number, by the powers
of which all other numbers may be expressed, except
that it must neither be unity nor a negative quantity.
If it were =r 1, then all its powers would also be = I;
and if it were negative, there are numbers to which none
of its powers could possibly be equal.
165. If therefore y denote any number whatever, and r
a given number, a number x may be found, such, that
r^zzy, and x, that is, the exponent of r which gives a num¬
ber equal to y, is called the logarithm of y.
The given number r, by the powers of which all other
ALGEBRA.
533
and resolving both sides of the equation into series by Algebra,
means of the binomial theorem,
, nx(nx--\) „ , nx(nx—\)(nx — 2)
i+^«+ i . 9—a + -r   —n
nx(nx-
—\)(nx — 2)(nx — Z)^
'2 • 3
n(n— 1)
2 • 3
a*-if, &c.
Algebra, numbers are expressed, is called the radical number of the
logarithms, which are the indices of those powers.
166. From this definition of logarithms their properties
are easily deduced as follows:
1. The sum of two logarithms is equal to the logarithm
of their product. Let y and y be two numbers, and x and
x! their logarithms, so that r^—y, and r*'—'i/; then r* xr*1
—yy', or r*+x'—yi/ ; hence, from the definition, a:-f-a/ is the —\\nv\ n(n— -0t.2 i OT(n — (n — ^)r3
logarithm of yy', that is, the sum of the logarithms ofy~‘ww‘l-2 *" 1 • 2 * 3
and y is the logarithm of yrj. _ . n(n—\)(n — 2){n — 2>)
2. The difference of the logarithms of two numbers is 1
equal to the logarithm of their quotient; for if i^z^y and
rx'—d, then —— or r*-*'—^--, therefore, by the defini-
^ y y" 1 J
i(n — 1) (w — 2) (w ■
a;4-}-> &c.
^1•2 • 3 • 4
Therefore, subtracting unity from both sides, and dividing
by n, we have
tion, x — a/ is the logarithm of ; that is, the difference
V
of the logarithms of y and y is the logarithm of -^7.
3. Let n be any number whatever, then log. yn—nx
log. y. For y* is y multiplied into itself n times, therefore
the logarithm of yn is equal to the logarithm of y added
to itself n times, or to w x log. y.
167. From these properties of logarithms it follows, that
if we possess tables by which we can assign the logarithm
corresponding to any given number, and also the number
corresponding to any given logarithm, the operations of
multiplication and division of numbers may be reduced to
the addition and subtraction of their logarithms, and the
operations of involution and evolution, to the more simple
operations of multiplication and division. Thus, if two
numbers x and y are to be multiplied together, by taking
the sum of their logarithms, we obtain the logarithm of
their product, and, by inspecting the table, the product
itself. A similar observation applies to the quotient of
two numbers, and also to any power or to any root of a
number.
168. The general properties of logarithms are indepen¬
dent of any particular value of the radical number, and
hence there may be various systems of logarithms, accord¬
ing to the radical number employed in their construction.
Thus, if the radical number be 10, we shall have the com¬
mon or Briggs’s system of logarithms; but if it were
2-7182818, we should have the logarithms first construct¬
ed by Lord Napier, which are sometimes called hyperbolic
logarithms.
We have already observed (sect. 165), that the relation
between any number and its logarithm is expressed by the
equation rx—y, where y denotes a number, x its logarithm,
and r the radical number of the system ; and any two of
these three quantities being given, the remaining one may
be found. If either y ox r were the quantity required, the
problem would involve no difficulty; if, however, the ex¬
ponent x were considered as the unknown quantity, while
r and y were supposed given, the equation to be resolved
would be of a different kind from any we have hitherto
considered. Equations of this form are called exponential
equations. To resolve such an equation is evidently the
same thing as to determine the logarithm of a given
number.
169. We therefore resume the equation r*—y, where
r, x, and y denote as before. We are now to find a value
of x in terms of r and y. Let us suppose r—\-\-a and
y—\-lfV, then our equation will stand thus :
(l+a)x=l+«?.
So that, by raising both sides to a power n, where n de¬
notes an indeterminate number, which is to disappear in the
course of the investigation, we have (l+a)nx =(l-|-r)n;
x(nx—\) 9 ) x(nx — 1)(nx — 2) ^
+
1 • 2
x(nx —
z=.v-
• 2
n— 1
\)(nx — 2)(nx — 3) ,
——^ 3T^a +’ &c‘
v^-\-
(”—!)(” —2)rs
(n—l)(7
2
■2) (”
■3)„4
3
v4-f-> &c.
^ 2 • 3 • 4
and by supposing the factors which constitute the terms
of each series to be actually multiplied, and the products
arranged according to the power of n, the last equation
will have this form,
xa -f- (Yn—a2 -f -f- Qn2 -f- a?
_j_ (Y"n -|- Q!n2 -|- Rn3 — ^ «4 , &c.
— v -\-(pn — ^)^2+(p'w + <7»2+^-)^3
+(p"n++ rn'i—i)^4+5 &c-
Here the co-efficients of the power n, viz. P, P', P", &c.
Q, Q', &c. R, &c. also p, p, p", &c. q, (/, &c. r, &c. are ex¬
pressions which denote certain combinations of the powers
of x in the first series, and certain numbers in the second ;
but as they are all to vanish in the course of the investi¬
gation, it is not necessary that they should be expressed
in any other way than by a single letter.
Now each side of this last equation may evidently be
resolved into two parts, one of which is entirely free from
the quantity w,and the other involves that quantity; hence
the same equation may also stand thus:
■‘f’+sf’-
-a4-f-, &c.
+ ?na2+(Pw + Qtt2) a?+(P"« + W+W)cd +, &c.)
_ ( -\-v — ^+3^ — &c-
— | -j-pm2 -f- (pn + qn9:)v -j- (p''n + q’n2 -f rn3)?;4 -f-, &c.
This equation must hold true, whatever be the value of n,
which is a quantity entirely arbitrary, and therefore ought
to vanish from the equation expressing the relation be¬
tween x and v ; hence it follows that the terms on each
side of the equation, which involve n, ought to destroy
each other, and thus there will remain only the part of
each side which does not involve n ; that is,
xa^
xa 9 +
xa-
2 r IT
V2 V3
V—* -j-
— T+:
&c.
vt
+ , &c.
a4
or (a 2* + "g 4 + ’ &C.)#
v2 v3 vi , v5
=v-Y+T~T+T~’
Let us now put A to denote the constant multiplier
ALGEBRA.
a2 a3
" IT'’ 3"
(r—l)2
7“ + ’ &c’
4
(r—l)3
=(r-1)- 8 - 3
and substitute for v its value, y-
_0—i)2 , O-
(r-1)4
4
-1;
-l)3
&c.
thus we find
(y-OL
X=
&C.
log- y=i-(y—1)- 4
and by this formula, the logarithm of any number a little
greater than unity may be readily found.
170. If y be nearly = 2, the series will converge too
slowly to be of use, and if it exceed 2, the series will di¬
verge, and therefore cannot be directly applied to the
finding of its logarithm. But a series which converges
faster, and is applicable to every case, may be investigat¬
ed as follows:
Because log. (l-fv) =—(v—-4- — — —+ , &c.) ;
fo v -r / A 2 ' 3 4^ '
by substituting —v for -\-v, we have
v2 v3 v4
log. (1—v) = -i(-
&c-^
3 4
Now, log. (1-f-w) — log. (1—v) — log. u; there¬
fore, subtracting the latter series from the former, we have
l-f-v 
Put
comes
, l4-v2/ v3 'v5 v7 . \
og’ r^~A(v+T+~5+T+’&cy
1-j-v y—1
1then v — -—
\—v J y+v
and the last series be-
This series will always converge, whatever be the value
of y ; and by means of it the logarithms of small numbers NaP* V
may be found with great facility.
171. When a number is composite, its logarithm will
most easily be found, by adding together the logarithms
of its factors ; but if it be a prime number, its logarithm
may be derived from that of some convenient composite
number, either greater or less, and an infinite series. Let
» be a number of which the logarithm is already found;
by Napier. They have been called Hyperbolic Logarithms, Algebra,
because they serve to express the area of an hyperbola
but this may be done by logarithms of any system. We
shall therefore distinguish them by calling them Napierian
Logarithms. The Napierian logarithm of any number y is
t n prpfnrp
G -1) - i (y-1)8 + Hy-1)3—i G-1)4+, &c.
and that of r, the radical number of any system, is
(r — 1) — i(r— l)2 + i (r — l)3 — L (r — l)4 +, &c
But this last series is the same as we have denoted by A;
hence it follows, that the modulus of any system is the
reciprocal of the Napierian logarithm of the radical num¬
ber of that system. Thus it appears that the logarithms
of numbers, according to any proposed system, may be
readily found from the Napierian logarithm of the same
numbers, and the Napierian logarithm of the radical num¬
ber of that system.
174. Let L denote the Nap. log. of any number, and
/, l the logarithms of the same number according to two
other systems whose moduli are m and m! ; then
1—mL, l’—m!'L ;
l l
therefore,— = —and m : m! : : l: l.
m ml
That is, the logarithms of the same number, according to
different systems, are directly proportional to the moduli
of these systems, and therefore have a given ratio to one
another.
175. We shall now apply the series here investigated
to the calculation of Napier’s logarithm of 10, the reci¬
procal of which is the modulus of the common system
of logarithms ; and also to the calculation of the common
logarithm of 2. The Nap. log. of 10 may be obtained by
substituting 10 for y in the formula
%~1)
1/+1
gqp) +!(^) +’&-
2* 9s
but the resulting series
2
‘3
2*9 2*93
-f-, &c. con-
then, substituting for y in the last formula, we have NaP- log-2—2(|
3*113"1-5*115
verges too slowly to be of any practical utility: it will
therefore be better to derive the logarithm of 10 from
those of 2 and 5. By substituting 2 in the formula, we
have
1 1
33+5.35 f 7.37
+ + > &C
•)
2z
n A\2n-\-z
1
"l" Q
2^3
1
i + TT
2z?
vi + ’&c
But log. log.(ra-{-2r)
•)
! . 1 / 1
3 (2n-\-z)3~r 5 (2n-\-z)5
log.rc, therefore log.(w-j-2r)z=
1 2*3 2*3
' A V2rc+* "t" 3 (2re + *)3 + (2rc-f z)5
This series gives the logarithm of n + z by means of the
logarithm of n, and converges very fast when n is con¬
siderable.
172. It appears, from the series which have been found
or log. y, that the logarithm of a number is always the
product ot two quantities: one of these is variable, and
depends upon the number itself; but the other, viz. —
A’
is constant, and depends entirely on the radical number
of the system. This quantity has been called by writers
on logarithms the modulus of the system
&c.^
This series converges very fast, so that by reducing its
tqrms to decimal fractions, and taking the sum of the first
seven terms, we find the Nap. log. of 2 to be -6931472.
The Nap. log. of 5 may be found in the same manner,
but more easily from the formula given in sect. 171. For
the log. of 2 being given, that of 4i=22 is also given (sect.
166) ; therefore, substituting log. 4 = 2 log. 2 for log. n,
and 1 for z, in the series
Nap. log. (»-f-*)= Nap. log. n
*3 . , 2s
+ ^
we have
G
.+ , &c
•)
,2n-\-z~r3 (2w-F*)3’t 5 (2n-\-z)5
Nap. log. 5=2 Nap. log. 2+2(i+A+5L+, &c.)
The first three terms of this series are sufficient to give
the result true to the seventh decimal, so that we have
Nap. log. 5=1.6094379, and
173. The most simple system, in respect to facilitv of ^ap' log' Nap* 2 + NaP- log- 5=2-3025851
. ^ Hence the modulus of the
computation, is that in which —= 1 or A= 1.
The loga-
common system of logarithms,
is found = -4342945. The same number,
rithms of this system are the same as those first invented because oHts great utility in the construction of tables of
Algebra, logarithms, has been calculated to a much greater num-
^>^v^<^ber of decimals. A celebrated calculator of the last cen¬
tury, Mr A. Sharp, found it to be
0,4<3429448190325182765112891891660508229439700
5803666566114454.
Having found the Nap. log. of 2 to be ‘6931472, the
common logarithm of 2 is got immediately, by multiply¬
ing the Nap. log. of 2 by the modulus of the system : thus,
we find
com. log. 2—4‘342945 X ‘6931472=‘3010300.
We have seen, sect. 169, that to determine the loga¬
rithm of a given number, is the same problem as to deter¬
mine the value of x in an equation of this form, axz=.b,
where the unknown quantity is an exponent. But in or¬
der to resolve such an equation, it is not necessary to have
recourse to series; for a table of logarithms being once
supposed constructed, the value of x may be determined
thus : It appears, from sect. 166, that x x log. a=log. b;
log. b
hence it follows, that -r—^—. The use of this formula
log. a
will appear in next Section, which treats of computations
relative to interest and annuities.
176. The theory of logarithms requires the solution of
this other problem. Having given the radical number of
a system, and a logarithm, to determine the correspond¬
ing number. Or, having given the equation (where
r, x, and ?/ denote, as in sect. 165), to find a series which
shall express y in terms of r and x.
For this purpose, let us suppose r=l-j-a, then our
equation becomes i/=(l +a)*> which may also be express¬
ed thus:
y=[(l+a)n]»,
where n is an arbitrary quantity, which is to disappear in
the course of the investigation.
By the binomial theorem we have
. , n(n—1) „ n(n—l)(n—2) .
(1 -f- «)”= l-\-na-\ Y^2 a 1 • 2 ~3 ^ ’ <^C’
This equation, by multiplying together the factors which
compose the terms of the series, and arranging the re¬
sults according to the powers of rc, may also be expressed
thus:
(l + a)n=14-An-HB^+Cn3-!-} &c.
where it will readily appear that
ALGEBRA.
+ l(r7X72”)(A+BB+, &c.)3+> &c.
Ar=^ —+ ■
— +
a3
T 4
As to the values of B, C, &c. it is of no importance to
know them, for they will all disappear in the course of the
investigation. Hence, by substituting for (l+a)" its
value, as expressed by this last series, we have
t/=:(l +Arc + Bra2 + Crc3 + , &c>)7;
and expanding the latter part of this equation by means
of the binomial theorem, it becomes
2/= 1 + ^(Aw + Bw2+, &c.) + +Bw2-f-, &c.)2
+
x(x—n)(x—2w)
(Aw+Bw2+, &c.)3+, &c.
1 • 2 • 3w3
But An-|-Bw2+, &c. = n (A + Bw+, &c.),
(Aw-|-Bw2 + , &c.)2=w2 (A-|-Bw + , &c.)2,
(A?*-i-Bw2-l-, &c.)3:=w3(A + Bw + , &c.)3, &c.;
therefore, by leaving out of each term of the series the
powers of w, which are common to the numerator and de¬
nominator, the equation will stand thus:
y=l+a;(A + Bw-|-, &c.) ^ (A+Bw+, &c.)2
A a?A a? A2
:1 + T + !^2
+
1‘2‘3+1 * 2‘3‘4
+ , &c.;
and since we have found
. a? a ~ „
A—ci 7^—(—^ —^— -|-, &c.
=(r —i)-
1° a?
(r—l)2
(r—O4
&c.
2 ' 3 4
it is evident, from sect. 173, that A is Napier’s logarithm
of the radical number of the system.
177. If, in the equation r1 — y, we suppose a: z= 1, the
value of y becomes
A3 _L *
-+, &C.
■ A2 ,
r—1 + —HTT9 +
1 ' 1-2 r 1-2-3
Here the radical number is expressed by means of its
Napierian logarithm
1
Again, if we suppose x-=. -r-, then
-A.
Tl _1 + 1 + 1‘2 + 1‘2‘3 + 1‘2‘3‘4+’&C'
JL
Thus it appears that the quantity rA is equal to a con¬
stant number, which, by taking the sum of a suffi¬
cient number of terms of the series, will be found =
2.718281828459045 ... Let us denote this number by c,
then r A =<?, and hence rz=e A. Now, if we remark that
A is the Nap. log. of r, it must be evident (sect. 165 and
173), that e is the radical number of Napier’s system of
logarithms.
Again, since rA —e, therefore —X log. r— log, e, and
_ log. r
log. e
A =
A
Here log. r and log. e denote logarithms taken
according to any system whatever.
178. If we now resume the equation
a?A . . a?A3
r*=y = \-
- +
1-2 1 1-2-3
&c.
and substitute for A its value
log. r
log. e
we shall have the fol¬
lowing general expression for any exponential quantity
whatever:
^og-n2. & /log.ry
^ 1 Vlog. e) ^ T2\log. e) ^ 1-2-3 Vlog. e)
+ > &c.
which, by supposing r=e, becomes
^=i+^+-+AL4
^ 1^1‘2+1‘2‘3 +
&c.
Sect. XX.—Of Interest and Annuities.
179. The theory of logarithms admits of extensive
application to calculations relating to interest and an¬
nuities : these we now proceed to explain. There are
two hypotheses, according to either of which money put
out at interest may be supposed to be improved. We
Now n is here an arbitrary quantity, and ought, from the
nature of the original equation, to disappear from the
value of y ; the terms of the equation which are multiplied
by n ought therefore to destroy each other, and then
the equation is reduced to
A3 . a?4 A4
536
ALGEBRA.
Algebra, may suppose that the interest, which is always propor-
tional to the sum lent, or principal, is also proportional to
the time during which the principal is employed; and on
this hypothesis, the money is said to be improved at sim¬
ple interest. Or we may suppose that the interest which
ought to be paid to the lender at successive stated pe¬
riods is added to the principal, instead of being actually
paid, and thus their amount converted into a new princi¬
pal. When money is lent according to this second hypo¬
thesis, it is said to be improved at compound interest.
180. In calculations relating to interest, the things to
be considered are the principal, or sum lent; the rate of
interest, or sum paid for the use of L.100 for one year;
the time during which the principal is lent; and the
amount, or sum of the principal and interest, at the end
of that time.
Let/) denote the principal, L.l being the unit;
r the interest of L.l for one year, at the given
rate ;
t the time, one year being the unit;
a the amount.
We shall now examine the relations which subsist be¬
tween these quantities, according to each of the two hy¬
potheses of simple and compound interest.
Simple Interest.
181. Because the interest of L.l for one year is r,
the interest of L.l for £ years must be rt, and the interest
of p pounds for the same time prt; hence we have this
formula,
p-^-prt—a,
from which we find
log./)—log. a — t X log. R. Ing p-Aff' °
t_ log. « —log, p
log. R.
Ex. 1. As an example of the use of these formula?, let it be
required to determine what sum improved at 5 per cent,
compound interest will amount to L.500 in 42 years. In
this case we have given a=500, r=-05, Rz=l-05, ^42,
to find/).
From log. a=log. 500= 2*6989700
subtract t X log. R=42 X log. 1-05= 0-8899506
remains log./). 1-8090194
therefore /)=L.64-42=L.64. 8s. 5d. the sum required.
Ex. 2. In what time will a sum laid out at 4 per cent,
compound interest be doubled ?
Let any sum be expressed by unity; then we have given
/)=1, ?-=-04, R=l-04, a=2, to find t.
From the formula, t- l0S' a—^og.p_ log- 2 we fi d
log. R. log. 1-04
log
, -3010300 inr>
*"'•0170333 ~ 17‘7 years nearly.
In treating of compound interest, we have supposed
the interest to be joined to the principal at the end of the
year. But we might have supposed it to be added at the
end of every half-year, or every quarter, or even every
instant; and suitable rules might have been found for
performing calculations, according to each hypothesis.
As such suppositions are, however, never made in actual
business, we shall not at present say any thing more of
them.
p=
a—p
r— —
t—
i-\-rt pt pr
As the manner of applying these formulae to questions
relating to simple interest is sufficiently obvious, we pro¬
ceed to consider compound interest.
Compound Interest.
182. In addition to the symbols already assumed, let
F=l+r — amount of L.l in one year; then, from the
nature of compound interest, R is also the principal at the
beginning of the second year. Now, interest being al¬
ways proportional to the principal, we have
1 : r :: R : rR= the interest of R for a year,
and R-frR = (l+r)R = R2= amount of R in a year;
therefore R2 is the amount of L.l in two years, which sum
being assumed as a new principal, we find, as before, its
interest for a year to be rR2, and its amount R2-f-rR2
= (14-r)R2=R3; go that R3 is the amount of L.l in three
years. Proceeding in this manner, we find, in general,
that the amount of L.l in * years is R', and of p pounds,
pR‘; hence we have this formula,
joR'zra;
whiclhRom the nature of logarithms, may also be express-
We have also
®=
log. p-f-fXlog. R=log. a.
R'
it='/i
V P
or, by logarithms,
Annuities.
183. An annuity is a payment made annually for a term
of years; and the chief problem relating to it is to deter¬
mine its present worth, that is, the sum a person ought to
pay immediately to another, upon condition of receiving
from the latter a certain sum annually for a given time.
In resolving this problem, it is supposed that the buyer
improves his annuity from the time he receives it, and
the seller the purchase-money, in a certain manner,
during the continuance of the annuity, so that at the end
of the time the amount of each may be the same. There
may be various suppositions as to the way in which the
annuity and its purchase-money may be improved; but
the only one commonly applied to practice is the highest
improvement possible of both, viz. by compound interest.
As the taking of compound interest is, however, prohibited
by law, the realizing of this supposed improvement re¬
quires punctual payment of interest, and therefore the
interest in such calculations is usually made low.
184. Let A denote the annuity,
P the present worth, or purchase-money,
t the time of its continuance ;
let r and R denote as before.
The seller, by improving the price P at compound in¬
terest during the time t, has PRf.
The purchaser is supposed to receive the first annuity
A at the end of one year, which, being improved for t—1
years, amounts to AR'-1. He receives the second year’s
annuity at the end of the second year, which, being im¬
proved for t—2 years, amounts to AR'-2. In like manner,
the third year’s annuity becomes AR*-3, and so on, to the
last year’s annuity, which is simply A. Therefore, the
whole amount of the improved annuities is the geometri¬
cal series
ALGEBRA.
A+ AR +AR2+AR3 ... +AR*-1,
' . .  1 R' i
the sum of which, by sect. 56, is A —7= A ;
and since this sum must be equal to the amount of the
purchase-money, or PR4, we have
R< 1
PR'=A   ;
. . 854 854
Agmn,
887 “854+33'
537
^—, which being substi-
1 +
33
854
314159
tuted as before, gives Yqqqqq^3'
7 +
15 +
and from this equation we find
rPR4 _log. A—log. (A—rP)
t- 1^: r
1 +
33
854’
1
25+M
29
29’ 33:
1
R—1*
As to r, it can only be found by the resolution of an
equation of the t order.
185. To find the present value of an annuity in rever¬
sion, that is, an annuity which is to commence at the end
of n years, and continue during t years; first find its value stitution,
for n-\-t years, and then for n years, and subtract the 314159 1
latter from the former; we thus obtain the following for- 100000“7-1 — 1
' 15 + —
By operations similar to the preceding, we find
33
854
1 +29
4’ 29’
therefore, by sub-
mula:
P— —(1 —V
rRn\ R7
1 + 25+i !
1
7 + 4-
186. If the annuity is to commence immediately, and
to continue for ever, then, because in this case R' is iU
Y By an operation in all respects the same as has been
infinitely great, and therefore 737 —0, the formula P = just now performed, may any fraction whatever be re¬
duced to the form
-^1+ becomes simply P= —.
And if the annuity is to commence after n years, and
A / 1 \ ' ^+5 &c*
continue for ever, the formula P=^ becomes and it ig then called a continu€d fraction.
“+i+I ,
c + -5
P-
rRn’
Note. The subject of life annuities forms by itself a dis¬
tinct article.
Sect. XXL—Of Continued Fractions.
188. It is easy to see in what manner the inverse of
the preceding operation is to be performed, or a continued
fraction reduced to a common fraction.
Thus, if the continued fraction be
1
c+7
187. Every quantity which admits of being expressed  , 1 . r u
by a common fraction may also be expressed in the form ^ "i1 evidently be reduce o a common rac ion y
of what is called a continued fraction. The nature of adding the recipi oca o o c, ant e icciproca o m
such fractions will be easily understood by the following sum t0 ^ anc^ aSam 0 18 as sum 0
example. now reciprocal of d, or —, added to c, is c + ^
— ; again, the reciprocal of this sum, or
added to b, is — and the reciPr°cal
314159
Let the common fraction be Jqqqqqj or> which is the
Since 100000=7 X 14159 + 887, there-
1
same, 3
fore
14159
100000
14159 14159
100000
314159
7 X 14159 + 887
7-f
887
and
<%?+1
, when added to a,
14159
100000
887
=3-
„ 887
7-4- .
^14159
Now
887
we have
14159“ 15 X 887 + 854'
887
14L
314159
, t 854
15+ 887
314159
and substitut-
of this last quantity, viz.
gives
abcd4-al)4-ad-\-cd4-l _ 1
hcd+b+d -a+6+i j
C+d-
189. This manner of expressing a fraction enables us
to find a series of other fractions, that approach in value
to any given one, and each of them expressed in the
& 314159
ing this for 7-77-77: in the value of 7 nnnAf;> already found, ™ , ,
14159 100000 smallest numbers possible. Thus, in the example ^qqqqq*
100000
=3-
+
1
854
13+ W
which has been resolved into a continued fraction, sect.
187, and which is known to express nearly the proportion
of the diameter of a circle to its circumference, il we take
only the first two terms of the continued fraction, and
3 Y
VOL. II.
ALGEBRA.
314159
put ir for , we shall have + f =^2 nearly; and
100000’
this is the proportion which was found by Archimedes.
Again, by taking the first three terms, we have
1 - _Q , 15 333
~ +106_
<r=3 + - 1
“74- —
' 15
106’
which is nearer the truth than the former.
And by taking the first four terms, we have
«=3+i+± ,
15+I
355
: 113’
which is the proportion assigned by Metius, and is more
exact than either of the preceding. The results are al¬
ternately greater and less than the truth.
190. Among continued fractions, those have been par¬
ticularly distinguished in which the denominators, after a
certain number of changes, are continually repeated in
the same order. Such, for example, is the fraction
1 4. - i
' 2 + - 1
3+i ]
&c.
The value of this fraction, though continued ad infini¬
tum, may be easily found ; for leaving out the first term,
which is an integer, let us suppose
*-l i
~2 + -
3 + - 1
2 + 3 + ’ &c.
Then, since after the second, all the terms return in the
same order, it follows that their amount is also = x.
Thus we have
and hence we see in what way it may be continued to any Algebra
degree of accuracy.
When the root of any equation is found by the method
explained in sect. 156, the value of the unknown quantity
is evidently expressed by a continued fraction
For if x be the root sought, we have x=a+-,y—b+-/t
i i y y
&c* where a, It, b", U", &c. denote
the whole numbers, which are next less than the true
values of x, y, yf, y", &c. If, therefore, in the value of x we
substitute f°r Vi it becomes
x=a-\ —-
6+4-
y
Again, if in this second value of x we substitute V4-—
^ if
for y, it becomes
x—a-\-
The next value of x is in like manner found to be
1
—1
1
x=a+b+L_
6"+l
’3 + a;’
hence and x2-)r3x=^,axi<\. xz=.
therefore *-f-l, or the sum of the series,
— 3 + >/l5
In general, if x=- 1
a + b+l
a-j-j
__i + yi5
“ 2
&c.
we find x
- 2—+/T+a-
Though the denominators
(lid not return in the same order till after a greater inter¬
val, the value of the fraction would still be expressed by
e root o a quadratic equation. And conversely, the
roots ot all quadratic equations may be expressed by pe¬
riodical continued fractions, and may often by that means
e veiy readily approximated in numbers, without the
-rouble of extracting the square root.
.. 191; llle. reduction of a decimal into the form of a con¬
tinued fraction sometimes renders the law of its continua¬
tion evident. Thus we know that ‘\/2:= 1-4121356... • but
from the bare inspection of this decimal we discover no
rule for its further continuation. If, however, it be re¬
duced into a continued fraction, it becomes
^ ' 2-J-, &c.
and so on continually.
Sect. XXII.—Of Indeterminate Problems.
192. When the conditions of a question are such that
the number of equations exceeds the number of unknown
quantities, that question will admit of innumerable solu¬
tions, and is therefore said to be indeterminate. Thus, if
it be required to find two numbers subject to no other li¬
mitation than that their sum be 10, we have two unknown
quantities x and y, and only one equation, viz. 10,
which may evidently be satisfied by innumerable different
values of x and y, if fractional solutions be admitted. It
is, however, usual, in such questions as this, to restrict
values of the numbers sought to positive integers, and
therefore, in this case, we can have only these nine solu¬
tions,
x = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9;
y = 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1;
which indeed may be reduced to five ; for the first four be¬
come the same as the last four, by simply changing x into
y, and the contrary.
193. Indeterminate problems are of different orders, ac¬
cording to the dimensions of the equation which is ob¬
tained after all the unknown quantities but two have
been exterminated by means of the given equations. Those
of the first order lead always to equations of this form,
ax-\-by=c,
where a, b, c, denote given whole numbers, and x, y, two
numbers to be found, so that both may be integers. That
this condition may be fulfilled, it is necessary that the co¬
efficients a, b, have no common divisor which is not also
a divisor of c; for if a—md and b—me, then ax-^-by—mcbc
ALGEBRA.
539
Algebra.
+ mey —c, and dx ey but d, e, x, y, are supposed
hence the only values which a and y can have in whole Algebra,
numbers, are x—9>, ?/=4.
to be whole numbers, therefore — is a whole number;
m
hence m must be a divisor of c.
We proceed to illustrate the manner of resolving inde¬
terminate equations of the first order, by some numerical
examples.
Ex. 1. Given 2x + 3y=2b, to determine x and y in
whole positive numbers.
Ex. 3. It is required to find all the possible ways in
which L.60 can be paid in guineas and moidores only.
Let x be the number of guineas, and y the number of
moidores. Then the value of the guineas, expressed in
shillings, is 21a;, and that of the moidores 27?/; there¬
fore, from the nature of the question, 2la;-j-27?/—1200,
or, dividing the equation by 3, 7a; + 9?/ — 400 ; hence
i 25—3m , Q
From the given equation we have x= ^ —
x—
400 — 9^/
=S7-?/4
\-2y
-, so that
\-2y
must be
a whole number.
—y +
———. Now, since x must be a whole number, it
Assume ^then a; = 57
follows that
 ^ must be a whole number. Let us or V—
1 — lz \—z
— 32; therefore
y -\-z, and 2yz=. 1
1
• must
assume
^z, then 1 —y — 22 and y = 1 —2z; and
be a whole number.
since x - 12 —y + 12 — ?/ + therefore a: =
Assume Q Z—v> then y—v
32, and 22= 1 — 2?; ;
12 — 1 + 22+2; hence we have
x—11 + 32, y~ 1 — 22,
where 2 might be any whole number whatever, if there
were no limitation as to the signs of x and y. But since
these quantities are required to be positive, it is evident,
from the value of y, that 2 must be either 0 or negative,
, „ - i ^ ^  r • —
therefore v may be taken any whole number at pleasure,
and x and y may be determined by the following equa¬
tions :
2=1 — 2m,
y—v — 32 =7m — 3,
x—bl — ?/-|-2=61 — 9m.
From the value of a;, it appears that v cannot exceed
trom tne value 01 y, uiai z uiusl ue tuuici u ui — - - -
and from the value of x, that, abstracting from the sign, 6, and from the value of y, that it cannot be less than 1.
it must be less than 4; hence 2 may have these three Hence if m = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
values, 0, — 1, — 2, — 3. we have x — 52, 43, 34, 25, 16, 7,
If 0, 2=— 1, 2=—2, 2=—3 ; y= 4, 11, 18, 25, 32, 39.
T, fa;=ll, x— 8, x— 5, a;= 2, 1g4< jn foregoing examples the unknown quan-
ihen ‘|j/= 1, y— 3, 5, y— 7. tities a; and ?/have each a determinate number of posi-
Ex. 2. It is required to divide 100 into such parts that tive values; and this will evidently be the case as often
the one may be divisible by 7 and the other by 11. as the proposed equation is of this form, ax-\-by—c. If,
Let lx be the first part, and \\y the second; then, by however, b be negative, that is, if the equation be of this
the question, 7a;+ 11?/= 100, and form, ax — by=c, or ax=by + c, we shall have questions
100—11?/ 2 — 4?/ of a different kind, admitting each of an infinite number
xz=. S ~=14 — y+—^—• of solutions; these, however, may be resolved in the
same manner as the preceding, as will appear from the
7   ^ ' 7 *
same manner as m
Hence it appears, that 2 - must be a whole number, following example.
Ex. 4. A person buys some horses and oxen: he pays
Let us assume 2 - = 2, then x = 14 — y and 31 crowns for each horse, and 20 crowns for each ox,
4?/=2 — 72, or ?/=
7
2—72
2 — 32
4
-2; therefore
2 — 32
4
must be a whole number.
2 — 32 ,
Assume ^— = t, then y—
and he finds that the oxen cost him seven crowns more
than the horses. How many did he buy of each ?
Let x be the number of horses, and y that of the
oxen; then, by the question,
t — 2, and 32=2 —4/, or 2=-
4*
4
2-
, 31m4-7 Hy + 7
20a;=31?/-{-7, and xzz—=?/-f 20 
t; there-
20
Therefore ^ ^'^7— must be a whole number.
2 t
fore —_— must be a whole number.
20
2 - t
Assume now —-—=m, then z—v —t, and t—2
3m.
Hw + 7 , , 20m —7
Let —= m, then x—y +m, and y= ^— = v
Here it is evident that m may be any whole number taken
at pleasure: so that to determine x and y we have the
following series of equations:
t = 2 — 3m,
z— v — t = 4m— 2,
y— t— z = 4 — 7m,
*=14 — 2/+s =11m-|-8.
From the value of ?/, it appears that m must either be
— 0 or negative; but from the value of *, m cannot be a
negative whole number; therefore v can only be = 0;
+ '
9m
11
hence
9m —7
11
must be a whole number.
9m — 7 ,11*4-7
Let —t-;— = t, then y — v -4- t, and m= —^— = * -f-
11
therefore^-7’
Let
5—7
2*+7
is a whole number.
95
therefore
= 5, then m = * -f- 5, and t
1
= 45 4-
is a whole number.
540
A L G E B R A.
Put S—~~—r, then t-=ks-\-r and s—2r—l.
Having now no longer any fractions, we return to the
values of x and y by the following series of equations :
t— 4^ +r— 9r + 28,
v— ^-f-s =llr + 35,
y— v -\-t =20/’-|- 63— number of oxen,
x— y + ?;=31/’-|-98=r number of horses.
The least positive values of x and y will evidently be
obtained by making r— — 3, and innumerable other
values may be had by putting r— —2, r— — 1, r—0,
r= + l, &c. Thus we have
x=5, 36, 67, 98, 129, 160, 191, 222, &c.
y=3, 23, 43, 63, 83, 103, 123, 143, &c.
each series forming an arithmetical progression, the com¬
mon difference in the first being 31, and in the second
20.
195. If we consider the manner in which the numbers
x, y, in this example, are determined from the succeed¬
ing quantities v, t, See. we shall immediately perceive that
the co-efficients of those quantities are the same as the
successive quotients which arise in the arithmetical ope¬
ration for finding the greatest common measure of 20 and
31, the co-efficients of the given equation 20x—31y +7.
The operation performed at length will stand thus :
20)31(1
20
11)20(1
11
9)11(1
9
2)9(4
8
1)2(2
2
Hence we may form a series of numeral equations
which, when compared with the series of literal equations
expi essing the relations between x, y, v, &c. as put down
in the following table, will render the method of deter¬
mining the latter from the former sufficiently obvious.
Sirrix SO-j-ll xz= l Xy-\-v,
f=}xll+ 9 y=ixv+t,
1Q~]X o+ 2 <1=1 X* +S,
9—2-p 1 £=4xs+<\
2=2x 1+ 0 5=2x<’+7.
And as every question of this kind may be analyzed in
the same manner, we may hence form the following: gene-
order 6 f°r reS0 Vlng ^determinate problems of the first
196. Let bx = ay + n be the proposed equation, in
which a b, ft, are given integers, and *, y, numbers to be
a be }he greatest of the two numbers a, b,
and let A denote the greatest multiple of 6 which is coni
tamed in a, and c the remainder; also let B denote the
greatest multiple of c contained in b, and d the remain
der ; and C the greatest multiple ofd contained in c and
e the remainder; and so on, till one of the remainders be
found equal to 0. The numbers A, B, C, afford a series
of equations from which another series may be derived, as Algebra,
in the following table :
a=Ab-\-c, hence we find x=:Ay-\-v,
b=zBc-{-d y— Bv _j_t,
c—Qd-\-e . v—Q,t -f-s,
d—Y)e+f fcDs-j-r,
e=^if+9 s=^r-\-q,
f= by + 0 r— ¥qz±zn.
And in the last equation of the second series any number
whatever may be put for q. It is also to be observed,
that the given number n is to have the sign -}- prefixed
to it, if the number of equations be odd, but — if that
number be even. Having formed the second series of
equations, the values of x and y may be thence found as
in the foregoing examples. We proceed to show the ap¬
plication of the rule.
Ex. 5. Required a number which, being divided by 11,
leaves the remainder 3, but being divided by 19, leaves
the remainder 5.
Let N be the number, and x, y, the quotients which
arise from the respective divisions ; then we have N=lla:
+ 3, also N=19y-j-5; hence 11*4-3= 19y-j-5, and 11*
= 19?/-J-2, an equation which furnishes the following ta-
19=1x114-8
11 = 1 X 8 + 3
8=2 x 3 + 2
3=1 X 2+1
2=2 x 1 + 0
Here r may be assumed of
we have
x= y+v>
y= v + t,
v=2t +5,
t= s+r,
s=2r + 2.
value whatever Hence
* s=2r+2,
t— s +r = 3r + 2,
v—2t + 5= 8r+ 6,
y= v+ fc=ll*+ 8,
*= y+*=19r+14;
and the number required, N=209?<+ 157, where it is evi¬
dent that the least number which can express N is 157.
Ex. 6. f3*+ 5^+ 72=560 1 To determine *, y, 2,
Given (9*+ 25^ + 492= 2920/ in whole numbers.
From 7 times the first equation subtract the second ; thus
we have 12*+10y=1000, or 6* + 5y=500; and from
tnis last equation, by proceeding as in the foregoing ex¬
ample, we find
*= 500 — 5*, y—Sv — 500.
Let these values of * and y be substituted in either of
the original equations ; in the first, for example, as being
the most simple, and we find 72+ 15*= 1560. This last
equation being resolved in the same manner, we find
*=1560 — 7f,
2=15# —3120,
y= 8860 —42#,
*=35# —7300;
and hence it appears that the only values which # can have,
so as to give whole positive numbers for *, y, z, are 209
and 210: thus we have
*=15 3/= 82 2=15,
or *=50 3/=40 2=30.
197. If an equation were proposed involving three un¬
known quantities, as axby cz=d, by transposition we
have ax-\-by—d—cz, and, puttingd — czz=.d,ax-\-byzzd.
From this last equation we may find values of * and y of
this form,
*= ruv + nd, y—rn!r-\-v!d,
or x~mr-\-n(d— cz'), y—m!r-\-n’(d — cz) ;
ALGEBRA.
541
Algebra, where z and r may be taken at pleasure, except in so far
i->'~v^~''as the values of x, y, z, may be required to be all positive ;
for from such restriction the values of z and r may be con¬
fined within certain limits to be determined from the given
equation.
198. We proceed to indeterminate problems of the
second degree. These produce equations of the three
following forms :
_ a TT a-\-bx
L y= IL y=
v , x*. y_ 5-, 111. "Sa + bx + cx1.
b + cx' u c+dx' u
In all these equations a, b, c, denote given numbers. In
the first two, x is to be determined so that y may be an
integer ; and in the third, x is to be determined so that y
may be a rational quantity.
In the equation y— -, it is evident, b-^-cx must be
a divisor of a ; let d be one of its divisors, then b-{-cxz=.d,
and x— —-—: hence, to find x we must search among
the divisors of a for one such, that if b be subtracted from
it, the remainder may be divisible by c, and the quotient
will be such a value of x as is required.
When ?/—if e? be a divisor of b, x will be taken
^ c + dx
out of the numerator if we divide it by c-j-cfo, and this
form is then reduced to the preceding. But if d is not
a divisor of b, multiply both sides by d, then dyzz
or dy—b-
ad — be
c-\-dx
and so x is found by making c-\-dx
be.
c-\-dx ’
equal to a divisor of ad
Example. Given x-\-y-^‘Ixy—195, to determine x and
y in whole numbers.
195 -
From the given equation, yz=. . —> therefore
2yzz
390 — Zx
= -l +
391
l-{-2x
Now 391:= 17 X 23, hence
1 -f- 2a; ' 1 + 2a;
we must assume 1 -j-2a;=17, or 1 -|-2a;:=23 : the first sup¬
position gives us a;=8, yz=ll \ and the second a;r=ll,
y—S, the same result in effect as the former.
199. We are next to consider the formula y —
•da + bx+cx?, where x is to be found, so that y may be a
rational quantity; but as the condition of having x and y
also integers would add greatly to the difficulty of the pro¬
blem, and produce researches of a very intricate nature,
we must be satisfied for the most part with fractional
values. The possibility of rendering the proposed formula
a square depends altogether upon the co-efficients a, b, c ;
and there are four cases of the problem, the solution of
each of which is connected with some peculiarity in its
nature.
Case 1. Let a be a square number ; then, putting g* for
a, we have y=Vg2^-bx -f- ex*. Suppose Vg2-\-bx-\-cx?
—g + mx ; then g2Jrbx-!r ex1—g2 + 2gmx + mV,or bx+ex?
~2gmx-\-m2x2, that is, b-\-cx—2gm-\-m2x; hence
c — m2 u c — m2
Here m may be any rational quantity, either whole or
fractional.
Case 2. Let c be a square number z=g2; then, putting
Va + bx+g2x?=-m+gx, we find a-\-bx+g2x2—m22mgx
+ (fx?, or a-\-bx=m2-\-2mgx ; hence we find
b — 2 mg
y— *Ja + bx-\rg2x>-zz
bm —gm'z — ag
2mg
Here m, as before, may be taken at pleasure. Algebra.
Case 3. When neither a nor c is a square number, yet'~>’"v~N‘~
if tbe expression a-\-bx-\-cx? can be resolved into two
simple factors, nsf+gx and h + kx, the irrationality may
be taken away as follows.
Assume V a-\-bx-\- cx2—V (f-\-gx)(h + kx)z=m(f-)-gx),
th e n (/+ gx)(h + kx)—gx)2, orh-\-kx=m2( f-\-gx);
hence we find
fm2 — k /7~F\ \/7"i /. x (A — gh)m
X-k=7nX y= (/,+fa) = V-y.,,' ^
and in these formulae m may be taken at pleasure.
Case 4. The expression a + bx + ex1 may be transform¬
ed into a square as often as it can be resolved into two
parts, one of which is a complete square, and the other
a product of two simple factors ; for then it has this
form, p2 -\-qr, where/;, q, and r are quantities which con¬
tain no power of x higher than the first. Let us assume
Vp2 -}- qr—p -[- mq; thus we have/;2 -j- qr—p2 -j- 2mpq -f- m2(f
and r—2mp-\-m2q, and as this equation involves only the
first power of x, we may by proper reduction obtain from
it rational values of x and y, as in the three foregoing
cases.
200. If we can by trials discover any one value of x
which renders the expression a-\-bx + ex? rational, we
may immediately reduce the quantity under the radical
sign to the above-mentioned form, and thence find a
general expression from which as many more values of x
may be determined as we please. Thus, let us suppose
that jo is a value of x which satisfies the condition requir¬
ed, and that q is the corresponding value of y ; then
y2z=a-\-bx-Jf-cxP
(f-=.a-\bq\- cpr2.
Therefore, by subtraction,
y2 — q2—b(x—jo)-j-c (V—pP)=(b-\-cp-\-cx) (x—p)
axi<ly—Vq2-l-(b-\-cpJrcx)(x — p). The quantity under
the radical sign being now reduced to the prescribed
form, it may be rendered rational by the substitution
pointed out in the last article.
The application of the preceding general methods of
resolution to any particular case is very easy; we shall
therefore conclude with a very few examples.
Ex. 1. It is required to find two square numbers whose
sum is a given square number.
Let a2 be the given square number, and x2, y2, the
numbers required; then, by the question, x?-\- y2= a2,
and y=Va2 — x?. This equation is evidently of such a
form as to be resolvable by the method employed in
case 1. Accordingly, by comparing Va2 — x? with the
general expression Vg2-\-bx ex?, we have g zz a, b = 0,
c=— 1, and substituting these values in the formulae of
sect. 199, also —n for -\-m, we find
2an a(n2 — 1) , , .
xzz—.—r, y— ^; hence the numbers
n2-\-Vv w2+l ’
required are
9 4«%2 „ a2(n2 — l)2
*-02 + i)2 r~ o2+i)2’
If a—n2-\-l, where n is any number whatever, the
square numbers x<2 and y'2 will both be integers, viz.
a;2:=4w2 and ?/2z=(w2 — l)2. Let us suppose w=2, then
a — ri2 1 — 5, and a'2 — 25, hence x<2 — 4«2 = 16,
y—(n2 — l)2 —9. Thus it appears that the square num¬
ber 25 may be resolved into two other square numbers, 8
and 16.
542
ALGEBRA.
Algebra. Ex. 2. It is required to find two square numbers
whose difference shall be equal to a given square num¬
ber b2.
This question may be resolved in the same manner
as the last. Or, without referring to any former in¬
vestigation, let (x + n)2 and x2 be the numbers sought,
then (x-\-n)2 — x2 — b2 ; that is, 2nx n2 ■=. b2, hence
b2 — n2 b2 -i-n2
x——  and x-\-n—
2n
sought are
2n
So that the numbers
(b2 + n2)2
4»2
(b2—w2)
W2 :
where n may be any number whatever. If, for example,
b2=.25 and wzrl, then x=l2 and x-\-n—\3\ so that the
numbers required are 144 and 169.
I /JQ
Ex. 3. It is required to determine x, so that —~—
may be a rational square.
Let y be the side of the square required; then —
—y2 and 4a;2+ 4#=%2. Let the first part of this equa¬
tion be completed into a square by adding 1 to each
side, then 4a;2 4a; -}- 1 = 1 q- 8y2 ; and taking the root,
2a?-|-l:=A/l-j-&y2, so that we have to make l-f-%2 a
square. Assume
i+%2 = (i + = i + ^ v+y* then ^
2pq and
p2
+Yy
Hence, by proper reduction, y
>2 jp2’
since
2a; +1=V1 + %2=»therefore x=
and
x2 -j-x
4p2 q2
2 ~ (8q2 —p2)2
Qq2—/>2’ " 8q2—p~‘
, a rational square, as was re¬
quired.
Sect. XXIII.—Of the Resolution of Geometrical
Problems.
201. When a geometrical problem is to be resolved
by algebra, the figure which is to be the subject of in¬
vestigation must be drawn, so as to exhibit as well the
known quantities connected with the problem, as the
unknown quantities which are to be found. The condi¬
tions of the problem are next to be attentively con¬
sidered, and such lines drawn, or produced, as may be
judged necessary to its resolution. This done, the known
quantities are to be denoted by symbols in the usual
manner, and also such unknown quantities as can most
easily be determined; which may be either those directly
. equired, or others from which they can be readily found.
We must next proceed to deduce from the known geo-
metiical properties of the figure a series of equations,
expressing the relations between the known and un¬
known quantities; these equations must be independent
of each other, and as many in number as there are un¬
known quantities. Having obtained a suitable number of
equations, the unknown quantities are to be determined
m the same manner as in the resolution of numerical pro¬
blems. 1
No general rule can be given for drawing the lines,
and selecting the quantities most proper to be represent¬
ed by symbols, so as to bring out the simplest conclu¬
sion; because different problems require different me¬
thods of solution. The best way to gain experience in
this matter, is to try the solution of the same problem in
different ways, and then apply that which succeeds best Algebra,
to other cases of the same kind, when they afterwards
occur. The following particular directions, however, may
be of some use.
L In preparing the figure by drawing lines, let them
be either parallel or perpendicular to other lines in the
figure, so as to form similar triangles. And if an angle
be given, it will be proper to let the perpendicular be op¬
posite to that angle, and to fall from one end of a given
line, if possible.
2. In selecting the quantities for which symbols are
to be substituted, those are to be chosen, whether re¬
quired or not, which lie nearest the known or given parts
of the figure, and by means of which the next adjacent
parts may be expressed by addition and subtraction only,
without the intervention of surds.
3. When two lines, or quantities, are alike related to
other parts of the figure, or problem, the best way is to
substitute for neither of them separately, but to substi¬
tute for their sum, or difference, or rectangle, or the sum
of their alternate quotients, or some line or lines in the
figure, to which they have both the same relation.
4. When the area or the perimeter of a figure is given,
or such like parts of it as have only a remote relation to
the parts required, it is sometimes of use to assume
another figure similar to the proposed one, having one
side equal to unity, or some other known quantity. For
thence the other parts of the figure may be found by the
known proportions of like sides or parts, and so an equa¬
tion will be obtained.
202. We shall now give the algebraical solutions of
some geometrical problems.
Prob. 1. In a right-angled triangle, having given the
base, and the sum of the hypothenuse and perpendicular,
to find both these sides.
Let ABC (Plate XVIIL fig. 1) represent the proposed
triangle, right-angled at B. Let AB, the given base, be
denoted by b, and AC + BC, the sum of the hypothenuse
and perpendicular, by s; then if x be put for BC the
perpendicular, the hypothenuse AC will be —s — x. But
from the nature of a right-angled triangle, AC2 = AB2
+ BC2, that is,
l?x?-=.(s — x^zzs3 — 2sx-\-x2.
$2   fp
Hence b2 = s2 — 2sx, and x — —  = BC.
Also s — x z= s
s2
2s
  jp o2 I h‘2
Us— =: —2s— := ^US ^le
perpendicular and hypothenuse are expressed by means
of the known quantities b and s, as required.
If a solution in numbers be required, we may suppose
AB=6=3, and AC + CB=s=9; then
BC ~
s2—b2
2s
— 4, and AC =
+ b2
2s
= 5.
Prob. 2. In a right-angled triangle, having given the
hypothenuse, also the sum of the base and perpendicular,
it is required to determine these two sides.
Let ABC (fig. 1) represent the proposed triangle,
right-angled at B. Put a=:AC the given hypothenuse,
and s:=AB + BC the given sum of the sides; then, if a; be
put for AB the base, s — x will denote BC the perpen¬
dicular.
Now, from the nature of right-angled triangles, AC2
= AB2 + BC2 ; therefore x2 + (s — x)2 = a2, or x2 -{-
s“ — 2,sx-\-x2~a2 ; hence we have this quadratic equa-
Algebra.
tion, x
2 — x.t—-
/2 _ o2
which being resolved, by com-
ALGEBRA. 543
blem possible, the given space a2 must not be greater than Algebra.
pleting the square, we find x —   = AB, and
zxz V2a2 —
= BC. Thus it appears, that
either of the two quantities
s-\-V2a2—s2 s — V2a2—sc“
may be taken for AB; but whichever of the two be
taken, the remaining one is necessarily equal to BC.
Prob. 3. It is required to inscribe a square in a given
triangle.
Let ABC (fig. 2) be the given triangle, and EFHG the
inscribed square. Draw the perpendicular AD, cutting
EF, the side of the square, in K ; then, because the tri¬
angle is given, the perpendicular AD may be considered
Let BC=6, AD—and considering AK as
that is, than half the area of the given triangle.
Prob. 5. In a triangle, there are given the base, the
vertical angle, and the sum ot the sides about that angle ;
to determine each of these sides.
Let us suppose that ABC (fig. 4) is the triangle, of
which there is given the base AC, the vertical angle
ABC, and the sum of the sides AB, BC. Put AC — a,
AB4-BC=&, cosine of ^lABC=c; and let AB, BC, the
sides required, be denoted by x and y.
Let CD be drawn from either of the angles at the base
perpendicular to the opposite side AB; then, rad. : cos.
B :: CB : BD ; therefore BDz=cos. B X CB=cz/.
Now, from the principles of geometry, AC2=AB2
BC2 — 2AB X BD. Hence, and from the question, we
have these two equations,
x-\-y—b, x2 — 2cxy + ?/2— a2.
& — a2
as given, ~ , .
the unknown quantity (because from it the square may From the square of the first of these equations, viz.
be readily determined), let AK—a:; then KD=EF=jo—x. x?-\-2xy-)ry2=b2, let the second be subtracted, t us we
The triangles ABC, AEF, are similar; therefore
AD : BC : : AK : EF, that is, p : b : : x : p — x. Hence,
by taking the product of the extremes and means, p2
nryi
—px—bx, and x=J t L = AK. If the side of the square
have 2(1-}-c)xy— 62 — a2, and 2iryz=-j—-—. Again, from
i -|-c
the square of the first equation let the double of this last
> + 6
• 4 K&
equation, viz. ‘hxy— 
-, be subtracted, and the re-
be required, it may be immediately found by subtract- !
ing AK from AD the perpendicular. Thus we have suit is x? — 2xy-\-y2—
  kd=ef,
l + c
2c? — (1—c)^
1 + c
; so that by taking
may either take AK, a third proportional to AD + BC and
AD, or take DK, a fourth proportional to AD + BC, AD
and BC; and the point K being found, the manner of de¬
scribing the square is sufficiently obvious.
Prob. 4. Having given the area of a rectangle inscrib¬
ed in a given triangle; it is required to determine the sides
of the rectangle.
Let ABC (fig. 3) be the given triangle, and EDGF the
rectangle whose sides are required. Draw the perpendi¬
cular Cl, cutting DG in H. Put ABz=6, QIz=.p, DG—EF
—x, DE—HI=y; then CHrr/> — y. Let d2 denote the
given area.
The triangles CDG, CAB, are similar ; hence
CH : DG :: Cl: AB, or p — y.x;:p:b.
So that to determine x and y, we have these two equa¬
tions,
xy—c?, bp — by—px.
eft
From the first equation we find y——, and from the
second, y — therefore ^ px __a_ jience ^ —
* b b x
a?b
bxz= — —, and from this quadratic equation, by complet¬
ing the square, &c. we find
Hence it appears that we the square root of this last equation, we obtain
/2a2 —(1—c)I?
f=^ T+c
Thus we have found the difference between the sides, now
their sum is given —b; hence, by adding ^ the difference
to ^ the sum, we find
a /2«2-(i-
i i
-c)&
2 ' i+c
and subtracting ^ the difference from the sum,
b I IP a2b , a2 p_. /P1
•t-o—V-r —— > and y=—T-
x
a2b
pa*
'~b'
IP
Hence it appears, that if — be less than —, that is, if
cP be less than there are two different rectangles,
having the same area, which may be inscribed in the
given triangle. It also appears that, to render the pro-
_b j /2a2 — (\—c)lP
y~2 i -j-c
If the angle at B be a right angle, this problem becomes
the same as prob. 2.
Prob. 6. To draw a straight line through a given
point P (fig. 5), so as to form with AB, AC, two straight
lines given in position, a triangle DAE equal to a given
space.
Draw PF parallel to AC, one of the lines; and DH,
PG, perpendicular to AB, the other line : then PF will be
given in position; and AF, PG, will be given in mag¬
nitude.
Put the known magnitudes AFz=a, PG=6, and AE, a
side of the triangle which is to be determined, —x. Also,
let the given space to which the triangle ADE is to be
equal, be c2.
By similar triangles, FE : PG :: AE : DH ;
that is, x — a:b::x: DH ;
bx bde^
hence DH = ^; and triangle ADE:=  
Therefore
x —
bxP
2x-
and xP -
- 2a
2c2
—(?, and bx?—2<?x — 2a<P,
2cuP
T'
544
ALGEBRA.
Algebra. This is a quadratic equation, which, by completing the
' square, becomes
2c2 . c4 (?((? — 2«J)
—
bX+-&-~
Hence, by taking the square root, and transposing,
(?z^.c\/ (? — 2a£>
It appears, from this expression, that x will have two
values, viz.
c2 — c <? ■
c1 + c2 — 2«6
2a6
h ’ b '
therefore there are two positions of the line DE, which
will satisfy the problem. It further appears, that the
problem will only be possible when c(2~^2ab; for if
c2^.2ab, then c2 — 2ab will be a negative quantity, and
can have no real square root. Since, then, c2 cannot be
less than 2ab, it follows that the least triangle which can
be formed by drawing a line throughout P, a point in the
angle CAB, is equal to 2ab, that is, to 2AF X PG.
If the point P were in the angle DAB', adjacent to
DAE (fig. 6), the solution would be the same; but in
this case, the same notation being employed,
c2A=cv/c2+ 2a&
The quantity under the radical sign is always positive,
therefore there is no limitation to the problem.
Prob. 7. To find the area of a triangle whose sides are
given.
In the triangle ABC (fig. 7) draw the perpendicular
CD ; put BC=:a, AC—b, AB—c, CDr=p.
By the elements of Geometry (see Geometry),
CB2=BA2 + C A2 -4- 2AB-AD;
that is, a<2—c2-\-b‘2'
hence AD=^t^
2c
: AC2
2c X AD;
—; and since
■c'2 + b2—a2\2
-AD*=b‘2-(f±^y,
therefore 4c2p2 — 4c262 — (c2-f-Z*2 a2)2.
The second side of this equation is the difference of
two squares; therefore it admits of being resolved into
the product of the sum and difference of the roots, thus,
[c2 + 2cb + b'2 —a 2] [a2 — (c2 _ 2cW2)] ;
or, [(C + 6)2—a2]
Again, (c + Z»)2 — a‘2=(a-\-b-\-c') (c + Z> — a) ;
and a2 (> — Z»)2z=(a + c — Z>) (a — c + Z»);
therefore,
lc2p2=(a+b+c) (a + b — c) (a — b+c) (b + c~ a).
If we put s=±(a + b + c), then
a~\~b'1r c—2s, a-\-b — c—2(s—e),
w , a bA-c—2(s — b), b-\-c—a=2(s — a).
Yv e have now
C2jt?2
—^-=s(s — a)(s — b) (s — c) ;
and hence, observing that Rrea of triangle,
area= [s(5 — a) (s _ 6) (s __ c)-|.
203. By a method of investigation in all respects similar
to that which has been employed in these examples, any
proposed geometrical problem may be reduced to an
algebraic equation, the roots of which will exhibit arith¬
metical values of that geometrical magnitude which con¬
stitutes the unknown quantity in the equation. But the
roots of algebraic equations may also be expressed by
geometrical magnitudes, and hence a geometrical con¬
struction of a problem may be derived from its algebraic Algebra,
solution. For example, quadratic equations, which all'^^v^.
belong to one or other of these three forms,
a?+ axz=bc, x2—ax—be, x1—ax——be,
ov,x{x-\-a)=.bc, x(x—a)—be, x{a—x)—bc,
may be constructed as follows.
Construction of the first and second forms.—Let a circle
EABD (fig. 8) be described with a radius —\a, in which,
from any point A in the circumference, apply a chord AB
—b—c, (b being supposed greater than c) and produce
AB so that BC=c; then AC—b.
Let H be the centre of the circle; join CH cutting the
circumference in D and E, then, in the first case, the po¬
sitive value of x will be represented by CD, and in the
second by CE ; for by construction DE=a; therefore, if
CD be called x, then CEzr^+a; but if CE=*, then CD
=x—a. Now, by the elements of geometry, EC X CD:r
AC X CB ; that is, x(xz+z:d)—bc, or x?—*—ax—bc, which
equation comprehends the first and second cases.
If the negative roots be required, that of the first case
will be CE and that of the second CD.
When b and c are equal, the construction will be rather
more simple; for then AB vanishing, AC will coincide with
the tangent CF. Therefore, if a right-angled triangle
HFC be constructed, whose legs HE and EC are equal
respectively to \a and b, then will CD, the value of x in
the first case, be equal to CH—HE, and CE, the value of
x in the latter, r=CH-j-HF.
Construction of the third form.—Let a circle EADB
(fig. 9) be described with a radius = \a as before, in
which apply a chord AB=Z»-f-c, and take AC—b. Through
C draw the diameter DCE, then either DC or EC will be
positive roots of the equation. For since ED—a, if either
EC or CD=a?, the remaining part of the diameter will be
a—x; now by the nature of the circle EC X CD = AC X
CB, that is, a? (a—x)=zbc, or x?—ax=—be; hence it is
evident that the roots are rightly determined.
If b and c are equal, the construction will be the same,
only it will then not be necessary to describe the whole
circle ; for since AC will be perpendicular to the diame¬
ter, if a right-angled triangle HC A be constructed, having
its hypothenuse HAi^a and base AC=:Z>, the roots of the
equation will be expressed by AH + HC and AH—HC.
If b and c be so unequal that b—c in the first two cases,
or Z>+c in the third, is greater than a, then, instead of
these quantities, \b and 2c, or in general - and nc (where
n is any number whatever) may be used. Or a mean pro¬
portional may be found between b and c, and the construc¬
tion performed as directed in each case when b and c are
equal.
It appears from this section, that every geometrical
problem which produces a quadratic equation may be
constructed by means of a straight line and a circle, or
is a plane problem; hence, on the contrary, if a problem
can be constructed by straight lines and circles, its alge¬
braic resolution will not produce an equation higher than
a quadratic. Cubic and biquadratic equations may be
constructed geometrically by means of any two conic sec¬
tions ; hence it follows that every geometrical problem
which requires for its construction two conic sections, will,
when resolved by algebra, produce a cubic or biquadratic
equation.
Sect. XXIV. Of the Loci of Equations.
204. When an equation contains two indeterminate
quantities x and y, then for each particular value of x
ALGEBRA.
545
Algebra, there may be as many values of y as it has dimensions in
that equation. So that if in an indefinite line AE (fig. 10)
there be taken a part AP to represent x, and a perpendi¬
cular PM be drawn to represent y, there will be as many
points M, M', &c. the extremities of these perpendiculars,
as there are dimensions of y in the proposed equation;
and the values of PM, PM', &c. will be the roots of the
equation, which are found by substituting for x its value
in any particular case. Hence it appears that in any par¬
ticular equation we may determine as many points M as
we please; and a line which passes through all these
points is called the locus of the equation. The line AP,
which expresses any value of x, is called an absciss; and
PM, which expresses the corresponding value of?/, is called
an ordinate. Any two corresponding values of x and y
are also called co-ordinates.
205. When the equation that arises by substituting for
x any particular value AP has all its roots positive, the
points M, M', &c. will lie all on one side of AE ; but if any
of them be negative, these must be set off on the other
side of AE towards m.
If x be supposed to become negative, then the line
Aj», which represents it, is to be taken in a direction the
opposite to that which represents the positive values of#;
the points M, »i, are to be taken as before, and the locus
is only complete when it passes through all the points
M, m, so as to exhibit a value of y corresponding to every
possible value of x.
If in any case one of the values of y vanish, then the
point M coincides with P, and the locus meets AE in that
point. If one of the values of y becomes infinite, then it
shows that the curve has an infinite arc, and in that case
the line PM becomes an asymptote to the curve, or touches
it at an infinite distance, if AP itself is finite.
If, when x is supposed infinitely ^reat, a value of y
vanish, then the curve approaches to AE as an asymptote.
If any values of y become impossible, then so many
points M vanish.
206. From these observations, and the theory of equa¬
tions, it appears that when an equation is proposed in¬
volving two indeterminate quantities x and y, there may
be as many intersections of the curve which is the locus of
the equation, and of the line PM, as there are dimensions
of y in the equation; and as many intersections of the
curve and the line AE as there are dimensions of x in the
equation.
207. A curve line is called geometrical, or algebraic,
when the equation which expresses the relation between
x and y (any absciss and its corresponding ordinate), con¬
sists of a finite number of terms, and contains, besides these
quantities, only known quantities. Algebraic curves are
divided into orders, according to the dimensions of the
equations which express the relations between their ab¬
scisses and ordinates, or according to the number of points
in which they can intersect a straight line.
Straight lines themselves constitute the first order of
lines; and when the equation expressing the relation be¬
tween x and y is only of one dimension, the points M, &c.
must be all found in a straight line which contains with AE
a given angle. Suppose, for example, that the given equa¬
tion is ay—bx—cd— 0, and that its locus is required.
Since 2/=——^—j it follows that APM (fig. 11) being
a right angle, if AN be drawn making the angle NAP
such that its cosine is to its sine as a to b, and drawing
cd
AD parallel to the ordinates PM, and equal to —, if DF
be drawn parallel to AN, then will DF be the locus re- Algebra,
quired; where it is to be observed that AD and PN are^-^v^-
to be taken on the same side of AE if bx and cd have the
same sign, but on opposite sides of AE if they have con¬
trary signs.
Curves whose equations are of two dimensions consti¬
tute the second order of lines, and dsxo. first kind of curves.
Their intersections with a straight line can never exceed
two (sect. 204).
Curves whose equations are of three dimensions form
the third order of lines and the second kind of curves, and
their intersections with a straight line can never exceed
three; and after the same manner curves of the higher
orders are denominated.
Some curves, if they were completely described, would
cut a straight line in an infinite number of points; but
these belong to none of the orders we have mentioned, for
the relation between their ordinates and abscisses cannot
be expressed by a finite equation, involving only ordinates
and abscisses with determinate quantities. Curves of this
kind are called mechanical or transcendental.
208. As the roots of an equation become impossible al¬
ways in pairs, so the intersections of a curve and its or¬
dinate PM must vanish in pairs, if any of them vanish.
Let PM (fig. 12) cut the curve in the points M and rn,
and, by moving parallel to itself, come to touch it in the
point N, then the two points of intersection M and m go
to form one point of contact N. If PM still move on,
parallel to itself, the points of intersection will, beyond N,
become imaginary, as the two roots of an equation first
become equal, and then imaginary.
The curves of the 3d, 5th, 7th orders, and all whose di¬
mensions are odd numbers, have always one real root at
least; and consequently for every value of x the equation
by which y is determined must have at least one real root;
so that as x or AP may be increased in infinitum on both
sides, it follows that M must go off on both sides without
limit.
In curves whose dimensions are even numbers, as the
roots of their equations may become all impossible, it fol¬
lows that the figure of the curve may be like a circle, or
oval, that is, limited within certain bounds, beyond which
it cannot extend.
209. When two roots of the equation by which y is de¬
termined become equal, either the ordinate PM touches
the curve, two points of intersection in that case going
into a point of contact; or the point M is a punctum du¬
plex in the curve, two of its arcs intersecting each other
there ; or some oval that belongs to that kind of curve be¬
coming infinitely little in M, it vanishes into what is
called a punctum conjugatum.
If, in the equation, ybe supposed =0, then the roots of
the equation by which x is determined will give the dis¬
tances of the points where the curve meets AE from A;
and if two of those roots be found equal, then either the
curve touches the line AE, or AE passes through a
punctum duplex in the curve. When y is supposed
— 0, if one of the values of x vanish, the curve in that
case passes through A ; if two vanish, then either AE
touches the curve in A, or A is & punctum duplex.
As a punctum duplex is determined from the equality of
two roots, so is a punctum triplex from the equality of
three roots.
210. To illustrate these observations, we shall take a few
examples.
Ex. 1. It is required to describe the line that is the
locus of this equation, y^—ax-^ab, or yfi—ax—- ab—b,
where a and b denote given quantities. Since y
VOL. II.
ALGEBRA.
= '^Vax-\-ab; if AP = x (fig. 13) be assumed of a
known value, and PM, Ym, set off on each side equal to
Vax-\-ab, the points M, m, will belong to the locus
required; and for every positive value of AP there
may thus be found a point of the locus on each side.
The greater that AP or x is taken, the greater does
Vax-\-ab become, and consequently PM and Pm the
greater; and if AP be supposed infinitely great, PM
and Pm will also become infinitely great; therefore the
locus has two infinite arcs, that go off to an infinite
distance from AE and from AD. If x be supposed to
vanish, then y= =±z Vab, so that y does not vanish in
that case, but passes through D and d, taking AD and Ad
each = V ab.
If P be supposed to move on the other side of A, then
x becomes negative, and y = =±z Vab — ax, so that y
will have two values as before, while x is less than b;
but if AB zr b, and the point P be supposed to come to
B, then ab—ax, and y — =±= Vab—ax — 0; that is, PM
and Pm vanish, and the curve there meets the line AE.
If P be supposed to move from A beyond B, then x
becomes greater than b, and ax greater than ab, so that
ab—ax being negative, Vab—ax becomes imaginary;
that is, beyond B there are no ordinates which meet the
curve, and consequently, on that side the curve is limited
at B.
All this agrees very well with what is known by other
methods, that the curve whose equation is y* — ax + ab
is a parabola whose vertex is B, axis BE, and parameter
equal to a. For since bz±zx— BP, and y — PM, from
the equation ab =±= ax — y2, or a(b z±= x) ~ y2, we have
aXBPzr PM2, which is the well-known property of the
parabola.
Ex. 2. It is required to describe the line that is the
locus of the equation xy-\-ay-\-cy~bc-\-bx, or
be -j- bx
^ ~ a + c + af
Here it is evident (fig. 14) that the ordinate PM can
meet the curve in one point only, there being but one
value of 3/ corresponding to each value of x. When x=0,
then y — ; so that the curve does not pass through
A. If x be supposed to increase, then y will increase, but
will never become equal to b, since y=b X C + X
infinite; so that if AK be taken =a + c, the ordinate KF Algebra,
will be an asymptote to the curve.
If x be taken greater than a + c, or AP greater than
AK, then both c — x and a-\-c — x become negative,
and consequently y = bx ~~ becomes a positive
quantity; and since x—c is always greater than x—a—c,
it follows that y will be always greater than b or KG,
and consequently the rest of the curve lies in the angle
FGH. And as x increases, since the ratio of x—c to
*—a—c approaches still nearer to a ratio of equality,
it follows that PM approaches to an equality with PN,
therefore the curve approaches to its asymptote GH on
that side also.
The curve is the common hyperbola, for since b(c-Yx)
=:y(a + c + x\ by adding ab to both sides, b(a + c+x)
—y(a + c + a?) + ab, and (b—y) (« + £ + #)—«£, that is,
NM X GN=GC X BC, which is the property of the com¬
mon hyperbola.
Ex. 3. It is required to describe the locus of the equa¬
tion ay2—xy2=x?-\-bxl.
Here y2=~
' +&r2
, and therefore y
fi-bx*
hence PM and PM (fig. 15) are to be taken on each side,
and equal to
Ix5 bx2
; « This expression, by supposing
x=a, becomes infinite, because its denominator is then
— 0; therefore if AB be taken =a, and BK be drawn
perpendicular to AB, the line BK will be an asymptote
to the curve. If x be supposed greater than a, or AP
greater than AB, then a—x being negative, the fraction
a x— become negative, and its square root impos¬
sible ; so that no part of the locus can lie beyond B. If
x be supposed negative, or P taken on the other side of
A, then —a^.x—5 hence the values of3/will
be real and equal as long as x is less than b; but if x=b,
/—x3 -\-bx2
(= J -
-x3 + bx‘2
then yz
= J
—b3+b3
=0, and conse-
a -t~ x ^ a b
quently if AD be taken =b, the curve will pass through
D, and there touch the ordinate. If x be taken greater
. —j ;—, and
a + c-f-x
a + efi-x is always greater than c + x. If x be supposed
infinite, then the terms a and c vanish compared with x,
and consequently y — bX-=b; from which it appears,
that taking AD = b, and drawing GD parallel to AE, it
wil be an asymptote, and touch the curve at an infinite
distance. It x be now supposed negative, and AP be
than b, then
W5
bx2
a-\-x
becomes imaginary, so
taken on the other side of A, then y=b X
a + c—x’
and if
x be taken on that side =c, then y=b X ^=^-0; so that
the curve must pass through B, if AB=c. If * be sun
posed greater than c, then will c—x become negative and
the ordinate will become negative, and lie on the o’ther
side of AE, till x become equal to a+c, and then y
= that because the denominator is 0, a? becomes
that no part of the curve is found beyond D. The por¬
tion between A and D is called a nodus. If y be supposed
= 0, then will x3 +bx2'=z0 be an equation whose roots are
—b, 0, 0; from which it appears that the curve passes
twice through A, and has in A a punctum duplex. This
locus is a line of the third order.
If b is supposed to vanish in the supposed equation, so
that ay2 — xy2=x?, then will A and D coincide (fig. 16)
and the nodus vanish, and the curve will have in the point
A a cuspis, the two arcs AM and Am, in this case, touch¬
ing one another in that point. This is the same curve
which the ancients called the Cissoid of Diodes.
If, instead of supposing b positive, or equal to 0, we sup¬
pose it negative, the equation will be ay2 — xy2—x? — bx?;
the curve will in this case pass through D as before
(fig. 17), and taking ABzza, BK will be its asymptote.
It will have a punctum conjugatum in A, because when y
vanishes, two values of x vanish, and the third becomes
ALGEBRA.
547
Algebra, or AD. The whole curve, except this point, lies between
DQ and BK. These remarks are demonstrated after the
same manner as in the first case.
211. If an equation have this form,
y—axn -[- bxn~x -(- -}-, &c.
and n is an even number, then will the locus of the equation
have two infinite arcs lying on the same side of AE (fig.
18); for if x become infinite, whether positive or negative, a?"
will be positive and axn have the same sign in either case ;
and as axn becomes infinitely greater than the other terms
&cn_1, &c. it follows that the infinite values of y will have
the same sign in these cases, and consequently the two
infinite arcs of the curve will lie on the same side of AE.
But if n be an odd number, then when x is negative, xn
will be negative, and axn will have the contrary sign to
what it has when x is positive; and therefore the two in¬
finite arcs will in this case lie on different sides of AE, as
in fig. 19, and tend towards parts directly opposite.
212. If an equation have this form, yxnz=.an+l, and n be
an odd number, then when x is positive, yz=. ——; but
an4ri
when x is negative, y=. ; so that this curve must
all lie in the vertically opposite angles KAE, FAe (fig.
20), as the common hyperbola, FK, Ec being asymptotes.
But if n be an even number, then y is always positive,
whether x be positive or negative, because xn in this case
is always positive; and therefore the curve must all lie in
the two adjacent angles KAE andKAe(fig. 21), and have
AK and AE for its asymptotes.
213. If an equation be such as can be reduced into two
other equations of lower dimensions, without affecting y
or x with any radical sign, then the locus will consist of
the two loci of those inferior equations. Thus, the locus
of the equation y2 — 'Zxy-\-by -\-x? — focrrO, which may
be resolved into these two, x — 2/=0, y — x4-^=0, is
found to be two straight lines cutting the absciss AE
(fig. 22) in angles of 45° in the points A, B, whose dis¬
tance AB=i. In like manner some cubic equations can
be resolved into three simple equations, and then the locus
is three straight lines; or may be resolved into a quadra¬
tic and simple equation, and then the locus is a straight
line and a conic section. In general, curves of the supe¬
rior orders include all the curves of the inferior orders, and
what is demonstrated generally of any one order is also
true of the inferior orders. Thus, for example, any gene¬
ral property of the conic sections holds true of two straight
lines as well as a conic section, particularly, that the rect¬
angles of the segments of parallels bounded by them will
always be to one another in a given ratio.
214. From the analogy which subsists between algebraic
equations and geometrical curves, it is easy to see that
the properties of the former must suggest corresponding
properties of the latter. Hence the principles of algebra
admit of the most extensive application to the theory of
curve lines. It may be demonstrated, for example, that
the locus of every equation of the second order is a conic
section; and, on the contrary, the various properties of
the diameters, ordinates, tangents, &c. of the conic sec¬
tions may be readily deduced from the theory of equa¬
tions.
Sect. XXV. Arithmetic of Sines.
215. The calculus of sines is one of the mathematical
theories which have been produced by the application of
algebra to geometry. It treats of the relations which
sines, cosines, tangents, &c. of angles have one to another.
216. The geometrical principles of this theory were Algebra,
known to the ancients. They may be deduced from the^
beautiful property of a quadrilateral inscribed in a circle,
namely, that the rectangle contained by its diagonals is
equal to the sum of the rectangles contained by its oppo¬
site sides ; which we find in the writings of Ptolemy, and
which was employed in the trigonometry of the Greeks.
In comparatively modern times we find the same proposi¬
tions distinctly recognised in the Opus Palatinum, the
great work on triangles begun by Ilhetius, and finished by
Otho, who published it in 1596 ; also in the trigonometry
of Pitiscus, first printed in 1599; and probably they may
be found in still earlier works. Montucla, in his Histoire
des Mathematiques, says, “ I do not see that any one be¬
fore the beginning of this century (the 18th) had thought
of seeking formulae proper to express the sines or cosines,
tangents or co-tangents, of the sum or difference of arcs of
a circle, or their powers, &c. It seems to me to have been
very natural; and that there must have been frequently
occasion to know what was the sine or cosine, the tangent
or co-tangent, of an arc, that was the sum or difference of
two arcs of which the sines or cosines, or tangents or co¬
tangents, were known. The first theorems on this subject
appear to be the work of Frederic-Christian Mayer, one
of the first members of the Petersburg Academy.” Mon¬
tucla, however, seems to have overlooked the trigonome¬
try of Pitiscus, who, in problems 8 and 9 of his second
book, gives rules for finding the sines and cosines of the
sum and difference of two arcs, when the sines and cosines
of the arcs are given. These are in the edition of 1612.
The formula which expresses the tangent of the sum of
several arcs by the tangent of the arcs themselves, was
given, for the first time, we believe, by John Bernoulli, in the
Leipsic Acts for July 1722. Both these are prior to Mayer’s
Memoir, which is in the Petersburg Commentaries with
the date 1727. It was probably here, however, that the
first essay of analytical trigonometry was given. Euler,
who stands pre-eminent in every branch of the mathema¬
tics, has contributed more especially to this doctrine, as
in his Subsidium Calculi Sinuum, in the New Petersburg
Commentaries, vol. v. (for 1754 and 1755), and his Intro-
ductio in Analysin Injinitorum. The doctrine of spherical
trigonometry was given in an analytic form by the same
writer, in a memoir entitled Trigonometria Spherica uni-
versa ex primis principiis derivata, in the Petersburg Acts
for 1779; and also by De Gua in the volume of the
Academy of Sciences for 1783 ; and, lastly, by Lagrange in
a memoir of the Journal Polytechnique, vol. ii.
217. The calculus of sines is of great importance as a
branch of analysis. It enables us in a great measure to
dispense with the complicated diagrams which the earlier
writers on geometry, and on the physico-mathematical
theories, employed in their investigations and demonstra¬
tions. In geometry, when combined with the modern
analysis, it gives the power of expressing the most com¬
plicated relations of figure, and magnitude, and position,
almost without the help of graphic representations. As
an example, we may give the fine discovery by Gauss, of
formulae by which a regular polygon of seventeen sides may
be inscribed in a circle by a geometrical construction. In
algebra it has served to extend greatly the theory of
equations ; in astronomy, when applied to the theories of
the planets and comets, it gives elegant and convenient
expressions for their angular motions, and compact for¬
mulae for computing the elements of their orbits, and their
true and apparent positions ; and in statics and dynamics,
it gives, without diagrams, the relations of forces which
produce rest or motion, and the laws of the motions. The
precious invention of logarithms abridged the irksome
548
ALGEBRA.
Algebra, labour of calculation, even in the simplest applications of
^ 'geometry; but this, combined with the trigonometrical
tables, and the theory of the calculus of sines, affords a
still more powerful instrument for abridging labour; just
as two mechanical inventions, which apart can overcome
considerable resistance, yet are vastly more potent when
united.
218. In the calculus of sines, as well as in other appli¬
cations of algebra to geometry, all quantities, whether
lines or angles, are considered as expressed by numbers ;
some line or angle is assumed as a unit, and the number
of times that unit is contained in the line or angle is its
numerical value.
The magnitude of the unit is altogether arbitrary; and
since, in general, the magnitude to be expressed in num¬
bers may not contain the unit an exact number of times,
it ought to be so small, that the remainders may, in re¬
spect of the wholes, be rejected.
219. The primary unit, by which angles are expressed
in numbers, is one ninetieth part of a right angle, that is,
one 360th part of four right angles. Each of these is
called a degree, and is conceived to contain 60 units of a
lower order, called minutes ; and each minute, again, 60
units of the next lower order, called seconds ; and so on
to thirds, &c.
The degrees, minutes, &c. in an angle, are usually writ¬
ten thus: 12° 15' 10" 25"'. This means an angle of 12
degrees, 15 minutes, 10 seconds, and 25 thirds. It is not
common to estimate angles to a greater degree of accu¬
racy than seconds and tenths of a second: thus 3*4"
means three seconds and four tenths of a second.
The French mathematicians attempted, in the time of
the Revolution, to introduce a new unit for angles. They
supposed a right angle to be divided into 100 equal parts,
called degrees; and each degree to be subdivided into
100 minutes ; and each minute into 100 seconds; and so
on. This division, however, was not adopted out of
France. Unfortunately, Laplace had employed it in his
Mecanique Celeste, to the inconvenience of its readers;
but now the French mathematicians themselves have al¬
most all returned to the old sexagenary division.
220. Although an angle and a circle are not necessarily
related, because we can form a distinct notion of each
independently of the other; yet there is such an analogy
between them, as to make it convenient to consider them
together. Therefore (Plate XVIII. fig. 23), let PO, QO,
be straight lines which contain an angle whose vertex is O.
Let OQ, one of the lines, be given in position, and let
OF, a segment of the other line adjacent to O, be an
invariable magnitude. Let us now suppose the line PO
to coincide at first with QO, and, departing from that
position, to turn about O as a centre: the line PO will
now generate an angle POQ, and E, the extremity of
the constant radius, will describe an arc AE. When
the line has made a complete revolution about the cen¬
tre O, it will have generated four right angles, and
the point E will have described a complete circle; and it
is manifest that any angle POQ will have the same ratio
to four right angles that the arc AE has to the whole cir¬
cumference. Hence it follows that the arc may conve¬
niently serve as a geometrical measure of the angle ; and if
we suppose the circumference to be divided into 360
equal parts, called degrees, and each of these to be sub¬
divided into 60 minutes, and so on, then the angle and
arc will be expressed by the same number of degrees,
minutes, &c.
221. Let the diameters AC, BD, be perpendicular to
each other. These divide the circumference into four
quadrants, and the circle into four regions AOB, BOC,
COD, DO A. The difference between an angle and a Algebra,
right angle, or between an arc and a quadrant, is called
the complement of the angle or arc; and the difference
between an angle and two right angles, or between an arc
and a semicircle, is called the supplement of the angle or
arc. Thus, the angle POB is the complement of POQ,
and POC is its supplement; and the arc BE is the com¬
plement of AE, and CE its supplement.
222. Assuming A as the origin of the variable arc AE,
a straight line EF, drawn from its extremity E, perpen¬
dicular to the diameter AC, is called the sine of the arc
AE ; and a straight line EG, drawn perpendicular to BD
(which is the sine of the arc EB, the complement of AE),
is called the cosine of the arc AE. Hence it appears that
the cosine of an arc is equal to the distance of the sine
from the centre of the circle.
223. Supposing now the arc AE to increase continual¬
ly by the revolving of the radius OE, departing from the
position OA, and moving in the direction ABCD, &c. the
sine EF, which at first is r=0, will increase until the arc
become a quadrant; afterwards, while the arc increases
from one to two quadrants, the sine E'F' will decrease,
and at last again become r=0. The arc continuing to in¬
crease, the sine will be reproduced; but its direction F"E"
will now be the opposite to its first direction FE. It will
increase in magnitude, until the arc become three qua¬
drants ABCD ; and it will again decrease, while the arc is
increasing from three to four quadrants: and when the
radius has made a complete revolution, the sine will have
decreased to zero. We may, however, suppose the re¬
volving radius OE still to proceed : there will thus be ge¬
nerated an arc, ABCD AE, greater than a complete circum¬
ference, of which EF will be the sine; and, in the second
and every succeeding revolution, the sine will pass through
the same changes as in the first.
224. We may trace the changes in the magnitude and
direction of the cosine just in the same way. While the
arc AE increases from zero to a quadrant, the cosine OF,
at first equal to the radius OA, decreases, and at last va¬
nishes ; and while the arc continues to increase, and has
any value ABE' between one and two quadrants, the co¬
sine OF' is reproduced, with a direction the opposite to
the first. When the arc is exactly two quadrants, the co¬
sine becomes in magnitude OC, equal to OA, but oppo¬
site in direction. The arc still increasing to ACE", the
cosine decreases to OF"; and when the arc becomes
ABCD, three quadrants, the cosine again becomes =0;
between three and four quadrants the cosine OF'" re-ap-
pears in its original direction ; and when the revolution is
completed, the cosine acquires its first value OA. In a
second revolution the same changes are repeated, and so
on continually.
We may suppose the radius to turn round O in the con¬
trary direction ADC, and the very same changes will be
produced on the direction and magnitude of the sine and
cosine of the generated arc AE'".
225. In conformity to the principles of analytic geome¬
try, the contrary position of the arcs AE, AE', and the
sines EF, E'F', in respect of the position of the arcs AE",
AE'", and the sines E"F", E"'F"', may be indicated by the
signs + and —; and the same is true of the cosines OF,
OF'", which are opposed in direction to the cosines OF',
OF", the arcs and sines on opposite sides of the diame¬
ter AC being regarded as having opposite signs, and a
like contrariety being supposed in the cosines on opposite
sides of the diameter BD, which is perpendicular to AC.
The arc AE being regarded as positive, it does not signi¬
fy whether we reckon the sines and cosines positive or ne¬
gative in the beginning, provided we change the signs,
ALGEBRA.
549
Algebra, when, after having decreased to zero, they are reproduced
with a contrary direction.
Let us suppose the sine and cosine of any positive arc
AE in the first quadrant to be positive; then, from what
has been explained, the sine will continue to be positive
in the second quadrant, but the cosine will have become
negative ; in the third the sine and cosine will both be
negative ; and in the fourth the sine will be negative,
but the cosine positive.
Again, if the radius OE turn about O in the contrary
direction, ADCB, &c. the arc AE'", &c. thus generated
will be negative ; the sines will also be negative in the
first semicircle, but the cosines positive in the quadrant
AD, and negative in DC, and so on; the changes from -j-
to —, and from — to -J-, following each other exactly as
in the generation of a positive arc.
226. Let a straight line AH, perpendicular to the dia¬
meter AC, meet the radius OE produced in H (fig. 24) :
the line AH is called the tangent of the arc AE, and
the line OH the secant of that arc.
227. A line BK, perpendicular to OB (which is at right
angles to O A), and which meets OH in K, will be the
tangent of the complement of the arc AE ; and OK will
be its secant. The former is therefore called the co-tan¬
gent of the arc AE, and the latter its co-secant.
228. The segment AF of the diameter, between the be¬
ginning of the arc and its sine, is called the versed sine of
the arc ; and, similarly, the segment BG, the versed sine
of the complement, is its co-versed sine.
229. Since the arc AE is assumed as a geometrical
measure of the angle POQ, we may regard the lines which
are the sine, tangent, secant, &c. of the arc, as also the
sine, tangent, secant, &c. of the angle ; or, since all quan¬
tities in this calculus are to be expressed in numbers, we
may take any numbers proportional to these lines. Hence
, „ . arc AE . r
we may assume the fraction as ^ie measure °f
EF
the angle POQ, and, similarly, ^ as the sine of the an-
OF . . HA. „ ,OH .
gle POQ, its cosine, ^ its tangent, and ^ its
secant; then will be the co-tangent, and
_ win be the co-secant of the angle. These quanti-
AH
ties will have among themselves the same ratios as the
lines which bear the same designations; and it is evident,
from the nature of similar figures, that supposing the an¬
gle POQ to remain of the same magnitude, its sine, tan¬
gent, secant, &c. thus defined, are thd* same, whatever be
the magnitude of the circle, which now serves merely to
connect them as related quantities.
We may consider OA, the radius of the circle, as a
unit, and then the sines, tangents, &c. will be expressed
in parts of that unit, according to the decimal notation.
This is the common form in which they are given in
the trigonometrical tables.
230. The power of algebra, as an instrument of inves¬
tigation, depends greatly on the proper employment of
conventional signs: it is common to express the sine of
an arc a by the abbreviation sin. a, its cosine by cos. a, its
tangent by tan. a, its secant by sec. a, its co-tangent by cot. a,
its co-secant by cosec. a, and its versed sine by ver. sin. a.
231. From the definition given of an angle by the an¬
cient geometers, its measure cannot exceed half the cir¬
cumference of a circle. When, however, we regard an
angle as generated by the rotation of a line about a fixed
pomt, the arc, which is its measure, may be regarded as
capable of continual increase. In astronomy, the angular Algebra,
motion of the sun and planets is reckoned from an anglev
or arc of 0° forward to 360°. We are thus led to con¬
sider the sines of arcs which exceed 180°, and even which
exceed a whole circumference, or any number of circum-
ferences.
232. Let v denote half the circumference of the circle
which is assumed as a scale for measuring angles. It is
easy, by induction, to infer from what has been explain¬
ed, that a being any arc,
Sin. ( $r-|-(i)——sin. a,
Sin. (2ff-j-a)= + sin. a,
Sin. (^+0)— — sin. a,
Sin. (4ff-j-«)= -p sin. a,
&c.
Deing u, or any wnuie numuci
2»+l)7r+a] = — cos. a,)
 = + cos. a.T
2n+\) t+«] = — sin. a,f
2n-r+a] = + sin. a.)
(1)
Sin. (it — a) — + sin.
i. (2or — a) =r
Sin
Sin
Sin. (4
&c.
(3<r — a) = -f sin.
T—a) = — sin.
Cos. ( ?r-p«)= — cos. a,
Cos. (2<T-f-fi£)* -|- cos. a,
Cos. (3fl--j-a):= —cos. a,
Cos. (4^-p«)r= -p cos. a,
&c.
And in general, n being 0, or any whole number,
Cos. [(2/ _ " ' ^  '
Cos. [ 2«ff-f.<
Sin. [(2/ .
Sin. [ 2n>r-\-a~\
It is also evident that
Cos. ( w — a) — — cos. a,
Cos. — a) = + cos. a,
Cos. (3<t — a) = —cos. a,
Cos. (4^—a) = + cos. a,
&c.
And in general that
Cos. [(2w-pl)7r-
Cos. [ 2nv — a]
Sin. [(2n-p 1) cr-
Sin. [ 2?iir — a~\ = — sin.
When the arc a=0, we have
Cos. (2n + 1) — 1, Sin. (2w-pl) =0,
Cos. 2«t = + 1> Sin. 2w‘jr =0.
233. If a and a be arcs which differ by a quadrant,
that is, if a=|‘?r-j-a; then it will appear by inspection of
figure 23, and”a little consideration, that
Cos. a= — sin. a, Sin. a=-f- cos. a.
Now, by changing a into a, formulae (1) of last section
become
Cos. ^(2/i-p 1)^-pa] — — cos. a,
Cos. [ 2«7T-pa] ....=: q- cos. a,
Sin. [(2«-f l)7r-f a]=—sin. a,
Sin. [ ‘Znv+a^ .. .. = -j- sin. a.
In these substitute ^w-pa for a, — sin. a lor cos. a, and
cos. a for sin. a, and they become
-a] = — cos.
. . . = -P cos.
- a] = + sin. a, ("
a.)
a, 4
• a, V
(2)
Cos. [(4» -p 3) | + a] = + sin.
Cos,
[(4ra-pi) ^-pa]= — sin. a,
Sin. [(4»-p3) ^-pa] = — cos. a,
Sin. [(4n-p 1) _-pa]= + cos. a.
(3)
If, again, there be two arcs a and a, whose sum is a qua¬
drant, that is, a=i7T—a, then
Cos. oczrsin. a, Sin. az=cos. a.
If, in the above formulae, we now put \nr — a for a, and
sin. a for cos. a, and cos. a for sin. a, we shall have
Cos. C(4«-p3)| —a] =
■ sm. a,
Cos. [(4n-pl) | — a]= +sin. a,
Sin. [(4n-p3) | — a]=—cos. a,
Sin. [(4n-pl)| — cfl=+cos a.
(4)
550
Algebra.
ALGEBRA.
234. The formulae investigated in the last two sections
may be brought together in an abridged form, as in the
following table:
Cos. [(2»+ l)<ri±=a] = — cos. a,
Cos. [ 2w7rztza] .. . = + cos. a,
Sin. [(2w-f sin. a,
Sin. [ 2?jwr+=a] .. . ==±=sin. a;
§
(3)
(4)
Cos. [(4n-f-l)^=!=a]=:=p:sin. a, (5)
Cos. [(4»4-3) 5dfca] = ±b: sin. a, (6)
Sin. [(4«+l) ^=tza^\ = -f cos. a, (7)
Sin. [(4« + 3) ^ =!=a] = — cos. a. (g)
235. The perfection of the modern analysis consists in
the employment of the fewest possible principles, and in
deducing from these all the truths which can be extract¬
ed by the power of the analysis itself. We have there¬
fore occasion for very few of the simplest propositions
in geometry, and these only at the outset.
By the nature of a right-angled triangle (fig. 24),
OF-f-FE2=OE2; OA2+AH2=OH2; OB2-|-BK2r=OK2.
The triangles OFE, OAH, OBK, being similar,
OF : FE : : O A : AH : : BK : BO;
FE : EO: : AH : HO : : BO : OK;
EO: OF : : HO : O A : : OK : KB.
Hence, observing that OA=OB=OE=:l, and employ¬
ing our premised notation, we have
Cos. a : sin. a 1 : 1 ; tan. a : 1 cot. a : 1;
Sin. a : 1 : : tan. a : sec. a : : 1 ; cosec. a;
1 : cos. a: : sec. a : 1 : : cosec. a : cot. a.
From these we obtain the following table of formulae,
exhibiting the relations among trigonometrical quantities,
where cos.2 a and sin.2 a denote the squares of the cosine
and sme of the arc or angle a.
(A)
Cos.2 a -f- sin.2 1 
Sec.2 a — tan.2 a—1....
Cosec.2 a — cot.2 a— 1
Cos. a sec. a
Sin. a cosec. a
Tan. a cot. a
Tan. a cos. a
Cot. a sin. a
Sin. a sec. a
—1.11
= 1 
=sin. a.,
= cos. a.
— tan. a.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
6)
Cos. a cosec. a = cotan. a
Tan. a cosec. a rrsec. a (H
Cotan. a sec. a == cosec. a .....(12
It appears from formulae 7, 8, 4, 5, that
'7)
$
(10)
©
tan. a—
sec. a—-
sin. a
cos. a’
1
cos. o’
„ . cos. a
cot. a—— 
sin. a
cosec. a~ • *
sin. a
Hence it follows that the tangent and co-tangent must
be regarded as positive quantities when the sine and cZine
are both positive, or both negative quantities ; but as ne-
gative when, of the sme and cosine, one is positive and
the other negative; and that the secant and cosine, also
the co-secant and sine, must always have the same Wn.
Iherefore the tangent will be positive in the first au-i-
arant, negative in the second, positive in the third, nega¬
tive in the fourth, and so on; and the secant will be po- Algebra,
sitive in the first, negative in the second and third, posi-'-^v^-
tive in the fourth and fifth, and so on to any number of
quadrants.
236. We have seen that the sines and cosines, when
changing their sign from + to —, or from — to -f, in
the transition become =0. Now, since tan. a— a,
cos. a
and sec. a=: ^; when a is a quadrant, and therefore
cos. a=0, and sin. a—1, then both tan. a and sec. a
become infinite : and when a is between a quadrant and
a semicircumference, cos. a being then negative, both tan.
a and sec. a are negative. Hence it appears that the
tangent and secant become both infinite in changing their
sign from + to —. la passing from the second to the
third quadrant, the tangent, from being negative, becomes
positive, because the numerator of the fraction — * a
cos. a
changes from + to —. In this transition the tangent
becomes =0. The secant, however, continues negative;
and when the arc has attained a magnitude between three'
and four quadrants, both tangent and secant change their
signs, after having become infinite, the tangent being now
negative, and the secant positive. When the circum¬
ference is completed, the tangent is reduced to 0, and the
secant to the radius; and the arc being supposed to in¬
crease, the same changes will be repeated.
237. Let the sides of any triangle ABC fFie- 7.
Plate XVIII.) be 1 L, ^ gc>
and the opposite angles A, B, C.
From C, any one of the angles, draw C D perpendicu¬
lar to the opposite side c, dividing it into the two seg¬
ments AD, BD ; then, by the definitions (sect. 229),
t, BD BD
cos. ±5=-^— — ■, and hence
BC a
BD=ra cos. B, and, similarly, AD=& cos. A;
and c=AB=BD + AD=a cos. B+6 cos. A.
Hence we have this property of a triangle :
If each of any two of its sides be multiplied by the cosine
of the angle it makes with the third side, the sum of the pro¬
duets is equal to that third side. This theorem, combined
with these formulas,
Cos.2 A + sin.2 Azrl,
Cos. (w—A)= — cos. A,
Sin. (w—A)—sin. A,
is to serve as the basis of the whole calculus of sines.
From the preceding theorem, we obtain the following
system of formulae:
I.
a—b cos. C + c cos. B, 1.
b—a cos. C-j-c cos. A, 2.
c=a cos. B + 5 cos. A. 3.
From the first of these we get
a cos. C—b cos.2 C + c cos. B cos. C,
a cos. B=6 cos. B cos. C + c cos.2 B;
and from these again, by transposing,
b cos.2 C=a cos. C — c cos. B cos. C,
c cos.2 B=a cos. B — b cos. B cos. C.
Subtract each side of the first of these two from the
corresponding side of 2 of system I., and each side of the
second from the corresponding side of 3, and write in the
A L G E B H A. 551
Algebra, results sin.2 C for 1 — cos.2 C, and sin.2 B for 1 — cos.2 B ;
we then get
b sin.2 C~c (cos. A + cos. B cos. C),
c sin.2 B=& (cos. A-j-cos. B cos. C).
Take now the product of the sides of these equations,
and leave out the common factors b, c, of the result; we
thus obtain
Sin.2 B sin.2 C:=(cos. A-}-cos. B cos. C)2.
Hence, taking the square roots,
Sin. B sin. C = cos. A-j-cos. B cos. C.
Here we have a property of the angles of any triangle,
which is independent of its sides; this, by interchanging
the angles, gives the following system of formulae:
II.
Cos. A= — cos. B cos. C + sin. B sin. C, 1.
Cos. B = — cos. A cos. C sin. A sin. C, 2.
Cos. C = — cos. A cos. B -j- sin. A sin. B. 3.
Again, from the first of these we have
Cos. A cos. C = — cos. B cos.2 C + sin. B sin. C cos. C ;
and hence, by transposition,
Cos. B cos.2 C zr — cos. A cos. C -f- sin. B sin. C cos. C.
Subtract now the sides of this equation from the cor¬
responding sides of 2 ; the result is
Cos. B (1 — cos.2 C)= sin. C (sin. A — sin. B cos. C).
Substitute sin.2 C for 1 — cos.2 C, and divide by sin. C;
then,
Cos. B sin. C — sin. A — sin. B cos. C.
This gives us a third system of formulae, viz.
HI.
Sin. Az=sin. B cos. C + cos. B sin. C, 1.
Sin. Bz=sin. A cos. C + cos. A sin. C, 2.
Sin. C = sin. A cos. B + cos. A sin. B. 3.
If it be now considered that A -f- B C = two right
angles —v, so that A + B=-r—C, and therefore
Sin. (A + B)=sin. C, cos. (A + B)=: — cos. C,
we obtain, from the third formulae of systems II. and III.,
Cos. (A-f-B)rrcos. A cos. B — sin. A sin. B,
Sin. (A-j-B)=:sin. A cos. B -f- cos. A sin. B.
238. In this investigation, we have supposed that A
and B are two angles of a triangle,—an hypothesis which
requires that their sum shall not exceed two right angles,
and that the sum of the arcs which measure them do not
exceed a semicircumference. The formulae, however,
hold true, whatever be the magnitude of the arcs: for,
let A, a, and B, (3, denote arcs, such, that cc-f-AzrT,
/3 + B^cr; and therefore (a-f-/3) + (A-}-B) —2^: then,
A — ff — a, Br=cr — (3, and (sect. 232)
Cos. A= —cos. a, Sin. A=sin. a,
Cos. B= — cos. (3, Sin. B=sin. (3.
Hence it follows, that
Cos. A cos. B — sin. A sin. B
— cos. a cos. (3 — sin. a sin. [3,
Sin. A cos. B + cos. A sin. B
— — sin. a cos. f3 — cos. a sin. (3.
And since (sect. 232)
Cos. (a+/3)=:cos. (A + B)=cos. A cos. B — sin. A sin. B,
Sin. (a + /3)= — sin. (A-f B)= — sin. A cos. B
— cos. A sin. B;
therefore, cos. (a-f-/3)—cos. a cos. [3 sin. a sin. (3;
Sin. (a-{-/3)—sin. a cos. /3-f-cos. a sin. /3.
Now, on the hypothesis that A + BZff; then, because
A + B + a + /3r=2'r, it follows that a+(37*. Hence it
appears that the formulae for the cosine and sine of the
sum of A, B, arcs less than a semicircle, apply equally to
arcs a, j3, whose sum is greater than the half, but less than Algebra,
the whole circumference.
Again, if we suppose that a, a!, and /3,13', are such arcs,
that
a' + a=2‘r, /3' + /3=2t, and therefore (a' + /3’) + (a + p)
then we shall have a=2‘r— a', (S—Qk — (S',
Cos. a=cos. a', Sin. arz — sin. a',
Cos. /3—cos. (3', Sin. (3= — sin. /3',
Cos. (a' + /3')= C0S.(a + /3), Sin. (a' + /3')= — sin. (a + /3).
Here, again, we shall have
Cos. (a'-|-/3')—cos. a' cos. j3'—sin. a sin. (3',
Sin. (a'-}-/3')=:sin. a' cos. (3’cos. a' sin. (3';
and because a -f jS is greater than cr, but less than 2n,
therefore is an arc between two and three semicir¬
cumferences.
It is evident we may proceed in this way continually,
and thus be assured that the formulae are true, when A
and B are any arcs of a circle, even although they should
exceed a circumference, or any number of circumferences.
239. If, in these formulae, we substitute a — b for A,
and b for B, they become
Cos. cz=cos. b cos. (a — b) — sin. b sin. (a — b),
Sin. a=sin. b cos. (a — &)-f-cos. b sin. (a — b).
To abridge, let us put
P—cos. (a — b), and Q=sin. (a—A) ;
we have now, by transposition,
P cos. b — Q sin. b =cos. a,
P sin. b + GL cos. b z=sin. a.
From these equations, by the ordinary process of eli¬
mination, we can determine P and Q: thus, proceeding
by sect. 73, we get
P cos.2 b — Q sin. b cos. &z=cos. a cos. b, 1.
P sin.2 & + Q sin. b cos. 6=sin. a sin. b, 2.
P cos. b sin. b — Q sin.2Z»=cos. a sin. b, 3.
P cos. b sin. 6 -f- Q cos.2 6= sin. a cos. b. 4.
By adding equations (1) and (2), and substituting 1 for
cos.2 Z>-|-sin.2 b, we obtain
P=cos. (a — 6)=cos. a cos. 5-f-sin. a sin. b.
And again, by subtracting (3) from (4), we get
Q.= sin. (a — £>)z=sin. a cos. b— cos. a sin. b.
For the sake of reference, and a uniform notation, we
shall now bring together the formulae of this and sect. 237
into one group.
(B)
Cos. (a+ &):=: cos. a cos. b — sin. a sin. b, (1)
Cos. (a—i)z=cos. a cos. b -f sin. a sin. b, (2)
Sin. (a-|-i)=sin. a cos. b -j- cos. a sin. b, (3)
Sin. (a—&)=sin. a cos. b — cos. a sin. b. (4)
These constitute what we have termed the fundamental
theorems of this calculus.
240. By adding and subtracting these formulae, we ob¬
tain others equivalent to them, but under a different form,
viz. these:
(C)
Cos. a cos. b—\ cos. {a — £)+£ cos. (a (1)
Sin. a sin. b—^ cos. (a — b)—h cos. (a + b), (2)
Sin. a cos. b=}1 sin. (a -f- &) + | sin. (a — b), (3)
Cos. a sin. b—^ sin. (a -f- 6)—^ sin. (a — b). (4)
If we now put a b= A, and a — i — B, so that a =
£(A + B), b = ^-(A — B), and substitute these values of
a,b, a+ b, a — b, in the above formulae, and, for the
sake of uniformity, write the letters a and b instead of A
and B, we obtain
%
ALGEBRA.
(D)
Cos. 6-j- cos. <2=2 cos. J (a-\-b) cos. ^ (a — b), (1^
Cos. b — cos.a=2 sin. ^ (a-\-b) sin. ^ («—b), (2')
Sin. a+ sin. b=.2 sin. l (a + b) cos. ^ (a — b), ^31
Sin. a— sin. b=2 cos. ^ (« + i) sin. ^ (a — b). (4)
In formulae (C), let nA be written instead of a, and A
instead of b; and consequently (n—1)A instead of
a — 6, and (rc+l) A instead ofa + 6; the result, after put¬
ting a and b for A and B, will be
and from these, putting tan. a for anj cot_ a for a AIne,)ra-
cos. a
&c. we deduce this new set of formulae:
2 cos. a cos. tia^zcos.
2 sin. a sin. na=cos.
2 cos. a sin. «a=sin.
2 sin. a cos. wa=sin.
(E)
' n—< l^a + cos* (n + l)a> (1,)
In — l)a—cos. 1)«, (2)
[ri + 1)<2 -J- sin. (n—\\a, (3)
[n + 1)«—sin. (n—l)a. (4)
(H)
Tan. a tan. b = —~ ^7 ^
cos. (a — 6) + cos. (a + b)
Tan. a cot. b = T ^ + ^ ^
sin. (a + b) — sin. (a — b)
Cot. « tan. b =
sin. (a + b) + sin. (a — b)
Cot. a cot. b = cos.(<*-6) + cos.(a + <,)
cos. (a — b) — cos. (a + b)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
241. Resuming the first system of formulae, viz
Sin. (« + £>)=sin. a cos. 6 +cos. a sin. b,
Cos. (a + b)—cos. a cos. b—sin. a sin. b,
let each side of the first be divided by the corresponding
side of the second ; then we have
Sin. (a + b) sin. a cos. Z> + cos. a sin. b
Cos. (a-f 6) — cos. a cos. b—sin. a sin. b
sin. a sin. b
cos. a ~ cos. b
244. Because, by formulae (B),
Sin. a cos. b + cos. a sin. b = sin. (a+ b)\
therefore, 5!Hl2 + gimj = sin, (a+j)_
cos. a cos. b cos. a cos. b
By treating the remaining formulae in the same way,
and substituting the tangent and co-tangent for their va¬
lues, we obtain
sin. a sin. b
Hence, observing that tan. A=
Tan. (a+b)
cos. a cos. b
sin. A
cos. A’
tan. a+tan. b
we obtain
1 —> tan. a tan. b
By a like process we obtain from the formulae for sin.
(a — b), and cos. (a — ft), a formula for tan. (a — ft).
The two, for the sake of reference, may be put together.
(K)
Tan. a + tan. J = £”•>+»)
cos. a cos. ft
_ sin. (a — ft)
cos. a cos. ft’
_ sin. (a + b)
sin. a sin. ft’
sin. (a.— ft)
Tan. a—-tan. ft =
Cot. a + cot. ft =
Cot. a — cot. ft =
Tan. a -f- cot. ft =
sin. a sin. ft’
cos. (a — ft)
cos. a sin. ft’
(F)
„ , . tan. a+tan. ft
Tan. (a + b)—      
1 — tan. a tan. ft
rt .. .. . r cos.(a 4- ft)
Cot. a — tan. ft = -—^—^—1
sin. a cos. ft
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
Tan. (a — b)—
tan. a — tan. ft
(1)
(2)
•*)>
1 + tan. a tan. ft
242. The expressions which have been found for
tan. (« +ft), tan. (a — ft), give like formulae for the co-  
tangent of the sum and difference of two arcs; we have 2 sin.4(a~ft)’cos.Ua — ft) = sin. [U,
only to substitute in them   sin (a —ft) 2 V ' L2'"
cot.(a=tft) f°r tan’ (a±b)’ ^Ta f°r tan- ^ and 1
for tan. ft. The results are,
245. Because, by formulae (D),
Sin. a + sin. ft=2 sin. ±(a + ft) cos. ^(a ■
Sin. a — sin. ft= 2 cos.l(« -j- ft) sin. ±(a — ft).
Hence, multiplying equals by equals, and considering that
by formula (3) of (B)
2 sin. j(a+b) cos. i(a + ft)= sin. U(a + b) + i(a + ft)]
zr sin. (a + b),
6)+K«—*)]
cot. ft
(G)
1 — cot. a cot. ft
cot. a-FcotTF’
1 + cot. a cot. ft
cot. a — cot. ft *
243. We have found, formulae (C), that
2 sin. a sin. ft = cos. (a — ft) — cos.
2 cos. a cos. ft = cos. (a — ft) -f cos.
therefore s^n’ a sin- b _ cos, (a — ft)
Cot. (a -f- b)—-
Cot. (a—b) — -
0)
(2)
a + ft),
a + ft);
cos. (<z-f ft)
cos. a cos. b~ cos. (a — ft) + cos. (a + ft)'
From these formulae we also obtain like expressions for
Sin, a cos, ft cos. a sin. ft cos. a cos. ft
Cos. a sin. ft’ sin. a cos. ft’ sin. a sin. ft ’
we find
(sin. a -}- sin. ft)(sin. a — sin. ft) = sin. (a -b ft) sin. (a — ft).
If we write 90 — a for a, the formula becomes
(cos. a-bsin. ft) (cos. a — sin. ft)=cos. (a-bft)cos.(a — ft).
The two may be written thus :
(L)
Sin.2 a — sin.2 ft = sin. (a+b) sin. (a — ft),
Cos.2 a— sin.2 ft=cos. (a + b) cos. (a — ft).
246. We have found, formulae (D),
Sin. a+ sin. ft=2 sin. £ (a + b) cos. £ (a — ft),
Sin. a — sin. ft=2 cos. ^ (a + b) sin. 4 (a — ft).
Therefore, dividing equals by equals, and putting
Tan. \(az±ib) for we obtain
cos. f (az±:ft)
Sin.a-b sin. ft _ tan. ±(a + b)
Sin.ot— sin. ft - tan. ^(a—ft)*
By a similar process we may deduce other five formulae
ALGEBRA.
Algebra, of the same nature from formulae (D). The whole are
' contained in this table
(M)
Sim a -j- sin. b _ tan. ^ (a + b)
Sin. a — sin. b tan. i (a — b)’
Sin. a + sin. b , / , i\
Cos.a + coiU = tan-*(a+t>’
Sin. a + sin. b . .
—    j = cot. A (a — o)
Cos. a—cos. 6 2V '
Sin. a — sin. b x , /
—   j — tan. A U
Cos. a + cos. b
(1)
(2)
(3)
b), (4)
Cos.2 -f sin.2 Ja=l,
and 2 cos. \a sin. ia=:sin. a,
we have cos.2 2 cos* sin. ^ct sin.2 1 sin. a,
and cos.2^<2—2cos.sin.sin.21—sin.a;
whence, taking the square roots,
Cos. \a + sin. \a z=. Vl + sin. «,
Cos. \a — sin. \a = Vl — sin. a;
which, by addition and subtraction, give
553
Algebra.
(6)
Sin. a — sm. b *. i / ■ xa (K\
  7 — cot. h (a b), (o)
Cos. a — cos. b 2V ^ ' w
Cos, b + cos, a _ cot. ±(a — b)
Cos. b —cos. a ~ tan. ^ + b)’
247. We have found (formulae K, No. 4) that
Sin. (a—b') j
 —:—y = cot. a — cot. b,
Sin. a sm. b
Sin-(6-c> = cot.i_cot.c,
Sin. b sm. c
Cos. = l [VI + sin, a + Vl —sin, a],
Sin. fra = £ [Vl + sin. d — Vl — sin. a].
Again, because sin. a = 2 sin. \d cos. ^a, therefore
ci* sin. ^d
Sm, a= f- X 2 cos.2 Jo ••
'cos.^a
Sin, (c—a)
but Sm--v- = tan.Ja, and 2 cos.2Aa = 1 + cos. o (by
cos.^a J
No. 1 of O),
therefore sin. d = tan.^a (1 + cos. a),
. sin. d 1—cos. d
tan Ja —  = : ;
2 1 + cos. d sm. a
. l + cos. a sin. a
cotan.  = 7- ;
2 sin. a 1—cos. a
1—cos. a 1
1= cot. c — cot. a.
+
sin. (c—d)
Sin. c sin. a
Hence, by adding, we obtain
Sin, (a—b) sin, (b—c)
Sin. d sin. b sin. b sin. c 1 sin. c sin. d
In like manner, it appears, from No. 2, that
Sin. (d—b)
Again, since
— cot. d,
. 1+COS. d
and
sin. a
sin. d
cos. d
sin. a
= cosec. d
cos. d
— 0.
rr cosec. d + cot. a,
sin, (b—c) sin, (c—d) _ ^
Cos. a cos. b sin. b sin. c sin. c sin. a
sm. d sm. d sin. a
therefore tan. £d= cosec. a — cot. a,
and cot. \d—cosec. d + cot. a.
The formulae investigated in this article may now be
brought into one table, viz.
Therefore, taking away the denominators, and observing
that sin. (c—a) — sin. (d—c), we have
(N)
Sin. Jsin.(a—c) = sin. csin.fa—V) + sin. asin.(J c\ (1)
Cos. £ sin. (a—c) cos.esin.(a—o) cos.a sin. (0 c). (~)
These formulae are true, a, b, c being any arcs what-
ever ; and they are sufficient to indicate how innumerable
others of the same kind may be obtained.
248. If in the formula for cos. (a + J) we suppose a—b,
it becomes cos. 2a — cos.2a — sin.2a ; and, since cos.2a = 1
— sin.2 a, and sin.2 a = 1 — cos.2 a, we have also
Cos. 2d~l — 2 sin.2a = 2 cos.2a— 1.
By assuming b = d, we get from the formulae for sin.
(d + b), tan. (a + J), cot. (a + J), other formulae for the
sine, tangent, and co-tangent, of the double of an arc.
These, being frequently wanted, may be pot together in
a table.
(O)
Cos. 2d = cos.2a — sin.2a = 2 cos.2a — 1 = 1—2 sm.2a, (1)
Sin. 2d =2 sin. a cos. a, (2)
2 tan. d 2
Tan.2arr
(P)
Cos. \a = ^/1+9°S‘— = g [^1 + sin-«+V L— sin. a],(l)
Sin
,. %d = J-
Tan.lazzj^
sm. a
cos, a __ £|+/iq-sin.a—Vl—sin.a^^S)
(3)
—cosec. a—'Cot. a,
rz cosec. a + cot. a.
(4)
(3)
(4)
' 1 —tan.2a cot. a — tan. a
Cot. 2a = ^ (cot. a — tan. a).
249. From the first formula we may get formulae for
the sine and cosine of the half of an arc in terms of the
cosine of the whole arc. But we may also express the
sine and cosine of the half arc by the sine of the whole
arc: thus,
vol. n.
cos. a
„ , sin. a
Cot. kd — y 
2 1—cos. a
250. We shall now investigate formulae for the cosines
and sines of the multiples of any arc.
By the first of formulae (E) we find that
Cos. (>*+1) d—2 cos. a cos. wa —cos. (w—1) a.
Let x denote cos. a ; then,
Cos. d— x,
Cos. 2d—2x cos. a— cos. 0a,
Cos. 2>d-=.2x cos. 2a — cos. a,
Cos. ka—2x cos. 3a — cos. 2a,
&c.
Hence, by substituting successively for cos. a, cos. 2a,
&c. their values in the second members of these formulae,
(Q)
Cos. d—x,
Cos. 2a—2 x?—1,
Cos. 3a=4 a?3—3#,
Cos. 4a=8 x4—Sa^+l,
Cos. 5d=16x5—20x3+5a:,
Cos. 6a=32«6—48^+18^—1,
Cos. 7a=64a;7—112#5+56a3—7ar,
&c.
4 A
ALGEBRA.
554
Algebra. I he law of the series is 2 cos. na—
(2x)n—•n(2a;)”~2 _j_ ^(2x)n~i
n(n—4V«—5) ^ „
— j-; g. 3 ^ (2x)n~G 5 &c.
251. The third formula of (E) gives
Sin. «=2 cos. a sin. na — sin. (n—l)<z.
Let x denote the cosine, and y the sine of a ; then
Sin. a—y,
Sin. 2a—2# sin. a — sin. Oa,
Sin. ?>a—2x sin. 2a — sin. a,
Sin. 4a=2# sin. 3a — sin. 2a,
&c.
Therefore, proceeding as in last article,
(R)
Sin. a—y,
Sin. 2a—2yx,
Sin. 3az=y(4 a2—1),
Sin. ^a=y(9> ar3—4x),
Sin. 5a=:2/(16a^—12^+1),
Sin. Qa—yl^2x^—32^ +6a;),
Sin. la=y(QkxG—80a;4 4- 24a;'2—1),
&c.
Here the law of the series is sin. na—
2,[(2z)»-i-(»--3X2z)"^+
(n—4)(m—5,)(n—6)
 1 . 2 ♦ 3-(2ar)”,~7+> &c.].
252. The series for the cosines and sines of the multi¬
ples of an arc are arranged according to the descending
powers of the cosine of the arc; but we may find others
which proceed according to the ascending powers. It is,
however, then necessary to distinguish between the even
and odd multiples of the arc.
Let n be odd, and we have, from table (Q),
(S)
Cos. a —x,
Cos. 3a- — (3a; — 4a?3),
Cos. 5a=5x — 20a^-f-l&c5,
&c.
and in general, cos. na—
=!=r».r-^ll)^+ 1)0*- 9)^ . 1
L 2-3 2 • 3 • 4 • 5
The upper sign is to be taken when n is any number
m the series 1, 5, 9, &c. that is, when n has the form
4m-f 1; and the lower, when n is one of these, 3, 7, 11, &c.
or when it is of the form 4m-}-3.
Next, for the even multiples of the arc we find
(2S)
Cos. 2a= — (1 — 2a£),
Cos. 4a— + 1 — Sa,’2 4- 8a4
Cos. 6a= —(1 — 18a? -}- 48a^ —. 32a;6),
&c, J
and in general, cos. na—
"2 2(?^ —4)
3
(T)
Sin. a—y,
Sin. 3a— — y(\ — 4a?j,
Sin. ba—y(\ — 12a?4- 16a4),
&c.
and in general, sin. na—
Algebra.
* O . Q . ^ ^
in1— l)(n2 — 9)(w2—25) 6
2 • 3
a;e-}-,&c.|;
2 • 3 • 4 • 5 6
the upper sign to be taken when n has the form 4n -f 1.
and the lower when it has the sign 4w-}-3.
Also we have
(2 T)
Sin. 2a=2xy,
Sin. 4az= —y(4<x — 8a?),
Sin. 6a=y(6x — 32a?-}-32a?),
&c.
and in general, sin. na=
r±= |«a;-
n(n2 — 4) ^ < n(n2 — 4)(n2— 16)
•4s—,&c.| ;
2 • 3 ' 2 • 3 • 4
the upper sign to be taken when n has the form 4n -f 2,
and the lower when it has the form 4w.
254. Because a?zz 1 — y2, we have, from table (Q),
(V)
Cos. a—x,
Cos. 3a=:a;(l — 4y2),
Cos. 5a=:a;(l — 12y2-}- IGy*),
&c.
and in general, when n is an odd number, cos. na=
n2—l9i(n2—l)(n2--9)A
n1 ^+-- 2 -3 • 4-A1
(n2—l)(7
9)(”2-25)/
2 • 3 • 4 • 5 • 6
and when n is even,
(2 V)
Cos. 2a— 1 — 2y2,
Cos. 4a—1 — 8 y2-{-8y4,
Cos. 6az=l — 18^2-}-48^4 — S2?/6,
&c.
and in general, cos. naz=
—, &c. |
1 /L o
1—r-f
n2(n2
2*3-4
4). n2(n2
2 • 3
• 4 • 5 • 6r+’ &c>
255. In like manner, for the sines, when n is odd, we
find
(X)
Sin. a=y,
Sin. 3a—3y — 4^,
Sin. 5a=by— 20?/3-}-163/5,
&c.
and in general, sin. na-.
ny-
n(n2— 1)^ ( n(n2 — 1 )(n2 — 9)
2(n2 — 4)(^2 — ]6)
'a;6-}-,&c.J.
2 • 3
Again, when n is even,
2 * 3 * 4 * 5 • 6
Here the upper sign is to be taken when n has the form
4m+ 2, and the lower when it has the form 4m.
253. The corresponding expressions for the sines are
obtained from table (R), viz.
2 • 3 • 4 * 5
(2 X)
-y5 —, &c-
Sin. 2a—2xy,
Sin. 4a= x^y — Sy3),
Sin. 6a=.x(6y — 32^-1-32^),
&c.
ALGEBRA.
Algebra. And in general, sin. nazz
but, by the same formulae (E),
2 cos. a cos. 2a = cos. 3a + cos. a ;
therefore, 4 cos.3a rr cos. 3acos. a.
Again, multiplying both sides by 2 cos. a, we have
8 cos.4a = 2 cos. a cos. 3a-f-6 cos. a cos. a.
Now, 2 cos. a cos. 3a ~ cos. 4a-f-cos. 2a,
and 6 cos. a cos. a =: 3 cos. 2a-}-3 ;
therefore, 8 cos.4a — cos. 4a -|- 4 cos. 2a -f- 3
, 7^-V *c.} .
256. We owe to Vieta the formulae in tables (Q), (R),
(2 V), and (X). He, however, enunciated them as pro¬
perties of the chords of arcs, to which they may be trans¬
formed, by considering that chord a—2 sin. ^a, and
S ti hmee“y stJS By proceeding
h„„ the cosines and sines of the multiple arcs mi?ht be "-“A? ^/I ^“LZiSd+a's^
fee ITts fo” 7^ a%neJrrifo“ fhTchirds of rtes o/forml for the successive powers rf the cosme of
muHiple arcs, but without demonstration. This is equi- ® arc, m terms of the cosmos of the mult,pies ot the arc.
valent to table (R). Afterwards, James Bernoulli gave, in
the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences for 1702, two
formulae for the chords of multiple arcs : these answer to
the general formulae of tables (2 V) and (X); but the
latter had previously been given by Newton in his first
letter to Oldenburg, the secretary of the Royal Society.
The general formulae of tables (Q), (R), (X), and (2 X),
and these only, are given in the Introductio in Analysin
Infinitorum of Euler; and the whole are given by La¬
grange, in his Lemons sar le Calcul des Fonctions, where
they are also strictly demonstrated by his calculus, which
is equivalent to the differential calculus.
257. If in the formula
x tan. a-{- tan. h
tan.(a+0=1_tan.atan^
we make hzzna, it becomes
tan. »a-f-tan. a
tan. (w-j-1) a— ^—tan. a tan. na'
Let us make tan. az=t, then, making n equal to the
numbers 2, 3, 4, &c. successively, and substituting for
tan. na its value in tan. (n-|-1) a, we get
These are given in the following table :
(Z)
Cos. a zz cos. a,
2 cos.2a cos. 2a-(- 1,
4 cos.3a — cos. 3a-|-3 cos. a,
8 cos.4a = cos. 4a-j~4 cos. 2a-f-3,
16 cos.5a — cos. 5a-j-5 cos. 3a-j- 10 cos. a,
32 cos.6a = cos. 6a-|-6 cos. 4a-}-15 cos. 2a-|-10,
64 cos.7a — cos. 7a-(-7 cos. 5a-p21 cos. 3a-|-35 cos. a,
&c.
The general law of the series is 2n_1 cos.na=
cos. «a-|-j cos.(w — 2)a-f
(Y)
Tan. a zzt,
Tan. 2a =
2t
Tan. 3a =
Tan. 4a =
Tan. 5a =
1—i2’
St—t3
l—3t2’
At—it3
1—Q>t2 + T'
5t—lO^d-^5
l_10^ + 5^’
&c.
(n—l)
1 • 2
- cos.(ra — 4)a,
i(n—l)(w — 2) ,
A— A—-—1 cos. — 6) a + , &c.
n n n(n—l) l)(n—2)
Ingeneral,itweputar= j,p—-j—7-2 i • 2 • 3 *
^ _ n(n ^c.. that is, if a, ft, y, d, t, &c.
1 • 2 • 3 • 4
denote the co-efficients of the second, third, foui th, and
following terms of a binomial raised to the wth power,
we have
^ at—y P + d5—, &c.
Tan.na- +
This formula was first given by John Bernoulli, in the
Leipsic Acts for 1722.
258. We shall next investigate formulae for the succes¬
sive integer powers of the cosine and sine of an arc.
By formula (1) of (E) we have, making n=zl,
2 cos.2a = cos. 2a +1.
Let both sides be multiplied by 2 cos. a, the result is
4 cos.3a = 2 cos. a cos. 2a+ 2 cos a;
The series is to be continued until we come to a nega¬
tive arc, and if n be an even number, the half of the co¬
efficient of the last term (viz. that in which the arc = 0a)
is to be taken.
259. Next, for the powers of the sine ; from (2) of (E),
we have 2 sin.2a= — cos. 2a -j- 1:
multiply both sides by 2 sin. a ; then,
4 sin.3 a =z — 2 sin. a cos. 2a+ 2 sin. a.
Now, by formula (4) of (E),
2 sin. a cos. 2a =: sin. 3a — sin. a;
therefore 4 sin.3 a — — sin. 3a+ 3 sin. a.
Again, multiplying both sides by 2 sin. a,
8 sin.4 a — — 2 sin. a sin. 3a+ 6 sin. a sin. a.
But by formula (2) of (E),
2 sin. a sin. 3a = — cos. 4a + cos. 2a,
and 6 sin. a sin. azz — 3 cos. 2a + 3;
therefore 8 sin.4 a — cos. 4a — 4 cos. 2a3.
In this way we may form the following table:
(A 2)
Sin. a = + sin. a,
2 sin.2 azz — cos. 2a + L
4 sin.3 a — — sin. 3a -[- 3 sin. a,
8 sin.4 azz cos. 4a — 4 cos. 2a + 3,
16 sin.5 azz sin. 5a — 5 sin. 3a + 10 sin. a,
32 sin.6 azz — cos.6a + 6 cos.4a — 15 cos. 2a + 10,
64 sin.7 azz — sin. 7a j- 7 sin. 5a — 21 sin. 3a+ 35 sin. a.
In general, when n is an odd number, ztz 2” “1
zz sin. na — - sin. (n — 2) a+ ^ ^ -- sin. (w
n(n—!)(w—2) • / c\
— •, v . 0 . -q—- sm. (n — 6) a +, &c.
The upper sign is to be taken when re is a number in
the series 1, 5, 9, &c.; that is, when re has the form
4rej+ 1; and the lower when re is one of the intermediate
sin.” a
4) a
556
ALGEBRA.
Algebra, odd numbers, 3, 7, 11, &c. In either case the series ter-
' minates with a multiple of sin. a.
When n is an even number, then z+z 2” “ 1 sin.” a —
-vy,
-vyf,
-vyf ;
cos. na
The other equation gives us
Cos. a—v sin. a—x-
Cos. 2a—v sin. 2a=(x—i
n/n Cos. 3a—v sin. 3az=(x—t
— n cos. (n — 2) a + - ^ . g - cos* (n — ^ a an<^ ‘n generai»
Cos. ma—v sin. ma—(x—vy)m. (5)
Formulae (4) and (5), when the quantities denoted by
a?, y, and v, have been restored, may stand thus:
(B 2)
n(n— l)(n — 2)
cos. (n — 6) a +, &c.
1 • 2 • 3
Here the upper sign applies when n is an even num¬
ber in the series 2, 6, 10, &c.; that is, when - is an odd
number; and the lower when n has the form 4>m. In
either case the series is to be continued until a term
contain cos. (0a) (which is = 1), and then the numeral
co-efficient must be divided by 2.
260. The same formulae (E) serve to resolve any ex¬
pression of the form cos.”1 a sin.” a into sines and cosines
of multiples of a •• thus,
2 cos. a sin. airsin. 2a;
4 cos.2 a sin. a—2 cos. a sin. 2a,
=sin. 3a-|-sin. a ;
4 cos. a sin.2a=2 sin. a sin. 2a,
= — cos. 3a-f-cos. a.
In like manner we find
8 cos. a sin.3 a — sin. 4a-j-2 sin. 2a,
8 cos.2 a sin.2 a
cos. 4a-f-1,
8 cos.3 a sin. a = -j- sin. 4a-j-2 sin. 2a.
16 cos. a sin.4 a zr cos. 5a — 3 cos. 3a -j- 2 cos. a,
16 cos.2 a sin.3 a = — sin. 5a + sin. 3a -j- 2 sin. a,
16 cos.3 a sin.2 a = — cos. 5a — cos. 3a -j- 2 cos. a,
16 cos.4 a sin. a — sin. 5a -{- 3 sin. 3a + 2 sin. a.
261. The introduction of the imaginary symbol V—1
into analysis, has given great assistance in all investiga¬
tions connected with the calculus of sines. Let x denote
the cosine of any arc a, and y its sine; then, by formulae (B),
Cos. (n+\)a-=x cos. na—y sin. wa, (1)
Sin. (n-\-\)a—y cos. na-\-x sin. na. (2)
Let v denote a quantity at present indefinite, but to be
determined in the course of the investigation; then, from
formula (2),
v sin. (n+1) az=.vy cos. na+vx sin. na. (3)
The sum and difference of formula (1) and (3) give us
Cos. (rc+1) a-\-v sin. («+l) «= (%+vy) cos. rca-f-
(x—~y) v sin. na,
Cos. (w+ 1) a—v sin.(w+1) az=.(x—vy} cos. na—
(aH—y) v sin. na.
Let us now assume that v2——1, so that r=:v/^X
and v = — —; the two last formulte will become
Cos. (ra-J-l) a-j-v sin. (n + l)a
— (x-{-vy) (cos. na-{-v sin. na),
Cos. (n-\.\) a — v sin. (»+!)«
z=:(x — vy) (cos. na — v sin. na).
By giving to n the values 0, 1, 2, 3, &c. in succession,
we obtain from the first of these,
Cos. a-\-v sin. a —x-\-vy,
Cos. 2a-\-v sin. 2a=r(«-f-vy)2,
Cos. 3a-\-v sin. 3a—(x-f-vy)3,
and, in general, m being any whole number,
Cos. ma^-v s\n. ma~(xJcvy)m. (4)
„ m , ,—r- . m , , ,  . —
Cos. —a'+v—1 sin.—a!zz(cos.a!+V— 1 sm. a')n.
n n K 1 J
Exactly in the same way it may be proved that
Cos. — a'—— 1 sin. —a’—(cos. a'—V— l sin. a')n.
Thus it appears that formulae (B 2) are true, whether « be
whole or fractional.
Again, we have manifestly
1 ^ # 
~ " ,—T : zz(cos. a+V—1 sin. d)~n.
Cos. na 4. v— 1 sm. wa ' 1 7
Let the numerator and denominator of the first member
of this equation be multiplied by cos. na—V—1 sin. na ;
then, observing that
(cos. na + V-1 sin. na) (cos. na—V—1 sin. a)
rzcos.2 wa-}-sin.2 naz=.\,
also, that cos. na z=. cos. (— na), and — sin. na z=. sin.
(—na), we have
Cos. ( — na)—— 1 sin. (—na) = (cos. a + y7—1 sin. a)-".
Exactly in the same way it may be shown, that
Cos. (— na) — sin. y'— 1 (— na) = (cos. a — \/~l sin.)-”;
so that the formulae are universally true, n being
either a positive or negative whole number or fraction.
We may even extend the proof to the case of n, an irra¬
tional quantity; for every such quantity may be express¬
ed to any degree of nearness by numbers.
262. These very remarkable and important expressions
(B 2) were first found by Abraham de Moivre, and ap¬
peared in his Miscellanea Analytica, which was published
in 1730. He was led to them by considering the ana¬
logy between the circle and hyperbola; but we owe to
Euler their introduction into analysis as elementary for¬
mulae. By taking their sum and difference, we obtain
them in a different shape, as follows:
__ (C 2) _
p __(cos. a + ^—1 sin. a)”-f-(cos. a—V—1 sin. a)”_
V_/OS. TldZZZ 1  ^ —■—-——*
Sin. na—
 (cos. a-\-^ — 1 sin. a)” — (cos. a —V — 1 sin.a)"
Algebra.
Cos. wa-j-V— 1 sin. wa=(cos. a+V-1 sin. a)",
Cos. na—V— 1 sin. wa=(cos. a—V—1 sin. a)”.
These have been investigated on the hypothesis that » is
a whole positive number, but they are also true when n
is a fraction, or negative; for we have manifestly
fZ-Y sin. a _f=(cos- na+V— 1 sin. raa)”
Cos. a-f-V'-
:(cos. ma +V—1 sin. ma) :
therefore, raising these equal expressions to the power
m, we have
Cos. Tna-f V— 1 sin. ma= (cos. raa-fV^Tl sin. na)n;
and, putting na=ar, and therefore ma——d.
(4)
ALGEBRA.
Algebra. In either case, they are purely symbolical expressions
of the kind found by Cardan’s rule for the roots of a cu¬
bic equation belonging to the irreducible case. (Sect. XL)
Like them, they cannot be immediately applied to calcu¬
lation ; but when treated by the rules of analysis, they re¬
veal some of the most elegant and recondite theorems in
geometry.
263. The formulae (C 2) admit of an immediate appli¬
cation to the determination of the cosine and sine of any
multiple of an arc. Let a;:=cos. a, y=sin. a, so that
(E 2)
Cos.«a=
Sin. na—
(x + V — 1 ?/)”4-0r —V —ly)n.
2
_ (x+V— 1;/)”—(x
V — 1
Now, by the binomial theorem,
(x-f-vC^l y')n=:xn-\-nxn~1 yV — 1 •
n(n—l)(n — 2)^n_
n(n—})sdn-i
1 • 2
V
(x-
1 • 2 • 3
. \/'— ly)n—xn—— 1
n(n — l)(w
3y3*/ — 1 -J-, &C
n(n— 1)
1 • 2
+
~xn~3y3V —l-f-j
1 • 2 • 3
Hence, taking half the sum and difference of these series,
and in the latter case dividing by V— 1, we obtain
(D 2)
wO—
Cos. na—xn
1 • 2
_xn—^y^
w(n — —2)(tt —3)
Sin. na—
Ay
+
n(y
2 • 3 * 4
n(n—\)(n—2)
 I • 2 X
l)(w —2)(w —3)(w
-y
-4)
\xn-5y5 1} grCm
2 cos. na=pn + qn =pn +
  1
2 -y/—1 sin. na — pn — qn — pn ;
and since 2 cos. a ■= pq, therefore, putting d,
&c. for the numeral co-efficients of the second, third,
fourth, &c. terms of a binomial, we have
(2 cos. a)n— pn + Jpn-lq + d’pn^q2+ d"pn^<? + , &c.
Because 2 cos. a — q p,^^ have also
(2 cos. a)- — qn d qn~l p + d'q^f +d»qn^pi +, &c.
Taking now the sum of both series, and observing that
pq — 1, we obtain
2(2 cos. a)” “ 2 + ~ 2) + “ 4 + “ 4)
pn^pn - 6 q_ g,n - b) 5 &c.
Now, p* Jrqn—2 cos. na,
pn — 2 qn 2_ g cos. (n — 2)a,
pn — 4qn -4_2 cos. (n — 4a),
pn-s + qn- 6z=2 cos. (n — 6)a,
&c.
Therefore, substituting and dividing by 2,
(2 cos. n)n = cos. na + d cos.(w — 2)a + d' cos. (n — 4)a
d" cos. (n — 6)a -|-, &c.
By continuing the series, we come to the cosines of
negative arcs, which are exactly the same as the cosines
of positive arcs having the same co-efficient: Ihus,
cos. (m — n)a = cos. (n — m)a, for each is equal to
cos. ma cos. na d- sin. ma sin. a. Now, in the series which
is the expansion of O + g-)", the terms at equal distances
from the first and last have the same co-efficient; there¬
fore the series for (2 cos. a)" must have the same proper¬
ty ; and further, the cosines of the arcs at equal distances
from the extremes are, as has been just proved, equal;
we may therefore omit the terms which are the cosines,
of negative arcs, and in their stead take the doubles of
these, which are the cosines of positive arcs. Lhe above
formula will then be abbreviated to
(2 cos. a)n=z2 [cos. na + d cos. (n — 2)a + d' cos. (» — 4)a
-f-> .
When n is an even number, the series has a term at
equal distances from both extremes, which, being single
1.2*3 * 4*5
These series terminate as often as « is a whole positive
number. They were first given in 1701, by John Bernoulli,
in the Leinsic Acts, but without demonstration. They cnuai    —y , V'j u 7 ~
also appear3in letter 129 of the Commercium Epistolicum in the expansion, must not be doubled; but when w is a
of Leibnitz and Bernoulli, and in the Sections Coniques of odd number, the cosines of the negative arcs are eq
M cterao^tal it i3 ’remarkable that John Bernoulli number to those of . the pos.Uve arcs. Lastly, by .con-
a!)
should have fallen on these beautiful theorems, and yet
missed the formulae of De Moivre, which are easily de-
ducible from them, but which were not discovered until
twenty years later. .
If it be observed that sin. a — tan. a cos. a, and sm. na
— tan. na cos. na ; and if, after substitution, the second
formula be divided by the first, the result, after due re¬
duction, will be the expression for the tangent which was
given in sect. 257.
264. The same powerful instrument of analysis might
enable us to investigate all the general expressions for the
cosines and sines of multiple arcs from (It) to (2 X) ; but cog. _ _ ^n. ^    
we shall rather reserve them to show the application of L2 2 ^
the differential calculus, or method of fluxions. We shall, wqj Payg the form =±r sin. ma', when m is an odd number;
however, now exemplify their use in the investigation of an(j form —Cos. ma', when m is an even number,
general series for the powers of the cosine and sine of an — - -
arc, in terms of the cosines and sines of its multiples.
sidering that the cosine of (n — n)a= 1, the truth of the
general formulae of table (Z) will be sufficiently obvious.
265. The general formulae of table (A 2) may be esta¬
blished by a process quite similar to the above, by the
expression 2\/~l sin. a-pn — qn ; but more easily by
substituting — a' instead of a, and remarking that
cos. (^r— a')=sin. a : we have thus
(2 sin. a!y—2 cos. n(^v — a') +2^ cos. (w — 2)(|7r
2d' cos. (n — 4) (^tt — a') + ’ ^c*
The terms of this series being all of the form
it .it .
cos. m [|cr — a'] = cos. m-cos. ma’ -f sm. m- sin.
md
Let us put jo=cos. a +V-
sin. a
1 sin. a, q—cos.
1
V— 1
then pqz=.cos?a^-sm.2a—1, and q—
De Moivre's formulae may now be expressed thus :
266. Before we proceed to other applications of De
Moivre’s formulae, it will be convenient to establish some
analytic principles of frequent application, regarding the
limits between which certain expressions involving arcs
and their sines, tangents, &c. are always contained.
It is an axiom in geometry, that any arc is less than its
tangent (as defined sect. 224), but greater than its sine,
558
Algebra. , r a . .
therefore, - being anv arc,
n
a a
tan. - "7-,
n n
ALGEBRA.
a , a
sm. -Z
n n
Multiptying the first of these by n, and the second by
a . a a ,
sec. and observing that sec. - sin. - rr tan. we have
n n n. n
n tan. — ~7 a,
n
a , a
n tan. - Z a sec.
n n
Suppose now n to increase continually, while the arc a
is invariable, it is manifest, that since — will decrease, and
n
may become less than any assignable arc, sec. — will
n
continually approach to the radius = 1, and may differ
from it by less than any assignable quantity. Hence it
follows that n being supposed to increase continually, the
expression n tan. ^ approaches continually to «, which is
its limit.
In like manner, because
n sin. — Z a,
n
a a
n sin. — ~7 a cos. -:
n n
. a a ^ a .
that sm. — rr cos. — tan. we have
n n n
Cos.«+ V—1 sin. a = cos.n-^l V—l tj',
Cos. a— V—1 sin. cos.”-^l — V—l
By the binomial theorem (l + V—1 t)n —
(Here we have resolved the whole expansion into two
parts ; one entirely free from the imaginary sign, and the
other having that sign as a common factor of all its terms.)
Bet us denote the first of these series by P, and the second,
setting aside its imaginary factor V—T, by Q; then
(1 + V—1 *)n = P + Q.
By a like process we find
(1__ V—T *)”= P—V~L Q;
and hence again
Cos. a-j-V—1 sin. a — cos.n- (P V 1 Q) ;
Cos.
-V—1 sin. a = cos.M - (P — V 1 Q).
and because, while n increases, cos. — approaches to ra- and from these, by adding and subtracting,
dius = 1, which is its limit; therefore the limit of w sin. -
n
is the arc a.
Hence, it appears that the arc a being supposed to de¬
crease continually,
: = 1, and limit of a
Cos. a — cos." - P,
n
sin. a — cos." - Q;
or, substituting for P, Q, and t, their values,
n «a f t /, 1\ nW
Cos. a— cos."1 — (1 ) —
n l \ n) l-
limit of
tan. a
: 1.
267. It is sufficiently evident that the limit of cos. —
n
is 1 ; but, in what is to follow, it will be necessary to find
the limit of cos." - when n increases indefinitely.
By a known formula, cos.
/yj
2 ™
Let us
put oj — n sin. —; then u will be less than a, and
n ’
Cos."2=('l--'\j
n v, n1)
By the binomial theorem, the second member of this
equation is
1 ~&+ (•
But since, by hypothesis,, n may be greater than any as¬
signable number, and u is not greater than a, every term
of this series except the first, will evidently be = 0,
when n is indefinitely great; therefore, in that case, cos."
- is accurately =: 1.
hav^8* '^eSlim^n^ now ^>e Mmvre’s formulie (261), we
Cos.a -p V—1 sin. a ~ Tcos. - -f- V—1 sin -V
V n ' ' n) '
Cos. a— V—1 sin. a — fcos. — — V~l sin.-V.
\ n n) '
Let t denote the tangent of the arc then observing
Sin.a = cos."--f^ — fl —-)fl—
n l \ nj\ nj 1-2-3
These formulae must hold true, whatever value we give
to n. But let us now suppose n indefinitely great; then,
from what was proved in last section,
Cos." - = 1,
n
We have therefore, by substitution,
(F 2)
. 1 2
nt—n tan. - — a, - — 0, - — 0, &c.
W/ 71 Tl
Cos. a = \ ——
L2-3-4
Sin. a —a
+
-, &c.
-, &c.
P2-3 ^ 1-2-3-4-5"
These elegant theorems, discovered by Newton, were
among the first fruits of his analytical methods.
269. It has been shown (sect. 177) that if e denote
the number 2*7182818, viz. that whose Napierian logar¬
ithm is 1, then
:l+f*
x1
x°
X4
1*2 1 1*2*3 1 1*2*3*4j L2*3*4*5
+ 5 &c.
Now, a being any arc, let x =l aV~ 1; then, by substi¬
tuting and separating the real and imaginary terms, so
as to form two series, we have
V—i —
e ^ ~ —
1 * 2 * 3 • 4
-, &c.
+ V-
— l^a-
a5
, &c
ner.
1 • 2^3 1 1 • 2 • 3 • 4 • 5
Again, putting x — — aV— 1, we obtain, in like man-
Algebra.
ALGEBRA.
559
Algebra.
•, &c.
_v_i(0_r
But it was found that
, &c.
Sin. a —a
1 • 2 • 3 ‘ 1 • 2 • 3 • 4 * 5
&c.
Hence it follows that
(G 2)
eW—1 _ cos> a y'  \ gJn>
e~a^~l — cos. a — V— 1 sin. a;
and consequently that
Los. a —   , bin. a —  .
2 vzri
Here the cosine and sine are expressed by imaginary
exponentials. Lagrange considered these formulae to be
the happiest analytical inventions of the age. The series
for the cosine and sine from which they have been here
deduced had been given by Newton before the end of
the 17th century. They might therefore then have been
found, and a perfection given to this subject which it did
not attain until fifty years later, by the labours of Euler.
270. From formulae (G 2) we find
cos. ot + V— 1 sin. a gW—1 5o^—
cos. a —V — 1 sin. a e~a^~1
or, putting, instead of sin. a, its equivalent tan. a cos. a,
and leaving out the common factor cos. a,
1+V—l tan, a _
1  i tan. a
Now, observing that e is the base or radical number of
Napier’s logarithms, it follows, from the theory of loga¬
rithms (Sect. XIX.), that
2aV — 1 = Nap. log.
1 + a/ —1 tan. a
1—\/—1 tan. a
But it was shown, sect. 167, that v being any number,
Put now V—1 tan. a instead of v, and the result equal
to 2gv'—1, and divide both sides by 2^—1, and we have
(H 2)
a=tan. a — tan.3 « + j tan.5 a — \ tan.7 a+, &c.
This elegant expression for an arc of a circle was first
found by James Gregory, from whom it was received by
Collins, an eminent mathematician of that period, in the
beginning of 1671. It was sent to Leibnitz in 1675
(see Commercium Epistolicum, p. 98 and 120), and it ap¬
pears that this celebrated person had communicated the
same series to his friends on the Continent as his own dis¬
covery, and even sent it to England in 1676. (Com.
Ep. 133.) He was accused by the English mathemati¬
cians of appropriating to himself the discovery of Gregory:
but this, of course, he denied. ( Com. Ep. Leibnitii et Ber-
nouttii, tom. ii. p. 313.) We have been thus particular,
because Lagrange has given it to Leibnitz. (Calcul des
Fonctions, p. 68.) John Bernoulli, however, in express¬
ing his belief that Leibnitz had found the series himself,
admits that it was first discovered by Gregory.
271. If we suppose a to be an arc of 45°, the Gregorian Algebra,
series gives
-5+s;—f+sr —tt+> &c-
for one eighth of the circumference. This, however, con¬
verges too slowly to be of any practical use. Newton found
a different series, viz.
i+y —J —7+9+TT—iV —tV + ’&c* ,
for the length of the quadrantal arc of a circle of which
the chord — 1. This converges somewhat faster than
Gregory’s series; but Newton says that the addition of
no fewer than 5000,000,000 of the terms would be re¬
quired to give the length of the quadrant true to twenty
decimal places of figures; a labour which would require
about one thousand years.
272. The simplicity of Gregory’s series is a great re¬
commendation ; and as the determination of the ratio of
the diameter of a circle to the circumference is a problem
of primary importance, we shall investigate an auxiliary
formula, which will make it the fittest of any for the solu¬
tion.
Let n, x, y, be three whole numbers, such, that the arc
whose tangent is - is equal to the sum of the arcs whose
tangents are - and — ; then, by formulae (F),
x y
1__.r+7 _ x+y .
n~\ E xy—1’
. „ , «x+l n2+l
hence we find y —   ~n-\ .
^ x—n x—n
Now as y is a whole number, »2+l must be divisible by
x—n. Let p be any divisor of n2 + 1, and q the quotient,
so thatjo^zz »2 +1; then x—n may be assumed = p, and
x=zn-)rp, and therefore
n24-1
9=’‘+^z-n=n+P-
Hence we have the following theorem ;
Let n be any whole number, and let n2-\- \ be resolved
into any two factors p and q, one of which may be unity.
The arc whose tangent is - is equal to the sum of the arcs
whose tangents are
1
n-\-p
n
and
1
n + q
As a convenient notation, let A- denote the arc whose
n
tangent is-, and similarly, A —,— and A —;—, the arcs
° n J n -J-p n-\-q
whose tangents are ——, and  ; our theorem will
° n^-p
then stand thus:
(K 2)
. 1 . 1 ,1
A -= A 1-A ——.
n n+P
By giving to n different values, we form the following table:
(L 2)
n=l,n2+l = 1 x 2, A{-= Al + A^,
Ai=A£ + A-f,
Ai=Ai + AiV>
Ai=Ai-+Al>
A}=A± + AJT,
A5=A7+AiJa» W
A<J=A7 + A¥7> ya)
Af=A£+A^5 (8)
&c.
We may proceed with this series to any extent; and from
these formulae, by elimination, we obtain the following:
n=2,n2+l —lx 5,
w—4, rc2-f-l —1x17,
n=z5,n2-\-l —2x13,
«=6,w2+l —lx 37,
n=7,n2+l =2X25,
&c.
560
Algebra.
ALGEBRA.
A4-=
(M 2)
From 1 and 2, AJ-=2A^+ Ay,
4 and 9, A|r:2A^-j- Af4-2A^,
6 and 10, A} =3A|+2A^+2A1^,
Sand 11, A|=2A|+3A|+2A^+3A^,
&c.
By any one of these the circumference of a circle may
be found with great facility, particularly by the two last.
The first and simplest, but not the best, is Euler’s formula ;
and it shows that £ of the semi-circumference is the sum
of the arcs whose tangents are % and
By putting ^ and ^ in the general series instead of tan. a,
we get two series whose sum multiplied by 4 gives for half
the circumference,
r 1 1_ J 1_ 1
, S 2 ~ 3-23 + 5-25 7-27 + S7!5 —’
4 1,1 1_ J 1_ 1
C + 3 3'33 ' 5-35 ’&C‘
The arithmetical calculation being performed, the result
gives half the circumference to the radius 1, which we
have expressed by -r, or the whole circumference to the
diameter 1 equal to
3-14159,26535,89793,23846,26433,83279,50288.
We have put down this important datum true to 35
places of decimals, not because such accuracy can ever be
wanted, but as a memorial of the almost incredible patience
of Ludolph Van Ceulen, a Flemish mathematician, who
obtained this result by the most laborious but most obvious
of all methods, namely, the inscription and circumscrip¬
tion of polygons in and about a circle. He so highly es¬
timated this effort, that he directed the number to be in¬
scribed on his sepulchre, in imitation of the tomb of Ar¬
chimedes, which was inscribed with a sphere and cylin¬
der ; but, by methods which have been here explained, it
might have been accomplished with no great labour. De
Lagny, a Frenchman, carried the calculation, by an easier
method, to 128 figures; and Euler ascertained that his
result could be verified with 80 hours’ labour. It is said
that the same important number has even been carried as
far as 150 figures, and that this labour may be seen in
manuscript in the Radcliffe Library at Oxford.
273. The importance of the problem to determine the
ratio of the diameter to the circumference, which is called
the rectification of the circle, makes it desirable to have
an elementary solution; we shall therefore give another,
which is entirely independent of the binomial theorem, or
the doctrine of imaginary quantities.
Supposing A to be any arc of a circle, we found, sect.
257, that
2 tan. A 1 i
and therefore
tan. 2A =
1—tan. 2A’
tan. 2A 2 tan. A
— ^ tan. A.
From this formula we deduce the following equations:
•i tan. ~a.
tan.
2 tan. la
2 tan. 1
1
4 tan. 1 a
1
- i tan. 1 a,
■i tan. 1 a.
4 tan. la 8 tan. ^
By adding both sides, and rejecting what is common to
the results, we find
    — -3— ] ^ tan. ^ a—4 tan. 4 a—1 tan. 1 a •
tan. a 8 tan. ^ a - 24 4 g sa >
and hence, by transposing,
1 1
8 tan. 4 a ~ tan.
fl- tan. 1 a + l tan. £ a + i- tan. 1.
In general, n being any integer power of 2, we have
a.
n tan.— a
n
tan. a
+ 1 tan. |a +1 tan. la-pi tan. | a
+ 46- tan. TLa -f - tan. -.
n n
Suppose now n to be increased indefinitely, the series
will then consist of an infinite number of terms; and since it
was proved in sect. 266 that n tan. -az=a, we have
n
(N 2)
11, ,
a-tan. a"^¥ tan’ 2a + 4 tan- ia + 8 tan- 8a + ’ &c-
This very simple and neat expression for the reciprocal
of an arc was found by Professor Wallace, and given
along with various others in the sixth volume of the
1 ransactions of the Hoyal Society of Edinburgh, about the
year 1812. He believed it to be new, and indeed it was
not then known in this country; but it had been given
before by Euler, in his Opuscula Analytica, tom. i. p. 350.
This series converges pretty fast; for the tangent of
the half of an arc being less than half the tangent of the
whole arc, as is easily proved, each term is less than one
fourth of the term before it. As, however, the series
proceeds, the ratio of any two consecutive terms ap¬
proaches continually to that of 4 to 1 ; and hence any
term somewhat advanced in the series will be nearly three
times the sum of all that follow it; and, by this property,
as soon as a term is found to be nearly one fourth of that
before it, one third of that term will give the sum of all
that follow it, very near.
From the formula tan. 4a=cosec. a — cot. a (sect. 249),
we get
tan.4 a=.V\ -{- cot.2a — cot. a=cot. a^l-j-tan.2 a—1).
But by the binomial theorem
V14- tan. 2a—1 + 2 tan.2 a — 4 tan.4 a 4--+ tan.6a —,&c.
therefore, tan+ a—1 tan. a — ± tan.3 a-|-4^ tan.5a, &c.
By the first of these expressions we may compute the
terms of the series until the seventh or fifth power may
be neglected, and then the remaining terms may be more
readily computed by the second.
Let a be a quadrant=4^. In this case, ——=0.
tan. a
The calculation of the length of the arc will stand thus:
Tan+a=-50000000000
Tan.|a=-41421356237
Tan.4a=-19891236738
Tan.4^a=-09849140336
Tan.^azr-04912684977
Tan.^a--02454862211
Tan.T4jJa=-01227246238
Tan.g+^a—-00613600016
Tan.j42«=-00306797120
£ tan.|a
4 tan.^a
4 tan.^a:
nr tangos:
4a tan.^a:
A tan .4^:
r+I tan.y+j-a:
2+r tan-2++
l1—3+2 tan.^L^a
1T
a—
•50000000000
•10355339059
•02486404592
•00615571271
•00153521406
•00038357222
■00009587861
•00002396875
■00000599213
•00000199737
- =-63661977236
vr
«■= 3-1415926536.
ALGEBRA.
561
274. It appears from Sect. X. that the resolution of any
equation depends on our being able to resolve it into its
factors, whether of the first or second degree. In one class
of equations this can be effected by the calculus of sines,
as will appear from the following analysis :
Since cos. (w +1 2 cos. x cos. mx — cos. (m — 1 )x,
let 2 cos. a? =
v
then 2 cos. 2a;=:4 cos. a; cos. a: — 2 cos.0a;=:i>2-f ^
2cos. 3a:z=4cos. a;cos. 2a: — 2 cos. a: +
2 cos. 4a:z=4 cos. x cos. 3a: — 2 cos. 2x—vi-\-
&c.
and in general, 2 cos. mx=vm+ —;
hence we get
v2m — 2vm cos. mx-\-1 — 0.
1 o
The equation v + -=2 cos. x gives
v1 — 2v cos. a;-J-1=0.
Now, since the two equations
v*™ — 2vm cos. mx 4-1 = 0,
v2 —2v cos. a:4-l = 0,
require to be both satisfied at the same time, they must
have at least one common root. Let a be that root, then
- will also be a root of both ; for putting them under the
a
form
for the cosine of m times any one of these is the very same Algebra,
quantity; we may therefore infer that the trinomial
— 2vm cos.p -f-1
is divisible by each of these trinomial expressions of the
second degree, viz.
X
m
(2*
v2 — 2v cos.—4-1,
m
/2‘T <P\ , i
r*_2ecm(-+-)+l,
v- — 2v cos.f—+ —i
\m ' m)
0 0 f 2(m—1)^, ,91,1
v2 — 2« cos. < — f
It is needless to carry the series farther, because the
next divisor would involve cos. ^ wlucl115 the
same as cos. (2* + X) = cos. 1-, a repetition of the first,
and so on. As the number of divisors which differ from
one another is m, and the trinomial is of the 2m‘ degree,
it follows from the theory of equations, that the trinomial
is the continual product of all the divisors.
This elegant theorem is due to De Moivre, as appears
from his Miscellanea Analytica.
275. If we suppose p = 0, then cos. p = 1, and the
trinomial v2”* — 2vm cos. 9 + 1 becomes in this case
 2vm 4- 1 = («m — l)2, and the factors are
v1 — 2v 1 = (t — l)2’
2<7T
v2 — 2v cos. — + L
rn
4^
v2 — 2v cos. — + L
m
u”* 4.  2 cos. mx— 0,
~ vm
v 4-- — 2 cos. a:=0,
v
the results will be the very same whether we substitute
a or - for v.
a
Now the quadratic equation
2,2 2w COS. X -J- 1 = 0
can only have two roots, therefore these must also be roots
of the equation
ip’m— 2vm cos. mx-\-\ — Q ;
hence it follows that the trinomial
v2m — 2vm cos. mx-\-1
must be divisible by this other expression,
v2 — 2v cos. a: 4-1 ;
or, putting mx = <p, and therefore x= X that
v2m 2vm COS. 9+1
must have for a divisor
9 1
_ 2vm cos. — 4- L
m
Now we found, sect. 232, that being put for half the cir¬
cumference,
Cos. 9= cos. Cfn’r+9) ?
hence it follows, that instead of we may take any one
of this series of arcs,
v2 — 2v cos
2Q—L
If, again, f = cr, then cos. p = — L and the trinomial
v** — 2vm cos. ^ 4- 1 = ^2m + + 1 = (^ + V ;
therefore the factors of this quantity are
w .
— 2v cos. — 4* 1 >
m
St
v2 — 2v cos. — 4- L
m
o o 5,r L 1
v2 — 2v cos. —■ 4" L
m
v? — 2v cos.
(2m — l)^
+ 1.
—h
m m
vol. ri.
^ m+m’ m + m  \ »> >» /
276. The two last formulae are the analytic expressions
of a very remarkable property of the circle discovered by
Cotes, the friend and contemporary of Newton, and called
the CotesianTheorem. It consists of two parts, and may
be thus enunciated (see Plate XVI11. fig. 25 and 26):
Let the circumference of any circle be divided into 2m
equal parts (for example ten), at the points A0, Aj, Ag,
A A4,... A9 ; and let A0C be a diameter drawn through
A0, one of the points of division; and from any P011)t P
in the diameter (fig. 25), or the diameter produced (fig. )>
let straightlines PA„ PA3> PA„ PA7, PA9, be drawn to
the points in the circumference which are the first, tnira,
fifth, &c. from A0 ; and also straight lines
PA6, PAg, to the points which are the second, tourtfi,
562
ALGEBRA.
Algebra, sixth, &c.: then, putting v — CP, the distance of P from
the centre, and r = CA0, the radius.
I. The continual product of the lines drawn from P to
Au A5, A5, A7, &c. (the points marked with the odd
numbers), is equal to rm vm.
II. The continual product of the lines drawn from
P to A0, A2, A4, A6, &c. (the points marked with even
numbers), is equal to rm — vm, when the point is within
the circle (fig. 25), or to vm — r’", when it is without
(fig. 26).
Join CAj, and, to simplify, let r = 1; because the
whole circumference is divided into 2m parts, the arcs
A0 A, z= A0 An = A0 A- = —, and so on. Now
ui ni rn m
by the elements of Geometry,
PA?=PC2 —2PC x CA, cos.—+CA"
- + i.
m
In like manner, it will appear that
PA2 = — 2w cos. — + 1,
m
YAs^zv*
2v cos. — + 1,
m
and so on, with respect to the lines drawn to the remain¬
ing points PA4, PA5.
Now, remarking that PA0 z= v — 1, from what has
been proved, it appears that the product
PA? X PA? x PA? ...to PA?m„x
is equal to the product of the trinomials
v2 — 2v cos. — + 1,
m
v2 — 2v cos. — + 1,
m
v1 — 2v cos. — + 1,
m
2 Q (2m — 1)
V2  2v COS.     W + 1 ;
m
and that the product
PA? X PA? X PA? ... to PA?„
is equal to the product of the trinomials,
(v — l)2 or (1 — v)2,
_ 2cr
v2 — 2v cos. b 15
m
v2
2v cos. — + 1,
m
v2 — 2v cos. —— — + 1
m
But we have proved that the first of these products is
equal to (vm+1)2, and the second to (1— l)2 ;
therefore, taking the square roots, we have
PAX x PA3 x PA5 x PA7, &c.=^+1,
PA0 X PA2 x PA4 x PAg, &c.~l —vm or~vm 1.
I bus both parts of the theorem are demonstrated.
This elegant geometrical theorem was found among the
papers of Mr Cotes after his death. It had no demon¬
stration, but that was soon supplied by his contemporaries,
particularly De Moivre, who gave it the more general
form which Is expressed analytically in last article. At
the time of its discovery, it was greatly esteemed; but
now, analytical formulae are found by experience more Algebra,
convenient than geometrical diagrams, and therefore are
employed instead of them.
277. If we consider that
rnc 2(m —n) /n
Cos. -‘x=cos.(2m’ cf) — (
m m J
it will readily appear that the factors of the quantity
(ym—l)2, which have been given in sect. 275, may be
written thus:
v2-— 2v-\-\z=.(v— l)2,
Or. 2W ,
vz — 2v cos. (-1,
m
2n
: cos.—T,
m
v2-
■ 2v cos. (- 1,
m
:v2 — 2v cos.
v1 — 2ucos. —+1,
m
w2 — 2v cos. —4-1,
m
where the second and last are identical; and the same is
true of the third and last but two, the fourth and last but
three, and so on, untd, in the case of m an even number,
we come to two equal factors, one on each side of the
(£m4-l)th factor, which being v2 — 2v cos. —4-1
will be ^+2w 4.1 = (w +1)2; but in the case of m an odd
number, we come to two adjoining equal factors, the first
Tfl - 1
of which is V2 — 2« cos.—^4-1; therefore, taking the
square root of (vm — l)2, and at the same time rejecting
one of each pair of equal factors, we find that when m is
an even number, vm — 1 is equal to the product of these
quantities,
v—\
2'k
it — 2v cos. (- 1,
m
4cr
v2 — 2v cos.—-f 1,
m 1
v2 — 2v cos.-
-'T-j- 1.
But when m is an odd number, the factors are
v — 1,
2$r
v2 — 2v cos.—^4-1,
m 1
o ^ 4w .
v2 — 2v cos. [-1,
m
o „ m — 1 ,
ir — 2v cos. w4-1.
278. Next let us consider the expression 1)2 and
its factors, as given sect. 275. We have for this case
Cos.
2m
n /o » n n
—^zrcos. (2<r cos.—w,
m m / m
The factors are therefore
r2 — 2v cos. A 4“ 1,
m
Algebra-
v- — 2v cos. — + 1,
m
2v cos. — +1,
m
ALGEBRA.
To resolve the equation ai?-\-px-=. q,
find an angle v, such, that tan. v — X radius;
\P
then the roots of the equation are,
/-i 'v/<7
x= + tan. 1 v Vq, and x —
v1
2v cos. — + 1*
m
tan. ^ v
(2.) In like manner we find that in the equation
a? —px — q,
Here it appears that the first and last factors are the angle v being found as before, the roots of the equa-
identical, also the second and last but one, and so on, tion are,
until in the case of m an even number, we come to q ,
two adjoining equal factors, the first of which is x— + i „. 1 and a: _ q an. 2
v2-
-2v cos. w +1. But if m be an odd number, there
tan. i v
(3.) When the equation is
ic2—px z=
are two equal factors, and a single one between them, viz. which has two positive roots whose sum is p, and product
m q (sect. 93), these may be expressed by tan. q, and
r2 — 2v cos. — “T + 1 = u2 + 2v + !=:(«+ I)"; there- co^ Lv \/q, ln this case,
fore, taking the square roots of (vm + l)2 and (z> + l)2, Vq (cot. -j- tan.—p:
and rejecting one of each pair of equal factors, we obtain, but by (3) and (4) of formulas (Q),
in the case of m an even number, vm + 1, equal to the . . „ 2
j t j? 4.1. r . cot. 4 v 4- tan. jjV — 2 cosec. v —  ;
product of these factors: 2 “ 2 sin. v
therefore, sin. v — Hence, to resolve this case, find
an angle v, such, that
VT - 1
v2 — 2v cos, — +
m
  2t» cos. — + 1,
m
o . .
v2 — 2v cos. — -hi,
m
V Q
Sin. v — r-2 X radius;
%P
Vq
o m — 1 , ,
v2 — 2v cos. t + I.
m
But when m is an odd number, the factors are,
v + 1,
v2 — 2v cos. — + 1,
m
Scr
v2 — 2v cos. — + I?
m
o ^ ui — 2 . .
V2 — 2v cos.   TT 4- 1.
then x — Vq tan.iv, x = + tan
280. The second example is the resolution of a problem
in pure algebra, said to have been proposed by the late
Professor Porson.
Find u, x, y, z, from these equations,
uxyz—a,
uz-\-xy=.b,
uy-\-xz=c,
ux\-yz—d
Solution.
Let p, q, r, be such angles that
uz=Vatax\.p,
uy— Va tan. <7,
ux— Va tan. r;
These formulae, exhibiting the decomposition of the ex- ux= \ a uui. r;
pressions v2m—2vm cos. 94-1 and ?;m=t=l, are of great tben from the equation (A),
importance in the Differential Calculus or doctrine of  «
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
importance — —   . .
Fluxions, and in the more recondite theories of Analysis.
279. In concluding the calculus of sines, we shall yet give
three other examples of its application : the first shall be
to the resolution of quadratic equations.
(1.) Let the equation be
x? -{-px = q,
where p and q are both positive numbers. This equation
has two roots, a positive and a negative, of which p is the
xy=Va cot./),
xz=. Va cot. q, ... 5
yz —Va cot. r; 6
and hence by substitution in the other equations
Va(tan./) 4- cot./)) = b,
Va(tan. q 4- cot. q) — c,
^(tan. r 4- cot. r) zz d;
nas iwo roois, a positive auu a ucga.n*'-, v*\
sum, and - ? the product. (Sect. 93.) Let tan. i t, V? and from these again (because A being any arc,
be the positive root, where v is an angle to be determin¬
ed; then — cotan. will be^the negative root, be¬
cause tan. \ v Vq X — cot. \ v Vq — — q. To determine
v, we have this equation,
V q (cot. \v — tan. \v) z=. p :
but by (3) and (4) of (Q), ^
cot.\v — tan.\v = 2 cot. v =
therefore, tan.v= Hence we have this rule:
\P
tan. A 4- cot. A — 2 cosec. A — s 0 .
1 sin. 2A
•, sect. 250);
= b,
2 Va
sin. 2p
and sin. 2p =
sin. 2q zz
sin. 2r =
2 Va
sin. 2q
2 Va
~b~2
2 Va
c
2 Va
= c,
2 Va
sin. 2r
= d,
7
8
9
564
A L G
A L G
Algebra By these equations the angles q, r are determined.
II By multiplying the corresponding sides of (1) (2) (3)
^J^we get
v?xyz — (Va)3 tan. p tan. q tan. r : 10
and, dividing this by Eq. (A),
«2= Va tan. p tan. q tan. r. . .11
From this and equations 3, 2, and 1,
x2=Va tan‘ ^ — Va cot. p cot. q tan. r,
tan./> tan. q
„ tan. q
rr—W a 2 rr \ a cot. p tan. q cot. r,
^ tan.p tan. r
„ tan. p -
z2=Va zr Va tan. ® cot. q cot. r:
tan. q tan. r
so that, on the whole, to determine u, x, y, z, we first
find the angles p, q, r, from these formulae,
sin. 2^=^,
b
sm.2q=^I,
c
and then
sin. 2 r —
2Va .
  y
d
u — A^a Vtan. p tan. q tan. r,
x — Aya Vcot. p cot. q tan. r,
4   
y — y'a Vcot. p tan. q cot. r,
4   
z — \/a Vtan. p cot. q cot. r.
281. The last example shall be the manner of inscribing
a regular polygon of 17 sides in a circle,—a discovery due
to Mr Gauss of Brunswick, and one of the most remark¬
able that has been made in geometry. We take it as given
in the excellent Treatise on Geometry by Legendre.
Let the arc in first place we have this
equation,
Cos. p-f-cos. 3p-|-cos. 5p-f-cos. 7p 1 ,
-f-cos. 9p-j-cos. llp-j-cos. 13p-j-cos. 15p \ ~2'
For, putting P for the first member, and multiplying all
the terms by 2 cos. <p, and transforming the results by
the formula 2 cos. a cos. 6—cos. (a—b) -j- cos.
(sect. 238), we shall have 2 P cos. <p Algebra
__ Jl-{-2cos. 2p-f-2cos. 4p-|-2cos. fip-f 2cos.8p II.
— \ -j-2cos.10p-j-2cos.12p-f2cos.149-f.cos.16p.
But since 17p = «r, therefore cos. 2 p = cos. (t—15p)
= — cos. 15 p ; cos. 4p=rcos. (t—13 p)— — cos. 13 p,
and so on, to cos. IGprr — cos. p; therefore
2 P cos. p= 1—2 cos. 15p—2 cos. 13p...—2 cos. 3p—cos.p;
or 2 P cos. p = 1 + cos. p — 2 P,
or 2 P (1-f cos. p) =l-f cos. p, hence Pz= |.
This being proved, we now divide the terms which com¬
pose P into two parts,
a?=cos. 3p-f cos. 5p-f cos. 7p-f cos. lip,
y=cos. p-j-cos. 9p-f-cos. 13p-f cos. 15p.
We have therefore x-\-y = ^. We next multiply the
four terms of x by the four terms of y, and changing the
products of cosines into the cosines of simple arcs, we
obtain, all reductions being made,
xy= 2 (cos. 2p-j-cos. 4p-j-cos. 6p f-cos. 16p),
or xy= —2 (cos. 15p-j-cos. 13p-f cos. lip...-j-cos. p),
or at last xyzz — 1.
By these equations we obtain
X=z}+±VT7, —jylf.
Now, if we divide anew the sums x and y into two parts,
viz.
a:=:«-f<, yz= u-\-z,
s =z cos. 3p-fcos. 5p, u— cos. p-f cos. 13p,
tzz cos. 7p-j-cos. lip, cos. 9p-j-cos. 15p.
We obtain in like manner,
st=—uz=—
so that we may now determine the four numbers s, t,
u, z, by means of two new equations of the second de¬
gree.
Lastly, knowing cos. p -f cos. 13 p — w, and cos. p cos. 13 p
=!(cos. 12p+ cos. 14p)= —^(cos.3p-f cos. 5 p) = — ±s,
we may obtain by a fourth equation of the second degree
the value of cos. p, and thence the side of the polygon,
which is 2 sin. p z=2 \/1 — cos.2 p.
As to the method which has guided us in forming these
equations, it depends on a very delicate theory, founded
on the Indeterminate Analysis. For this we must refer
to the work of Gauss, Disquisitiones Arithmetics ; or the
French translation, Recherches Arithmetiques. (w. w.)
ALGFMESI, a town of Spain, in the province of Valen¬
cia, on the river Jucar, 21 miles S.S.W. of Valencia. Its
chief products are rice and silk. Pop. 4492.
ALGENIB, or y Pegasi, a star of 2*3 magnitude, in
the wing of Pegasus: R.A. January 1.1853, 0 h. 5 m. 4025
sec.; N. Deck 75° 38' 1*85".
ALGER, a learned French priest, who lived between the
eleventh and twelfth centuries. He was first a deacon of
the church of St Bartholomew at Liege, his native town \
he was afterwards translated to the cathedral church of St
Lambert, and finally retired to the monastery of Cluny,
where he died in 1131. His History of the Church of Liege’
and many others of his works, are lost, but there still exist
of his: 1. De Misericordia et Justitia, a collection of ex¬
tracts from Fathers, with reflections. It is to be found in
the Anecdota of Martene, vol. v. 2. De Sacramento Cor¬
poris et Sanguinis Domini; a treatise in three books
against the Berengerian heresy, highly commended by Peter
of Cluny and Erasmus. 3. De libero arbitrio; given in
Pezius’ Anecdota, vol. iv. 4. De Sacrificio Missae; given
in the Collectio Scriptor. Vet. of Angelo Mai, vol. ix.
ALGEZIRAS, a city of Andalucia in Spain, on the west¬
ern side of the bay of Gibraltar, and opposite to that fortress.
It is situated at the foot of a high mountain called the
Trocha, over which there is only one line of road, which is
excessively bad. Algeziras derives its name from the Arabic
al-ghezeirah (the island), on account of Isla Verde, a small
islet that forms one side of its harbour. It was founded
by Tarik, the moorish general who invaded Spain in 713;
and was a place of note in the wars of the Moors and
Christians of Spain. It was taken from the Moors in 1344
by Alphonso XL of Castile, surnamed The Avenger, after
an obstinate siege, in which Mariana says gunpowder was
first used by the Moors in the wars of Europe. “ The
Earls of Derby and Salisbury were there from England:”
this Earl of Derby was John of Gaunt, son of Edward HI.
A L G
Alchnlib- During the famous siege of Gibraltar, in 1780-81-82, Al-
jsillah geziras was the station of the Spanish fleet and floating
II batteries. It is now a place of far less importance, and its
Alghisi. fortifications have entirely gone to decay. It has a few
manufactures of coarse linen, cotton, paper, leather, and
culinary utensils, and exports charcoal made in the mountains
around. The chief occupations of its inhabitants are fishing
and smuggling. An aqueduct supplies the place with water.
Pop. 11,000. Long. 5. 26. 4. W. Lat. 36. 8. N.
ALGHALIB-BILLAH, or The Conqueror for the
cause of God, also called Alahmar, or the Red Man,
the surname of Mohammed-ben-Yusuf-ben-Nasr, the first
Moorish sovereign of Granada. He was born in the pro¬
vince of Jaen in Spain, a.d. 1195, and died in 1273, after
a reign of forty-two years. On the decline of the empire
of the Almohades in Spain, the governors of the several pro¬
vinces declared themselves independent. Mohammed, fol¬
lowing the general example, caused himself to be proclaimed
sultan of Mahometan Spain; and after subduing various
towns, established himself at Granada as the capital of his
dominions. He was long the ally, and afterwards the vassal
of the king of Castile. He encouraged learning, arts, and
manufactures among his subjects ; Granada was by him
adorned as became the capital of a powerful sovereign ;
and in his reign the famous palace of the Alhambra was
begun. The dynasty of which he was the founder reigned
in Granada for two centuries, and ended with Boabdil, who
was dethroned by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1492.
ALGHAZZALI, Abu Hamed Mohammed Ebn Mo¬
hammed, commonly called Algazel, a celebrated Arabian
divine and philosopher, born at Tus in Khorassan, a.d. 1058.
After studying at Nisapur and elsewhere, he settled at
Baghdad, as a teacher of theology in the college of that city.
After four years he embraced the monastic life, and retired
to Mecca, where he spent many years in the study of phi¬
losophy and theology. Thence he travelled through Syria,
Palestine, and Egypt, visiting Damascus, Jerusalem, Cairo,
and Alexandria. He finally returned to fus, and after
some years retired to Baghdad, where he died, a.d. 1111.
Algazel was one of the most eminent and voluminous of
Arabian writers. In his attempt to establish Mahometan
theology on a philosophical foundation, he made himself ob¬
noxious on the one hand to the orthodox Mahometans, and
on the other to the followers of Aristotle. To the one he
appeared as a heretic; to the other as a philosophical sceptic
in the garb of a divine. In his celebrated treatise, entitled
the Destruction of the Philosophers, he attacks the doctrines
of Aristotle and the other Greek philosophers, attempting
to show from their mutual want of agreement the uncei-
tainty of philosophical principles, and the necessity of a
refuge in religious faith. This was replied to by Averroes
in his Destruction of the Destruction. A list of Algazel s
numerous works on metaphysics, morals, and religion, is
given in Casiri’s Bibl. Arab. Hisp. Escur.
ALGHERI, or Aghuer, a strongly-fortified city on the
island of Sardinia, in the district called Capo di Sassari. It
is the see of a bishop, has a cathedral, seven monasteries,
and 8000 inhabitants, who speak the Catalan language.
Their chief occupation is cultivating vineyards. About a
league from the city is the fine roadstead or open bay,
Porto Conte, where a fleet can anchor securely and be de¬
fended by a strong fort.
ALGHISI, or Algisi, Francesco, an Italian musical
composer, was born at Brescia in 1666, and died there, in
1733. He was organist of the cathedral in his native city,
and composed, during a residence at Venice, two operas,
which had great success. In his latter years, his severe
abstinence procured him the reputation of a saint.
Alghisi, Galeazzo, an eminent Italian architect, of the
A L G
latter end of the sixteenth century. He was a native of
Carpi, in Modena, and held the office of architect to the
Duke of Ferrara, for whom he designed a magnificent palace.
His work, Della Fortijicazione, on military architecture,
published at Venice in 1570, was the best architectural pro¬
duction that had then appeared. 1 iraboschi, Storia..
Alghisi, Tomasso, an eminent Italian surgeon, especially
celebrated as a lithotomist. He was born at Florence in
1669, and died in 1713. He studied anatomy under Lo¬
renzo Bellini, and surgery under his father, who was surgeon
to the hospital of Sta Maria Nuova, at Florence. In 1703,
he received his degree of Doctor at Padua, from the cele¬
brated Vallisnieri. He afterwards became professor of sur¬
gery in his native town. His work, entitled Litotomia,
ovvero del cavar la Pietra, published at Florence in 1707,
and at Venice in 1708, with plates by himself, describes ms
treatment of lithotomy.—Mazzuchelli Scritt. d Italia.
ALGIABARII, a Mahometan sect of predestinarians,
who attribute all the actions of men, good or evil, to the
agency of God. They stand opposed to the Alkadarii.
ALGID US, a mountain range of Latium in Italy, be¬
tween Prseneste and the Mons Albanus. On the top of one
of these mountains was erected a temple of Diana, to which
Horace refers, lib. i. ode 21, “ Quacunque aut gelido pro-
minet Algido and lib. iii. ode 23, “ Qua nivali pascitur
Alqido,” &c. pit,,.
ALGIERS, or Algeria, an extensive country of north- Boundaries
ern Africa bordering on the Mediterranean, formerly an in¬
dependent kingdom, but now a dependency of France. It
extends from Long. 2. 20. W. to 8. 45. E., and is bounded
on the north by the Mediterranean, on the west by Marocco,
on the south by the great desert of the Sahara, and on the
east by Tunis; but, indeed, except along the coast, the
exact boundaries of the country are very undefined.
Algiers is traversed by lofty ranges of the Atlas moun-Mountains,
tains, running nearly parallel to the coast, and rising in some
places to the height of upwards of 7000 feet, with deep
valleys and extensive plains. Some of the mountains rise
abruptly from the sea, and the coast generally is steep and
rocky, abounding in capes and gulfs : but it is veiy deficient
in good harbours, and even in secure roadsteads, in conse¬
quence of its exposure to the north winds.
The rivers of Algiers are numerous, and generally assume Rivers,
the character of mountain torrents, rushing with great im¬
petuosity from the elevations through deep and rocky chan¬
nels. During the rainy season they are much swollen,
which, from the present deficiency of sufficient bridges,
renders communication with the different parts of the coun¬
try extremely difficult. The most important river, both
from the length of its course, and the volume of its waters,
is the Chelif. It rises in the Djebel Amur, takes first a
northern, and afterwards a western direction, flows through
Lake Titterie, and finally empties itself into the Mediter¬
ranean, near Mostagan, after a course of nearly 300 miles ;
during which it receives numerous tributary streams. I he
Seibouse is formed by the union of several small brooks in
the interior of the province of Constantine, south of the
town of that name, and after a course of about 120 mile=>
reaches the Mediterranean at Bona. The Oued-el-Kebir or
Rummel rises west of Constantine, passes that town, an.
then pursues a north-westerly course to the sea. Among
the less important rivers which empty themselves into t le
Mediterranean are the Harrach, Isser, Mazafran, 1 afna, ant
Macta. Besides these there are a number of streams m the
interior ; but they are less known, and are generally dry ex¬
cept in the rainy season. nc+LoT ,
Algiers abounds in extensive lakes and marshes. Lakes,
lakes in the northern part of the country, near the coast, are
the Fezara, fourteen miles south-west of Bona; the two
566
ALGIERS.
Plains.
Minerals.
Climate.
Algiers, lakes Sebgha and El-Melah, south of Oran ; three small
lakes in the immediate vicinity of the Calle, and several
others. In the southern parts of the country are the ex¬
tensive lakes of Chott-el-Harbi or Western Chott; the
Chott-el-Chergui or Eastern Chott; the Zarhez Gherbi;
and the Zarhez Chergui; the Grand Sebkha-el-Chott, and
a number of others. They are mostly dried up in summer,
leaving a thick stratum of salt. Many of the marshes, espe¬
cially in the neighbourhood of the larger towns, have been
drained by the French, thus improving considerably the
salubrity of the climate. There are also a number of warm
mineral springs, principally containing salts of lime, which
are used with success by the Arabs in several kinds of dis¬
eases. Some of these are in the vicinity of the Calle,
Bougie, Miliana, &c.
It has several fertile and well-watered plains ; the princi¬
pal, that of Metidja, immediately south of Algiers, is about
50 miles long by 20 broad.
The mineral wealth of the country is considerable. Iron
is very plentiful, and mines of copper, lead, silver, antimony,
and coal, are wrought. Salt is obtained in great abundance
from many of the lakes and marshes.
The nature of the climate varies considerably with the
elevation. In the northern parts of the country it very
much resembles that of the south of Spain, while in the Sa¬
hara the heat is frequently excessive. In the more elevated
parts the winter is frequently severe; but along the coast
it is mild, though often attended with heavy rain, and some¬
times in such torrents as in a few hours to exceed the quan¬
tity falling at Paris in a whole year. The hottest month is
August. In general, with the exception of places in the
vicinity of the marshes, it is not unhealthy for Europeans.
At Algiers the mean temperature is from 70° to 75° Fahr.;
in summer averaging 86°, and in winter from 55° to 65°.
The vegetation generally resembles that of southern Eu¬
rope. It has extensive forests of various species of oak, pine,
cedar, elm, olive, &c. The trees are frequently of gigantic
size, especially the cedars and oaks ; but great injury is
often done to the forests, by the inhabitants annually
burning up the grass of their fields; and thus sometimes the
most beautiful forests are consumed. The want of roads
and navigable rivers, has, as yet, prevented the French from
deriving much benefit from the forests. Among the fruits
are oranges, lemons, pomegranates, dates, peaches, melons,
&c.: wheat, barley, cotton, sugar-cane, and tobacco, are also
extensively cidtivated. In the animal kingdom, there is
little particularly deserving of notice. Lions were formerly
very plentiful, but they are now nearly extirpated; leopards
are still common, and in the south are many jackals and
hyaenas. The chief wealth of most of the Arab tribes con¬
sists in their sheep, of which they frequently possess immense
flocks ; horses, mules, and camels, are also abundant, and of
superior quality. Coral and sponge fishing is extensively
prosecuted along the coast.
Algiers was formerly divided into four provinces, viz.,
Constantine, Algiers, Oran, and Titterie: at present it is
divided into three, Algiers, Oran, and Constantine. These
provinces are divided into districts, and each district is sub¬
divided into one or more circles. By the natives it is di¬
vided into the Tell or green country, in the north, and the
Date country, in the south.
Population The population of Algiers is estimated at about 3,000,000.
At the close of 1850, the European population was 125,963;
and in the preceding year 112,607; of whom 58,005 were
French, 6943 Anglo-Maltese, 33,659 Spaniards, 6986 Ita¬
lians, 2515 Germans, 1253 Swiss, and 3246 of other nations.
The increase of the European population is caused by im¬
migration, as for several years the deaths have exceeded
the births. In 1847, 1848, 1849, the deaths were 5163,
Produc¬
tions.
Divisions.
4835, 10,493; the births in the same years were 4283, Algiers.
4347, 5206. The great mortality of 1849 was occasioned -r-w
by cholera. The indigenous population residing in the
towns in 1849, amounted to 84,133, being 60,928 Turks,
4177 Negroes, and 19,028 Jews.
Besides the Europeans there are eight distinct races in- Races,
habiting Algiers. 1^, The Arabs, the most numerous
race in Algiers, inhabit the southern part of the country,
and lead a pastoral life. They are the most unsettled and
turbulent of the Algerine population, but are at the same
time sprightly and intelligent. 2d, The Kabyles or Ber¬
bers are next to the Arabs in point of numbers, and are de¬
scendants of the aboriginal inhabitants of the country. They
occupy chiefly the more elevated and mountainous parts, but
numbers of them also inhabit the plains and valleys: they
are an active, industrious race, and principally engaged in
husbandry. M, The Moors, a mixed race, inhabiting prin¬
cipally the towns. *\th. The Jews, also inhabiting the towns,
and engaged in mercantile pursuits. They are supposed to
amount to about 80,000. oth, Negroes, originally brought
from the interior, and sold as slaves. They were declared
free in 1848, and are estimated at 80,000. 6M, The Turks,
the former dominant race, are now decreasing rapidly. A
great number of them left the country when it came into the
hands of the French. *lth, The Kolouglis, who are the de¬
scendants of Turks by native women, are also decreasing, and
at present are about 20,000. Mi, The Mozabites, an Afri¬
can race now principally inhabiting the coast towns. They
are a peaceable, honest, and industrious race, chiefly en¬
gaged in manual labour.
The Algerine kingdom made formerly a considerable part History,
of the Mauritania Tingitana, which was reduced to a Roman
province by Julius Caesar, and from him also called Mauri¬
tania Ccesariensis. The Romans were driven out of that
continent by the Vandals; these by Belisarius, the Greek
emperor Justinian’s general; and the Greeks in their turn
by the Saracens. This last revolution happened about the
middle of the seventh century; and the Arabs continued
masters of the country, divided into a great number of petty
kingdoms or states, under chiefs of their own choosing, till
the year 1051. In this year Abubeker-ben-Omar, or, as
the Spanish authors call him, Abu-Texefien, an Arab of
the Zinhagian tribe, gathered, by the help of his marabouts
or saints, a most powerful army of malcontents, in the south¬
ern provinces of Numidia and Libya. His followers were
named Marabites or Morabites, by the Spaniards Almora-
vides, probably from their being assembled principally by
the saints, who were also called Morabites. The caliph’s
forces were at this time employed in quelling other revolts
in Syria, Mesopotamia, &c.; and the Arabs in Spain were
engaged in the most bloody wars; so that Texefien having
nothing to fear from them had all the success he could wish
against the Arabian sheiks or petty tyrants, whom he de¬
feated in many battles, and at last drove not only out
of Numidia and Libya, but out of all the western districts,
reducing the whole province of Tingitania under his domin¬
ion. Texefien was succeeded by his son Yusef or Joseph,
a brave and warlike prince. He founded the city of Ma-
rocco; and engaging in war with the Zeneti, a powerful
tribe who inhabited Tremecen, defeated them in repeated
engagements, and finally almost exterminated them. He
then extended his conquests over almost all Barbary. Thus
was founded the empire of the Morabites, which, however,
was of no long duration, that race being in the twelfth cen¬
tury driven out by Mohavedin, a marabout. This race of
priests was expelled by Abdulac, governor of Fez; and he
in the thirteenth century was stripped of his new conquests
by the Scherifs of Hascen, the descendants of those Arabian
princes whom Abu-Texefien had formerly expelled.
ALGIERS.
567
Aiders.
Barba-
rossa.
The better to secure their new dominions, the Scherifs
1 divided them into several little kingdoms or provinces;
and among the rest, the present kingdom of Algiers was
divided into four, namely, Tremecen, Tenez, Algiers
Proper, and Bujeiah. The first four princes laid so good
a foundation for a lasting balance of power between their
little kingdoms, that they continued for some centuries
in mutual peace and amity; but at length the king of
Tremecen having ventured to violate some of their
articles, Abul-Farez, king of Tenez, declared war against
him, and obliged him to become his tributary. This king
dying soon after, and having divided his kingdom among
his three sons, new discords arose, which Spain taking
advantage of, sent a powerful fleet and army against
Barbary, under the count of Navarre, in 1505. This
commander soon made himself master of the important
cities of Oran, Bujeiah, and some others. Finally, he
landed a number of forces near Algiers, and obliged that
metropolis to become tributary to Spain.
To this galling yoke the Algerines were obliged to sub¬
mit till the year 1516, when, hearing of the death of Fer¬
dinand, king of Spain, they sent an embassy to Aruch Bar-
barossa, who was at that time on a cruise with a squadron
of galleys and barks, spreading terror wherever he appeared
by his valour and success. The purport of the embassy
was, that he should come and free them from the Spanish
yoke; for which they agreed to pay him a gratuity answer-
able to so great a service. Upon this Barbarossa imme¬
diately despatched 18 galleys and 30 barks to the assistance
of the Algerines, while he himself advanced towards the city
with 800 Turks, 3000 Jegelites, and 2000 Moorish volun¬
teers. Instead of taking the nearest road to Algiers, he
directed his course towards Shershel, where Hassan, an¬
other famed corsair, had established himself. Him he
surprised, and obliged to surrender, not without a pre¬
vious promise of friendship ; but no sooner had Barbarossa
got him in his power, than he beheaded him, and obliged
all Hassan’s Turkish adherents to follow him in his new ex¬
pedition.
On Barbarossa’s approach to Algiers, he was wel¬
comed by all the people of that metropolis, who looked
for deliverance from this daring bandit, whom they ac¬
counted invincible. Elated beyond measure with this
kind reception, Barbarossa formed a design of becoming
king of Algiers ; and fearing some opposition from the in¬
habitants, on account of the excesses he suffered his sol¬
diers to commit, he murdered their prince Eutemi, and
caused himself to be proclaimed king; his 1 urks and
Moors crying out as he rode along the streets, “ Long
live King Aruch Barbarossa, the invincible king of Al¬
giers, the chosen of God to deliver the people from the
oppression of the Christians; and destruction to all that
shall oppose or refuse to own him as their lawful sove¬
reign.” These threatening words so intimidated the in¬
habitants, already apprehensive of a general massacre,
that he was immediately acknowledged as king.
Barbarossa was no sooner seated on the throne, than
he treated his subjects with such cruelty, that they used
to shut up their houses and hide themselves when he ap¬
peared in public. In consequence of this, a plot was soon
formed against him ; but having discovered it, he caused
twenty of the principal conspirators to be beheaded, and
their bodies to be buried in a dunghill, and laid a heavy
fine on those who survived. This so terrified the Algerines,
that they never afterwards dared to attempt anything against
either Barbarossa or his successors. ^
In the mean time the son of Prince Eutemi, having fled
to Oran, and put himself under the protection of the mar¬
quis of Gomarez, laid before that nobleman a plan for put¬
ting the city of Algiers into the hands of the king of Algiers.
Spain. Cardinal Ximenes, having approved of it, sent a
fleet with 10,000 land forces, under the command of Don
Francisco, or, as others call him, Don Diego de Vera, to
drive out the Turks, and restore the young prince ; but
the fleet no sooner came within sight of land than it was
dispersed by a storm, and the greater part of the ships
dashed against the rocks. Most of the Spaniards were
drowned, and the few who escaped to the shore were
either killed by the Turks or made slaves.
Though Barbarossa had nothing to boast on this oc¬
casion, his pride and insolence had now risen to such a
pitch, that he imagined himself invincible. He found
little difficulty in conquering the kingdoms of Tenez and
Tremecen. Abuchen Men, however, the exiled sovereign
of Tremecen, had recourse to Charles V. then lately ar¬
rived in Spain with a powerful fleet and army. That
monarch immediately ordered the young king a succour of
10,000 men, under the command of the governor of Oran,
who, under the guidance of Abuchen Men, began his
march towards Tremecen; and in their way they were
joined by Prince Selim, with a great number of Arabs and
Moors. The tyrant kept close in his capital, being em¬
barrassed by his fears of a revolt, and the politic delays of
the king of Fez, who had not sent the auxiliaries he pro¬
mised. Being now informed that Abuchen Men and his
Arabs, accompanied by the Spaniards, were in full march
to lay siege to Tremecen, he thought proper to come out
at the head of 1500 Turks and 5000 Moorish horse, in or¬
der to break his way through the enemy ; but he had not
proceeded far from the city before his council advised him
to return and fortify himself in it. This advice was now
too late, the inhabitants being resolved to shut him out,
and open their gates to their own lawful prince as soon as
he appeared. In this distress Barbarossa saw no resource
but to retire to the citadel. Here he defended himself
vigorously; but his provisions failing, he took advantage
of a subterraneous path, which he had caused to be dug,
and, taking his immense treasure with him, stole away as
secretly as possible. His flight, however, was soon dis¬
covered ; and he was so closely pursued, that to amuse,
as he hoped, the enemy, he caused a great part of his
money, plate, jewels, &c. to be scattered on the way,
thinking they would delay their pursuit in gathering it up.
This stratagem, however, failed through the vigilance of
the Spanish commander, who being himself at the head
of the pursuers, obliged them to march on, till he came
up close to him on the banks of the Huexda, about eight
leagues from Tremecen. Barbarossa had just cross¬
ed the river with his vanguard, when the Spaniards came
up with his rear on the other side, and cut them all off;
and then crossing the water, overtook him at a small dis¬
tance from it. Here a bloody engagement ensued, in
which the Turks fought like lions; but being at length
overpowered by numbers, they were all cut in pieces, and
Barbarossa among the rest, in the 44th year of his age,
and four years after he had raised himself to the royal title
of Jigel.
The news of Barbarossa’s death spread the utmost con- Succeeded
sternation among the Turks at Algiers; however, they ^7 ■^a*vra*
caused his brother Hayradin to be immediately proclaim-1111'
ed king. The Spanish commander now sent back the
emperor’s forces, without making any attempt upon Al¬
giers, by which he lost the opportunity of driving the
Turks out of that country; while Hayradin, justly dread¬
ing the consequences of the tyranny of his officers, sought
the protection of the grand signior. This was readily
granted, and he himself appointed bashaw or viceroy of Al¬
giers ; by which means he received such considerable re-
568
ALGIERS.
Aimers.
inforcements, that the unhappy Algerines could attempt
no resistance; and such numbers of Turks resorted to
him, that he was able not only to keep the Moors and
Arabs in subjection at home, but to annoy the Christians
at sea.
Hayradin next undertook to build a strong mole for the
protection of his ships. In this he employed 30,000 Chris¬
tian slaves, whom he obliged to labour without intermission
for three years, in which time the work was completed.
Hayradin soon became dreaded, not only by the Arabs
and Moors, but also by the maritime Christian powers,
especially the Spaniards. The viceroy failed not to ac¬
quaint the grand signior with his success, and obtained
from him a fresh supply of money, by which he was en¬
abled to build a strong fort, and to erect batteries on all
places that might, favour the landing of an enemy. All
these have since received greater improvements from
time to time.
Succeeded In the mean time the sultan, either out of a sense of
by Hassan the great services Hayradin had rendered, or perhaps out
Aga.
Charles
V.’s expe¬
dition
against
Algiers.
of jealousy lest he should make himself independent, rais¬
ed him to the dignity of bashaw of the empire, and ap¬
pointed Hassan Aga, a Sardinian renegade, an intrepid
warrior, and an experienced officer, to succeed him as
bashaw of Algiers. Hassan had no sooner taken posses¬
sion of his new government, than he began to pursue his
ravages on the Spanish coast with greater fury than ever,
extending them to the Ecclesiastical State, and other parts
of Italy. Pope Paul III. exhorted the emperor Charles
V. to send a powerful fleet to suppress these frequent and
cruel piracies; and, that nothing might be wanting to
render the enterprise successful, a bull was published by
his holiness, in which a plenary absolution of sins, and the
crown of martyrdom, were promised to all those who either
fell in battle or were made slaves. The emperor accord¬
ingly set sail at the head of a powerful fleet, consisting of
120 ships and 20 galleys, having on board 26,000 chosen
troops, and an immense quantity of money, arms, am¬
munition, &c. In this expedition many young noblemen
and gentlemen attended as volunteers, and among these
many knights of Malta, so remarkable for their valour
against the enemies of Christianity. Even ladies of birth
and character attended Charles in his expedition ; and the
wives and daughters of the officers and soldiers followed
them with a design to settle in Barbary after the conquest
should be completed. The expedition meeting with a fa¬
vourable wind, soon appeared before Algiers ; every ship
displaying the Spanish colours on the stern, and another at
the head, with a crucifix to serve for a pilot.
By this prodigious armament the Algerines were thrown
into the utmost consternation. The city was surrounded
only by a wall, with scarcely any outworks. The whole gar¬
rison consisted of 800 Turks and 5000 Moors, without fire¬
arms, and poorly disciplined and accoutred; the rest of their
forces being dispersed in the other provinces of the king¬
dom, to levy the usual tribute on the Arabs and Moors.
The Spaniards landed without opposition, and immediate¬
ly built a fort, under the cannon of which they encamped,
and diverted the course of a spring which supplied the
city with water. Being now reduced to the utmost dis¬
tress, Hassan received a summons to surrender at discre¬
tion, on pain of being put to the sword with all the garri¬
son. He was on the point of surrendering the city, when
advice was brought to him that the forces belonging to the
western government were in full march towards the place;
upon which it was resolved to defend it to the utmost.
Charles, in the mean time, resolving upon a general assault,
kept up a constant firing upon the town; which, from the
weak defence made by the garrison, he looked upon as
already in his hands. But while the douwan, or Algerine Algiers,
senate, were deliberating on the most proper means of ob-
taining an honourable capitulation, a mad prophet, attend¬
ed by a multitude of people, entered the assembly, and
foretold the speedy destruction of the Spaniards before
the end of the moon, exhorting the inhabitants to hold out
till that time. This prediction was soon accomplished in
a very surprising and unexpected manner ; for on the 28th
of October 1541 a dreadful storm of wind, rain, and hail,
arose from the north, accompanied with violent shocks of
earthquake, and a dismal and universal darkness both by
sea and land; so that the sun, moon, and elements seemed
to combine together for the destruction of the Spaniards.
In that one night, some say in less than half an hour, 86 ships
and 15galleys were destroyed, with all their crews and mili¬
tary stores, by which the army on shore was deprived of
all means of subsistence. Their camp also, which spread
itself along the plain under the fort, was laid quite under
water by the torrents which descended from the neigh¬
bouring hills. Many of the troops, in endeavouring to re¬
move into some better situation, were cut in pieces by the
Moors and Arabs ; while several galleys and other vessels,
seeking to gain some neighbouring creeks along the coasts,
were immediately plundered, and their crews massacred,
by the inhabitants.
The next morning Charles beheld the sea covered with
the fragments of his numerous ships, and the bodies of
men and horses floating on the waves. Seeing his affairs
desperate, he abandoned his tents, artillery, and all his
heavy baggage, and marched in great disorder towards
Cape Metafuz, in order to re-embark his troops in the few
vessels which had survived the tempest. But Hassan, who
had caused his motions to be watched, allowed him just
time to get to the shore, when he sallied out and attacked
the Spaniards in the midst of their confused and hasty em¬
barkation, killing great numbers, and bringing away a still
greater number of captives; after which he returned in
triumph to Algiers, where he celebrated with great re¬
joicings his happy deliverance.
Charles having reached the port of Bujeiah on the 2d of Its failure.
December, was detained there by contrary winds for seve¬
ral weeks, whence he set sail for Carthagena, which he
reached without further disasters. In this unfortunate ex¬
pedition upwards of 120 ships and galleys were lost, with
above 300 colonels and other land and sea officers, 8000
soldiers and marines, besides those destroyed by the enemy
on the re-embarkation, or drowned in the last storm. The
number of prisoners was so great that the Algerines sold
some of them, by way of contempt, for an onion per head.
Hassan, elated with this victory, in which he had very
little share, undertook an expedition against the king of
Tremecen, who, being now deprived of the assistance of
the Spaniards, was forced to procure a peace by paying a
large sum of money, and becoming tributary to him. The
bashaw returned to Algiers laden with riches, and soon
after died of a fever, in the 66th year of his age.
From this time the Spaniards were never able to annoy
the Algerines in any considerable degree. In 1555 they
lost the city of Bujeiah, which was taken by Salha Rais,
Hassan’s successor, who next year set out on a new ex¬
pedition, which was suspected to be intended against
Oran; but he had scarcely got four leagues from Algiers,
when the plague, which at that time raged violently in
the city, carried him off in 24 hours.
The dignity of bashaw passed through several hands, Bashaws,
when it was occupied by Hassan, the son of Hayradin.
Immediately on his arrival, he engaged in a war with
the Arabs, by whom he was defeated with great loss.
Next year the Spaniards undertook an expedition against
A L G ]
Algiers. Mostagan, under the command of the count d’Alcandela;
-^v^^'but were utterly defeated, the commander himself killed,
and 12,000 men taken prisoners.
Hassan engaged in the siege of Marsalquiver, situated
near the city Oran, which he designed to invest immediate¬
ly after. The army employed in this siege consisted of
26,000 foot and 10,000 horse, besides which he had a fleet
consisting of 32 galleys and galliots, together with three
French vessels laden with biscuit, oil, and other provisions.
The city was defended by Don Martin de Cordova, brother
of the count d’Alcandela, who had been taken prisoner in
the battle where that nobleman was killed, but had ob¬
tained his liberty from the Algerines with immense sums,
and now made a most gallant defence against the Turks.
The city was attacked with the utmost fury by sea and
land, so that several breaches were made in the walls.
The Turkish standards were several times planted on the
walls, and as often dislodged; but the place must have in
the end submitted, had not Hassan been obliged to raise
the siege in haste, on the news that the famed Genoese
admiral Doria was approaching with considerable succours
from Italy. «
In 1567 Hassan was recalled to Constantinople, where
he died three years after. He was succeeded by Maho¬
met, who gained the love of the Algerines by several
public-spirited actions. He incorporated the janizaries
and Levantine Turks together, and by that means put an
end to their dissensions, which paved the way for making
Algiers independent of the Porte. He likewise added
some considerable fortifications to the city and castle,
which he designed to render impregnable. At this time
one John Gascon, a bold Spanish adventurer, formed a
design of surprising the whole piratical navy in the bay,
and setting them on fire in the night-time. For this he
not only had the permission of King Philip II., but was
furnished by him with proper vessels, mariners, and fire¬
works, for the execution of his plot. He came according¬
ly, unperceived by any, to the very mole-gate, and dis¬
persed his men with their fire-works ; but, to their great
surprise, they found these so ill mixed, that all their art
could not make them take fire. In the mean time Gas¬
con took it into his head, by way of bravado, to go to the
mole-gate, and give three loud knocks with the pommel
of his dagger. This he had the good fortune to do with¬
out meeting with any disturbance or opposition; but it
was not so with his men ; for on finding their endeavours
unsuccessful, they made such a noise as quickly alarmed
the guard posted on the adjacent bastion, from which the
alarm quickly spread through the whole garrison. Gas¬
con now finding himself in the utmost danger, sailed off
with all possible haste ; but he was pursued, overtaken,
and brought back a prisoner to Mahomet, who no sooner
got him into his power than he immediately caused a
gibbet of considerable height to be erected on the spot
where Gascon had landed, ordering him to be hoisted up,
and hung by the feet to a hook, so that he died in exqui¬
site torture.
Mahomet, being soon after recalled, was succeeded by
the renegado Ochali, who reduced the kingdom of Tunis,
which, however, remained subject to the viceroy ot
Algiers only till the year 1586, when a bashaw of lunis
was appointed by the Porte.
The kingdom of Algiers continued to be governed, till
the beginning of the 17th century, by viceroys or bashaws
appointed by the Porte, whose avarice and tyranny were
intolerable both to the Algerines and the Turks them¬
selves. At last the Turkish janizaries and militia became
powerful enough to depose these petty tyrants, and set up
olficers of their own. They sent a deputation of some of
VOL. u.
E R S. 569
their chief members to the Porte, to complain of the Algiers,
avarice and oppression of these bashaws, and represent
how much more honourable, as well as more economical,
it would be for the grand signior to permit them to choose
from among themselves their own dey or governor,
whose interest it would be to see that the revenue ot the
kingdom was duly employed in keeping up its forces
complete, and in supplying all other exigencies of the
state, without any further charge or trouble to the Porte
than that of allowing them its protection. On their part,
they engaged always to acknowledge the grand signior as
their sovereign, to pay him their usual allegiance and tri¬
bute, to respect his bashaws, and to lodge and maintain
them and their retinue. All concerns which related to
the government of Algiers were to be left under the di¬
rection of the dey and his douwan.
These proposals having been accepted by the Porte, A!gerines
the deputies returned highly satisfied; and having noti-™^^
fied their new privileges, the great douwan immediately ^
proceeded to the election of a dey from among themselves.
Altercations, however, frequently happened between the
bashaws and deys, the one endeavouring to recover their
former power, and the other to reduce it.
In the year 1601 the Spaniards, under the command
of Doria, the Genoese admiral, made another attempt upon
Algiers, in which they were more fortunate than usual,
their fleet being only driven back by contrary winds, so
that they came off without loss. In 1609 the Moors,
being expelled from Spain, flocked in great numbers to
Algiers; and as many of them were very able sailors,
they undoubtedly contributed to raise the Algerine fleet
to that formidable condition which it soon after reached ;
though it is probable the frequent attempts made on their
city would also induce them to increase their fleet. In 1616
it consisted of 40 sail of ships between 200 and 400 tons,
their flag-ship having 500 tons. It was divided into two
squadrons, one of 18 sail, stationed before the port of Ma¬
laga, and the other at the cape of Santa Maria, between
Lisbon and Seville, both of which attacked all Christian
ships, both English and French, with whom they pretend¬
ed to be in friendship, as well as Spaniards and Portu¬
guese, with whom they were at war.
The Algerines were now become very formidable to
the European powers. The Spaniards, who were most
in danger, and least able to cope with them, solicited the
assistance of England and other states, and of the pope.
The French, however, were the first who dared to show
their resentment of these outrages; and in 1617 M.
Beaulieu was sent against the Algerines with a fleet of 50
men of war, who defeated their fleet and took two of their
vessels, while their admiral sunk his own ship and crew
rather than fall into his enemies’ hands.
In 1620 a squadron of English men of war was sent
against Algiers, under the conduct of Sir Robert Mansel;
but of this expedition we have no other account than
that it returned without effecting any thing; and the Alge¬
rines, becoming more and more insolent, openly defied all
the European powers, the Dutch only excepted, to whom,
in 1625, they sent a proposal directed to the prince of
Orange, that in case they would fit out 20 sail of ships
the following year, upon any good service against the
Spaniards, they would join them with 60 sail of their own.
The next year the Coulolies or Cologlies (the children
of such Turks as had been permitted to marry at Algiers),
who were enrolled in the militia, having seized on the
citadel, had nearly made themselves masters of the city,
but were attacked by the Turks and renegadoes, who
defeated them with terrible slaughter. Many of them
were put to death, and their heads thrown in heaps
570
ALGIERS.
pendence
on the
Porte.
Algiers, upon the city-walls, without the eastern gate. Part of
the citadel was blowrn up; and the remaining Coulolies
were dismissed from the militia, to which they were not
again admitted till long after.
Throw off' In the year 1623 Algiers and the other states of Barbary
their de- threw otf altogether their dependence on the Porte. No
sooner was this resolution taken, than the Algerines began
to make prizes of several merchant ships belonging to
powers at peace with the Porte. Having seized a Dutch
ship and polacre at Scanderoon, they ventured on shore;
and finding the town abandoned by the Turkish aga and
inhabitants, they plundered all the magazines and ware¬
houses, and set them on nre. About this time Louis XIII.
undertook to build a fort on their coasts, in the room of
one formerly built by the Marsilians, which they had de¬
molished. This, after some difficulty, he accomplished,
and it was called the Bastion of France ; but the situation
being afterwards found inconvenient, the French pur¬
chased the port of La Calle, and obtained liberty to trade
with the Arabians and Moors. The Ottoman court, in
the mean time, was so much embarrassed with the Per¬
sian war, that there was no leisure to check the Algerine
piracies. This gave an opportunity to the vizier and
other courtiers to compound with the Algerines, and
to share their prizes, which were very considerable.
However, for form’s sake, a severe reprimand, accompa¬
nied with threats, was sent them; to which they replied,
that “ these depredations deserved to be indulged to
them, seeing they were the only bulwark against the
Christian powers, especially against the Spaniards, the
sworn enemies of the Moslem name adding, that “ if
they should pay a punctilious regard to all that could
purchase peace, or liberty to trade with the Ottoman em¬
pire, they would have nothing to do but set fire to all
their shipping, and turn camel-drivers for a livelihood.”
In the year 1635 four younger brothers of a good fami¬
ly in France entered into an undertaking so desperate,
that perhaps the annals of knight-errantry can scarcely
furnish its equal. This was no less than to retort the
piracies of the Algerines upon themselves, and this with
a small frigate of ten guns! In this ridiculous under¬
taking 100 volunteers embarked: a Maltese commission
was procured, together with an able master and 36 mari¬
ners. They had the good fortune, on their first setting
out, to take a ship laden wdth wine on the Spanish coast,
with which they were so much elated, that three days
after they madly encountered two large Algerine corsairs,
one of 20 and the other of 24 guns, both well manned,
and commanded by able officers. These vessels attacked
the frigate so furiously that she soon lost her main-mast;
notwithstanding which, the French made so desperate a
resistance, that the pirates were not able to take them,
till the noise of their fire brought up five more Algerines,
when the French vessel, being almost torn in pieces, was
boarded and taken. The young knights-errant were pu¬
nished for their temerity by a dreadful captivity, from
which they redeemed themselves in 1642 at the price of
6000 dollars.
Various The Algerines prosecuted their piracies with impunity,
expedi- t0 the terror and disgrace of the Europeans, till the year
Hons. 1652, when a French fleet being accidentally driven to
Algiers, the admiral took it into his head to demand a
release of all the captives of his nation, without excep¬
tion. This being refused, the Frenchman without cere¬
mony carried off the Turkish viceroy, and his cadi or
judge, who had just arrived from the Porte, with all their
equipage and retinue. The Algerines, by way of repri¬
sal, surprised the Bastion of France already mentioned,
and carried off the inhabitants to the number of 600,
with all their effects; which so provoked the admiral,
that he sent them word that he would pay them another
visit the next year with his whole fleet.
The Algerines, undismayed by the threats of the French
admiral, fitted out a fleet of 16 galleys and galliots, well-
manned and equipped, under the command of Admiral
Hali Pinchinin. The chief design of this armament was
to capture the treasure of Loretto, which, however, they
were prevented by contrary winds from reaching. They
then made a descent on Puglia, in the kingdom of Naples,
where they ravaged the whole territory of Necotra, car¬
rying off a vast number of captives. Thence steering to¬
wards Dalmatia, they scoured the Adriatic; and, having
collected immense plunder, left these coasts in the utmost
consternation and resentment.
At last the Venetians, alarmed at such terrible depre¬
dations, equipped a fleet of 28 sail, under the command
of Admiral Capello, with express orders to burn, sink, or
take, all the Barbary corsairs he should meet. An engage¬
ment ensued, in which the Algerines were defeated, and
five of their vessels disabled, with the loss of 1500 men,
Turks and Christian slaves, besides 1600 galley-slaves
who regained their liberty. Pinchinin, after this defeat,
returned to Valona, where he was again watched by Ca¬
pello ; but the latter had not lain long at his old anchor¬
age before he received a letter from the senate, desiring
him to make no further attempt on the pirates at that
time, for fear of a rupture with the Porte. The brave
Venetian was forced to comply; but resolving to take
such a leave of the Algerines as he thought they de¬
served, attacked them with such bravery, that, without
any great loss, his men towed out their 16 galleys, with
all their cannon, stores, &c. To conceal this, Capello
was ordered to sink all the Algerine ships he had taken,
except the admiral’s, which was to be conducted to Venice,
and laid up as a trophy. Capello came off with a severe
reprimand; but the Venetians were obliged to purchase,
with 500,000 ducats, a peace from the Porte.
The news of this defeat and loss filled Algiers with the
utmost grief and confusion. The whole city was on the
point of a general insurrection, when the bashaw and
douwan issued a proclamation, forbidding complaints and
outcries, under the severest penalties. In the mean time
they applied to the Porte for an order that the Venetians
settled in the Levant should make up their loss. But
with this the grand signior refused to comply, and left
them to repair their losses, as well as build new ships, in
the best manner they could.
Our pirates did not long continue in their weak and de¬
fenceless state; being able, at the end of two years, to
appear at sea with a fleet of 65 sail. Admiral Pinchinin
equipped four galliots at his own expense, with which,
in conjunction with the chiayah, or secretary of the
bashaw of Tripoli, he made a second excursion. This small
squadron, consisting of five galleys and two brigantines,
fell in with an English ship of 40 guns, which, how¬
ever, Pinchinin’s captains refused to engage; but being
afterwards reproached by him for their cowardice, they
swore to attack the next Christian ship that should come
in their way. This happened to be a Dutch merchant¬
man of 28 guns, which, however, beat them off with great
loss. But though Pinchinin thus returned in disgrace,
the rest of the fleet quickly returned with vast numbers
of slaves, and an immense quantity of rich spoils; inso^
much that the English, French, and Dutch, were obliged
to court the mighty Algerines, who sometimes vouchsafed
to be at peace with them, but swore eternal war against
Spain, Portugal, and Italy, whom they looked upon as
the greatest enemies to the Mahometan name. At last
Algiers.
A L G 1
Algiers. Louis XIV., provoked by the grievous outrages committed
by the Algerines on the coasts of Provence and Langue¬
doc, ordered, in 1681, a considerable fleet to be fitted out
against them, under the marquis du Quesne, vice-admiral
of France. His first expedition was against a number of
Tripolitan corsairs, who had the good fortune to escape
him, and shelter themselves in the island of Scio, belong¬
ing to the Turks. This did not, however, prevent him
from pursuing them thither, and making such a terrible
fire upon them as quickly destroyed fourteen of their ves¬
sels, besides battering the walls of the castle.
Algiers This severity seemed only to be designed as a check to
bombarded the piracies of the Algerines ; but, finding they still con-
and set on tinued their outrages on the French coast, he sailed to
fire by the Aigiers in August 1682, cannonading and bombarding it so
Frenc . fuvious]yj that the whole town was in flames in a very
short time. The great mosque tvas battered down, and
most of the houses laid in ruins, insomuch that the inha¬
bitants were on the point of abandoning the place; when
on a sudden the wind changed, and obliged Du Quesne
to return to Toulon. The Algerines immediately made
reprisals, by sending a number of galleys and galliots
to the coast of Provence, where they committed the
most dreadful ravages, and brought away a vast number
of captives ; upon which a new armament was ordered to
be prepared at Toulon and Marseilles against the next
year; and the Algerines, having received timely notice,
put themselves in as good a state of defence as the time
would allow.
In May 1683, Du Quesne, with his squadron, cast an¬
chor before Algiers; where, being joined by the marquis
d’Affranville at the head of five stout vessels, he resolv¬
ed to bombard the town next day. Accordingly, 100
bombs were thrown into it the first day, which did ter¬
rible execution ; while the besieged made some hundred
discharges of their cannon without doing any consid¬
erable damage. The following nights the bombs were
again thrown into the city in such numbers, that the
dey’s palace and other great edifices were almost de¬
stroyed; some of their batteries were dismounted, and
several vessels sunk in the port. The dey and Turkish
bashaw, as well as the whole soldiery, alarmed at this
dreadful devastation, sued for peace. As a prelimi¬
nary, the immediate surrender of all Christian captives
who had been taken fighting under the French flag
was demanded ; which being granted, 142 of them were
immediately delivered up, with a promise of sending the
remainder as soon as they could be got from the different
quarters of the country. Accordingly Du Quesne sent his
commissary-general, and one of his engineers, into the
town; but with express orders to insist upon the delivery
of all the French captives without exception, together
with the effects taken from the French; and that Mezo-
morto, the admiral, and Hali Rais, one of their captains,
should be given as hostages.
This last demand having embarrassed the dey, he as¬
sembled the douwan, and acquainted them with it; upon
which Mezomorto broke out into a violent passion, and told
the assembly that the cowardice of those who sat at the
helm had occasioned the ruin of Algiers; but that, for his
part, he would never consent to deliver up any thing that
had been taken from the French. He immediately acquaint¬
ed the soldiery with what had passed; which so exaspe¬
rated them, that they murdered the dey that very night,
and next day chose Mezomorto in his place. The new
dey immediately cancelled all the articles of peace, and
hostilities were renewed with greater fury than ever.
The French admiral now kept pouring in such volleys
of bombs, that in less than three days the greater part of
E R S. 571
the city was reduced to ashes ; and the fire burnt with Algiers,
such vehemence, that the sea was illumined by it for more
than two leagues around. Mezomorto, unmoved at all
these disasters, and the vast number of the slain, whose
blood ran in rivulets along the streets, or rather growing
furious and desperate, sought only revenge; and, not
content with causing all the French in the city to be
cruelly murdered, ordered their consul to be tied hand
and foot, and fastened alive to the mouth of a mortar,
whence he was shot away. By this piece of inhumanity
Du Quesne was so exasperated, that he did not leave Al¬
giers till he had utterly destroyed their fortifications,
shipping, almost all the lower, and above two-thirds of
the upper part of the city, by which means it became
little else than a heap of ruins.
The haughty Algerines were now thoroughly convinced Treaty
that they were not invincible ; they therefore immediately with Eng-
sent an embassy into France, begging in the most abject an
terms for peace, which Louis immediately granted, to
their inexpressible joy. They now began to pay some re¬
gard to other nations, and to be a little cautious how they
wantonly incurred their displeasure. The first bombard¬
ment by the French had so far humbled the Algerines,
that they condescended to enter into a treaty with Eng¬
land, which was renewed upon terms very advantageous
to the latter in 1686. It is not to be supposed, however,
that the rooted perfidy of the Algerines would at once
disappear. Notwithstanding this treaty, they lost no
opportunity of making prizes of the English ships which
they could conveniently reach. Upon some outrage of
this kind, Captain Beach drove ashore and burnt seven
of their frigates in 1695, which produced a renewal of
the treaty five years after; but it was not till the taking
of Gibraltar and Port Mahon that Britain could have a
sufficient check upon them to enforce the observation of
treaties, and they have since paid a greater deference to
the English than to any other European power.
The eighteenth century furnishes no very remarkable
events with regard to Algiers, except the taking of the
city of Oran from the Spaniards in 1708 (which, however,
they regained in 1737), and the expulsion of the Turkish
bashaw, and uniting his office to that of dey, in 1710.
The increasing naval power of the great European states,
in this century, made the Barbary corsairs more cautious
in their attacks, which were now chiefly confined to the
weaker states in the vicinity of the Mediterranean, particu¬
larly those of Naples and Sardinia;—not only attacking their
vessels, but making descents upon their shores, and carrying
off not only property but also persons of every age, sex, and
rank, and disposing of them as slaves. Europe, engrossed by
the mightier evils in which it was involved during thirty years
of war, bestowed comparatively little attention on this partial
distress. At the Congress of Vienna, however, when the
peace of the Continent appeared to be established on a per¬
manent basis, the attention of the sovereigns was laudably
drawn to every quarter from which it could suffer disturbance.
The evil in question, by which numerous individuals, often
of a respectable place in society, were torn from their homes,
immured in dungeons, and exposed to every outrage, could
not fail to appear of the first magnitude. The Congress, hav¬
ing been unexpectedly broken up, did not come to any final
decision. The subject, however, continued to be agitated
in the councils of Britain, and her gallant officers who had
been employed in the Mediterranean strongly represented
the propriety of interference. The Dutch, at the same time,
her now friendly neighbours, cordially concurred in pro¬
moting this common interest of humanity.
The first step taken was to send squadrons under Lord
Exmouth to Algiers, and Sir Thomas Maitland to Tunis,
I
572
ALGIERS.
Algiers, with a demand for the general liberation of the slaves ao
-*~v~**y tually in bondage, and the entire discontinuance, for the
future, of this detestable trade. Overawed by the immense
power with which they knew these demands to be support¬
ed, they returned a conciliatory answer. They dismissed
a number of slaves actually in the;r hands, and engaged
that only the final sanction of the Porte should be wanting
to abolish for ever the system of Christian slavery. The
British commanders then returned to England with their
fleets, which were immediately laid up.
Tunis, which had imbibed some portion of European
humanity and civilisation, and was better aware of its real
interests and position, adhered very tolerably to the terms
stipulated. But Algiers, bred in rapine, furiously re¬
pelled a system which opened to its rovers the fearful
prospect of being obliged to earn a subsistence by honest
industry. So dreadful was the ferment, that a plan, it is
said, had been formed to assassinate Lord Exmouth on
his way to the ship. The dey, raised from the dregs of
the soldiery, and sharing all their barbarism, allowed full
scope to their violence, and sought only to secure himself
against its effects. He formed alliances with the Porte,
the emperor of Marocco, and other leading Mussulman
potentates ; he strengthened Algiers with new works, and
prepared to brave the utmost fury of the Christian powers.
Under these precautions, the system of Christian piracy
was commenced with redoubled activity, to compensate
for the late suspension, and to repair the loss of the slaves
who had been given up. The Algerine soldiery, in their
blind fury, had recourse to an outrage still more terrible.
A number of vessels, belonging to Naples and other Me¬
diterranean states, had been in the practice of assembling
at Bona to carry on the pearl fishery, in which, upon pay¬
ment of an annual tribute, they were protected by the Al¬
gerine state. Suddenly these peaceful and industrious
fishermen were surrounded by a band of Moors, who com¬
menced an indiscriminate massacre, which could not be
Lord Ex-
niouth’s
expedition.
justified on any ground or pretence, and seems to have
had no object but to show their implacable hatred to
the Christian name.
As soon as the tidings of this dreadful outrage arrived
in England, they kindled at once a just indignation, and a
determination to follow up to the utmost the measures
projected against this common pest of the civilized world.
Lord Exmouth’s fleet was re-equipped with almost incre¬
dible dispatch. Early in July 1816 he sailed with five ships
of the line and eight smaller vessels, and arrived at Gib¬
raltar in the beginning of August, when he was joined by a
Dutch fleet of six frigates under Admiral Capellen. Hav¬
ing remained at Gibraltar a short time, to make some ne¬
cessary preparations, Lord Exmouth sent forward Captain
Dashwood, of the Prometheus, to bring away, if possible,
tiie consul and his family.. Captain Dashwood was strict¬
ly interrogated as to Lord Exmouth’s armament, of which
the dey had received information from a French vessel,
and from other quarters. He contrived to evade the
questions; and, though he found it impossible to obtain
the consul s release, managed to bring off his wife and
daughter, disguised in the uniform of naval officers. An
attempt was also made to carry off his infant child in a
basket, but it betrayed itself by its cries; however, the dey,
with unusual humanity, allowed the child to follow its
mother. The consul himself was thrown into close confine¬
ment. The dey, meantime, was exerting himself in the
most extraordinary manner to put the place in a posture of
defence. The batteries on the mole, and all other points
commanding the harbour, were strengthened and enlarg¬
ed ; and armed men, to the number of forty thousand, were
brought in from the surrounding country.
Lord Exmouth, being detained by calms and contrary Algiers,
winds, did not anchor in front of Algiers till the 26th, when'—
he sent in a flag of truce under cover of the Severn gun-
brig, with a peremptory demand of certain conditions,
which, however, were extremely moderate. They con¬
sisted in the final abolition of Christian slavery—the im¬
mediate liberation of all slaves now within the territory
of Algiers—the repayment of all ransoms obtained since
the commencement of the year—the liberation of the
consul and all British subjects now in confinement. On
the Severn arriving in front of the mole, the captain of
the port came out to meet the English, and invited them
to enter the city. Salame, the interpreter, declined, but
presented the conditions, demanding that an answer
should be sent within an hour. The captain, not without
some reason, replied that this was a period wholly inade¬
quate to decide on so important a demand. Hereupon
two or three hours were allowed; and two were declared
by the captain to be sufficient. Meantime, a favourable
breeze having sprung up, Lord Exmouth moved forward
his ships to within a mile of the harbour, where he held
himself ready for action. Salame waited three hours and
a half, when no boat appearing from the land, he steered
for the fleet, making signals of the failure of his mission ;
after which, steps were immediately taken for commenc¬
ing operations.
Algiers was fortified in the strongest manner, and by
all the resources of nature and art. The mole, consider¬
ed a masterpiece of defensive architecture, was encircled
by four batteries, respectively of 44, 48, 66, and 60 guns.
All the range of steeps facing the sea, on which the city
was built, were covered with batteries, which could keep
up a united fire on an assailing fleet. Lord Exmouth,
undismayed, bore up into the centre of this mighty line
of defence, and placed the Queen Charlotte within fifty
yards of the mole,—a bold and happy position, where her
own fire was more effective than elsewhere, and many of
the principal Turkish guns could not bear upon her. The
other ships took their stations in line; while the Dutch
squadron, which could not find room in front of the mole,
was detached to the flanks, to occupy the fire of batteries
which might otherwise have borne on the English. The
fleets were placed in this formidable array, yet all was
still silent, and the surrounding heights were crowded
with spectators, who came as to a show. Lord Exmouth
began to hope that the dey was yet to yield, when three
shots were fired from the batteries. They were instantly
returned, and a fire commenced, as animated and well
supported as was ever witnessed. The British navy,
pitched against these iron walls, underwent as hard and
doubtful a struggle as it had ever maintained against
the strongest array of hostile fleets. The atmosphere
was filled with so thick a smoke, as to render it im¬
possible for one ship to discern the position of another.
About sunset Admiral Milne communicated that his ves¬
sel, the Impregnable, had lost 150 killed and wounded, and
that he stood in urgent need of a frigate to divert some part
of the fire now directed against them. Soon, however, the
enemy’s efforts began to slacken; the principal batteries
were successively silenced; ship after ship caught fire,
till the flame spread over the whole fleet, and reached the
arsenal; the harbour and bay were illumined by one
mighty and united blaze. At ten o’clock, seven hours
after the commencement of this hard combat, the destruc¬
tion of the Algerine naval force was complete; but as
some distant batteries still kept up a harassing fire, Lord
Exmouth gave the signal to steer out into the bay, which
was speedily accomplished.
Next morning Lord Exmouth, confident that the dey
AL GI
Algiers, was now sufficiently humbled, sent a letter, in which, after
 > enumerating the heavy wrongs which had called forth this
signal chastisement, he repeated the moderate terms already
offered, adding, that in the event of their being now accept¬
ed, three guns should be fired as a signal. This letter was
sent in the same boat as the day before, with instructions to
wait three hours. As soon as the English boat was seen,
another came out having on board the captain of a frigate,
who received the letter, and intimated that there was no
doubt of its terms being complied with; pretending even
that, had a little longer time been allowed the day before,
the conflict would have been unnecessary. Accordingly,
in an hour and a half three shots were fired, and a boat im¬
mediately came out, on board of which were the captain of
the port and the Swedish consul. All the demands were
granted; and the dey in vain attempted, on various pretexts,
to evade or delay their execution. The captives, to the
number of 1083, were set at liberty ; ransoms amounting to
382,500 dollars were repaid to Sicily and Sardinia; the
consul was liberated, and received a compensation for the
insults he had endured: in fine, a treaty was signed, by
which the dey bound himself to discontinue the practice of
Christian slavery, and hereafter to treat prisoners of war ac¬
cording to the established practice of civilized nations.
In this desperate contest the English lost 128 killed and
690 wounded, the Dutch 13 killed and 52 wounded. Lord
Exmouth received two slight hurts, and his clothes were
cut with several balls. The enemy lost four frigates, five
large corvettes, and 30 gun-boats. All their arsenals were
consumed, and their principal batteries reduced to a state of
ruin. The city also was greatly injured, Salame having
counted no less than thirty shots which had passed through
the walls of the consul’s house.
The Algerines, notwithstanding this severe and merited
chastisement, did not long adhere to sentiments of modera¬
tion. No time was lost, and no effort spared to place the
city in a more formidable state of defence than ever; and
they considered themselves again in a condition to set even
the great powers at defiance. Annoyances were begun
against the French trade ; and the consul having made re¬
monstrances on the subject, was grossly insulted. France
then declared war, and sent a fleet against Algiers ; but the
fortifications on the sea-side were so strong, that for more
than a year her ships could only prolong an ineffective block¬
ade. At length war on a great scale was resolved on. A
large fleet under Admiral Duperre, and a land force of up¬
wards of 30,000 men under General Bourmont, then mini¬
ster at war, sailed from 1 oulon in the end of May 1830.
After some delay in the bay of Palma in Majorca, this arma¬
ment reached the coast of Africa, and the troops began to
land on the morning of the 14th June, upon the western
side of the peninsula of Sidi Ferruch, in the bay of Torre
Chica. The disembarkation began at a quarter past four,
and continued till twelve. The Algerines at first showed
only flying parties of horse, which retreated before the fire
of two steam-vessels. Afterwards they opened a somewhat
brisk fire from several batteries, which having kept up for
several hours, not without some loss on the pait of the
French, they retreated.
The army continued for some days landing their provi¬
sions and stores, with only slight annoyance from flying
troops of cavalry. On the 19th, however, the Turkish troops
in Algiers being reinforced by the contingents of the beys of
Constantine, Oran, and I itterie, a general attack was made
with a force of 40,000 or 50,000 men. They advanced,
outflanking the French army, and charged with such im¬
petuosity as to penetrate the line at several points. After a
very obstinate conflict they were compelled to retreat, and
their camp was taken and plundered. The T rench admit a
E R S. 573
loss of 60 killed and 450 wounded; and the son of the com- Algiers,
mander-in-chief died of his wounds. V v ^
The Algerine troops renewed their attacks on the 24th
and 25th, when, after hard combats, they were again repulsed.
The French then advanced upon Algiers ; on the 29th the
trenches were opened, and at four in the morning of the
4th July the batteries began their fire, which was returned
with much vigour. At ten the fort called Emperor, being
no longer defensible, was blown up by the enemy, with a
tremendous explosion. The French commander took pos¬
session of its ruins, where he received a flag of truce : before
the close of the day a treaty was concluded for the entire
surrender of Algiers; and next day, 5 th July, the French
flag waved on its forts. Twelve ships of war, 1500 brass
cannon, and L.2,028,500 sterling, came into the hands of
the conquerors. The Turkish troops were permitted to go
wherever they pleased, provided they left Algiers; and the
dey chose Naples for his place of retirement, while most of
the soldiers desired to be landed in Asia Minor.
The capture of Algiers was celebrated in France with
great demonstrations of joy. This was the first military ex¬
ploit of any brilliancy of which France could boast since the
downfall of Napoleon. General Bourmont was raised to the
rank of marshal, and Admiral Duperre was promoted to the
peerage. The ministry had hoped by this war to render
themselves popular with a people so enthusiastically fond of
military glory, and to divert the public attention from their
mal-administration. But three weeks after the capture of
Algiers, the revolution of 1830 dethroned the elder branch
of the house of Bourbon, and placed the crown on the head
of the Duke of Orleans. On receiving intelligence of
this event, the army in Algiers declared in favour of the re¬
volutionists. General Clausel was appointed to succeed Mar¬
shal Bourmont, with instructions to reduce to obedience all
the provinces dependent on Algiers, and to promote com¬
merce and agriculture by encouraging the settlement of
European emigrants. The new governor found himself
placed in circumstances requiring the greatest prudence, both
in his intercourse with the natives, and in his military opera¬
tions. The French army, which had not been there three
months, was already reduced, by the loss of 15,000 men,
killed, wounded, or sick ; and from the unsettled state of the
country at home, the French government was unable to ren¬
der him any efficient assistance. The conquerors, instead
of attempting to gain the good will of the natives, had de¬
stroyed a number of their mosques, seized upon lands set
apart for religious purposes, and attempted to introduce their
own forms and usages in the place of those of the country,—
the consequence of which was that the natives imbibed the
greatest abhorrence of their oppressors, whom they looked
upon as the enemies of God and their prophet. General
Clausel incensed them still more by seizing upon the posses¬
sions of the dey, the beys, and the expelled Turks, in direct
violation of the conditions on which the capital had been
surrendered. Colonists, however, now began to arrive from
Europe, particularly from France and Germany, and a model
farm was laid out in the vicinity of Algiers for the purpose
of instructing the inhabitants in the arts of cultivation. Bona
was taken possession of, and an incursion made into the
southern province of Titterie, when the troops of the bey
were defeated, and Mediah taken. The beys of Titterie and
Oran were deposed ; the former being sent to France, and a
pension of 12,000 francs granted him ; and the latter to
Alexandria. Clausel established tributary rulers in the pro¬
vinces, and actively assisted them when attacked by the hos¬
tile Arabs, while he severely punished those who were faith¬
less in their engagements to him. Still the war continued.
Mediah was evacuated, and Oran abandoned. 1 he French
were incessantly harassed by irruptions of hordes of the
ALGIERS.
574
Algiers. Arabs, so that no Frenchman was safe even in the vicinity
of the town, and little reliance could be placed on the fide¬
lity of the beys who governed the provinces. In these cir¬
cumstances a corps of irregular Arab troops was organised;
and Clausel entered into an agreement with the bey of Tu¬
nis, by which the provinces of Constantine and Oran were
transferred to two brothers of the latter, on condition of their
paying an annual tribute of a million of francs, and of their
doing all in their power to promote the settlement of the
French in the country. The French government, however,
refused to sanction this treaty, on the ground that the go¬
vernor had exceeded his powers. General Berthezene was
now appointed commander-in-chief of the troops, although
Clausel was still allowed to retain the title of governor of
the colony. The warlike operations were continued during
the ensuing spring and summer (1831), and several expe¬
ditions were made into the interior, to chastise the hostile
tribes ; but on the appi'oach of the French troops, these wild
hordes deserted their villages, dispersed themselves over the
country, and again collecting, hung upon the rear of the army
on its return.
In one of these expeditions (in June 1836) the French
having gone to assist the new bey of Mediah whom the in¬
habitants refused to acknowledge, were attacked in their re¬
treat by a numerous army of nomad tribes, which engaged
them in incessant skirmishes, in which a great number of
the French were slain. It was no longer possible to keep
Belida and Mediah in subjection, and the newly-installed
bey was obliged to take refuge in Algiers. In October
Bona was surrounded and taken by the Kabyles. There was
now no safety but in the town of Algiers ; and the govern¬
ment found itself compelled, at the same time, to support
the emigrants who had settled there. Agriculture was con¬
sequently neglected; and it was necessary to send to France
for a supply of provisions, and for fresh troops.
The French government now determined to try the effect
of a change in the administration of the colony, and entrusted
die civil and military jurisdictions to distinct officers. Ac¬
cordingly, in the end of the year 1831, Savary, Duke of Ro-
vigo, was sent out as governor with an additional force of
16,000 men, and Baron Pichon was placed at the head of
the civil administration of the colony; but in consequence
of the conflicts between the two powers, they were both
afterwards united in the hands of the governor. The de¬
termination of the French government to retain permanent
possession of Algiers was now no longer doubtful.1 The
new governor, the Duke of Rovigo, did not disdain to have
recourse to fraud and cruelty for the accomplishment of his
purpose. Among his exploits was the extirpation of an Arab
tribe, on account of a robbery committed by them, when not
only the men, but the women and children were massacred
in the night time; as were also two Arab chiefs, whom he
had enticed into his power by a written assurance of safety.
These proceedings still farther exasperated the natives, and
those tribes which had hitherto remained quiet now em¬
braced the cause of their countrymen.
About this time Abd-el-Kader first appears as an op¬
ponent to the French. For fourteen years, this chief, with
a few nomadic Arab tribes, kept in check the forces of one
of the most powerful nations of the world. His father, a
marabout of the tribe of Hachem, had collected a few of the
hostile tribes, and attacked and taken possession of Oran. Algiers.
On this the tribes wished to acknowledge him as their chief;
but this, on account of his great age, he declined in favour of
his son Abd-el-Kader, who, he said, united in himself all the
qualities of intelligence, activity, valour, and piety, neces¬
sary to ensure success; farther adding, that in his journey
to Mecca, an old fakir had predicted that his son would
one day become sultan of the Arabs. Abd-el-Kader was
born about the beginning of 1807, at the ghetna of his
father, in the vicinity of Mascara. The Ghetna is a seminary
where the marabouts instruct the young Arabs in literature,
theology, and jurisprudence. Abd-el-Kader early distin¬
guished himself in these branches, and soon acquired great
reputation among his countrymen for his learning. Nor did
he neglect those manly exercises for which the Arabs are
distinguished, but was remarkable for his skill in horseman¬
ship, and in throwing the lance and wielding the yatagan.
Fie made two pilgrimages to Mecca in company with his
father, once when only a child, and again in 1828, by which
he obtained the title of Hadji. On his return he married
a female whom he tenderly loved, and by whom he has two
sons. He also visited Egypt, for the purpose of observing
the civilisation which had been introduced there under Ma¬
homet Ali. At the time that his father was proclaimed
emir, he was living in obscurity, distinguished by the auste¬
rity of his manners, his piety, and his zeal in observing all
the precepts of the Koran. Having resolved to devote him¬
self to the defence of his country, he, by great exertions,
collected an army of 10,000 horsemen, with whom, accom¬
panied by his father, he marched to attack the town of
Oran, which had been taken possession of by the French.
They arrived before the town about the middle of May 1832;
but after continuing their attack for three days with great
bravery, they were repulsed with considerable loss.
In this first essay of Abd-el-Kader as a soldier, he is said
to have conducted himself with extraordinary bravery. He
several times threw himself into the thickest of the fight,
to teach the Arabs not to dread the fire of' the artillery.
This enterprise was followed by a series of contests more or
less severe between the parties, without any permanent or
decided advantage being gained by either. In March 1833,
the Duke of Rovigo was obliged, on account of his declin¬
ing health, to return to France, and General A vizard was
appointed interim governor; but the latter dying shortly
afterwards, General Yoirol was nominated his successor.
Abd-el-Kader was still extending his influence more and
more widely among the Arab tribes, and now resolved to
subdue the whole province of Mascara. He accordingly
marched to Tlemecen, which at that time was in the pos¬
session of two separate factions ; the Turks occupying the
citadel and the Moors the rest of the town. Abd-el-Kader
began by attacking the Moors, whose chief soon took to
flight, and the inhabitants surrendered the town. He treated
them with great kindness, and set a new chief over them ;
but he was not equally successful with the Turks, who re¬
fused to surrender ; and not having been able to force the
citadel, he returned to Mascara, where he heard with great
grief of the death of his father. The French now con¬
sidered it their interest to offer the emir conditions of peace.
A treaty was accordingly concluded with him by General
Desmichels, governor of Oran ; one of the conditions of
7 ^ 6 1 Un ^ ^ A1Serine exPe<iition) the Duke of Wellington’s Ministry insisted upon and obtained from the French
cour p e ges a l ance i not aim at the permanent possession of Algiers, but only to obtain satisfaction for the injuries and insults
rec®1.ve ’ an. 0 l)u °-nt at system of piracy with which Europe had been so long outraged. The French Ministry engaged
a lese o jects ein{? accomp is led, the final settlement and government of the country should be arranged in concert with the other
European powers for the general advantage; and the Wellington Cabinet obtained a repel tition of these assurances from Louis Philippe
and his ministry immediately after their accession. Nevertheless, in the session of 1833, the French Ministry declared that it was the
intention of their government to retain possession of Algiers and to colonise it
ALGIERS. 575
Algiers, which was, that the emir was to have a monopoly of the
 > trade with the French in corn. This part of the treaty
General Desmichels at first endeavoured to keep secret
from the government; but they soon heard of it,'from the
disputes which arose, and the general was consequently re¬
moved from his post. Towards the end of 1834, Drouet
Count d’Erlon was appointed governor-general of the
colony ; and under him were appointed a commander of the
troops, a commander of the naval forces, and several other
officers. Tribunals of justice were also established, by
which both French and natives were allowed to enjoy their
respective laws. From the tranquil state of the country at
this time, the new governor was enabled to devote his at¬
tention to its improvement. The French soon became
jealous of the power of the emir; and on the pretence that
he had been encroaching on their territory, General Trezel,
who had succeeded Desmichels in the governorship of
Oran, was sent out against him with a considerable force.
The two armies met at the River Macta, where the French
army was routed with great slaughter on the 28th of June
1835. On the news of this defeat the govei’nment resolved
effectually to humble Abd-el-Kader, and sent Marshal
Clausel to Algiers for that purpose, where he arrived in
August 1835. On the 26th November following, he set
out, at the head of 11,000 men, for Mascara, which he
reached on the 6th of the following month. On his arrival,
finding the town totally deserted, he destroyed it, and after¬
wards returned to Algiers, persuading himself, if we may
judge from his bulletins, that he had extirpated the Arab
power. Some time after this the emir attacked General
d’Arlanges and a company of 3000 men, on the Tafna.
The contest was continued for some time with great vigour,
but the French troops were at length put to flight. On
this General Bugeaud was commissioned to put down the
emir either by hostile or pacific measures. Conciliatory
means having failed, he attacked the Arabs at the pass of
Sikak, on the 6th of July 1836, and gained a complete
victory over them ; but not having sufficiently followed up
this advantage, the emir in a few months had so far re¬
covered himself that the French were fain to conclude a
treaty with him, even on terms very advantageous to the
Arabs. By the terms of this treaty, Abd-el-Kader was al¬
lowed to retain possession of those parts of the country that
were already in subjection to him, with liberty to purchase
from the French such military stores as he required; w hile
on his side he was bound to acknowledge the sovereignty of
France, and to deliver for the use of the French army a
stipulated quantity of provisions. This treaty was concluded
on the 30th of May 1837. Previous to this, however, Mar¬
shal Clausel made an unsuccessful attack upon Constantine.
He arrived before the town after a very fatiguing march on
the 21st of November 1836, with a force of about 9000
men. After several unsuccessful attacks upon the town, he
was obliged to retreat. In this expedition he lost a great
number of his soldiers through exhaustion and disease ; and
this failure occasioned his recal from his government. His
successor, general Damremont, arrived on the 3d of April
1837 ; and after subjecting some tribes of the Kabyles who
had revolted, he directed his attention to the capture of
Constantine ;—for which purpose he collected a force of
12,000 men, partly Europeans and partly natives. With
this army he arrived before the town on the 6th of October
without encountering any opposition on his march. The
town was defended by 6000 or 7000 men, chiefly Kabyles,
under the command of Ben Aissa, the deputy of the bey.
After a very gallant defence, the town was taken by storm
on the 13th of that month by General Vallee, General
Damremont having been killed by a cannon ball on the
preceding day. On the capture of the city, the neighbour¬
ing tribes hastened to make their submission to the con- Algiers,
querors ; and a strong garrison being left to defend the
town, the army retraced its steps to Bona, where it arrived
on the 3d of November. As a reward for his services,
General Vallee was made a marshal, and appointed governor-
general of the colony. Disputes with the emir as to the
boundaries of his territory were very frequent, until at length
war was again declared between the parties. The French
have endeavoured to fix upon the emir the infringement
of both these treaties ; but the truth seems to be, that it
was occasioned by their jealousy of his growing power ; and
even some of themselves admit, that he can be accused of
no breach of faith, and that, in both instances, the formal
violation of the treaties was by the French. The emir, like
a good general, had employed those intervals of peace in
extending his influence among his subjects, chastising those
tribes that refused to acknowledge him, and treating those
who submitted to his authority with the greatest kindness.
He set rulers and chiefs on whom he could depend over the
divisions and subdivisions of his territory, and bestowed the
greatest attention on the military training of his subjects.
The immediate cause of the war on this occasion was the
marching of an armed force of French troops through the
emir’s territory. This the latter looked upon as an in¬
fringement of the treaty, and consequently declared war.
On the 14th of December 1839, he fell upon the French
troops in the plain of Metidja, and routing them with great
slaughter, took and destroyed their settlements. He even
advanced as far as the very walls of Algiers, and soon re¬
duced their possessions to the fortified places which they
occupied. On this the French army in Africa was aug¬
mented, and numerous skirmishes took place, without any
decisive results to either party; the only thing worthy of
notice being the gallant and successful defence, for four days,
of Fort Mazagran, near Mostagan, by a garrison of 123
men, against from 12,000 to 13,000 of the enemy. Ihe
campaign was opened on the part of the French on the
25th of April 1840, when they set out with a considerable
force to take possession of the towns of Mediah and Milianah.
Although successful, the permanent results of this expedi¬
tion were comparatively trifling. The garrisons left behind
found themselves so surrounded by enemies that they could
not trust themselves without their walls; and even when
the French arms wrere successful at a distance, no one could
consider himself secure immediately without the walls of Al¬
giers. The French government being dissatisfied with Mar¬
shal Vallee’s want of success, appointed General Bugeaud as
his successor. The new governor-general arrived at Algiers
on the 22d of February 1841. On opening the campaign,
his first object was to provision Mediah and Milianah.
Having accomplished this, he next marched at the head
of 11,000 men to Jekedemt, the principal stronghold of
Abd-el-Kader. When he arrived there on the 25th of
May, he found it abandoned by its inhabitants; on which he
ordered it to be destroyed, and the citadel, which had been
built by the emir, to be blown up. From hence the gene¬
ral went to Mascara, which he entered on the 30th of the
month. In October following, he set out for Laida, the
only remaining stronghold in the possession of the emir,
which he took, and entirely demolished. These misfortunes
of the emir caused numerous defections among his subjects ;
—none of them now offered any opposition to the French,
and several of them became their allies. The region to¬
wards the borders of Marocco being still unsubdued, an
expedition was sent into that territory in January 1842.
On the 30th of that month, they took the town of fleme-
cen ; and ten days afterwards the fort of Tafrua, which they
demolished. The troops of Abd-el-Kader having been
almost entirely destroyed by so many misfortunes, he was
576 A L G I
Algiers, obliged to take refuge in Marocco, and most of his subject
•V'"*-'' tribes now submitted to the French. But Abd-el-Kader
was not yet overcome : he appeared again with a small force,
and going from tribe to tribe exhorted them, by all they held
dear and sacred, to bestir themselves, and by one vigorous
effort, to drive the invaders out of their country. By these
means he was able to raise a considerable force; and he
made up for the want of troops by the rapidity of his move¬
ments. He suddenly made an attack upon one part of the
French territories, when he was supposed to be in quite a
contrary direction, and even advanced to within a short dis¬
tance of Mascara. An army was accordingly sent out against
him, which advanced south as far as the sources of the
Taguin, but without coming up to the enemy. On their
retreat, however, a conflict took place at Isna, in which the
Arabs were defeated, and the emir himself narrowly escaped
being taken prisoner. On this the French troops returned
to Mascara, in the end of November 1842. The emir now
stirred up the Kabyles of Bougie to make an attack upon
Cherchell. In this however they were baffled by the
energetic proceedings of General Bugeaud, who did not
hesitate to go in the middle of winter to the mountainous
regions of the Jurjura to quell this insurrection. Though
the colony was now in a comparatively quiet and secure
state, this had only been accomplished at a vast expenditure
of money, amounting to not less than L.60,000,000 sterling,
and at a great sacrifice of human life, of which we may in
some measure judge from the fact that, in the month of
September, independently of the lives lost, out of 80,000
men, as many as 24,000 were lying in the hospitals. It is
unnecessary to follow out the remaining struggles of the
emir in Algiers. His forces were now so reduced, that he
could not cope with the French in the open field, though
he did not cease to harass them by incursions into their
territories.
The emir was at length reduced to such straits, that he
agreed to deliver himself up to the French, on receiving a
promise of safety, and of being allowed to retire to Alex¬
andria or to St Jean d’Acre. Notwithstanding this promise,
which was given by General Lamoriciere, and ratified by
the governor of the colony, the Duke d’Aumale, son of
Louis Philippe, he and his suite were embarked at Oran
for Toulon, where he arrived on the 29th of January 1848.
From Toulon the emir was removed first to the chateau of
Paris, and afterwards (in November) to the chateau of
Amboise near Boise, where, till very recently, he was de¬
tained a prisoner. The emir, in December 1852, left
France for Broussa, where he now lives in retirement, and
is said to be devoting his time chiefly to reading the Koran,
and religious exercises.
Since the removal of Abd-el-Kader from Algiers, the
French power may be said to be established in the country ;
but even now skirmishes are not unfrequent with some of
the more unsettled tribes. This possession has as yet turned
out to be anything but a profitable speculation for France ;
and although it has been lately much improved, it is doubtful
if, for many years to come, it will compensate for the im¬
mense sums of money and the loss of life that it has occa¬
sioned to that country.
Govern- Before giving an account of the present government
ment. 0f Algiers, it may be interesting to take some notice of it
under the Turks. The bey or pasha, although nominally
under the Porte, to whom he annually transmitted some
presents, was in reality an absolute monarch. The first
Beys were elected by the militia, who were then called the
douwan or “common council.” This body was at first com¬
posed of 800 militia officers, but was afterwards reduced to
thirty chiah-bashaws or colonels, with the mufti or high
priest, and cadi, or chief judge, upon some emergencies;
E R S.
and on the election of a dey the whole militia was allowed Algiers,
to vote. Latterly the power of this court was merely nomi-
nal, and it had only to sanction the measures of the dey.
The dey rose from the army, and indeed any bold and as¬
piring soldier might attain that honour, if he succeeded in
getting rid of the existing ruler. Thus the dey was continu¬
ally exposed to attacks, and few of them had the good for¬
tune to die in office. The new dey frequently established
his power by causing to be strangled all the officers of the
douwan who had opposed his election. Each of the three
provinces, exclusive of Algiers, was governed by a bey no¬
minated by the dey. The corsairs or pirates formed a
number of small republics, of each of which the rais or cap¬
tain was the supreme bashaw; who, with the officers under
him, composed a kind of douwan, in which every question
relating to the vessel was decided. These corsairs carried
on likewise the commerce of Algiers, importing whatever
commodities were brought into the kingdom either as mer¬
chandise or as prizes.
At present the country is under a governor-general, who
is invested with the chief power in all the civil and military
affairs. Each of the provinces has a prefect, under whom
are sub-prefects for each of the districts, and under these, a
number of native rulers over smaller divisions. Various
courts of justice have been established, with a court of ap¬
peal in the capital, composed of two chambers—the one tor
civil, and the other for criminal cases. The natives are also
still allowed their own courts and laws; and among the
Jews, justice is administered by the rabbis.
The Roman Catholic religion was established here in 1838. Religion.
There is a cathedral in Algiers, and the Catholic worship is
performed in almost every town, either in edifices builtfor the
purpose, or in mosques which have been appropriated to that
end. The Bishop of Algiers is assisted by four vicars-gene-
ral, and eight canons, with a number of curates and vicars,
amounting in 1849 to 114. There are four Protestant
pastors in the country, established at the towns of Algiers,
Douera, Blidah, and Oran. The Jews and Turks are also
allowed the free exercise of their religious worship.
Considerable attention is paid to education by the esta-Education
blishment of schools and other means. In 1850 there were
68 public, 39 private, and eight infant schools, attended by
9679 scholars, besides Mussulman and Jewish schools. There
is also a college at Algiers, the capital; and in 1848 an aca¬
demy was established there, at the head of which is a rector,
who, assisted by an inspector, has the general superinten¬
dence of the public instruction.
The medical knowledge of the Arabs is in a very rude Medical
state, but latterly the French surgeons have been in great re- board-
quest among them. A medical board has been established
near each Arab bureau ; and the inhabitants come in great
numbers to consult the physicians. Some tribes less subject
to national prejudice even bring their wives, and consent
that they should be visited by the French practitioners. The
patients most seriously affected are received into the mili¬
tary hospitals, when they can surmount the repugnance to
enter them. The officers of health likewise make frequent
tours to visit the sick in their tents. Vaccination has spread
Math unexpected success. At first the Arabs refused to pre¬
sent their infants, because they believed that the object of
the French was to fix a mark upon them by which they
might afterwards recognise them and carry them into France
as slaves or as soldiers. This distrust has now been overcome.
The Arab markets were always objects of vigilant sur¬
veillance, for it was there that all the reports hostile to the
French originated and were propagated. To meet these
fomenters of disorder, and to circulate intelligence of the
administrative measures of the government, a journal is
printed in the Arabic character, and distributed gratis among
A L G
Algiers, the chiefs. It is published every fortnight, and is soughtafter
with great avidity; and has already produced the most bene¬
ficial effects.
Commerce. From the unsettled state of the country, the restrictions
and heavy duties of the French tariff, and the poverty of
the people, Algiers has as yet attained little commercial im¬
portance. The principal exports of the country are horses
and cattle, skins of animals, leeches, wool, wax, coral, to¬
bacco, and minerals. The exports of 1848 amounted in value
to L.281,^63, of which L.138,484 was the produce of the
country,'And L.143,379, was the re-exportation of French
and foreign merchandise. The following were the propor¬
tions of the principal of its exports:—to France, 48*5 per
cent.; Spain, 22’8; the Two Sicilies, 7-6; Sardinia, 6’8; Eng¬
land, 5*8; Tuscany, 5‘5. The imports of the same year
amounted to L.3,419,858, of which nearly a third consisted
of cotton and woollen goods, and a fifth of grain. The fol¬
lowing countries contributed to its imports as follows, viz.—
France, 77’5 per cent.; Tuscany, 5’7; Turkey, 5’7; Spain,
Army. 4#9 ; England, 4T. The French troops in Algiers in 1850
amounted to 70,771 infantry, and 13,189 cavalry, 6437 native
infantry, and 3422 cavalry, with a militia force of 16,407
men.—See Tableaux de la situation des etabhssements
Frangais dans VAlgerie, 1851.
Algiers, the capital of the above territory, is probably
the ancient Icosium ; by the Arabians called Algezair, or
rather Al-Jezier or Al-Jezerah, i.e. the island, because there
was an island before the city, to which it has since been
joined by a mole. It is built of white stone, on the declivity
of a hill fronting the sea, in the form of an amphitheatre;
and from the sea resembles a ship under sail. The houses
rise above each other in such a manner that each from its
flat roof commands a view of the sea. The streets are so
narrow as scarcely to admit two persons to walk abreast.
But since the French conquest, about a fourth part of the
old town has been superseded by new streets, lined with
fine houses, shops, and hotels ; and in the centre of the city
is the Place du Gouvernement, a large and handsome square
in the European style. The streets have all received trench
names; and in a population amounting in 1849 to 97,389,
including the garrison, 72,393 were French or other Euro¬
peans, the rest Moors, Kabyles, Jews, &c. The town is the
seat of a court of appeal and two courts of primary jurisdic¬
tion, has a public hospital, a chamber of commerce, library, and
museum, a cathedral, and a Protestant church. Many shops
have been opened by Europeans, but business is still mostly
transacted in the bazaars; which, with barbers’ shops and cafes,
are the chief places of resort for the natives. Algiers is the
residence of the governor-general of the French possessions
in Africa, and of the principal functionaries, and courts ol
justice. It has been newly fortified, and is strongly garri¬
soned. It is well supplied with water: provisions are gene¬
rally cheap, except bread, which is dear. Long. 3. 30. E.
Eat. 36. 49. N. The harbour of Algiers, at the time of the
capture, was rather small, and incapable of accommodating
any vessel larger than a middle-sized frigate ; but a plan was
definitively adopted in 1848, which, when carried out, will
render the harbour very capacious. It will be surrounded
on the northern side by a breakwater 700 yards long, on the
south by one 1200 yards long, and the entrance will be
350 yards wide. Each side of the entrance is to be defended
by a strong battery. These improvements are now' being
effected, and experiments were recently made (1852) to
ascertain how far they were satisfactory. Five men-of-war
towed by steamers severally entered the port, and cast an¬
chor at a cable’s length from each other: a sixth man-of-war
and several steamers also entered and anchored; and all
these vessels did not encroach upon the space set apart for
merchant vessels. It is said that three men-of-war and three
A L H 577
steam frigates in addition might have anchored there with- Algoa
out inconvenience. It is calculated that the removal of a II
rock called “ Roche sans nom,” situated about the middle , am ra;
of the port, will allow a fleet of at least twelve men-of-war
and as many frigates to anchor, in addition to the merchant
vessels. Orders have been given to have this rock removed
forthwith.
ALGOA BAY, or Zwart-kops, in Southern Africa, is
situated in Long. 26.53. E. Lat. 33. 56. S. and 425 miles east
from the Cape of Good Hope. It lies between Capes Woody
and Recife, which are 33^ miles apart; but it is only in the
west and north-east parts of the bay that ships may anchor
and find shelter. The anchorage of Port Elizabeth on the
west side is perfectly secure for six months in the year, dur¬
ing the prevalence of the north-east winds. Ihe bay is
much frequented by black whales and seals. There is a
lighthouse on Cape Recife.
ALGOL, or /3 Persei, a variable fixed star of the second
or third magnitude, called Medusa’s Head. Its position,
according to the catalogue of the London Astronomical So¬
ciety, was, on January 1. 1853, 2 h. 58 m. 3rl6 sec.; N.
Deck 49° 36' 51*76".
ALGOR is used to signify an unusual coldness in any
part of the body.
ALGORITHM, an Arabic word expressive of numerical
computation.
ALGUAZIL, in the Spanish polity, an officer whose
business it is to see the decrees of a judge executed.
ALHAMA, a city of Spain, in the province of Granada,
in Andalucia. It is in a fine valley, enjoys a most salubrious
climate, and is surrounded by fields most abundantly pro¬
ductive of wheat and barley. Near it are some medicinal
baths of ancient celebrity, to which invalids still resort. Dr
Traill found their temperature equal to 118° F. It was a
most important fortress when the Moors ruled Granada,
and its capture by the Christians was the most decisive step
in the reduction of their power. It contains 6500 inhabi¬
tants, and is situated in Lat. 37. N. Long. 4. 10. W.
ALHAMBRA, the ancient fortress and residence of the
Moorish monarchs of Granada. It derives its name from
the red colour of the materials with which it was originally
built, Alhambra signifying a red house. It appears to a
traveller a huge heap of as ugly buildings as can well be seen,
all huddled together, seemingly without the least intention
of forming one habitation out of them. T he walls are en¬
tirely unornamented, all of tapia or pise, a mixture of fine
gravel and clay, formed into huge sun-dried bricks ; yet this
is the palace of the Moorish kings of Granada, indisputably
the most curious place within that exists in Spain, perhaps
in the world. In many countries may be seen excellent
modern as well as ancient architecture, both entire and in
ruins ; but nothing to be met with anywhere else can con¬
vey an idea of this edifice, except the decorations of an opera,
or the tales of the genii.
Passing round the corner of the emperor’s palace, one is
admitted at a plain unornamented door in a corner. “ On
my first visit,” says Mr Swinburne {Travels in Spain), “ I
confess I was struck with amazement, as I stept over the
threshold, to find myself on a sudden transported into a
species of fairy land. The first place you come to is the
court called the communa or del mesucar, that is, the com¬
mon baths ; an oblong of 165 by 25 feet, with a deep basin
of clear water in the middle ; two flights of marble steps
leading down to the bottom; on each side a parterre of
flowers, and a row of orange trees. Round the court runs
a peristyle paved with marble : the arches bear upon very
slight pillars, in proportions and style different from all the
regular orders of architecture. The ceilings and walls are
incrustated with fretwork in stucco, so minute and intricate
VOL. II.
578 A L H A
Alhambra, that the most patient draughtsman would find it difficult to
follow it, unless he made himself master of the general plan.
This would facilitate the operation exceedingly ; for all this
work is frequently and regularly repeated at certain distances,
and has been executed by means of square moulds applied
successively, and the parts joined together with the utmost
nicety. In every division are Arabic sentences of different
lengths, most of them expressive of the following meanings :
‘There is no conqueror but God;’ or, ‘Obedience and
honour to our lord Abouabdoulah.’ The ceilings are gilt
or painted, and time has caused no diminution in the fresh¬
ness of their colours, though constantly exposed to the air.
The lower part of the walls is mosaic, disposed in fantastic
knots and festoons. A work so novel, so exquisitely finished,
and so different from all that he has ever seen, must afford
a stranger the most agreeable sensations while he treads
this magic ground. The porches at the ends are more like
grotto-work than any thing else to which they can be com¬
pared. That on the right hand opens into an octagon vault,
under the emperor’s palace, and forms a perfect whispering
gallery, meant to be a communication between the offices
of both houses: at its north end is the most magnificent
hall of this palace, Sola de Gomarez, intended for the court
receptions, and giving audience to ambassadors.” Dr Traill
found it a square of 456 with a height of between 50 and
60 feet; the walls exquisitely ornamented with costly fret¬
work of stucco enriched with gilding; and to the height of
six feet from the floor, covered with glazed porcelain tiles.
“ Opposite to the door of the communa through which you
enter, is another leading into the corte de los leones, or court
of the lions, which is an oblong court, 100 feet in length
and 50 in breadth, environed with a colonnade seven feet
broad on the sides, and 10 at the end. Two porticoes or
cabinets, about 15 feet square, project into the court at the
two extremities. The square is paved with coloured tiles,
the colonnade with white marble. The walls are covered
five feet up from the ground with blue and yellow tiles, dis¬
posed checquerwise. Above and below is a border of small
escutcheons, enamelled blue and gold, with an Arabic motto
on a bend, signifying, ‘ No conqueror but God.’ The
columns that support the roof and gallery are of white mar¬
ble, very slender, and fantastically adorned. They are nine
feet high, including base and capital, and eight inches and
a half in diameter. They are very irregularly placed;
sometimes singly, at others in groups of three, but more fre-
quently two together. The width of the horse-shoe arches
above them is four feet two inches for the large ones, and
three for the smaller. The ceiling of the portico is finished
in a much finer and more complicated manner than that of the
communa, and the stucco is laid on the walls with inimitable
delicacy : in the ceiling it is so artfully frosted and handled
as to exceed belief. The capitals are of various designs,
though each design is repeated several times in the circum¬
ference of the court; but not the least attention has been
paid to placing them regularly or opposite to each other.
Not the smallest representation of animal life can be dis¬
covered amidst the varieties of foliages, grotesques and
strange ornaments. About each arch is a large square of
arabesques, surrounded with a rim of characters, generally
consisting of quotations from the Koran. Over the pillars
is another square of exquisite filigree work. Higher up is a
wooden rim, or kind of cornice, as much enriched with carv¬
ing as the stucco that covers the part underneath. Over
this projects a roof of red tiles, the only thing that disfigures
this beautiful square. This ugly covering is a modern ad¬
dition made by a late prime minister, who a few years ago
gave the Alhambra a thorough repair. In Moorish times
the building was covered with large painted and glazed
tiles, of which a few are still to be seen. In the centre of
MBK A.
the court are twelve ill-made marble lions, their fore parts Alhambra,
smooth, their hind parts rough, which bear upon their backs
a polygonal basin, 15^ feet in diameter, out of which rises a
lesser basin. While the pipes were kept in good order, a
great volume of water was thrown up, which, falling down
into the basins, passed through the lions, and issued out of
their mouths into a large reservoir, where it communicated
by channels with the jets dUeau in the apartments. This
fountain is of white marble, embellished with many festoons
and Arabic distiches.
“ Passing along the colonnade, and keeping on the south
side, you come to a circular room occupied by the men as
a place for drinking coffee, &c. A fountain in the middle
refreshed the apartment in summer. The form of this hall,
the elegance of its cupola, the cheerful distribution of light
from above, and the exquisite manner in which the stucco
is designed, painted, and finished, exceed all power of de¬
scription. Every thing in it inspires the most pleasing,
voluptuous ideas; yet in this sweet retreat, it is said that
Abouabdoulah assembled the Abencerrages, and caused
their heads to be struck off into the fountain. Continuing
your walk round, you are next brought to a couple of rooms
at the head of the court, which are supposed to have been
tribunals, or audience-chambers.
“ Opposite to the sola de los Abencerrages is the entrance
into the torre de las dos hermanas, or the tower of the two
sisters; so named from two very beautiful pieces of marble,
laid as flags in the pavement. This gate exceeds all the
rest in profusion of ornaments, and in the beauty of the pro¬
spect it affords through a range of apartments, where a
multitude of arches terminate in a large window open to
the country. In a gleam of sunshine, the variety of tints
and lights thrown upon this enfilade are uncommonly rich.
I he first hall is the concert-room, where the women sat:
the musicians played above in four balconies. In the
middle is a. jet d’eau. The marble pavement is equal to the
finest existing, for the size of the flags and evenness of the
colour. The two sisters, which give name to the room, are
slabs that measure 15 feet by seven and a half, without flaw
or stain. The walls, up to a certain height, are mosaic, and
above are divided into very neat compartments of stucco,
all of one design, which is also followed in many of the ad¬
jacent halls and galleries. The ceiling is a fretted cove.
To preserve this vaulted roof, as well as some of the other
principal cupolas, the outward walls of the towers are raised
ten feet above the top of the dome, and support another
roof over all, by which means no danger can ever be caused
by wet weather or excessive heat and cold. From this hall
you pass round the little myrtle garden of Lindaraxa, into an
additional building made to the east end by Charles V.
The rooms are small and low. His favourite motto, Plus
outre, appears on every beam. This leads to a little tower
projecting from the line of the north wall, called el tocador,
or the dressing-room of the sultana. It is a small square
cabinet, in the middle of an open gallery, from which it re¬
ceives light by a door and three windows. The look-out is
charming. In one corner is a large marble flag, drilled full
of holes, through which the smoke of perfumes ascended
from furnaces below; and here, it is presumed, the Moor¬
ish queen was wont to sit to perfume herself. The em¬
peror caused this pretty room to be painted with repre¬
sentations of his wars, and a great variety of grotesques,
which appear to be copies, or at least imitations, of those in
the loggie of the Vatican. From hence you go through a
long passage to the hall of ambassadors, which is magnifi¬
cently decorated with innumerable varieties of mosaics, and
the mottoes of all the kings of Granada. This long narrow
antichamber opens into the communa on the left hand, and
on the right into the great audience-hall in the tower
A L H
Alhaurin of Comares ; a noble apartment, 36 feet square, 36 high up
II to the cornice, and 18 from thence to the centre of the
Alhazen. cup0la. The walls on three sides are 15 feet thick, on the
■V*'/ other nine ; the lower range of windows 13 feet high. I he
whole wall is inlaid with mosaic of many colours, disposed
in intricate knots, stars, and other figures. In every part
various Arabic sentences are repeated.
“ Having thus completed the tour of the upper apartments,
which are upon a level with the offices of the new palace,
you descend to the lower floor, which consisted of bed¬
chambers and summer-rooms : the back stairs and passages,
that facilitated the intercourse between them, are without
number. The most remarkable room below is the king’s
bed-chamber, which communicated by means of a gallery
with the upper story. The beds were placed in two alcoves,
upon a raised pavement of blue and white tiles ; but as it
was repaired by Philip V. who passed some time here, its
former appearance can only be conjectured. A fountain
played in the middle, to refresh the apartment in hot
weather. Behind the alcoves are small doors that conduct
to the royal baths. These consist of one small closet with
marble cisterns for washing children, two rooms for grown¬
up persons, and vaults for boilers and furnaces that supplied
the baths with water, and the stoves with vapours. The
troughs are formed of large slabs of white marble ; the walls
are beautifully adorned with party-coloured earthen ware ;
and light is admitted by holes in the coved ceiling.
“ Hard by is a whispering gallery, and a kind of labyrinth,
said to have been made for the diversion of the women and
children. One of the passages of communication is fenced
off with a strong iron grate, and called the prison of the
Sultana ; but it seems more probable that it was put up to
prevent any body from climbing into the division allotted to
the women.
“ Under the council-room is a long slip, called the king's
study ; and adjoining to it are several vaults, said to be the
place of burial of the royal family. In the year 1574 four
sepulchres were opened; but as they contained nothing but
bones and ashes, they were immediately closed again.”
This description of the Alhambra may be finished by ob¬
serving how admirably every thing was planned and calcu¬
lated tor rendering this palace the most voluptuous of all
retirements ; what plentiful supplies of water were brought
to refresh it in the hot months of summer; what a free cir¬
culation of air was contrived, by the judicious disposition ot
doors and windows ; what shady gardens of aromatic trees ;
what noble views over the beautiful hills and fertile plains.
“ Alhambram,” said the Italian, Peter Martyr, when he en¬
tered it in the train of the Gothic conquerors, “ proh dii
immortales! qualem regiam! unicam in orbe terrarum
crede!” No wonder the Moors regretted Granada! no
wonder that they still offer up prayers to God every Friday
for the recovery of this city, which they regard as a terres¬
trial paradise !
ALHAURIN EL GRANDE, so called to distinguish
it from a neighbouring village of the same name, a town of
Spain, in the province of Malaga, 12 miles south-west of the
town of that name. It is a favourite summer resort of the
inhabitants of Malaga. Pop. 5514.
ALHAZEN, an Arabian author of the eleventh century,
who is better entitled to the appellation of philosopher than
most of those of his countrymen by whom it has been ob¬
tained. The place of his birth was Bassora ; the year un¬
certain ; but his death took place at Cairo in 1038. There
was another author of the same name, who translated the
Almagest of Ptolemy ; but that writer lived during the reign
of the caliph Almamun. In some accounts of Alhazen we
find it said that he lived chiefly in Spain ; but it appears
from Casiri (Bihl. Arabico-Hispana Escurialensis), that
A L I 579
after he had left his native city, Egypt was his place of resi- Alhucemas
dence. It also appears that he was invited to that country II
by one of the Fatemite caliphs, on account of some boasts v Alu y
which he had made of being able to obviate the evils atten-
dant upon the alternate overflowing and decrease of the
waters of the Nile. He surveyed the country with a view
to this project, to aid which, every thing that he asked was
liberally furnished by the caliph ; but finding that his imagi¬
nation had seduced him into a wild and impracticable scheme,
he feigned madness, thereby to avoid the punishment which
he dreaded; and he continued to play this humiliating part
till the caliph’s death relieved him from his apprehensions.
But, whatever figure he may have made as a projector,
there can be no doubt that he was a skilful geometrician,
and that his name deserves a conspicuous place among the
improvers of the science of optics. He was not a mere com¬
piler from the ancients, or commentator upon their works :
he followed the bent of his own genius; and, striking into
the right path of experiment and observation, his inquiries
were productive of a real accession to the stock of know¬
ledge, in regard to some of the most interesting phenomena
of nature. He refuted the error of the ancient philosophers
that vision was produced by rays emitted from the eye. He
gave the first sensible explanation of the cause of the ap¬
parent increase of the sun and moon when seen near the
horizon ; showing that this is occasioned by their being then
supposed, owing to the number of intermediate objects, to
be at a greater distance from the spectator. He was the
first who applied the laws of refraction to show how the
heavenly bodies are sometimes seen as if above the horizon
when still below it; and who, in the same way, explained
the cause of the morning and evening twilight;—of that
beneficent provision of nature by which the glories of day
are made gradually to approach, and gradually to withdraw.
These dioptrical discoveries of the Arabian philosopher have
furnished M. Bailly with one of the many fine passages which
embellish his celebrated work on the history of Astronomy.
—Astron. Moderne, liv. vi., sec. 20.
As a writer, Alhazan is censurable for unmeaning pro¬
lixity and scholastic subtilty. It appears from Casiri that
his works were numerous ; but only two of them have been
printed, namely his treatise on Optics, and that on the Twi¬
light. They were both published in Latin in 1572, by Fre¬
deric Risner, under the title of Opticce Thesaurus.
ALHUCEMAS. See Alucemas.
ALI, the son of Abu Taleb,is one of the most celebrated
characters in Mahometan history. He was cousin to Ma¬
homet, and at the age of fourteen engaged with youthful ar¬
dour in his cause. When Mahomet first revealed his pro¬
phetic character to his friends, and inquired who among them
would undertake to be his companion, Ali exclaimed, “ O
prophet, I will be thy attendant; the man who dares to rise
against thee I will break his legs, pluck out his eyes, dash
out his teeth, and even rip up his belly.” Mahomet accepted
his services, and honoured him with the titles of brother,
vicegerent, and Aaron to a new Moses. He was remark¬
able both for eloquence and valour ; and the latter obtained
him the surname of “ the Lion of God, always victorious."
He succeeded to the chief dignity of the renowned house of
Hashem, and was also hereditary guardian of the temple and
city of Mecca. Mahomet gave him his daughter Fatimah
in marriage, and the grandfather lived to embrace the chil¬
dren of his daughter. These advantages induced Ali to
cast a wistful eye towards the regal succession : however,
Abubeker, Omar, and Othman, reigned before him. But
after the death of the latter he was saluted caliph by the
chiefs of the tribes, and companions of the prophet, when
he was repairing to the mosque of Medina at the hour ot
prayer, a.d. 656, Hegira 35.
580 A L I
A L I
Ayesha, the widow of the prophet, strenuously opposed
, his succession ; and under her influence two powerful chiefs
soon raised the standard of rebellion. Ali greatly increased
his difficulties by the imprudent removal of all the gover¬
nors of provinces from their stations. Telha and Zobeir,
two chiefs of great influence, collected a numerous army,
and induced Ayesha to attend them to the field of battle ;
but Ali gained a complete victory, and took Ayesha pri¬
soner. Telha fell on the field, and Zobeir was assassinated
after surrendering upon promise of quarter. This dastardly
action was severely reprehended by Ali. He likewise kindly
treated the captive widow, and sent her back to the tomb
of the prophet.
Ali next attacked Moawiyah, who had been proclaimed
caliph, and was strongly supported by a powerful and nume¬
rous party. When the two armies approached each other, Ali
proposed to decide the matter by single combat; but to this
his opponent would not agree. Several skirmishes were
fought with considerable loss on both sides ; but at length a
“ pious fraud” produced a division of sentiment in the army of
Ali. They fixed to the points of lances a number of copies
of the Koran, carried them before the troops, and exclaimed,
“ This is the book which forbids Mussulmans to shed each
other’s blood, and ought therefore to decide our disputes.”
Ali was constrained to yield, and umpires were mutually
chosen ; on the side of Ali, Abu Moussa; Amrou, the con-
queror of Egypt, on the part of Moawiyah. The day of final
decision arrived. Abu Moussa ascended the pulpit, and
cried, “ As I draw this ring from my finger, so I depose both
Ali and Moawiyah from the caliphate.” When Amrou
ascended, he cried, “ As I put on this ring, so I invest Moa¬
wiyah with the caliphate, and also depose Ali.” He also
added, that Othman, the former caliph, had declared Moa¬
wiyah both his successor and avenger. Thus began that
memorable contest among the Mahometans which was long
agitated with considerable violence by both parties.
Ali was highly enraged at this injustice, but, constrained
for the present to yield, he retired to Kufa. A sect of en¬
thusiasts, called the Kharejites, revolted against Ali; but
he quickly reduced them to subjection, and again obtained
possession of Arabia. But Syria, Persia, and Egypt, fell to
the share of his rival.
An unexpected event terminated the existing disputes.
1 hree Kharejites one day conversing together concerning
the blood which had been shed, and the impending calami¬
ties, resolved to assassinate Ali, Moawiyah, and Amrou, the
three authors of the present disasters. They provided them¬
selves with poisoned swords, and hastened to accomplish their
purpose. Moawiyah was wounded, but the wound did not
prove fatal. A friend of Amrou fell in his stead. Ali was
fatally wounded at the door of the mosque ; and in the 63d
year of his age, he expired on the fifth day after his wound,
a.d. 661.
Ali had eight wives besides Fatimah, and left a numerous
family, who were very remarkable for their valour. He also
rose to high eminence for learning and wisdom ; and of his
works there are still extant a hundred maxims, a collection
of verses, and a prophecy of all the great events which are
to happen to the end of time.
The Mussulmans term Ali the heir of Mohomet and the
accepted of God; and his particular followers have pos¬
sessed various states in Africa and Asia, and the Persian
part of the Usbek Tartars; and some sovereigns of India
are at present of the sect of Ali. A monument is raised
upon his tomb near Kufa, which the kings of Persia have
successively decorated and religiously revered. Near the
ruins of Kufa, a city named Meshed Ali has been built to
his memory. Some of his deluded followers imao-ine that
he is still alive, and that he will revisit the earth and fill it
again with justice. A green turban still continues to dis¬
tinguish the descendants of Ali.
Ali, a town of Sicily, at the mouth of the river of the
same name, 15 miles S.S.W. of Messina. It has sulphurous
baths of some celebrity, and contains 1300 inhabitants.
Ali Bey, an eastern adventurer, is said to have been a
native of the Caucasus, and about the age of twelve or four¬
teen to have been sold for a slave in Cairo. The two Jews
who became his masters presented him to Ibrahim, then one
of the most influential men in the kingdom. In the family
of Ibrahim, he received the rudiments of literature, and was
also instructed in the military art. Both in letters and mili¬
tary skill he made rapid improvement. He gradually gained
the affection of his patron to such a degree that he gave
him his freedom, permitted him to marry, and promoted him
to the rank of governor of a district. Afterwards he was
elected to the elevated station of one of the governors of
provinces. Deprived of his protector by death, and engag¬
ing in the dangerous intrigues that pave the way to power
in that unstable government, he procured his own banish¬
ment to Upper Egypt. Here he spent two years in matur¬
ing his schemes for future greatness; and in 1766, return¬
ing to Cairo, he either slew or expelled the beys, and seized
the reins of government.
Emboldened by success, he rescued himself from the power
of the Porte, coined money in his own name, and assumed
the rank of sultan of Egypt. Occupied in more important
concerns, the Porte made no vigorous opposition to his mea¬
sures, and Ali seized this opportunity to recover a part of
the Said, or Upper Egypt, which had been taken posses¬
sion of by an Arab sheik. He next sent out a fleet from
Suez, which seizing upon Djedda, entered the port of Mecca;
while a body of cavalry, commanded by Mohammed Bey,
his favourite, took and plundered Mecca itself. Having
formed an alliance in 1770 with one Sheik Daher, a rebel
against the Porte in Syria, he aimed at the conquest of all
Syria and Palestine. He first endeavoured to secure Gaza:
then his army, forming a junction with that of Daher at Acre,
advanced to Damascus. There on the 6th of June 1771 a
battle was fought with the Turkish pashas, and Mohammed
and Daher, Ali’s generals, routed them with great slaughter.
They instantly took possession of Damascus, and the castle
itself had also capitulated, when all on a sudden Mohammed
hastened back to Egypt with all his Mamelukes. Some
ascribe this strange conduct to an impression made upon
Mohammed by the Turkish agents, and others to a report
of the death of Ali Bey.
Although unsuccessful, Ali never lost sight of his favourite
object; and Mohammed, losing his confidence, was forced
to save his life by exile. Mohammed, however, quickly re¬
turned with an army, and drove Ali Bey from Cairo. In this
unfortunate state of affairs Ali fled to Daher, and, combining
their forces, they attacked the Turkish commander at Sidon,
and came off victorious, although the Turkish army was three
times their number. After a siege of eight months, they
next took the town of Jaffa. Deceived by letters from Cairo,
which were only intended to ensnare him, and stimulated
with recent victories, he returned to Cairo. Entering the
deserts which divide Gaza from Egypt, he was furiously at¬
tacked by a thousand chosen Mamelukes led on by Murad
Bey, who was enamoured with the beauty of Ali’s wife, and
had obtained the promise of her, provided that he could take
Ali captive. Murad wounded and made Ali prisoner, and
carried him up to Mohammed, who received him with af¬
fected respect; but in three days, either from the effects of
poison or of his wounds, Ali breathed his last.
ALI PACHA. See Albania.
ALIAS, signifying at another time, is used in judicial pro¬
ceedings to connect the several names of a person who at-
Ali
Alias.
A L I
Alibi tempts to conceal his true name, or to pass under a feigned
|| one ; as Smith alias Jones, James alias John.
Alien. ALIBI, in Law, denotes the absence of the accused from
the place where he is charged with having committed a
crime ; or his being elsewhere, as the word imports, at the
time specified.
ALICANTE, a city of Spain, in the new province of the
same name, with a port on the Mediterranean Sea. The
city forms a half moon on the sea-shore, and is defended by
a castle built on a rock about 400 feet in height; and the
bay in which vessels are anchored is well protected by various
batteries. The commerce of this port, though still consi¬
derable, has much declined during the last eight or ten years.
Two lakes on the coast furnish a large supply of salt made
by spontaneous evaporation, which is shipped chiefly to Eng¬
land and Sweden. A fertile plain called the Huerta, near
the city, which has been furnished with the means of irriga¬
tion at a vast expense, is covered with vines which produce
excellent wines and raisins ; with mulberry trees, which rear
silk-worms ; and with great quantities of almonds, olives, and
figs, that supply articles for foreign commerce. On the coast
near this city, the island of Plana, a barren rock, supplies the
most beautiful marbles in great variety. The coast fur¬
nishes large quantities of barilla, which is one of the most
important branches of the commerce of the city. As the
exportable commodities engage the principal attention of the
agriculturists, the quantity of corn grown is insufficient for
the consumption of the city and its vicinity, though rice might
be raised in great quantity ; and the wheat is brought partly
from La Mancha, and partly by sea from Africa and from
Italy. The castle of Alicante is in Long. 0. 30. 51. W. and
in Lat. 38. 20. 41. N. This city contains 1 cathedral, 3
parish churches, 6 hot springs, and 19,000 inhabitants. It
is the seat of a bishop, and has manufactories of linen and
woollen cloths, and of esparto matting. The harbour is but
a road-stead in a deep bay, and only small vessels approach
the quay. English and other European consuls reside here.
ALICATA, a city of Sicily, in the intendancy of Cala-
tanisera. It is a seaport and a parliamentary city at the
mouth of the river Salso, from which corn, fruit, and sul¬
phur are exported. There is a roadstead, but no harbour.
It contains 13,465 inhabitants. Near it are vestiges of the
ancient city of Gela.
ALICUDI, one of the Lipari Isles.
ALIEN, obviously derived from the Latin Alienus, is the
technical term applied by British constitutional law to any
one who does not enjoy the privileges of a British subject.
In all powerful and independent nations the right of citizen¬
ship has been restricted and guarded with more or less jea¬
lousy. Fears have been entertained that foreigners would
obtain it for the purpose of undermining the institutions of
the state receiving them, or of bringing it under the subjec¬
tion of the government to which they originally belonged.
But, generally, the jealousy against communicating the pri¬
vileges of citizenship to foreigners has its foundation in mis¬
taken views of political economy. It arose from the im¬
pression that the produce of the energy and enterprise of
any community is a limited quantity, of which each man s
share will be the less the more competitors there are; super¬
seding the just view that the riches of a state depends on the
number and energy of the producers. Thus the skilled
workmen who would increase its riches have often been
jealously kept out of a country. But, on the other hand,
special temptations, including the gift of citizenship, have
often been offered to skilled foreigners, by states desiring to
acquire them as citizens. Britain has occasionally received
industrious and valuable citizens driven forth by the folly or
tyranny of other powers, as in the memorable instance of
the revocation of the edict of Nantes which sent the Spital-
A L I 581
field colony, and many other Frenchmen, to this country. Alien.
Looking on the full benefit of British citizenship as a tran-
scendent boon, the principle of our older legislation on the
subject has been to allow foreigners to possess at least a
portion of it. There never existed in Britain a law so
harsh as the Droit dAuhaine of France, which confiscated
to the crown all the property of a deceased alien. I he courts
of justice have ever been opened to them, and they have
thus been entitled to protect themselves from any inequali¬
ties which do not apply to them by special law. Whether
an alien can be sent furth of the realm by exercise of the
crown’s prerogative, is questioned. Though this is often
spoken of as a power of the crown, subsidiary to that of
declaring war against foreign nations, yet there is no known
writ or form by which it could be enforced, against which a
foreigner might not seek the protection of the law. On
this ground it was felt that there would have been dif¬
ficulty in dealing with the person of Napoleon, could his
friends have brought him on British soil. The prerogative
has been so far practically doubted, that whenever it has
seemed necessary to extrude foreigners, a special act of Par-
liament has been obtained for the purpose. T hus, during
the continental convulsions of 1848, a temporary act was
passed for the removal of any foreigners whose presence
might be dangerous to the peace of the country. A return
to parliament in 1850 showed that this act had not been
enforced in a single instance.
Our law, save with the special exceptions mentioned after¬
wards, admits to the privileges of subjects all who are born
within the British dominions. In the celebrated question
of the post-nati in the reign of James I. of England, it was
found, after solemn trial, that natives of Scotland born be¬
fore the union of the crowns were aliens in England, but that
those born subsequently enjoyed the privileges of English sub¬
jects. A child born abroad, whose father or whose grandfather
on the father’s side was a British subject, may claim the same
privilege, unless at the time of his birth his father was a
traitor or felon, or engaged in war against the British em
pire (4th Geo. II. c. 22). Owing to this exceptional pro¬
vision, some sons of Jacobite refugees born abroad, who
joined in the rebellion of 1745, were admitted to the privi¬
lege of prisoners of war, because as the conduct of their
fathers deprived them of the privileges of citizenship, they
were not to be liable to its burdens. The main character¬
istic disabilities to which aliens have been subjected have
been, incompetency to exercise political privileges, such as
that of electing or being elected to sit in Parliament, and
incapacity to hold landed property. The privilege of sitting
in a jury has been counted among the political rights from
which they are excluded; but when a foreigner is on trial, he
has, in England, the privilege of the jury medietatee. linguce, in
which half the panel consists of foreigners. In Scotland it
seems to be questioned if aliens are excluded from the pri¬
vilege of voting on occupancy. The application of the re¬
striction against holding property, to land and not to move-
able effects, is the natural progeny of the feudal system,
which attributed allegiance or fealty to land tenures.
Many of the special disabilities to which aliens were sub¬
ject under the Navigation Act and other laws connected with
our old restrictive commercial policy, have been removed or
neutralised by the free trade measures of later years. Some
of the disabilities of aliens have been by special laws applied
to natural born subjects, as in the instance of Jews and
Catholics. It was long a question in England whether a Jew
could by the common law hold landed property. On the
other hand, some of the privileges of citizenship have been spe¬
cially communicated to persons coming naturally within the
classification of aliens. As, for instance, to foreign seamen,
on their serving two years in time of war on board a British
582 A L I
A L I
Alien ship under proclamation, and to foreign Protestants serving
Jj . two years in the army in an American colony, or being three
^pi anus years employed there in the whale fishery, and not absent-
/ ing themselves from the British dominions for more than a
year (13th Geo. II. c. 3, 20th Geo. II. c. 44). Acts have,
from time to time, been passed for regulating the manner in
which aliens are bound to conduct themselves, and defining
the extent of their privileges. The latest of these was
passed in 1836, and amended in 1844 (6th and 7th Will. IV.
c. 11, and 7th and 8th Viet. c. 66). By the former act mas¬
ters of vessels required to intimate the arrival of all aliens,
who were bound to have their names registered and to obtain
certificates of registration. It is believed that these condi¬
tions, of a similar character to those contained in pre¬
vious acts, have seldom been complied v/ith or enforced.
The act of 1844 was a considerable relaxation of the alien
law. It communicated to the children born abroad of a
British mother the privilege of acquiring land by purchase
or succession. It gives friendly aliens the privilege of hold¬
ing leases for any time not exceeding twenty-one years.
Before this act the rights of citizenship could only be con¬
ferred on aliens by statute; and it was enacted at the com¬
mencement of the Hanover succession, that no private
naturalisation bill should be brought in unless it contained a
clause disqualifying the person it applied to from being a
privy councillor or a member of Parliament, and from hold¬
ing any office, civil or military, and from being a freeholder;
but this restriction is repealed by the Act of 1844. Limited
privileges could formerly be given by the sovereign’s letters
of denization ; but by the act of 1844, an alien intending to
reside and settle in Britain, may on application by memorial
to the Home Secretary, obtain a certificate, giving him all
the rights of a natui’al born subject, except those of eligi¬
bility as a privy councillor or a member of Parliament, along
with any other exceptions specially set forth in the certificate.
See farther, Allegiance ; International Law. (j. h. b.)
Alien Priories, a kind of inferior monasteries, formerly
very numerous in England, and so called from their belong¬
ing to foreign abbeys.
ALIENATION, in Law, denotes the act of making
over a man’s property in lands, &c., to another person.
Alienation in Mortmain, is the making over of lands,
&c., to a body politic, or to a religious house.
ALIMEN P, in the Law of Scotland, is the reciprocal
obligation of parents and children to contribute to each
others maintenance. It also indicated a similar obligation
of other parties, as of creditors to imprisoned debtors, &c.
ALIMEN I ARIA Lex, was an old Roman law, where¬
by children were obliged to find sustenance for their parents.
ALIMEN IARII Pueri, &c., were certain children pub¬
licly maintained and educated by the munificence of the
Roman emperors. This was first done by Nerva, and after¬
wards by Trajan and Adrian. Antoninus Pius did the same
for a number of girls, at the solicitation of Faustina; and
hence, in some medals of that empress, we read pvellae
eavstinianae.—Alexander Severus did the like at the re-
T1^ of Mammsea; and the maids thus educated were
called Mammceance.
Alimentary Duct or Canal. See Anatomy.
ALIMENTS. See Dietetics.
ALIMONY is usually applied in law to the proportion
of allowance for maintenance that a wife is entitled to out
of her husband’s estate, on a legal separation, when not oc¬
casioned by her elopement or adultery.
ALIPILARIUS, or Alipilus, in Roman Antiquity, a
servant belonging to the baths, whose business it was, by
means of waxen plasters, and an instrument called volsella
to take off the hair from the arm-pits, arms, legs, &c., this
being deemed a point of cleanliness.
ALIPTERIUM, aXcuKTripiov, in Antiquity, a place in the Alipte.
ancient palestra, where the athletic were anointed before rium
their exercises. 1)
ALIQU AN I Part, in Arithmetic, is that number which
cannot measure any other without some remainder. Thus,
7 is an aliquant part of 16; for twice 7 wants two of 16^
and three times 7 exceeds 16 by 5.
ALIQUO 1 Part, is that part of a number or quantity
which will exactly measure it without any remainder. Thus,
2 is an aliquot part of 4, 3 of 9, 4 of 16, &c.
ALISON, Rev. Archibald, author of essays on the Na¬
ture and Principles of Taste, was born at Edinburgh on the
13th November 1757; His father was the second son of
Alexander Alison, Esq. of Newhall, an ancient family near
Cupar in Forfarshire, and who having come to reside in Edin¬
burgh, was for two years Lord Provost. Alison Square,
near Nicolson Street, was called after him. The future
essayist on taste, who was his third son, evinced an early and
decided turn for literary pursuits, which led to his being sent
at the early age of twelve to Glasgow College, where his
talents procured for him a presentation to one of the bur¬
saries from that university to Baliol College, Oxford, which
determined his choice of the Church of England as a pro¬
fession. There also he formed a friendship with Dugald
Stewart, who afterwards became so celebrated as a metaphy¬
sician, which continued Unbroken through the whole of life.
At Oxford he soon distinguished himself, and gained high
honours. He there formed an intimacy with several men
who afterwards became remarkable, particularly Mr, after¬
wards Sir William Jones, and Dr Matthew Baillie. There
also he became acquainted with Mr William Gregory, son
of Dr John Gregory, professor of the theory of medicine in
the university of Edinburgh, who was also studying for the
English Church ; and this induced a friendship with his fa¬
mily, which led to the most important event in Mr Alison’s
life—his marriage in 1780 to Dorothea, youngest daughter
of Dr Gregory, professor of the theory of physic in the uni¬
versity of Edinburgh, and sister of the Dr James Gregory
whose talents afterwards rendered him so celebrated in that
university.
Mr Alison’s first ecclesiastical preferment was the curacy
of Brancepeth near Durham, which he held from 1778
to 1780. His marriage with Miss Gregory, however, in¬
troduced him to Sir William Pulteney, of whose only
daughter and heiress, Lady Bath, she was an intimate friend;
and Sir William in consequence bestowed on him first the
curacy of Sudbury in Northamptonshire, and afterwards the
livings of High Ercall, Roddington, and Kenley, in Shrop¬
shire ; at the last of which he lived in tranquillity and happi¬
ness, in the enjoyment of the highest domestic felicity, till
1800, when he removed for the education of his family to
Edinburgh. In 1798 he was made a dignitary of the Church
as one of the prebendaries of Sarum. The first edition of
of his Essays on Taste was published in 1784 ; but though
admired in the highest degree by a limited circle of men of
taste and refinement, it did not, from being printed in quarto,
in an expensive form, obtain, in the first instance, the gene¬
ral circulation which it ultimately attained.
In May 1800 he moved from Shropshire to the vicinity of
Edinburgh, and obtained the situation of senior incumbent
of St Paul’s Chapel, Cowgate, there. There his great ta¬
lents and eloquence as a preacher soon attracted universal
attention, and caused that chapel, which held 1500 persons,
speedily to overflow in every quarter with a congregation of
the very highest caste which the metropolis could boast. On
the days of national fast and thanksgiving, in particular,
which occurred annually, and often more frequently at that
period, the chapel was always crowded to suffocation with
the elite of rank and talent in the city who flocked to listen
Alison.
A L I
Alison, to the highest specimens of pulpit oratory which the country
—could boast.
In 1809 a new edition of the Essays on Taste, in octavo,
was published with considerable additions, which elicited a
very able and flattering review from the pen of Lord Jeffrey,
one of the ablest he ever wrote, in the Edinburgh Review,
which at once brought it in into general notice. Since that
period it has gone through five editions, and the copyright
having expired, it has received the most unequivocal proof
of general popularity in having been published in a cheap
form, at the moderate price of 2s. 6d., which has brought it
within the reach of all classes of readers. Whatever opinions
philosophers may entertain on the abstract principles this
work contains, whether beauty is to be resolved, as Mr Alison
thinks, into the expression by material objects of the quali¬
ties of mind, or is itself an inherent quality of certain com¬
binations of matter, as others suppose ; all must agree in
the beauty of its ideas, and the eloquence with which it is
written, and join in the wish of its gifted author, with which
it concludes, “ that the world we inhabit is to be regarded,
not as the abode merely of human passions or human joys,
but as the temples of the living God, in which praise is due,
and where service is to be performed.”
Mr Alison’s celebrity as a preacher led his friends, in 1814,
to join in an earnest request that he would give some of his
discourses in a durable form to the world; and to this he at
length, with much reluctance, consented. They appeared,
and at first met with eminent success. The first edition of
6000 copies was sold in a few weeks, and four subsequent
editions of them, nearly of equal magnitude, speedily fol¬
lowed. The author, ere long, had the gratification of re¬
ceiving the most decisive proof of the wide spread of their
popularity, by receiving copies of two editions of them printed
beyond the Allegany Mountains. Their subsequent repu¬
tation, however, has not kept pace with this early celebrity,
chiefly from their relating to matters of transient and histo¬
rical interest, and speaking more to the feelings and the
heart rather than the intellect or the conscience. The most
competent judges, however, among whom may be named
Lord Brougham, have pronounced several of them, espe¬
cially the one on autumn, as among the most finished models
of composition in the English language; and Lord Jeffrey
concluded his eloquent review of them with the words,
“We cannot help envying Mr Alison the power of uniting
so much wisdom to so much eloquence, and giving us in
this same work the highest gratifications of taste, and the
noblest lessons of virtue.”
The success of Mr Alison in the pulpit enabled the direc¬
tors of St Paul’s chapel to pay off nearly the whole debt
with which that building was charged, and to erect the new
and beautiful structure in York Place, to the completion of
which Mr Alison’s numerous friends and admirers largely
contributed. There he continued to do duty regularly till
increasing years compelled him, in 1834, to retire from ac¬
tive life. In 1830 he was severed by death from Mrs Ali¬
son, with whom he had lived in happiness for eight and
forty years; but he continued in the full enjoyment of his
faculties; and his powers of imagination increased rather
than the reverse till his death, which happened on May 17.
1839, at the advanced age of eighty-two. His latter years
were chiefly spent at a beautiful villa he had purchased near
Colinton, where he enjoyed, in the very highest degree, the
society of his family and friends, and the beauties of nature,
to which through life he had been passionately attached.
Mr Alison transmitted his literary tastes and habits to his
sons. The eldest, who, after the example of a long line of
ancestors by the mother’s side, embraced the medical pro¬
fession, rose to its very highest grade. He was succes¬
sively made professor of medical jurisprudence and of the
A L K 583
theory and practice of physic in the university of Edinburgh, Alisontia
once held by his uncle and grandfather; and in 1845, on II
the death of the lamented Dr Abercrombie, was appointed ^Alkaloi(1->
first physician to the queen in Scotland. He rose to the *’v"'"'
highest eminence as a consulting physician, and published
a most valuable work on medical science. But he is more
generally known as an unwearied and active philanthropist,
and as having mainly contributed, by his strenuous exer¬
tions, and the startling facts he revealed in his pamphlets
on the subject, to the great reformation in the management
of the poor in Scotland, which was effected by the Act of
1845. His youngest son, Sir Archibald Alison, Bart., was bred
to the bar, at which he rapidly rose, and was successively ap¬
pointed advocate-depute in 1823, and sheriff of Lanarkshire,
the highest judicial situation in Scotland next to the bench,
in 1835, which office he still holds, He is the author of the
History of Europe during the French Revolution, its con¬
tinuation to 1852, the Principles of Population, the Life of
Marlborough, a voluminous treatise on Criminal Law, and a
variety of essays, chiefly in Blackwood’s Magazine, a selec¬
tion of which have been published in a collected form. In
November 1850, he was, by a singular coincidence, elected
Lord Rector of Glasgow College, where his father had com¬
menced his career eighty years before ; and in June 1852,
under the administration of Lord Derby, he was created a
baronet; but this dignity has not lessened his literary tastes,
which still continue to be exerted in historic literature.
ALISONTIA, or Alisuntia, in Ancient Geography, a
river of Belgic Gaul, now Alsitz; which, rising on the
borders of Lorraine, and running through that duchy, waters
the city of Luxemburg, and, swelled by other rivulets, falls
into the Sour.
ALIWAL, in northern India, a village on the left bank
of the Sutlej, 18 miles west of the town of Loodiana. The
place, though in itself insignificant, is associated with his¬
torical recollections of interesting character. At the com¬
mencement of the year 1848, a large body of Sikhs crossed
the river from the Punjaub for the purpose of intercepting
the communications of the British army of the Sutlej. They
were met at Aliwal by Major-General Sir Harry Smith,
who, on the 28th January, attacked and routed them with
great slaughter. The tactics displayed by the British officer
commanding in this action were deemed by the best mili¬
tary iudffes of the day deserving of the highest praise. Lat.
30. 58. Long. 75. 37. (e. t.)
ALJAMEIA was the Moorish name for the Spanish
language.
ALKADARII, a sect among the Mahometans who deny
any eternal, fixed, divine decrees, and are assertors of free¬
will. The word is formed from the Arabic alkadar, which
signifies “ decree.” The Alkadarii are a branch of Motaza-
lites, and stand opposed to the Algiabarii.
ALKAHEST, or Alcahest, among alchemists, derived
from a word which signifies spirit of salt or all spirit, was
supposed to be a universal menstruum, capable of resolving
all bodies into their principles. It is likewise used for all
fixed salts volatilized.
ALKALI, in Chemistry, denotes a particular class of
salts. The word alkali is of Arabian origin, and was intro¬
duced into chemistry after it had been applied to a plant
which still retains the name of kali. When this plant is
burnt, the ashes washed in water, and the water evaporated
to dryness, a white substance remains, which is called alkali.
See Chemistry.
ALKALIMETER, a name given to a small instrument,
invented by M. Descroizilles for ascertaining the value of
the alkalies in commerce. There is an account of it in the
28th vol. of Tilloch’s Philosophical Magazine.
ALKALOID, the name given to the alkaline bases of
584 ALL
Alkinidi organic compounds that appear to exist in certain vege-
II tables combined with organic acid; such as morphia in
Allahabad. 0pium, strychnia in nux vomica, &c. See Chemistry.
*" /^ ALKINDI, a celebrated Arabian physician and philo¬
sopher who flourished at Baghdad, and died about a.d. 880.
From the extent of his knowledge, he has been styled the
Thales and Pythagoras of Mahometans. He was the
author of various excellent works on medicine, general philo¬
sophy, logic, music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy ;
and this too at a period when Europe was involved in a
cloud of the deepest ignorance.—If llerbelot Bibl. Orient.
Bayle. Moreri.
ALKMAAR. See Alcmaer.
ALKANET, the root of Anchusa tinctoria, much used
to give a fine red colour to oils and other fatty matters. See
Anchusa.
ALKORAN. See Alcoran.
ALL-Hallow, or All-Saints, a festival celebrated on
the first of November, in commemoration of all the saints
in general. The number of saints being so excessively
multiplied, it was found too burdensome to dedicate a feast-
day to each. In reality, there are not days enough, scarce
hours enough, in the year, for this purpose. Hence it was
found expedient to have an annual aggregate commemora¬
tion of such as had not special days for themselves. Pope
Boniface IV., in the ninth century, introduced the feast of
All-Saints in Italy, which was soon after adopted in the
other churches.
AhL-Saints, islands near Guadaloupe, in the West Indies.
All-Saints' Bay, a captainship in the middle division of
Brazil, so called from the harbour of that name ; bounded
on the north by the Rio Real, on the south by that of
Ilheos, on the east by the ocean, and on the west by three
unconquered nations of Indians. It is reckoned one of the
richest and most fertile captainships in all Brazil, producing
great quantities of cotton and sugar. The bay itself is about
two and a half leagues wide, interspersed with a number of
small but pleasant islands, and is of immense advantage to
the whole country. It has several cities and towns, parti¬
cularly St Salvador, which is its capital. All-Saints’ Bay
lies in Eat. 13. 10. S. Long. 38. 50. W.
All-SouIs, in the Calendar, denotes a feast-day, held on
the second of November, in commemoration of all the faith¬
ful deceased. The feast of All-Souls was first introduced
in the eleventh century by Oidlon, abbot of Cluny, who
enjoined it on his own order; but it was not long before it
became adopted by the neighbouring churches.
ALLA, or Allah, the Mahometan name for the Supreme
Being. It is an Arabic word, derived from the verb alah,
to adore. It is the same with the Hebrew Elohi, which
signifies the Adorable Being.
ALLAGNA, a town in the province of Val Sesia, in the
principality of Piedmont, in Italy. It has some rich copper
mines, with gold mixed in the same ore. It is on the river
Sesia, and contains 1800 inhabitants.
ALLAHABAD, a fortified town of Hindustan, and the
principal place of the province of the same name, is situated
in a dry and healthy soil, on a triangle, at the junction of
the two mighty streams, the Ganges and the Jumna. It
has been occasionally the residence of royalty, and contains
some fine ruins 5 but notwithstanding its advantageous com¬
mercial position, the benefit derived from numerous visitors
for devotional purposes, and the support afforded by the
civil and military establishments, it is still a small city, with
mean houses and narrow and irregular streets, confined to
the banks of the Jumna. Its population is however gradu¬
ally improving, both in character and amount. Hodges, the
artist, who visited the place in 1782, describes all the dwell¬
ings without the fort as thatched huts. In 1803, the native
ALL
population was computed at 20,000; in 1834 it had increased Allahabad,
to 38,000, and a later return brings it up to 45,000. The
fort, which is placed at the distance of a quarter of a mile,
on a tongue of land washed by the Jumna and the Ganges,
is lofty and extensive, and completely commands the navi¬
gation of the two rivers. It is strong both by nature and
art, and has been a noble castle ; but although it has
gained in strength, it has lost in appearance, by some modern
improvements which it has undergone, by which its lofty
towers have been lowered into bastions and ravelins, and its
high stone ramparts covered with turf parapets, and obscured
by a green sloping glacis. It is still, however, according to
Bishop Heber, a striking place, and its principal gate, sur¬
mounted by a dome, with a wide hall beneath, surrounded
by arcades and galleries, and ornamented with rude, but
glowing paintings, forms a fine entrance to a place of
arms. The barracks are handsome and neat. On one side
is a large range of buildings, which are in the oriental style,
and contain some noble vaulted rooms, chiefly occupied as
officers’ quarters, and overlooking from a considerable height
the rapid stream and craggy banks of the Jumna. The
principal mosque is in good repair. This building, which is
solid and stately, but without much ornament, is advan¬
tageously situated on the banks of Jumna, adjoining the
city on one side, and an esplanade before the glacis of the
fort on the other. It was at one time the residence of the
general of the station, but has since been restored to its
original destination. Among the finest buildings in the
neighbourhood is the Serai of Prince Khoosro, the ill-fated
son of the Emperor Jehangir. The structure is a noble
quadrangle, with four fine Gothic gateways, surrounded
within an embattled wall, by a range of cloisters for the
accommodation of travellers. Adjoining the Serai is a gar¬
den planted with fine old mangoe trees, in which are three
beautiful tombs raised over two princes and a princess of
the imperial family. The houses of the civil and military
servants of the company, are at some distance both from the
fort and the town. These villas are surrounded by gardens:
they are described as handsome and richly fitted-up build¬
ings, and as giving a grand appearance to the neighbourhood.
Allahabad is one of the most noted resorts of Hindu pil¬
grimage, and such visits are now perfectly free, the govern¬
ment pilgrim-tax formerly levied having been abolished
since 1840. The place owes its celebrity in this respect to
the reputed confluence of three sacred rivers, the Ganges,
the Jumna, and the Sereswati; but the third is by no means
obvious to the sight, being lost in the sands of Sirhind, up¬
wards of 400 miles to the north-west. The Hindus, how¬
ever, assert that it joins the other two under ground, and
that consequently the same religious merit is acquired by
bathing at this sacred confluence as by bathing in all the
three separate rivers. In former years instances frequently
occurred of devotees drowning themselves in the sacred
stream at the great annual meeting of Allahabad; this mode
of self-immolation being regarded by Hindus as the most
acceptable of all offerings. At the present time this meeting
has assumed rather a festive than a gloomy character; and
is described as a pretty scene, the platforms for the bathers
being covered with canopies as booths in an English fair,
and the women dressed in holiday clothes, and shining in
coloured scarfs among the crowd. Allahabad was taken in
the year 1765 by the British, from the Vizier of Oude, and
assigned as the residence of Shah Alum, the titular emperor
of Delhi. But the emperor having thrown himself into the
hands of the Mahrattas, the place was resumed by the
donors in 1771, and again transferred to the Nabob of Oude,
by whom it was finally ceded to the British in 1801, in com¬
mutation of the subsidy which the vizier had agreed to pay
for British protection. Distance from Calcutta 496 miles;
ALL
Allan, from Benares 75; from Lucknow 128; from Delhi 391.
Lat. 25. 26. Long. 81. 55.
The district of Allahabad forms one of the provinces under
the jurisdiction of the lieutenant-governorship of Agra ; it
has an area of 2801 squai’e miles, and a population, com¬
posed chiefly of Hindus and Mahometans, amounting to
710,000. The history of the district is included in that of
the city of Allahabad. (e.t.)
ALLAN, David, a Scottish historical painter of consi¬
derable celebrity, was born at Alloa, on the 13th February
1744. At a very early age he showed such marks of genius
as attracted the notice of some gentlemen living in the
neighbourhood. In a remote part of the country, and de¬
prived of the ordinary means of indulging his propensity to
drawing, he betook himself, when a boy, to such implements
and materials as he could readily procure ; and the mechani¬
cal skill and taste which he displayed, particularly in the use
of his knife, have been mentioned as remarkable for his years.
Mr Stewart, then collector of the Customs at Alloa, having
mentioned these proofs of natural talent to Mr Foulis the
printer, who some time before had instituted an academy in
Glasgow for painting and engraving, young Allan was in¬
vited to study under his care. Here he remained about
seven years, studying the elementary principles of his art;
and, by the proficiency which he attained, justified the
opinion of his talents which had procured him admission to
that ill-fated seminary. But although the public taste for
the fine arts in Scotland was at that time so feeble as to
leave his liberal and public-spirited preceptor without sup¬
port, Allan, on leaving the academy, had the good fortune
to gain the patronage of individuals whose generosity en¬
abled him to prosecute his views, and to improve his taste,
by studying the works of art abroad. He devoted himself
with great zeal to his profession at Rome, where he re¬
mained sixteen years ; during which time his subsistence
chiefly depended on the copies which he made from the
most celebrated pictures of the ancient masters. Among
the original works which he then painted, was one which
gained for him the gold medal given by the Academy of
St Luke, in the year 1773, for the best specimen of histo¬
rical composition. This picture represents the Origin of
Painting, and is well known by the excellent engraving of
it by Cunego. His design of the Calabrian Shepherds is
also a composition of great merit; and his four views of the
Carnivals at Rome, etched by Paul Sandby, are said like¬
wise to have been very successful.
On his return to his native country, he took up his resi¬
dence at Edinburgh; and soon after, on the death of Alex¬
ander Runciman, in 1786, was appointed director and master
of the academy established by the Board of Trustees for
Manufactures in Scotland. There he executed a great
variety of works, of various degrees of merit; but perhaps
none such as might have been expected from the author of
the Origin of Painting. Those, indeed, by which he is
most known, are of a cast altogether different, being re¬
markable for the comic humour which they display. The
Scotch Wedding, the Highland Dance, the Repentance
Stool, with his Illustrations of the Gentle Shepherd, are all
of this class, and so generally known, from his own spirited
etchings in aqua-tinta, as to need no description.
Mr Allan was long remembered and spoken of as an ex¬
cellent private character. He died at Edinburgh on the
6th August 1796, in the 53d year of his age.
Allan, Sir William, R.A., and President of the Scot¬
tish Royal Academy for the Fine Arts, raised himself from
obscurity, by the force of native genius and indefatigable
perseverance, to a high rank among the painters of his age
and country. A detail of the steps by which this eminent
artist and excellent man overcame the difficulties of his
VOL. II.
ALL 585
first position, however valuable as an example to the young Allan,
aspirant for distinction, would be here misplaced. We
shall content ourselves with an outline of his professional
career.
William Allan was born at Edinburgh, in 1782, of humble
but respectable parents, who afforded him the elements of a
classical education in the High School of his native city.
He early showed a strong attachment to drawing; and it
was intended that he should become an ornamental coach-
painter. With this view he was entered as a pupil in the
School of Design established by the Board of Trustees for
Arts and Manufactures, then under the direction of Mr
Graham as master. This able teacher had the good fortune
to have among his first pupils Allan and Wilkie. The two
youthful artists were placed at the same table, and for
months studied the same designs. During this time they
contracted a friendship which terminated only with their
lives. In the Edinburgh school Allan remained for several
years, and exhibited such proficiency that he aspired to the
higher branches of painting. He subsequently was for some
time a student in the Royal Academy of London ; and
afterwards attempted to practise his art in the vast field of
the metropolis. But not meeting with the encouragement
he had hoped to find, young Allan, with that decision which
was one of his characteristics, speedily determined, with very
scanty resources, to seek his fortunes abroad. Some cir¬
cumstances made him think of Russia as a probable field ;
and having procured a few introductions, especially one to
Sir Alexander Crichton, then the imperial family physician,
our artist, in 1804, embarked for Riga; but was carried by
a succession of storms to Memel in Prussia, where the state
of his finances compelled him to remain for some time, sup¬
porting himself, as he best could, by the exercise of his
pencil. At last he was enabled to set out for St Petersburg
by land ; and on his way he encountered the Russian army,
then on its route for the campaign that terminated in the
bloody field of Austerlitz. He soon arrived in the Russian
capital, where the kindness of Crichton, and his other intro¬
ductions, procured him abundant employment. Allan re¬
mained long in Petersburg, where the emoluments of his
profession enabled him to indulge his eager desire to travel
for improvement in his art; and for several years he made
occasional excursions into Southern Russia, Turkey, the
Crimea, and Circassia, where he stored his mind, and filled
his portfolio, with those vivid sketches of Cossacks, Tartars,
Turks, Circassians, and other orientals, of which he made
such admirable use in his subsequent pictures.
After a ten years’ residence abroad, Mr Allan, in 1814,
took up his abode in his native place ; where his talents, his
unassuming manners, and his interesting conversation, won
him the esteem and friendship of Walter Scott, and the
other literary ornaments of the northern capital. At this
time he produced his masterly picture, The Circassian
Captives, which, after delighting the eyes of his fellow
citizens, was exhibited at London in 1815. This beau¬
tiful composition, which united graceful forms and powerful
expression with novel and picturesque costumes, established
Allan’s reputation as a master in the highest walk of art.
But liberal collectors were then comparatively rare amongst
us; and the picture remained in the studio of the artist,
until some of his admiring friends resolved to subscribe
what would be a remunerating price, and thus decide by
lot who should obtain the picture. The fortunate possessor
is the Earl of Wemyss, of whose collection it is a chief orna¬
ment. About the same time, the Grand Duke Nicolas,
now emperor of Russia, visited Edinburgh, and purchased
two of Allan’s capital pictures, Siberian Exiles, and the Cir¬
cassian prince Haslan Gheray crossing the River Kuban
with his followers. This imperial patronage gave a very
586 ALL
Allan favourable turn to the fortunes of the painter, whose pic-
tures were now sought for by collectors.
Mr Allan, however, had the misfortune to suffer from
ophthalmia, which threatened him with total blindness.
Obliged to suspend his loved profession, he was advised to
spend the winter in the milder air of Italy. He went to
Rome during that season, and to Naples in the hot weather,
from whence he passed to Constantinople. With renovated
health, he returned home by the classic shores of Asia Minor
and Greece, and with rich stores of materials for future com¬
positions, as appeared in his fine picture of the Constantino-
politan Slave-Market, and other productions of his pencil.
For several years he uninterruptedly pursued his profession
in Edinburgh; but in 1834, the care of his health, and his
desire of further improvement in his art, induced him to
visit the south of Spain ; and he made a short excursion to
the opposite coast of Marocco. In 1841 he went again to
Petersburg; when he was employed by his imperial patron
to paint Peter the Great as a Naval Architect, a fine
composition, which is now in the winter palace of the em¬
peror, after having been exhibited in London in 1845. The
author of this memoir met him in Holland in 1847, on his
return from a professional tour in Germany and Belgium;
making, as was his custom, his relaxation from the pencil
subservient to his love of his art.
Mr Allan had been elected an Associate of the Royal
Academy of London in 1826, and an Academician in 1835.
Honours now flowed in upon him. On the death of his
early friend Sir David Wilkie, he was appointed Limner to
Her Majesty for Scotland. On the decease of the president
of the Scottish Academy in 1838, Allan was elected to
that office, which he held till his death ; in 1842 he received
the honour of knighthood; and in 1849, he was appointed
one of the commissioners of the Board of Arts and Manufac¬
tures ; but the declining state of his health, which was but too
obvious to his friends, induced him to decline the honourable
office, to the sincere regret of the members of that Board.
Sir William Allan was now confined to the house by a
chronic bronchitis. But his professional energy and love for
his art remained unabated ; and, till increasing debility in¬
terrupted his labours, he was assiduously engaged on a grand
picture—the subject being Bruce at Bannockburn—which,
though far advanced, remains unfinished. It exhibits no
trace of impaired powers ; and it is as conspicuous as his two
fine pictures of the Battle of Waterloo, for the spirit of the
composition, and the skill with which the artist has contrived
to vary the formality of armies drawn up in battle array, by
interesting episodes, all conducive to the main story.
Sir William Allan died on Friday, 22d of February 1850,
unmarried, in the 68th year of his age, deeply regretted by
numerous friends, and by the public, who justly considered
him as an ornament to the country that gave him birth. The
following is a chronological list of the principal works of
this eminent artist:—
1. Circassian Captives. 2. Tartar Bandits. 3. Haslan
Gheray crossing the Kuban. 4. Polish-Jewish Wedding.
5. Siberian Exiles with their Cossack Guards. 6. Slave-
Market at Constantinople. 7. Lord Byron after crossino-
the Hellespont at Abydos. 8. Assassination of David
Rizzio; by many considered his masterpiece. 9. Moorish
Love-Letter. 10. Battle of Prestonpans. 11. Incident in
the campaign of Robert Bruce in Ireland. 12. Peter the
Great teaching Shipbuilding to his Subjects. 13. Polish
Exiles on their route to Siberia. 14. Naval Battle. 15.
Battle of Waterloo from the French position; purchased by
the Duke of Wellington. 16. Napoleon and the English
Sailors at Boulogne. 17. Battle of Waterloo from the
English position. This picture was painted for the compe¬
tition of artists in Westminster Hall in 1846; but though
ALL
highly prized by the best judges, was not successful. 19. Allan
Several fine landscapes of Scottish scenery. 20. Battle of II
Bannockburn, left unfinished. (t. s. t.) Allegany.
Allan, a river of Perthshire, in Scotland, which passes
by Dunblane, and falls into the Forth near Stirling.
Allan, Bridge of, a beautiful village on the above river,
three miles from Stirling, much frequented in summer on
account of its mineral well. It has rapidly increased in size
within the last few years.
ALLAN 1OIS, or Allantoides, a thin transparent bag
investing the foetus of quadrupeds, as cows, goats, sheep,
&c., filled with a urinous liquor conveyed to it from the
bladder of the young animals by means of the urachus.
ALL ATI US, Leo, keeper of the Vatican library, a na¬
tive of Scio, and a celebrated writer of the seventeenth cen¬
tury. He was of great service to the Port Royalists in their
controversy with M. Claude, touching the "belief of the
Greeks with regard to the eucharist. No Latin was ever
more devoted to the See of Rome, or more inveterate
against the Greek schismatics, than Allatius. He never was
married, nor did he take orders; and when Pope Alexander
VII. asked him one day why he did not enter into orders,
he answered, “ Because I would be free to marry.” The
pope rejoined, “ If so, why do you not marry ?” “ Because,”
replied Allatius, “ I would be at liberty to take orders.”
“ Thus,” as the sarcastic Bayle observes, “ he passed his
whole life, wavering between a parish and a wife ; sorry, per¬
haps, at his death, for having chosen neither of them ; when,
if he had fixed upon one, he might have repented his choice
for thirty or forty years.” In his works he discovers more eru¬
dition and industry than sound judgment; and his style is
perplexed and diffuse. He died at Rome in 1669, aged 83.
ALLECTUS, the prime minister and confidential friend
of Carausius, emperor of Britain. In order to avoid the
punishment due to the several enormous crimes with which
he was chargeable, he fell upon the desperate expedient of
murdering his master, and usurping the imperial dignity,
which he maintained for three years. With the design of re¬
covering Britain, the Caesar Constantius despatched a portion
of his fleet and army under the command of the praetorian
praefect Asclepiodotus. The fleet of Allectus was stationed
off the Isle of Wight to receive them ; but under the cover
of a thick fog, the invaders escaped their notice, and landed
in safety on the western coast, and, according to Gibbon,
convinced the Britons “ that a superiority of naval strength
will not always protect their country from a foreign inva¬
sion.” In expectation of an attack from Constantius, who
commanded the fleet off Boulogne, the usurper had taken
his station in the vicinity of London ; but informed of the
descent of Asclepiodotus, he made forced marches to op¬
pose his progress. In the battle which ensued Allectus was
slain, and his forces received a total defeat; and thus Bri¬
tain, after a separation of ten years, was restored to the Ro¬
man empire, a.d. 297.
ALLEGANY, the name of several counties in the United
States of North America.—!. In the state of New York,
with a population in 1850 of 37,880. 2. In Pennsylvania,
Pop. 138,098. 3. In Maryland, Pop. 22,873. 4. In the
valley district of Virginia, Pop. 3516.
Allegany Mountains, situated between the Atlantic
Ocean, the Mississippi River, and the Lakes, are a long
and broad range of mountains, composed of several ridges,
tending north-east and south-west, nearly parallel to the
sea-coast, about 1100 miles in length, and from 50 to 200
miles in breadth. The ridges which compose this immense
range of mountains have different names in the different
states, viz., the Blue Ridge, the North Mountain or North
Ridge, Laurel Ridge, Jackson's Mountains, and Cumber¬
land Mountains. All these different and immense ridges
I
ALL
Allegany are penetrated by rivers, which appear to have forced their
way through solid rocks. The principal ridge is more
especially called Allegany, and is descriptively named the
Back Bone of the United States. The general name of the
whole range, taken collectively, is the Allegany Mountains.
Mr Evans calls them the Endless Mountains ; others have
called them the Appalachian Mountains, from a tribe of In¬
dians who lived on a river which proceeds from this moun¬
tain, called the Appalachicola ; but the most common name
is the Allegany Mountains.
They pass through the states eastward of the Mississippi
like a spine or back-bone, and give rise to nearly all the rivers
in that region. They approach the sea at the river Hudson,
but take a direction inland from that point, and in Georgia
are above 200 miles from the sea. They are generally
covered with natural wood, and capable of cultivation,
with some exceptions. The soil in the valleys between the
ridges is found to be superior to that between the moun¬
tains and the sea, and is indeed among the best in the
United States. Towards the northern extremity of the
Alleganies, the primitive rocks cover a great breadth of
country ; but southward of New York they are chiefly con¬
fined to the eastern slope of the mountains. A zone of transi¬
tion rocks from 20 to 40 miles in breadth extends nearly the
whole length of the chain ; and beyond this to the westward
the country is chiefly limestone. They are not confusedly
scattered, but run along in ridges generally of a uniform
height, estimated on an average at 3000 feet. The ground
rises to them from the sea so gradually that their height does
not much strike the eye. They contain a considerable va¬
riety of minerals, and on the western side great beds of coal.
Allegany River, in Pennsylvania, rises on the western
side of the Allegany Mountains, and after running about
300 miles in a south-west direction, meets the Mononga-
hela at Pittsburg, and both united form the Ohio. The
lands on each side of this river, for 150 miles above Pitts¬
burg, consist of white oak and chesnut ridges, and in many
places of poor pitch pines, interspersed with tracts of good
land and low meadows. It is navigable for boats of ten tons
for 260 miles above Pittsburg.
ALLEGATA, a word anciently subscribed at the bot¬
tom of rescripts and constitutions of the emperors; as signata
or testata was under other instruments.
ALLEGIANCE, either derived from the French Alle-
geance, or taken from the same Latin source, has been used
to express that duty which a person possessing the privileges
of a citizen owes to the state to which he belongs, and is
technically applied in law to the duty which a British sub¬
ject owes to the sovereign as representing the state. It
has been divided by the English legal commentators into
natural and local; the latter applying only to the deference
which a foreigner must pay to the institutions of the country
in which he happens to live; but it is in its wider sense
that the word is important, as representing a condition at¬
tached to mankind, of which it is very difficult in theory,
and still more in practice, to adjust the true character and
limits. For a state to decide what persons are bound to it
by allegiance may be easy, but for a man to know where
his allegiance lies when two or more states claim him—and
hence for jurists to decide what is the reasonable extent to
which any state ought to make such a claim, is often in¬
volved in difficulty. In oriental nations caste and tribe seem
to have been the barriers of nationality; and when these were
once overcome, people seem to have been in general free to
choose their allegiance. But in most ancient nations, in¬
cluding Greece and Rome, the absence of the courtesies of
war, since introduced by chivalry and feudality, prevented
an opening for the nice questions arising in later days, since
the enemy overcome in war, whether he might have been
ALL
alien or denizen according to our modern notions, was slain
or enslaved. Nice as is the question, what should consti¬
tute the allegiance which makes war against a state high "
treason in the soldier, and renders him liable to be punished
as a criminal instead of being received as a prisoner of war,
British constitutional law has defined it in the broadest man¬
ner. By its doctrine every person born within the British
dominions, though he should be removed in infancy to an¬
other country wherein his family resides, owes an allegiance
to the British Crown, which he can never resign or lose.
This was found in the case of Tineas Macdonald, tried for
accession to the rebellion of 1745, who, though born in Bri¬
tain, had been removed in childhood, and having been edu¬
cated in France held a commission in the French army
(Foster’s Reports, 59). It will not apparently affect this
broad principle, then, that the parents are foreigners. But
further, according to the strict rule of the law, as the son
or grandson of a British subject is entitled to the privilege
of a natural born subject (see Alien) he must acquire it
with its obligation, and commits high treason if he make
war against Britain. The cause of so hard and irrational a
principle is that the English law has taken the theory ot
allegiance entire from the feudal system, where it involved
fidelity approaching to bondage due by the vassal to the
lord. Hence the great English lawyers have exhausted
their eloquence in describing the illimitable character of
allegiance. In the celebrated case of the Post-nati, Bacon
said, “ Allegiance is of a greater extent and dimension than
laws or kingdom, and cannot consist by the laws merely,
because it began before all laws: it continueth after laws,
and it is in vigour when laws are suspended and have
not their force.” Coke, on the same occasion, said “ what¬
soever is due by law or constitution of man may be altered:
but natural ligeance or obedience of the subject to the
sovereign cannot be altered.”—(St. Tr. II. 596, 652), and
in his Institutes he defines allegiance as “ The greatest ob¬
ligation and duty that can be.” Though our law counts
every one a liege subject who is not an alien, yet it permits
aliens to acquire rights without exacting the burden of alle¬
giance [Alien]. In other countries the same classification
will be found more or less to apjily—aliens will be able to
obtain some rights of citizens without coming under the
obligations of allegiance, and the rights and obligations of
allegiance will be impartable to persons who have not lost
a similar position in the country of birth. It would be inte¬
resting to possess an account, throughout the civilised world,
of the way in which citizenship may be lost to a native and
acquired by a stranger in each state. Any attempt to lay
down such particulars from law books would incur the risk
of making statements which have been superseded; and
there is the farther difficulty, that while the practical ex¬
tent of the law is often to be known only by practice,
wherever its principles are invidious or oppressive there
is a reluctance to carry it out. No man, for instance,
would be put on trial for high treason, for taking service
against Britain, because his grandfather was an English¬
man. It may be maintained, however, that a great deal of
information on the methods of acquiring citizenship in
foreign states is to be found in the evidence taken by the
select committee of 1843, on the laws affecting aliens (Pari.
Pap. No. 307). It will be in questions between European
governments and the United States, that the true rule by
which citizenship should be lost or acquired will come out
in its broadest shape, since it is the principle of that empire
to receive and enrol among the citizens owing it allegiance,
people from all parts of Europe, without inquiring whether
they have lost or can give up their native allegiance. The
enactment of naturalisation laws is reserved by the consti¬
tution for Congress, and it is a characteristic part of the sys-
587
Alle-
giance.
588 ALL ALL
Alle- tem that only free white persons can acquire the privilege,
giance The general tenor of the acts of Congress from 1802 to 1828,
Alle i regulating naturalisation is, that the person received must
^ t be a native of a country at peace with the States, that he
be qualified by a five years’ residence, abjure any title or
order of nobility he may have possessed, and take an oath
of allegiance in which he obliges himself to support the con¬
stitution of the United States, and abjures his previous alle¬
giance (Kent’s Com. 3d edition, i. 63-4.) (j. H. b.)
Allegiance, Oath of, one of the oaths required of people
in public office or trust, and which by laws either repealed
or in virtual disuse might be tendered to any person. The
oath having assumed a servile character was, at the Revolu¬
tion, modified into a simple engagement to bear allegiance
to the sovereign.
ALLEGORY, in Composition, consists in choosing a
secondary subject, havingall its properties and circumstances
resembling those of the principal subject, and describing the
former in such a manner as to represent the latter. The
principal subject is thus kept out of view, and we are left to
discover it by reflection.
Nothing gives greater pleasure than an allegory, when the
representative subject bears a strong analogy, in all its cir¬
cumstances, to that which is represented. But most writers
are unlucky in their choice, the analogy being generally so
faint and obscure, as rather to puzzle than to please ; or on
the other hand, so obvious as not to awaken our curiosity.
As an example of a well-sustained allegory we may point
to Bunyan’s Pilgrim!s Progress. Spenser’s Fairy Queen,
again, has both the defects we have mentioned. Allegories,
as well as metaphors and similes, are unnatural in express¬
ing any severe passion which totally occupies the mind.
For this reason, the latter part of the following speech of
Macbeth is justly condemned by the learned author of the
Elements of Criticism:
Methought I heard a voice cry, Sleep no more!
Macbeth doth murder Sleep, the innocent sleep;
Sleep, that knits up the ravell’d sleeve of care,
The birth of each day’s life, sore labour’s bath,
Balm of hurt minds, great Nature’s second course,
Chief nourisher in life’s feast. Act ii, sc. 2.
ALLEGRI, Antonio, called Coreggio, from the place of
his birth, a most celebrated historical painter, was born in the
year 1494. It is a mistake to represent Coreggio as of mean
descent. His family was respectable, and the place of his
birth, a small, neat city. Of his studies we know little, except
that he entered the school of Francesco Bianchi, and was an ex¬
pert modeller. Even A. Caracci, his admirer, was ill-informed
on his history, which is still obscure, notwithstanding the re¬
searches of Mengs, Tiraboschi, and Lanzi. He saw none of
th e statues of ancient Greece or Rome, nor any of the works
of the established schools of Rome and Venice : but Nature
was his guide ; and Coreggio was one of her favourite pupils.
To express the facility with which he painted, he used to
say that he always had his thoughts at the end of his pencil.
The agreeable smile, and the profusion of graces, which
he gave to his madonnas, saints, and children, have been taxed
with being sometimes unnatural; but still they are lovely
and attractive. An easy and flowing pencil, a union and
harmony of colours, and a perfect intelligence of light and
shade, give an astonishing relief to all his pictures, and
have been the admiration both of his contemporaries and
his successors. Annibale Caracci, who flourished fifty years
after him, studied and adopted his manner in preference to
that of any other master. In a letter to his cousin Lodovico
he expressed with great warmth the impression which was
made on him by the first sight of Coreggio’s paintings:
“ Every thing which I see here,” says he, “ astonishes me;
particularly the colouring, and the beauty of the children.
They live, they breathe, they smile with so much grace and Allegri,
so much reality, that it is impossible to refrain from smiling
and partaking of their enjoyment. My heart is ready to
break with grief when I think on the unhappy fate of poor
Coreggio—that so wonderful a man (if he ought not rather
to be called an angel) should finish his days so miserably, in
a country where his talents were never known!”
From want of curiosity or of patronage, Coreggio never
visited Rome, but remained during his whole life at Parma,
where the art of painting was little esteemed, and of conse¬
quence poorly rewarded. This concurrence of unfavourable
circumstances at last occasioned his premature death at the
age of forty. He was employed to paint the cupola of the
cathedral at Parma, the subject of which is the Assumption
of the Virgin, which he executed in a manner that has long
been the admiration of every person of good taste, for the
grandeur of the design, and especially for the boldness of the
fore-shortenings ; an art which he first, and at once, brought
to the utmost perfection. When he went to receive his
payment, the canons of the church, either through igno¬
rance or baseness, found fault with his work; and although
the price originally agreed upon had been very moderate,
they alleged that it was far above the merit of the artist,
and forced him to accept of the paltry sum of 200 livres;
which, to add to the indignity, they paid him in copper
money. To carry home this unworthy load to his wife and
children, poor Coreggio had to travel six or eight miles
from Parma. The weight of his burden, the heat of the
weather, and his chagrin at his villanous treatment, imme¬
diately threw him into a pleurisy, which in three days put
an end to his life and his misfortunes. The story of the ex¬
treme poverty and sufferings of Coreggio is, it seems, un¬
true ; for we are told by Lanzi that he left his family not
in indigence, though probably not in affluence.
For the preservation of this magnificent work, the world
is indebted to Titian. As he passed through Parma, in the
suite of Charles V:, he ran instantly to see the chef d’oeuvre
of Coreggio. While he was attentively viewing it, one of
the principal canons of the church told him that such a gro¬
tesque performance did not merit his notice, and that they
intended soon to have the whole defaced. “ Have a care of
what you do,” replied the other ; “ if I were not Titian, I
should certainly wish to be Coreggio.”
Coreggio’s exclamation upon viewing a picture by Ra¬
phael is well known. Having long been accustomed to hear
the most unbounded applause bestowed on the works of
that divine painter, he by degrees became less desirous than
afraid of seeing any of them. One, however, he at last had
occasion to see. He examined it attentively for some mi¬
nutes in profound silence ; and then, with an air of satisfac¬
tion, exclaimed, I am still a painter. Giulio Romano, on
seeing some of Coreggio’s pictures at Parma, declared they
were superior to anything in painting he had yet beheld.
One of these, no doubt, was the famous Virgin and Child,
with Mary Magdalene and St Jerome. The no less famous
Notte, or Night, of Coreggio, was sold for a great sum of
money to Augustus II. the king of Poland, and is now in his
family gallery at Dresden.
Wlien speaking of his more finished works, Mengs, a most
able critic, places Coreggio second in the triad with Raphael
and Titian. He considers him inferior to the former in ex¬
quisite delineation of the affections of the soul, but before
him in the expression of external character, from his un¬
rivalled colouring and admirable chiaroscuro, which clothe
his compositions with a very natural species of ideal beauty.
This praise has chiefly been bestowed on his St Jerome
and his Notte by Annibale Caracci, by Mengs, and Alga-
rotti. His design, indeed, exhibits not the daring depth of
Buonarotti; but he is at once so grand and judicious in this
ALL
Allegri, respect, that the two Caracci adopted him as their model of
excellence. True, his compositions have not the varied out¬
line of Raphael, or of the ancients, because his principle
was to avoid angles and straight lines; and he studied a
softly undulating outline, to which Mengs attributes his
grace. His draperies are much commended for the fine
disposition of their general masses, rather than for his atten¬
tion to particular folds. His infantine and youthful heads
are beaming with nature and simplicity. But the variety of
his daring fore-shortenings is truly astonishing; and by in¬
troducing them freely in his ceilings, which Raphael rather
avoided, he overcomes difficulties in that species of paint¬
ing till his time never conquered. His greatest charm, how¬
ever, lies in the exquisite harmony of his lucid colouring,
which must be acknowledged by all who have ever atten¬
tively examined his magnificent ‘ Communion of St Je¬
rome,’ his ‘ Notte,’ his ‘ Reposing Magdalen,’ or the ‘ Ecce
Homo,’ and ‘ Mercury teaching Cupid in the presence of
Venus,’of the British National Gallery.
The principle of Coreggio’s design is the soft transi¬
tion from the convex to the concave outline, combining
power with grace. The principle of his harmonious lights
and shadows is a central globe of' light, softly passing through
clear semitones into rich reflex shadows. This is the key¬
note to his compositions, to which every other quality is
made subordinate, and gives a mellowness to his colouring
which no other artist ever obtained. This great painter’s
death happened in 1534.—Lanzi, Stor. Pittor. iv.; Mengs,
Opere; Tiraboschi, Storia della Lit. Italiana. (t. s. t.)
Allegri, Gregorio, an ecclesiastic by profession, and a
celebrated composer of music of the seventeenth century,
was a native of Rome. He wTas the disciple of Nanini, the
intimate friend and contemporary of Palestrina. His abili¬
ties as a singer were not remarkable, but he was deemed an
excellent master of harmony, and so much respected by all
the musical professors of his time that the pope, in the year
1629, appointed him to be one of the singers in his chapel.
To his uncommon merit as a composer of church music, he
united an excellent moral character, exhibiting in his ac¬
tions the devotion and benevolence of his heart. The poor
crowded daily to his door, and were relieved to the utmost
of his ability ; and not content with these beneficent actions,
he daily visited the prisons of Rome, in order to relieve the
most deserving and afflicted objects immured in these dreary
mansions. With such exquisite simplicity and purity of har¬
mony did he compose many parts of the church service, that
his loss was severely felt, and sincerely was it lamented by
the whole college of singers in the papal service. He died
on the 18th February 1650, and was interred in the Chiesa
Nuova, in a vault destined for the reception of deceased
singers of the pope’s chapel, before the chapel of S. Filippo
Neri, near the altar of the annunciation.
Among his other musical works preserved in the ponti¬
fical chapel, is the celebrated Miserere, which is still annually
performed at that chapel on Wednesday and Good Friday
in Passion Week, by the choral band and the best singers
in Italy. It is, however, generally believed that it owes its
reputation more to the manner in which it is performed than
to the composition itself. The beauty and effect of the mu¬
sic is not discernible upon paper, but the singers have by
tradition certain customs, expressions, and graces of con¬
ventions, which produce wonderful effects. Some of the
effects produced may be justly attributed to the time, the
place, and the solemnity of the ceremonials observed during
the performance. “ The pope and conclave are all pros¬
trated on the ground, the candles of the chapel and the
torches of the balustrade are extinguished one by one, and
the last verse of this psalm is terminated by two choirs ; the
maestro di cappella beating time slower and slower, and the
ALL 539
singers diminishing or rather extinguishing the harmony by Allegro
little and little, to a perfect point.” Padre Martini says that H .
there never were more than three copies made by authority, { e llia ‘
“ one of which was for the emperor Leopold, one for the
late king of Portugal, and the other for himselfbut a very
complete one was presented by the pope to King George
III. as an inestimable curiosity.
ALLEGRO, in Music. See Music.
ALLEIN, Joseph, the son of Tobias Allein, was born
at Devizes, in Wiltshire, in 1633, and educated at Oxford.
In 1655 he became assistant to Mr Newton, in Taunton-
Magdalen, in Somersetshire ; but was ejected for noncon¬
formity. He died in 1668, aged 35. He was a man of
great learning and greater charity ; preserving, though a
nonconformist, and a severe sufferer on that account, great
respect for the church, and loyalty to his sovereign. He
wrote several books of piety, which are highly esteemed,—
especially his Alarm to Unconverted Sinners. There have
been many editions of this pious little work, the sale of which
has been very great.
Allelv, Richard, an English nonconformist divine, was
born at Ditchet, in Somersetshire, in 1611. His father was
rector of Ditchet, and conducted the education of his son
until he was prepared for the Oxford university. There he
soon obtained the degree of master of arts ; and after he
entered into holy orders, first as an assistant to his father,
and afterwards as rector of Batcomb, in Somersetshire, he
discharged the duties of a clergyman with great industry,
and singular fidelity. He was a zealous puritan, and was
anpointed assistant to the parliamentary commissioners whose
business it was to eject “ scandalous ministersin which
office his father also bore a part. At the Restoration he in
his turn was ejected from the rectory of Batcomb, which he
had creditably held for twenty years, because he could not
conscientiously accede to the terms of the act of conformity.
But in the house of Mr More, who had been a member of
the long parliament, he continued to exercise his ministerial
functions in defiance of the penalties imposed by that act.
Although frequently reprimanded for his conduct in this
matter, his piety and exemplary conduct procured him a
mitigation of the punishment. No dangers could deter him
from duty; for although constrained to remove from Bat¬
comb, in consequence of the “ five-mile act,” he continued
in the discharge of his ministerial office at Frome-Selwood.
Here he remained until his labours were terminated by
death, in 1691.
His most celebrated work is called Vindicice Pietatis,
which is still esteemed by theologians of the nonconformist
school; another is Heaven Opened, and a third The World
Conquered ; all giving proof of his fervent piety.
ALLELUIAH, or Halleluiah, a Hebrew word signi¬
fying Praise the Lord, to be met with either at the begin¬
ning or end of some psalms ; such as psalm cxlvi. and those
that follow to the end. Alleluiah was sung upon solemn
days of rejoicing, Tobit xiii. 18. St John in the Revela¬
tion (xix. 1, 3, 4, 6) says, that he “heard a great voice of
much people in heaven, saying, Alleluiah : . . . and the four
and twenty elders and the four beasts fell down and wor¬
shipped God that sat on the throne, saying, Amen, Alle¬
luiah.” This hymn of joy and praises was transferred from
the synagogue to the church. So much energy has been
observed in this term, that the ancient church thought pro¬
per to preserve it, without translating it either into Greek
or Latin, for fear of impairing its softness and expression.
The fourth council of Toledo has prohibited the use of it in
time of Lent, or other days of fasting, and in the ceremonies
of mourning ; and, according to the present practice of the
Romish Church, this word is never repeated in Lent, nor
in the obsequies of the dead: notwithstanding which, it is
590 ALL
Allemond used in the mass for the dead, according to the Mosarabic
ritual, at the introit, when they sing, Tu es portio mea, Do-
v mine, Alleluiah, in terra viventium, Alleluiah, Alleluiah.
ALLEMOND, a town of Upper Dauphiny, in the ar-
rondissement of Grenoble, in France. In the mountains of
Chalanehes, near it, a lead mine with silver was discovered
in 1767, which yielded by smelting, in somewhat less than
twenty years, upwards of 300,000 ounces of silver.
ALLEN, John, archbishop of Dublin in the reign of
King Henry VIII., was born in 1476, and educated in the
university of Oxford. From thence he removed to Cam¬
bridge, where he took the degree of bachelor of laws. He
was sent by Dr Warham, archbishop of Canterbury, to the
pope, on certain business relating to the church. He
continued at Rome nine years, and was created doctor of
laws, either there or in some other university of Italy. Af¬
ter his return he was appointed chaplain to Cardinal Wolsey,
and was commissary or judge of his court as legate a latere;
in the execution of which office he was suspected of great
dishonesty, and even perjury. He assisted the cardinal in
visiting, and afterwards suppressing, forty of the smaller mo¬
nasteries, for the erection of his college at Oxford and that
at Ipswich. In 1528 he was consecrated archbishop of
Dublin; and about the same time was made chancellor
of Ireland. He was cruelly murdered in July 1534, by
Thomas Fitzgerald, eldest son of the earl of Kildare.
Allen, John, M.D., was born near Edinburgh in 1770,
and educated at the university of that city, where he took
the degree of M.D. in 1791. With youthful enthusiasm,
Allen joined the Scottish movement of that period for par¬
liamentary reform; and this circumstance, according to the
policy of the day, probably being an impediment to profes¬
sional employment, induced him to become a lecturer on
physiology in Edinburgh, where he was distinguished by the
precise philosophical views and clearness of his prelections.
Some years afterwards, he took up his abode in Holland
House, as the friend and private secretary of the late Lord
Holland. In 1811 he was elected warden of Dulwich Col¬
lege ; and in 1820 obtained the comfortable sinecure of mas¬
ter of that institution, where he died in 1843.
Allen’s detached publications, though well-written, are
not very important, if we except his valuable “ Inquiry into
the groivih of the Royal Prerogative,’' which appeared in
1830; but he was an able contributor to the Edinburgh
Review, of not less, it is said, than forty articles, chiefly on
physiological, metaphysical, and political subjects; and some
of his contributions on French and Spanish history are very
interesting. To this last department he was probably directed
by his intimacy with Lord Holland. Dr Allen was a man of
vigorous mind, and extensive information. (t. s. t.)
Allen, Thomas, a famous English mathematician, was
born at Uttoxeter, in Staffordshire, on the 21st of December
1542. He was admitted scholar of Trinity College, Oxford,
on the 4th of June 1561 ; and in 1567 took his degree of
master of arts. In 1580 he quitted his college and fellow¬
ship, and retired to Gloucester Hall; where he studied very
closely, and became famous for his knowledge in antiquity,
philosophy, and mathematics. Having received an invita¬
tion from Henry, earl of Northumberland, a great friend
and patron of mathematicians, he spent some time at the
earl’s house, where he became acquainted with those cele¬
brated mathematicians, Thomas Harriot, John Dee, Walter
Warner, and Nathaniel Torporley. Robert, earl of Leicester
had a particular esteem for Allen, and would have conferred
a bishopric upon him ; but his love of solitude and retirement
made him decline the offer. His great skill in the mathe¬
matics earned him, as was usual in those times, the credit
of being a magician ; and the sagacious author of a book en¬
titled Leicester's Commonwealth, accuses him of employing
ALL
the art of “ figuring ” to further the earl of Leicester’s un- Allen
lawful designs, and of endeavouring by the black art to bring ||
about a match between him and Queen Elizabeth. Allen Allestree.
was indefatigable in collecting scattered manuscripts relating
to history, antiquity, astronomy, philosophy, and mathematics.
A considerable part of his collection was bestowed on the
Bodleian Library by Sir Kenelm Digby. He published in
Latin the second and third books of Claudius Ptolemy of
Pelusium, Concerning the Judgment of the Stars, or, as it
is commonly called, of the Quadripartite Construction, with
an exposition. He wrote also notes on many of Lilly’s
books, and some on John Bale’s work Be Scriptoribus M.
Britannia. He died at Gloucester Hall on the 30th Sep¬
tember 1632, at the great age of 90.
Allen, William, an eminent pharmaceutical chemist, and
chemical lecturer in London, was born in 1770. He early
showed a predilection for experimental investigations, and
was placed in a respectable pharmaco-chemical establish¬
ment in Plough Court, in which he afterwards became a part¬
ner with Luke Howard. While successfully pursuing his busi¬
ness Allen engaged in various important experimental inves¬
tigations. In 1804, he was appointed lecturer on chemistry at
Guy’s Hospital, an office from which he did not finally retire
till 1827. He became a fellow of the Royal Society in 1807;
and several of his communications appear in the Philosophi¬
cal Transactions, especially the important experimental
researches by him and Mr Pepys on Respiration. He was
a zealous member and a president of the pharmaceutical
society. But along with his scientific occupations, he was
an active promoter of various schemes of benevolence. He
had purchased an estate near Lindfield in Sussex, to which
he retired several years before his death. There he devoted
himself to the establishment of schools, to which workshops
for the children, a library, and experimental laboratory were
attached, and where he himself gave occasional instruction
to the young experimentalists. He was highly esteemed
in private life, and died, much regretted, at his house near
Lindfield, in 1843. (t. s.t.)
ALLEND ORE, a city, capital of the bailiwick of the
same name in Hesse-CasseL It contains 3935 inhabitants.
In the suburb is a salt-spring of great strength, and works
for granulating and drying the salt.
ALLER, a river which rises in the district of Magdeburg
in Prussia, and passing through the duchy of Luneburg falls
into the Wesei* a little below Verden.
Aller, sometimes written alder, an old Saxon form of
superlative. Thus aller-good signifies the greatest good.
ALLERION, or Alerion, in Heraldry, a sort of eagle
without beak or feet, having nothing perfect but the wings.
They differ from marlets in having their wings expanded;
and denote imperialists vanquished and disarmed; for which
reason they are more common in French than in German
coats of arms.
ALLESTREE, or ALLESTRY, Richard, D.D., was
born at Uppington in Shropshire in 1619, and educated in
the grammar school of Coventry, and afterwards at Christ
Church in Oxford. His natural talents, which were uncom¬
monly vigorous, were carefully improved by unwearied ap¬
plication to study. Accordingly, his promotion was rapid.
After passing as bachelor of arts, he was made successively
moderator in philosophy, canon of Christ Church, doctor of
divinity, chaplain in ordinary to the king, and regius pro¬
fessor of divinity. His early studies, however, were inter- ■
rupted by the hostilities of the times. In the year 1641 he
and many other students of Oxford entered the royal service,
and gave eminent proofs of their courage and loyalty. A
short interval of hostilities permitted Allestry to return to
his literary pursuits; but soon after he again took up arms,
and was present at the battle of Keinton-field. On his way
A L L
ALL
591
Allestry to Oxford to prepare for the reception of the king he was
taken prisoner, but was released by the king’s forces. A
Alleyn. vi0ient disease which then prevailed in the garrison ot Ox-
ford brought Allestry to the brink of the grave; but recover¬
ing, he again joined a regiment of volunteers, chiefly con¬
sisting of Oxford students. Here he served as a common
soldier, and was often seen with the musket in one hand and
a book in the other. At the close of the revolutionary
struggle, he returned to his favourite studies, but still con¬
tinued true to his party. This occasioned his expulsion from
the college ; but he was provided with a comfortable retreat
in the families of the Honourable Francis Newport and Sir
Anthony Cope.
Such was the confidence reposed in him, that when the
friends of Charles II, were secretly preparing the way for
his restoration, they intrusted him with personal messages
to the king. In returning from one of these interviews he
was seized at Dover, and upon examination committed a
prisoner to Lambeth House. The Earl of Shaftesbury ob¬
tained his release in a few weeks. Returning to visit his
friends, and among others the learned Dr Hammond, he
met his corpse at the gate of his house, on its way to the
grave. This melancholy occurrence deeply affected his
mind. The doctor left him his library, assigning as a reason
that “ he well knew that his books in his hands would be
useful weapons for the defence of that cause he had so vigo¬
rously supported.” This valuable library, along with his
own, Allestry bequeathed at his death to the university. He
died in January 1681.
Allestry erected at his own private expense the west side
of the outward court of Eton College, and the grammar school
in Christ Church College; besides settling several liberal
pensions upon individual persons and families. A volume of
sermons, printed at Oxford in 1684, is all by which posterity
can judge of his literary abilities.
Allestry, Jacob, an English poet of the seventeenth
century, was the son of James Allestry, a bookseller ol Lon¬
don. He was educated at Westminster School, entered at
Christ Church, Oxford, in the act-term 1671, at the age of
18, and was elected student in 1672. He died young on
the 15th October 1686. Some of his poems are to be found
in a collection of “ Miscellany Poems,” published in 1721.
ALLEY, William, bishop of Exeter in the reign of
Queen Elizabeth, was born at Great Wycomb in Bucking¬
hamshire. From Eton School, in the year 1528 he removed
to King’s College, Cambridge, where he took the degree of
bachelor of arts. He also studied some time at Oxford:
afterwards he married, was presented with a living, and be¬
came a zealous reformer. Upon Queen Mary’s accession
he left his cure and retired into the north of England, where
he maintained himself and his wife by teaching a school, and
practising physic. When Elizabeth came to the throne, he
went to London, where he acquired great reputation by
reading the divinity lecture at St Paul’s; and in July 1660
was consecrated bishop of Exeter. He died on the 15th of
April 1570, and was buried at Exeter, in the cathedral. He
wrote, among other things, The Poor Man’s Library, 2 vols.
folio, London 1571, containing twelve lectures on the first
epistle of St Peter, read at St Paul’s ; and a Hebrew Gram¬
mar. He also translated the Pentateuch, in the version of
the Scriptures known as the Bishop's Bible.
ALLEYN, Edward, a celebrated English actor in the
reigns of Queen Elizabeth and King James, and founder of
the college of Dulwich in Surrey, was born at London, in
the parish of St Botolph, on the 1st of September 1566, as
appears from a memorandum of his own writing. Dr Fuller
says that he was bred a stage-player, and that his father
would have given him a liberal education, but that he was
not turned for a serious course of life. He was, however,
a youth of excellent capacity, cheerful temper, tenacious
memory, graceful elocution, and stately aspect, advantages
that might probably have induced their possessor to adopt
the theatrical profession. By several authorities we find he
must have been on the stage some time before 1592 ; for
at that time he was in high favour with the town, and greatly
applauded by the best judges, particularly by Ben Jonson.
Hey wood, in his prologue to Marlowe’s Jew of Malta,
calls him
Alleyn.
Proteus for shapes, and Koscius for a tongue.
He usually played the capital parts, and was one of the ori¬
ginal actors in Shakspeare’s plays: in some of Ben Jonson’s
he was also a principal performer ; but what characters he
personated in any of their plays, it is difficult now to deter¬
mine. This is owing to the inaccuracy of their editors, who
did not print the names of the players opposite to the cha¬
racters they performed, as the modern custom is; but gave
one general list of actors to the whole set of plays, as in the
old folio edition of Shakspeare; or divided one from the
other, setting the dramatis personae before the plays, and the
catalogue of performers after them, as in Jonson’s.
It may appear surprising that one of Alleyn’s profession
should be enabled to erect such an edifice as Dulwich Col¬
lege, and liberally endow it for the maintenance of so many
persons. But it must be observed that he had some pater¬
nal fortune, which, though small, might lay a foundation for
his future affluence; and it is to be presumed that the pro¬
fits he received from acting must have considerably im¬
proved his fortune; besides, he was not only actor, but pro¬
prietor of a playhouse built at his own expense, by which he
is said to have amassed considerable wealth. He was also
master of the royal bear-garden, which was frequented by
vast crowds of spectators; and the profits arising from these
sports are said to have amounted to L.500 per annum. He
was thrice married; and the portions of his first two wives,
they leaving him no issue, would probably increase his
wealth. Aubrey mentions a tradition, that when Alleyn was
personating a demon, with six others, in one of Shakspeare’s
plays, in the midst of the play he was surprised by an appa¬
rition of the devil; which so worked on his fancy, that he
made a vow, which he performed by building Dulwich Col¬
lege. The foundation of this college was begun under the di¬
rection of Inigo Jones, in 1614 ; and the buildings, gardens,
&c., on which he is said to have expended about L.10,000,
were finished in 1617. After the college was built, he
met with some difficulty in obtaining a charter for settling
his lands in mortmain; for he proposed to endow it with
L.800 per annum, for the maintenance of one master, one
warden, and four fellows, three whereof were to be clergy¬
men, and the fourth a skilful organist; also six poor men
and as many women ; besides twelve poor boys to be edu¬
cated till the age of fourteen or sixteen, and then put out
to some trade or calling. The obstruction he met with
arose from the Lord Chancellor Bacon, who wished King
James to settle part of those lands for support of two aca¬
demical lectures, and wrote a letter to the Marquis of Buck¬
ingham, dated August 18, 1618, entreating him to use his
interest with his Majesty for that purpose. Alleyn’s so¬
licitation was, however, at last complied with, and he ob¬
tained the royal license, giving him full power to lay his
foundation, by his Majesty’s letters-patent, bearing date the
21st of June 1619. He was himself the first master of his
college; so that, to make use of the words of Hey wood, one
of his contemporaries, “ Fie was so mingled with humility
and charity, that he became his own pensioner, humbly sub¬
mitting himself to that proportion of diet and clothes which
he had bestowed on others.” We have no reason to think
he ever repented of this distribution of his substance; but,
on the contrary, that he was entirely satisfied, as appears
592
ALL
ALL
^llia from the following memorial in his own writing, found
amongst his papers:—“May 26. 1620. My wife and I
' t acknowledged the fine at the common pleas bar, of all our
lands to the college: blessed be God that he hath given us
life to do it.” His wife died in the year 1623 ; and about
two years afterwards he married Constance Hinchtoe, who
survived him. He died on the 25th of November 1626, in
the 61st year of his age, and was buried in the chapel of his
new college, where there is a tombstone over his grave, with
an inscription. His original diary is also there preserved.
Alleyn lived on the most friendly terms with both Shak-
speare and Ben Jonson. They used frequently to spend
their evenings together at the sign of the Globe, somewhere
near Blackfriars, where the playhouse then was. The follow¬
ing letter gives a small but interesting glimpse of these nodes
ccenceque Deorum. The writer was a student of Christ
Church, Oxford, a dramatic poet, who belonged to the Club.
“ Friend Marie,
“ I must desyr that my syster hyr watch, and the cookerie
book you promysed, may be sente bye the man. I never
longed for thy company more than last night: we were all
very merrye at the Globe, when Ned Alleyn did not scruple
to affyrme pleasauntly to thy Friende Will, that he had
stolen his speech about thee Qualityes of an actor’s excel-
lencye in Hamlet hys Tragedye, from conversations many¬
fold which had passed betweene them, and opinyons given
by Alleyn touching the subjecte. Shakspeare did not take
this talke in good sorte: but Jonson put an ende to the
strife with wittylye remarkinge, This affaire needeth no Con¬
tent ione ; you stole it from Ned, no doubte; do not marvel:
Have you not seen him act tymes out of number?—Believe
me most syncerilie yours, G. Peele.”
ALLIA, a small river of Italy, in the Sabine territory,
which joins the Tiber eleven miles from Rome ; famous for
the great slaughter of the Romans by the Gauls under Bren-
nus, when 40,000 were killed or put to flight; hence Al-
liensis dies, an unlucky day (Virgil, Ovid, Lucan).
ALLIANCE in the Civil and Canon Law, the relation
contracted between two persons or two families by marriage.
Alliance is also used for a treaty entered into by sove¬
reign princes and states, for their mutual safety and defence.
In this sense, alliances may be distinguished into such as
are offensive, whereby the contracting parties oblige them¬
selves jointly to attack some other power ; and into defen¬
sive ones, whereby they bind themselves to stand by and
defend each other in case they are attacked by others. The
forms or ceremonies of alliances have been various in differ¬
ent ages and countries. In ancient times eating and
drinking together, chiefly offering sacrifices together, were
the customary mode of ratifying an alliance. Among the
Jews and Chaldeans, heifers or calves, among the Greeks,
bulls or goats, and among the Romans, hogs were sacrificed
on this occasion. Among the ancient Arabs, alliances were
confirmed by drawing blood out of the palms of the hands
o the two contracting princes with a sharp stone, dipping
therein a piece of their garments, and therewith smearing
seven stones, at the same time invoking the gods Vrotalt
and Alilat, L e., according to Herodotus, Bacchus, and
Uramus. Among the people of Colchis, the confirmation
of alliances was said to be effected by one of the princes
offering his wife’s breasts to the other to suck, which he was
obliged to do till the blood flowed.
ALLIER, a department of France, on a river of the
same name, which runs at the foot of a branch of the Ce-
vennes Mountains. It extends over 2828 square miles and
in 1851 contained 336,758 inhabitants. It is composed of
a part of the ancient province of Bourbonnois, and is divided
into four arrondissements, viz., Mount Lu^on, Moulins, Gan-
nat, and La Palisse.
Allier, Louis, who afterwards assumed the name of Allier
Hauteroche, was a famous French antiquary and numis- II
matist, and the author of several very erudite archaeological Alliga-
and numismatical essays. He died in 1827 at the age of 61. . tion‘
ALLIGATI, in Roman Antiquity, the basest kind of^-^^
slaves. The Romans had three degrees or orders of slaves
or servants ; the first employed in the management of their
estates; the second in the menial or lower functions of the
family; and the third, the alligati, who worked in fetters,
whence their name.
ALLIGATION, the name of a method of solving all
questions that relate to the mixture of one ingredient with
another. Though writers on arithmetic generally make al¬
ligation a branch of that science, yet as it is plainly nothing
more than an application of the common properties of num¬
bers, in order to solve a few questions that occur in parti¬
cular branches of business, we choose rather to keep it dis¬
tinct from the science of arithmetic.
Alligation is generally divided into medial and alternate.
Alligation Medial, from the rates and quantities of the
simples given, discovers the rate of the mixture.
Rule. As the total quantity of the simples,
To their price or value ;
So any quantity of the mixture,
To the rate.
Example. A grocer mixes 30 lb. of currants, at 4d. per
lb., with 10 lb. of other currants, at 6d per lb.: What is the
value of 1 lb. of the mixture ? Ans. 4^d.
lb. d. d.
30 at 4 amounts to 120
10 at 6   60
40 180
lb. d. lb. d.
If40 : 180 :: 1 : 4£.
Alligation Alternate, being the converse of alligation
medial, from the rates of the simples, and rate of the mix¬
ture given, finds the quantities of the simples.
Rules. I. Place the rate of the mixture on the left side
of a brace, as the root; and on the right side of the brace
set the rates of the several simples, under one another, as
the branches. II. Link or alligate the branches, so as one
greater and another less than the root may be linked or
yoked together. III. Set the difference between the root
and the several branches right against their respective yoke¬
fellows. These alternate differences are the quantities re¬
quired. Note 1. If any branch happen to have two or more
yoke-fellows, the difference between the root and these
yoke-fellows must be placed right against the said branch,
one after another, and added into one sum. 2. In some
questions the branches may be alligated more ways than
one; and a question will always admit of so many answers
as there are different ways of linking the branches.
Alligation alternate admits of three varieties, viz., 1. The
question may be unlimited, with respect both to the quantity
of the simples and that of the mixture. 2. The question
may be limited to a certain quantity of one or more of the
simples. 3. The question may be limited to a certain quan¬
tity of the mixture.
Variety I. When the question is unlimited, with respect
both to the quantity of the simples and that of the mixture,
this is called Alligation Simple.
Example. A grocer would mix sugars at 5d., 7d., and
lOd. per lb., so as to sell the mixture or compound at 8d.
per lb.: What quantity of each must he take ?
lb.
(5^2 2
8 1 7N)2 2
(10 3,1
4.
ALL
ALL
593
Alligation. Here the rate of the mixture 8 is placed on the left side
of the brace as the root; and on the right side of the same
brace are set the rates of the several simples, viz., 5, 7, 10,
under one another, as the branches; according to Rule I.
The branch 10 being greater than the root, is alligated
or linked with 7 and 5, both these being less than the root,
as directed in Rule II.
The difference between the root 8 and the branch 5,
viz., 3, is set right against this branch’s yoke-fellow 10 ; the
difference between 8 and 7 is likewise set right against the
yoke-fellow 10; and the difference between 8 and 10, viz.,
2, is set right against the two yoke-fellows 7 and 5, as pre¬
scribed by Rule III.
As the branch 10 has two differences on the right, viz., 3
and 1, they are added; and the answer to the question is,
that 2 lb. at 5d., 2 lb. at 7d., and 4 lb. at 10d., will make
the mixture required.
The truth and reason of the rules will appear by con¬
sidering, that whatever is lost upon any one branch is gained
upon its yoke-fellow. Thus, in the above example, by sell¬
ing 4 lb. of lOd. sugar at 8d. per lb. there is 8d. lost: but
the like sum is gained upon its two yoke-fellows, for by
selling 2 lb. of od. sugar at 8d. per lb., there is 6d. gained;
and by selling 2 lb. of 7d. sugar at 8d. there is 2d. gained ;
and 6d. and 2d. make 8d.
Hence it follows, that the rate of the mixture must always
be mean or middle with respect to the rates of the simples;
that is, it must be less than the greatest, and greater than
the least; otherwise a solution would be impossible. And
the price of the total quantity mixed, computed at the rate
of the mixture, will always be equal to the sum of the prices
of the several quantities cast up at the respective rates of
the simples.
Variety II. When the question is limited to a certain
quantity of one or more of the simples, this is called Alliga¬
tion Partial.
If the quantity of one of the simples only be limited, alli-
gate the branches, and take their differences, as if there had
been no such limitation ; and then work by the following
proportion:—
As the difference right against the rate of the simple
whose quantity is given,
To the other differences respectively;
So the quantity given,
To the several quantities sought.
Example. A distiller would, with 40 gallons of brandy at
12s. per gallon, mix rum at 7s. per gallon, and gin at 4s.
per gallon : How much of the rum and gin must he take,
to sell the mixture at 8s. per gallon ?
Galls.
8
4^—'
1,4
4
4
40 of brandy,)
32 of rum,
32 of gin.
> Ans.
The operation gives for answ er, 5 gallons of brandy, 4 of
rum, and 4 of gin. But the question limits the quantity of
brandy to 40 gallons; therefore say.
If 5 : 4 :: 40 : 32.
The quantity of gin, by the operation, being also 4, the
proportion needs not be repeated.
Variety III. When the question is limited to a certain
quantity of the mixture, this is called Alligation Total.
After linking the branches, and taking the differences,
work by the proportion following :—
As the sum of the differences,
To each particular difference ;
So the given total of the mixture,
To the respective quantities required.
Example. A vintner has wine at 3s. per gallon, and would
mix it with water, so as to make a composition of 144
VOL. II.
gallons, worth 2s. 6d. per gallon : How much wine, and Alligator
how much water, must he take ? il
Galls. Allitera¬
tion.
30
(36\30
\ O) 6
120 of wine
24 of water
1
r-)
Ans.
36 144 total.
120 x 36 = 4320
24 x 0= 0
Proof 144)4320(30
As 36 : 30 ::144 : 120
As 36 : 6 :: 144 : 24.
There being here only two simples, and the total of the
mixture limited, the question admits but of one answer.
ALLIGATOR (a corruption of the Spanish el lag art a,
i.e. the lizard), the common name of the American crocodile,
called Cayman by the Indians. See Reptilia, Index.
ALLIOTH, a star in the tail of the Greater Bear, of
much use for finding the latitude at sea.
ALLITERATION, an ornament of language chiefly
used in poetry, and consisting in the repetition of the same
letter at certain intervals.
We apprehend the principal operation of this ornament
to be quite mechanical. It is easier for the organs of speech
to resume, at short intervals, one certain conformation, than
to throw themselves into a number of different ones, un¬
connected and discordant. For example, a succession of
labials, interspersed at regular distances with dentals and
gutturals, will be more easily pronounced than the succes¬
sion of all the three at random. Sounds of which the arti
culation is easiest are most completely in the power of the
speaker. He can pronounce them slowly or rapidly, softly
or with force, at pleasure. In this, we imagine, the power
and advantage of alliteration are founded; for we would
not lay any stress on the pleasure which can result to the
ear from the repetition of the same letter. It has been
compared to the frequent returns of the key-note in a musi¬
cal strain ; but that analogy is extremely faint. The ear.
we presume, can be pleased with alliteration only in so far
as it contributes to the superior easiness of recitation ; for
what is recited with ease must naturally be more pleasing.
It is true, however, as is remarked by Dr Thomas Brown
(Lect. 36), that though the allitei’ation itself consist only in
the similarity of sounds, it is not indifferent on what words
of the sentence the alliteration is made to fall. That inge¬
nious writer mentions resemblance and contrast as the quali¬
ties which give particular point to alliterative expression,
and cites as an example the line of Pope,
Puffs, powders, patches, bibles, lillets-doux;
the first words indicating objects naturally connected, and
the last deriving their point from the contrast of ideas.
These remarks might be confirmed and illustrated by
numberless passages from the best poets. Some few lines
will suffice, taken from Gray, who seems to have paid par¬
ticular attention to this grace. He professed to have learned
his versification from Dryden, as Dry den did from Spenser ;
and these three abound in alliteration above all the Eng¬
lish poets. We choose Gray for another reason, that alli¬
teration contributes not only to the sweetness, but also to
the energy, of versification ; for he uses it chiefly when he
aims at strength and boldness. In the Sister Odes, as Dr
Johnson styles them, almost every strophe commences and
concludes with an alliterative line. The poet, we suppose,
wished to begin with force, and end with dignity.
“ .Ruin seize thee ruthless king.”
“ To Aigh-born i/bel’s Aarp, or soft ZAeweZlyn’s Zay.
“ Weave the warp, and weave the woof.”
4 F
594 ALL
Allium “ Stamp we our vengeance deep,and ratify his doom.”
|| “ Regardless of the sweeping whirlwind’s sway.”
Allix. “ That hush’d in grim repose, expects his ev’ningprey.”
It must be observed here, that we hold a verse alliterative
which has a letter repeated on its accented parts, although
those parts do not begin words ; the repeated letter bear¬
ing a strong analogy to the bars in a musical phrase. Gray
seems to have had a particular liking to those sorts of balanced
verses which divide equally, and of which the opposite sides
have an alliterative resemblance.
“ Eyes that #low, and fangs that prin.”
« Thoughts that Jreathe, and words that 6urn.”
“ .Hauberk crash, and Aelrnet ring.”
All these lines have a force and energy, arising from alli¬
teration, which renders them easy to be recited. For the
same reason the following passage appears sad and solemn,
by the repetition of the labial liquid.
“ ^fountains, ye mourn in vain.”
“ J/odred, whose magic song.”—&c.
If alliteration thus contribute to enforce the expression of
a poetical sentiment, its advantages in poetry must be con¬
siderable. An epithet should not be selected merely for its
initial letters, unless it suit the purpose well in every other
respect; for the beauty of alliteration, when happy, is not
greater than its deformity when affected. A couplet from
Pope will exemplify both; the first line being bad, and the
second good;
“ Eternal beauties grace the shining scene,
.Fields ever /resh, and proves for ever preen.”
In the dearth of poetical talent in the middle ages, alli¬
terative composition was cultivated as a distinct poetical
exercise. As a specimen of these ridiculous feats of poeti¬
cal legerdemain, we give three lines from the performance
entitled Pugna Porcorum per Publium Porcium, Poetam,
. a poem in which every word began with the letter P.
Propterea properans Proconsul, poplite prono,
Prsecipitem Plebem, pro Patrum pace poposcit.
Persia paulisper, Pubes preciosa ! precamur, &c., &c.
ALLIUM, a genus of plants of the natural order of
Asphodelecu, including garlic, the onion, the leek, &c.
ALLIX, Pierre, a French Protestant divine, was born
at Alen^on in France, in the year 1641. At the time when
the edict of Nantes tolerated and protected the Protestants
of France, he entered upon the clerical profession, and re¬
mained minister of Rouen until the 35th year of his age.
During this period he wrote several pieces upon the contro¬
versy between the Papists and the Protestants, by which
he obtained great fame among his own party. The unwise
revocation of the edict of Nantes drove Allix and many
others to seek refuge in England. Three years after his
arrival in England, he had made himself so perfectly master
of the English language as to be able to write very cor¬
rectly a Defence of the Christian Religion. This work he
dedicated to James II. in testimony of gratitude for his
kind reception of the distressed refugees of France. Not
long after his arrival in England, he was honoured with the
title of doctor of divinity, and also received the more sub¬
stantial honour of being appointed treasurer of the church
of Salisbury.
After having exercised his talents with much industry
and learning in defence of Protestantism, he employed his
pen to support the doctrine of the Trinity against the Uni¬
tarians, who contended that the idea of Christ’s divinity
could be traced up no higher than the time of Justin Martyr.
With a great display of erudition, he attempted to prove
that the Trinitarian doctrine was believed by the Jewish
church. But the reputation which he had acquired for
learning and ability was somewhat diminished by the ridi¬
cule he brought on himself in attempting to prove that
ALL
Christ should again appear upon earth in the year 1720, or, Alloa
at the latest, in 1736. This able divine died at London in II
1717, at the age of 76. v Allon,
ALLOA, a seaport town of Scotland, in the county of
Clackmannan. It is situated on the north shore of the Firth
of Forth, 27 miles from Edinburgh, 6 from Stirling by land
and 12 by water. It has a safe and commodious harbour, hav¬
ing 16 feet of water in neap, and 22 in spring tides. The town
is irregularly built. The chief public building is the church,
which was first opened in 1819. It is a fine building, in the
pointed style of architecture, with a handsome spire. Alloa
has several distilleries in its neighbourhood, from which
large quantities of spirits are shipped for England; and its
breweries are noted for producing a very fine quality of ale,
which is in great repute. Among the principal manufac¬
tories of this place are extensive brick and tile works; a
copper work, at which are made most of the implements or
apparatus for distilleries; the Devon iron-works; and a
glass-work, where, in addition to the ordinary green glass
bottles, they now manufacture all sorts of finer glass. There
are extensive collieries in the immediate vicinity, from
which abundant supplies of fuel are brought by a waggon¬
way direct to these works from the mouth of the pit. The
exports from Alloa consist of pig-iron, ale, spirits, glass, and
coals; and the imports are timber, oak, bark, hides, and
great quantities of grain for malting. Adjoining the har¬
bour is an excellent dry dock, capable of receiving ships of
the greatest burden; and to the west is a ferry across the
Forth, which is there 500 yards broad, with piers projecting
down to low water-mark. A daily communication is main¬
tained with Edinburgh and other towns along the Forth by
means of steam-boats. It has a custom-house, which com¬
prehends under the port of Alloa the creeks on both sides
of the Forth from Kincardine to Stirling inclusive. In the
immediate vicinity of the town there is an ancient tower 89
feet high, with walls 11 feet in thickness, which was built
about the year 1315. This was the residence of the
Erskines, the descendants of the Earls of Mar, once a
powerful family; and here many of the Scottish princes re¬
ceived their education, having been for more than two cen¬
turies the wards of the Lords Erskine and the Earls of Mar.
The last heir of the Scottish monarchy educated here was
Henry Prince of Wales. Pop. in 1851, 6676. Long. 3.
46. W. Lat. 56. 7. N.
ALLOCATION denotes the admitting or allowing of
an article of an account, especially in the exchequer. Hence
Allocatione Facienda is a writ directed to the lord
treasurer, or barons of the exchequer, commanding them
to allow an accountant such sums as he has lawfully ex¬
pended in the execution of his office.
ALLOCUTIO, an oration addressed by a Roman ge¬
neral to his soldiers, to animate them to fight, to appease
sedition, or to keep them to their duty.
ALLODIUM, or Alleud, denotes lands which are the
absolute property of their owner, without being obliged to
pay any service or acknowledgment whatever to a superior
lord. This tenure of land was common in the north of Eu¬
rope, is the udal tenure of the Scandinavians, and still exists,
in a few instances, in the county of Orkney. What existed
of it in England was destroyed by William I., who intro¬
duced the stringent feudal tenure, by which all lands are
held of the crown.
ALLORI, Alessandro, a Florentine painter of the third
epoch of the school, who introduced fine anatomy into his
pictures. He also wrote an essay on painting, of consider¬
able merit. Born 1535, died 1607. He was a nephew of
Bronzino, whose name he assumed.
Allori, Cristofano, the son of the former, was a superior
colourist and excellent painter of portraits, and some reckon
ALL
Alloxan him among the best painters of the fourth epoch of the Flo-
11 rentine school. Born 1577, died 1621.—Lanzi,l.
Allyghur. ALLOXAN, a crystallised substance, formed by the
action of nitric on uric acid. It forms oblique four-sided
prisms. It is capable of further oxidation, and becomes
alloxanic acid.
ALLOY, or Allay, properly signifies a proportion of a
baser metal mixed with a finer one. The alloy of gold is
estimated by carats, that of silver by pennyweights. In
different nations different proportions of alloy are used;
whence their moneys are said to be of different degrees of
fineness or baseness, and are valued accordingly in foreign
exchanges. The chief reasons alleged for the alloying of
coin are, 1. the mixture of the metals, which, when smelted
from the mine, are not perfectly pure ; 2. the saving of
the expense it must otherwise cost if they were to be re¬
fined ; 3. the necessity of rendering them harder, by mixing
some parts of other metals with them, to prevent the dimi¬
nution of weight by wearing in passing from hand to hand ;
4. the melting of foreign gold or coin which is alloyed ; 5.
the charges of coinage, which must be made good by the
profit arising from the money coined ; 6. and lastly, the duty
belonging to the sovereign, on account of the power he has
to cause money to be coined in his dominions.
ALLSTADT, a bailiwick in the grand duchy of Saxe-
Weimar, containing one city and eleven villages. Its capi¬
tal. of the same name, is on the Rhone, 22 miles W.S.W.
of Halle, and 26 north of Weimar. This city is of consi¬
derable antiquity ; and as early as 974, an imperial diet was
held there under Otho II. A ducal castle crowns an ad¬
joining eminence. It has some manufactures of cloth, salt¬
petre, and potash. Pop. 2550.
ALLSTON, Washington, an American historical painter,
distinguished for his excellence in colouring. His picture
of “ The Dead Man resuscitated by Elisha’s Bones,” ob¬
tained the L.220 prize of the British Institution in 1811.
His first wife was a sister of Dr Channing. He was born
in South Carolina in 1779, and died in Massachusetts in 1843.
ALLUMEE, an Heraldic term, applied to indicate eyes
of animals depicted sparkling, or of a red hue.
ALLUMINOR, from the French allumer, to lighten,
an old term for one who coloured or painted upon paper or
parchment; because he gave light and ornament by his
colours to the letters or other figures. Such ornaments are
styled illuminations. The term is used in statute 1 Richard
III. cap. 9; and is still traceable in the word limner.
ALLUSION, in Rhetoric, a figure by which something
is applied to, or understood of, another, on account of some
similitude between them.
ALLUVION, in Law, denotes the gradual increase of
land along the sea-shore, or on banks of rivers.
ALLUVIUM, or Alluvial, is used in Geology to de¬
note those deposits of sand, gravel, stone, &c., which are
brought down by streams and rivers, and spread over lower
lands. See Geology.
ALLYGHUR, in the East Indies, a fort in the British
district of the same name, within the territory of the lieu¬
tenant-governorship of Agra. Its site is an elevated plain,
skirted by swamps and morasses. The fort is now dis¬
mantled ; and it was proposed some years since to convert
it into a provincial jail, but the undertaking was abandoned
in consequence of the alleged insalubrity of the locality.
Towards the close of the year 1802, the Peishwa, driven
from his capital by Holcar, fled to Bassein, and there con¬
cluded the treaty whereby he secured the co-operation of
the British in re-establishing his sovereignty. This alliance
excited the jealousy of the principal Mahratta chiefs, who
shortly after confederated for the purpose of defeating the
objects of the treaty. Among the operations planned by
A L M 595
the British for the destruction of this confederacy, was an Almacan-
attack upon General Perron the French adventurer, who tars
held a large force in readiness in the Dooab to co-operate . H
with the Mahrattas. In furtherance of this measure, Gene- v Imag^stJ
ral Lord Lake, in August 1803, marched from Cawnpore
towards the Mahratta territory, and on the 29th of that
month, came up with Perron, who was strongly posted in
the vicinity of Allyghur. Perron, however, retreated upon
the advance of the English, leaving the fort of Allyghur in
charge of a French officer, with injunctions to defend it to
the last extremity. In addressing this commander, Perron
observed, “ You will have received the answer you are to
make to the propositions of General Lake. I never could
have believed that, for an instant, you could have thought of
a capitulation. Remember you are a Frenchman ; and let
no action of yours tarnish the character of your nation. I
hope in a few days to send back the English general as fast
or faster than he came. Make yourself perfectly easy on
this subject. Either the Mogul emperor’s army, or that of
General Lake, shall find a grave before the Fort of Allyghur.
Do your duty and defend tbe fort while one stone remains
upon another. Once more, remember your nation. The
eyes of millions are fixed upon you.” Upon being sum¬
moned to surrender, the commandant declared his re¬
solution to defend the fort. It was obvious to the British
general that delay could only render the conquest more
difficult, and preparations were ordered for the assault. On
the morning of the 4th September, Lieutenant-Colonel
Monson led the attack: the defence was obstinate and
vigorous, and continued for nearly an hour, when the fortress,
hitherto deemed impregnable, fell before the spirit and in¬
trepidity of the assailants. Its acquisition transferred to the
captors a large proportion of the military stores of the French
party who had constituted it their grand depot. The loss
of the British amounted to 59 killed and 206 wounded ; that
of the enemy exceeded 2000.
The value of the conquest was duly appreciated at the
time, and its memory has not been suffered to pass away.
So late as the year 185], a medal was struck in commemora¬
tion of the event, and presented under the sanction of Her
Majesty to the surviving officers and soldiers who took part
in the capture. Elevation above the sea, 740 feet. Distance
from Delhi, S.E. 84 miles; from Calcutta N.W. 803. Lat.
27. 56. Long. 78. 8. (e.t.)
ALMACANTARS. See Almucantars.
ALMADA, a Portuguese town upon the Tagus, opposite
Lisbon, in the province of Estremadura, with one monastery,
900 houses, and 4000 inhabitants. Not far from this place
is one of the entrances to the Tagus, defended by the tower
of St Sebastian. Lat. 38. 37. 20. N.
ALMADEN, a town in Spain, in the province of Ciudad
Real, with 9000 inhabitants. It is distinguished by the rich
mines of quicksilver in its vicinity. Formerly these mines
were wrought partly by convicts, but now wholly by free
labourers. The government of late years has leased "these
mines to private speculators. In 1848 they yielded 40,000
quintals of mercury. The principal mines are at Almaden,
and at Almadenejos, two leagues from the former, with some
less important in Valencia. The whole amount of quicksil¬
ver obtained in Spain in 1848 was 48,868 quintals, or about
40,578 cwt. Lat. 38. 41. N. Long. 4. 49. W.
ALMADIE, a kind of canoe or small vessel, about four
fathoms long, commonly made of bark, and used by the
negroes of Africa. At Calicut the same name is applied
to a kind of long boats, 80 feet in length and six or seven
in breadth. They are exceedingly swift, and are otherwise
called caihuri.
ALMAGEST, compounded of the Arabic a/and geyio-Tq,
an epithet of distinction conferred on a collection or book
596
A L M
A L M
Almagre composed by Claudius Ptolemy, containing various problems
11 of the ancients both in geometry and astronomy. C ther
Aimagro. C0l]eCfj0ns have received the same name. Thus, Riccioli
has published a book of astronomy, which he calls the JSew
Almagest; and Plukenet, a book which he calls Almagestum
rinf n 717)9 ru 77),
ALMAGRE, a fine, deep red ochre, very heavy, and of
a dense yet friable structure, and rough, dusty surface. It
adheres very firmly to the tongue, has scarcely any taste,
and seems analogous to the ore of iron called in England
Red Reddle. It is the Sil Aiticum of the ancients. It is
found in immense quantities in many parts of Spain, and is
used at Seville to colour snuff.
ALMAGRO, a city of Spain, the capital of one of the
districts of Ciudad Real. It was built by the Archbishop
Roderic of Toledo, who finished it in 1214, and put a con¬
siderable garrison into it, to restrain the incursions of the
Moors. They soon afterwards besieged it, but were obliged
to retire with loss. The town is now celebrated for its lace
manufacture. Pop. 12,605.
Almagbo, Diego de, a Spanish commander, was of such
obscure birth and mean parentage that he derived his name
from the village where he was born in 1463. Deprived of
the means of early instruction, he could neither read nor
write; but nevertheless, in consequence of his improvements
in the military art, he formed an association with Francisco
Pizarro and Hernando de Luque, for the purpose of disco¬
very and conquest upon the Peruvian coast. The governor
of Panama having sanctioned their enterprise, they devoted
their united exertions to that undertaking. Pizarro directed
the conquest, and Aimagro was appointed to conduct the
supplies of provisions and reinforcements. In the first two
unsuccessful attempts he performed this office with perse¬
vering fidelity and uncommon activity. His perseverance
was followed with complete success; for they at last dis¬
covered the coast of Peru, and landed at Tumbez, situated
about three degrees south of the line, and distinguished by
its temple and a palace of the incas or sovereigns. Pizarro
was sent over to Spain to solicit further powers, after the
three adventurers had previously adjusted their future pre¬
ferments, and agreed that Pizarro should be governor, Ai¬
magro lieutenant-governor, and Luque bishop. In this
negotiation Pizarro obtained the clerical dignity for Luque,
but chiefly concerned for his own interest, he neglected the
preferment of Aimagro. On his return, Aimagro was so
enraged that he refused to act with such a perfidious com¬
panion, and resolved to form a new association. Pizarro,
for the present, artfully endeavoured to avert the indigna¬
tion of Aimagro, and gradually soothed the rage and disap¬
pointment of the soldier. The union was renewed upon the
former terms ; and it was solemnly stipulated that they
should mutually share the expenses and the advantages.
In February 1531, leaving Aimagro at Panama to supply
provisions and reinforcements, Pizarro set sail for Peru.
He attacked a principal settlement of the natives in the pro¬
vince of Coaque, obtained immense spoil, and made such
ample remittances to Aimagro as enabled him to complete
his reinforcement; and, in the close of the year 1532, Ai¬
magro arrived at St Michael, with a body of men nearly
double the number of those whom Pizarro had with him.
The Spaniards about this time took captive the unfortunate
Inca Atahualpa, and, after they had received an immense
sum for his ransom, they barbarously put him to death.
Ferdinand Pizarro sailed for Spain with the news of their
success, and with remittances to a great amount; and con¬
sequently Aimagro gained that elevated station he had so
long and so eagerly desired. But no sooner did he receive
the intelligence of his promotion by the royal grant than he
attempted to seize Cuzco, the imperial residence of the In¬
cas, under pretence that it lay within his destined territory. Aimagro.
This produced a new quarrel; but peace was restored upon
condition that Aimagro should attempt the conquest of Chili,
and, if he did not find in that province an establishment
adequate to his merit, that Pizarro should yield up to him
a part of Peru.
In 1535 he accordingly set out at the head of 570 Euro¬
peans. In crossing the mountains he suffered great hard¬
ships and losses by mistaking the route ; but at length he
descended into the plains of that devoted region. Here he
met with a more vigorous resistance from the natives than
the Spaniards had ever experienced in other countries. He
had, however, made some progress, when he was recalled
to Peru by the news of the natives having risen in great
numbers, and attacked Lima and Cuzco. He pursued a
new route, and marching through the sandy plains on the
coast, he suffered, by heat and drought, calamities not infe¬
rior to those which he had endured from cold and famine
on the summits of the Andes. Arriving at a favourable mo¬
ment, he resolved to hold the place, both against the Indians
and his Spanish rivals. He attacked the Peruvian army
with great vigour, and, making a great slaughter, proceeded
to the gates of Cuzco without any further interruption.
The open, affable, and generous temper of Aimagro, gained
over to his side many of the adherents of the Pizarros, who
were disgusted with their harsh and oppressive conduct.
With the aid of these he advanced towards the city by night,
surprised the sentinels, and surrounding the house where
the two brothers Ferdinand and Gonzalo Pizarro resided,
compelled them, after an obstinate resistance, to surrender
at discretion. A form of government was settled in the
name of Aimagro, and his jurisdiction over Cuzco was uni¬
versally acknowledged. This was the origin of a civil war,
the beginning of which was very advantageous to Aimagro,
who, by skilful manoeuvres, entirely routed a body of Spanish
troops advancing to the relief of Cuzco, and made Alvarado,
their commander, prisoner. But instead of improving these
advantages, he unwisely marched back to Cuzco, and there
awaited the arrival of Pizarro, who, convinced of his own
feeble resources, proposed an accommodation, and, with his
usual art, protracted the negotiation till he found himself in
a condition to meet his antagonist in the field of battle.
Meanwhile Alvarado and one of the Pizarros, by bribing
their keepers, found means to escape, and persuaded sixty
of the men who guarded them to attend them in their flight;
and the governor released the other. When Pizarro thought
himself sufficiently prepared to settle the dominion of Peru,
he marched with an army of 500 men to Cuzco. Aimagro,
worn out with age and infirmity, had previously resigned
the command to Orgognez. A fierce and bloody battle en¬
sued, in which Almagro’s army was defeated, and the com¬
mander wounded. About 140 soldiers fell in the field, and
Orgognez, along with several officers of distinction, was
massacred in cold blood. During that fatal day, Aimagro,
placed in a litter which was stationed on an eminence, be¬
held from thence the total discomfiture of his troops, and
felt all the indignation of a soldier who had seldom expe¬
rienced defeat. He was taken prisoner, remained several
months in confinement, and was afterwards tried and con¬
demned to death. In the view of an ignominious death, the
courage of the veteran forsook him, and he unsuccessfully
supplicated for life in a manner unworthy of his former cha¬
racter. All the arguments he could employ were ineffectual.
The Pizarros remained unmoved by all his entreaties. As
soon, however, as Aimagro saw that his fate was inevitable,
he resumed his courage, and exhibited all his usual dignity^
and fortitude. In the year 1538, and in the 75th year of
his age, he was strangled in prison, and afterwards beheaded.
He left one son by an Indian woman of Panama; and, in
A L M
A L M
Almagro consequence of a power which the emperor had granted him,
II he declared his son his successor in the government, although
Almamun. }ie was then a prisoner in Lima.
Almagro, the Younger, by his courage, generosity, and
other accomplishments, was placed at the head of the party
after the death of his father. The father, conscious of his
own inferiority from the total want of education, used every
possible means to improve the mind and embellish the man¬
ners of his son ; so that he soon acquired those accomplish¬
ments which rendered him respected by illiterate adven¬
turers, who cheerfully ranged round his standard, and, in
his dexterity and skill, sought deliverance from the oppres¬
sions of Pizarro. Juan de Herrada, an officer of great abi¬
lities, continued still to direct his councils, and to regulate his
enterprises ; and while Pizarro confided in his own security,
a conspiracy was formed against him which terminated in
his death. The assassins, exulting in their success, and
waving their bloody swords, hastened to the street, pro¬
claimed the death of the tyrant, and compelled the magis¬
trates and principal citizens of Lima to acknowledge Alma¬
gro as lawful successor of his father. But his reign was of
short duration ; for, in 1541, Vaca de Castro, arriving at
Quito, produced the royal commission appointing him go¬
vernor of Peru, together with all the privileges and autho¬
rity of Pizarro. The talents and influence of the new go¬
vernor soon overpowered the interest of Almagro, who,
perceiving the rapid decline ot his influence, hastened with
his troops to Cuzco, where his opponents had erected the
royal standard under the command of Pedro Alvarez Hol¬
guin. Herrada, the guide of his councils, died during this
march ; and from that time his measures were conspicuous
for their violence, concerted with little ingenuity, and exe¬
cuted with little address. At length, on September L6.
1542, the forces of Almagro and Yaca de Castro met, and
victory long remained doubtful, till at last it declared for
the new governor. Almagro conducted the military opera¬
tions of that fatal day with a gallant spirit, worthy of a bet¬
ter cause, and deserving of a better fate ; and his followers
displayed uncommon valour. In proportion to the num¬
ber of combatants, the carnage was very great. Of 1400
men, 500 fell in the field, and many more were wounded.
Almagro escaped, but being betrayed by some of his own
officers, he was publicly beheaded at Cuzco; and in him the
name and spirit of the party of Almagro became extinct.
ALMAMUN, or the Trustworthy, the surname of Abu
1’Abbas Abdallah, eldest son of the caliph Haroun Alraschid,
who was born at Baghdad a.d. 785. By the will of his fa¬
ther, the younger brother A1 Amin, as the son of his favour¬
ite wife, succeeded to the caliphate, while the elder Alma¬
mun was left second in the order of succession. He was at
that time governor of Khorassan, and in obedience to his
father’s will acknowledged the supremacy of his brother.
He, however, repaid his good-will with open hatred, and un¬
just attempts to exclude him from the succession. Alma¬
mun was thus forced to consult measures for his own safety
and promotion, and caused himself to be proclaimed caliph.
After various struggles, his general Jhaher, in the year
813, took possession of Baghdad, pursued A1 Amin to his
retreat, and caused him to be assassinated, so that Alma¬
mun remained without a competitor. Various rebellions
disturbed the tranquillity of the first years of his reign; but,
by his prudent administration and vigorous exertions, these
were at length extinguished. Instigated by the advice of
his vizier, he soon after raised greater commotions, and ex¬
posed his dignity to greater dangers, by countenancing the
sect of Ali. He invited to court Iman Rizza, gave him
his daughter in marriage, and even declared him his suc¬
cessor in the empire. He assumed the green turban, the
colour of the house of Ali, and obliged his courtiers and
soldiers to imitate his example. Alarmed at these proceed¬
ings, the orthodox Mussulmans, and the house ot Abbas,
excited a great revolt in Baghdad, and proclaimed Ibrahim,
Almamun’s uncle, caliph. A civil war was just about to
commence, when Fadel the vizier was assassinated, and Rizza
died. The people of Baghdad then deposed Ibrahim, and
returned to their former allegiance. Taking advantage of
Almamun’s absence, Thaher seized upon the government
of Khorassan, where he founded a dynasty which existed
but sixteen years.
Almamun employed the period of tranquillity that followed,
in introducing literature into his dominions, and in its im¬
provement ; which constitutes the greatest glory of his reign.
During the days of his father he discovered an ardent thirst
after knowledge, by forming a college in Khorassan, adorned
by the most eminent men of various countries ; and appoint¬
ed Mesue, a famous Christian physician of Damascus, for
their president. When his father remonstrated against con¬
ferring such an honour upon a Christian, he reminded him that
the most learned men and most skilful artists in his dominions
were Jews and Christians; and added, that he had chosen
Mesue as a preceptor in science and useful arts, and not as
a teacher of religion. Under his auspices Baghdad became
the seat of literature, of private and academical instruction,
and the habitation of men of eminence from all quarters.
Many valuable books in the Greek, Persian, Chaldean, and
Coptic languages, among which were the works of Aristotle
and Galen, were translated into the Arabic at his own ex¬
pense. This caliph himself deemed it an honour to set an
example to others of the becoming respect due to mental
cultivation, by visiting the schools, and treating the profes¬
sors with great regard. In mathematics, astronomy, and
philosophy, he made a rapid and extensive progress. He
was the author of astronomical tables, which, on account of
their accuracy, have been much admired. By these various
exertions the character of the Saracens was suddenly changed
from rudeness and ferocity to politeness and civilisation,
while the most powerful and extensive of the European states
were involved in ignorance and barbarism. Literature has
sustained some irreparable losses from his too great partiality
to the Arabic writers, which induced him to destroy the
originals of the translated manuscripts. He is represented by
the Sonnites, or orthodox Mahometans, as little better than
an infidel, because of his attention to philosophy and let¬
ters. His conduct, however, shows that he was not suffi¬
ciently careful to preserve a philosophical mean between the
different religious parties during the time of his administra¬
tion, as he openly manifested a predilection for the doctrines
of the Motazeli, who asserted the free-will of man, and denied
the eternity of the Koran. Some allege that, on account of
the murmurs which arose against him, he was induced to
exhibit too great a zeal, by establishing a kind of inejuisition,
to compel all his subjects to profess Islamism. The ex¬
periment, however, soon terminated in the better and juster
expedient of universal toleration ; and it is abundantly evi¬
dent that the Christains in his dominions never felt the power
of his inquisition.
The public transactions of his reign are in themselves
important. In the years 822 he sent a body of his troops
to the assistance of Thomas, a Greek, who made war on
Michael the Stammerer, the emperor of Constantinople, and
besieged his capital. This expedition, which on the part of
the caliph seems to have been founded in justice, proved
unsuccessful; Thomas was taken prisoner, and suffered
death. In the years 829 and 830 he commenced hostilities
upon the Greeks, rendered himself master of many places,
and carried devastation into their territories. He was suc¬
cessful in supressing a revolt in Egypt in the year 831. In
this country he was led to discover a treasure buried under
598 A L M
Almanack, two columns by Merwan, the last caliph of the house of Om-
mijah. In repairing a decayed mikias or measuring pillar,
and erecting a new one for determining the gradation of the
increase of the Nile, Almamun displayed his love of science.
In the year 833 he again visited Egypt: on his return he
penetrated into the territories of the Greek emperor, even in¬
to Cilicia. Returning home, he encamped on the banks of
a river, and, excited by thirst, drank too freely of the water,
and at the same time indulged himself immoderately in eat¬
ing a particular kind of dates, which brought on a complaint
in his stomach, and reduced him to the most imminent dan¬
ger. Sensible of his approaching dissolution, he sent letters
into all the provinces, declaring his brother Motassem his suc¬
cessor, and then patiently waited the event. After a tedious
struggle under the pressure of his disease, and while uttering
this ejaculation, “ O thou who never diest, have mercy on
me, a dying man!” he expired at the age of 48 or 49 years,
after a reign of 27 years and some months.
ALMANACK, a book or table, containing a calendar of
days and months, the rising and setting of the sun, the age
of the moon, the eclipses of both luminaries, &c.—Authors
are divided with regard to the etymology of the word;
some deriving it from the Arabic particle al, and manach,
to count; some from almanack, new-year’s gifts, because
the Arabian astrologers used at the beginning of the year to
make presents of their ephemerides ; and others from the
Teutonic almaen achte, observations on all the months.
Dr Johnson derives it from the Arabic particle al, and the
Greek fxrjv, a month. But the most simple etymology ap¬
pears from the common spelling ; the word being composed
of two Arabic ones, Al Manack, which signify the Diary.
All classes of the Arabs are commonly much given to the
study of astronomy and astrology ; to both of which they
are inclined by their belief in fate, and by their pastoral life,
which affords time and opportunity to cultivate them. They
neither sow, reap, plant, nor undertake any expedition or
business, without previously consulting the stars, or, in other
words, their almanacks, or some of the makers of them.
From these people, by their vicinity to Europe, this art, no
less useful in one sense than trifling and ridiculous in another,
has passed over to us ; and those astronomical compositions
have still everywhere not only retained their old Arabic
name, but were, like theirs, for a long while, and still are
among many European nations, interspersed with a great
number of astrological rules for planting, sowing, bleeding,
purging, &c., down to the cutting of the hair and paring of
the nails. Regiomontanus appears to have been the first in
Europe, however, who reduced almanacks into their present
form and method, gave the characters of each year and
month, foretold the eclipses and other phases, calculated the
motions of the planets, &c. His first almanack was publish¬
ed in 1474.
The essential part of an almanack is the calendar of
months and days, with the risings and settings of the sun,
age of the moon, &c. To these are added lists of posts,
offices, dignities, public institutions, with many other arti¬
cles, political as well as local, and differing in different
countries.
England has abounded in almanacks, some of them of no
very creditable description, though widely circulated among
the people for a long period of years. Such, in particular^
were Moore's Almanack, and Poor Robin's Almanack, now
happily, with several others of the same class, either extinct
or about to become so. This change has been mainly owing
to the publication of an entirely new almanack by the So¬
ciety for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. The follow¬
ing statement is extracted from a curious article upon Eng¬
lish Almanacks, in the London Magazine, third series
vol. ii. p. 591. “ For a century and a half, the two univer-
A L M
sities and the Stationers’ Company held the monopoly of Almanack,
them, by letters-patent of James I. During this period, v --
according to the condition of the patent, almanacks received
the imprimatur of the Archbishop of Canterbury and the
bishops of London ; and yet it would be difficult to find, in
so small a compass, an equal quantity of ignorance, profli¬
gacy, and imposture, as was condensed in these publications.
By the persevering exertions of one individual, the mono¬
poly was overthrown about 1779 ; and the parties claiming
the patent-right then applied to parliament for an act to
confirm it. That bill was introduced by the minister of the
day; but Erskine, then first coming into repute, appeared
at the bar to oppose it,—and the monopoly was destroyed
for ever, by a solemn vote of the House of Commons. From
that time the Stationers’ Company proceeded upon a differ¬
ent course. They secured their monopoly by buying up all
rival almanacks ; and they rendered the attempts of indi¬
viduals to oppose them perfectly hopeless, by those arts of
trade which a powerful corporation knew how to exercise.
For the last fifty years they have rioted, as of old, in every
abomination that could delude the vulgar to the purchase of
their commodity. On a sudden a new almanack started up,
under the superintendence and authority of a society dis¬
tinguished for its great and successful labours to improve
the intellectual condition of the people. For the first time
in the memory of man, an almanack at once rational and
popular was produced. From that hour the empire of astro¬
logy was at an end. The public press, infinitely to their
honour, took up the cause. The blasphemy of Francis
Moore, and the obscenity of Poor Robin, were denounced
and ridiculed through all quarters of the kingdom. In one
little year the obscene book was discontinued, the blasphe¬
mous book retreated into pure stupidity, and the publishers
of the blasphemy and the obscenity applied themselves, in
imitation of the first powerful rival they had ever encoun¬
tered, to make a rational and useful almanack.” The al¬
manack of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Know¬
ledge is entitled the British Almanack ; the improved one
published in imitation of it by the Stationers’ Company, is
called the Englishman!s Almanack. Of other British Al¬
manacks, the most deserving of mention are Oliver and
Boyd's Edinburgh Almanack, and Thom's Irish Almanack
and Official Directory ; of foreign almanacks, the Alman¬
ack Royal de Belgique, and the small but excellent Alma¬
nack de Gotha, now in its 89th year.
The French Almanack Royal is one of the most exten¬
sive publications of this class, the volume generally extend¬
ing to about a thousand octavo pages.
Almanack, Nautical. This, which in some respects is a
national almanack, is published under the sanction of the
Board of Longitude, and is designed chiefly to facilitate the
use of Mayer’s Lunar Tables, by superseding the necessity
of making calculations to determine the longitude at sea. It
commenced with the year 1767, and has ever since been
continued annually, but two or three years in advance. The
late Dr Maskelyne was the originator of this very valuable
publication. It is now published under the immediate
superintendence of the secretary to the Board. Similar to
this almanack is the French publication entitled Connois-
sance des Terns, directed by the Bureau de Longitude, and
which commenced so early as the year 1698. At Berlin,
the celebrated Bode for about 50 years conducted the ex¬
cellent astronomical almanack, Astronomisches Jahrbuch,
which is still continued.
Almanack, among Antiquaries, is also the name given
to a kind of instrument, usually of wood, inscribed with
various figures and Runic characters, and representing the
order of the feasts, dominical letters, days of the week, and
golden number, with other matters necessary to be known
Almansa
II
Almansur.
A L M
A L M
599
throughout the year ; used by the ancient northern nations
in their computations of time, both civil and ecclesiastical.
Almanacks of this kind are known by various names among
the different nations in which they have been used, as rim-
stocks, primstaries, runstocks, runstaffs, clogs, Scipiones Ru-
nici, Bacculi Annales, &c. They appear to have been used
only by the Swedes, Danes, and Norwegians. From the
second of these people their use was introduced into Eng¬
land, whence divers remains of them in the counties. Dr
Plot has given the description and figure of one of these
clogs, found in Staffordshire, under the title of The Perpetual
Staffordshire Almanack. The external figure and mat¬
ter of these calendars appear to have been various. Some¬
times they were cut on one or more wooden leaves, bound
together after the manner of books ; sometimes on the scab¬
bards of swords, or even daggers ; sometimes on tools and
implements, as portable steelyards, hammers, the helves of
hatchets, flails, &c. Sometimes they were made of brass or
born ; sometimes of the skins of eels, which being drawn
over a stick properly inscribed, retained the impressions of
it. But the most usual form was that of walking staves, or
sticks, which they carried about with them to church, mar¬
ket, &c. Each of these staves is divided into three regions;
whereof the first indicates the signs, the second the days of
the week and year, and the third the golden number. The
characters engraven on them are, in some, the ancient
Runic; in others, the later Gothic characters of Ulfilas.
The saints’ days are expressed in hieroglyphics, significative
either of some endowment of the saint, the manner of his
martyrdom, or the like. Thus, against the notch for the
1st of March, or St David’s day, is represented a harp ;
against the 25th of October, or Crispin’s day, a pair of
shoes ; against the 10th of August, or St Lawrence’s day,
a gridiron ; and, lastly, against New-year’s day, a horn, the
Symbol of liberal potations, which our ancestors indulged in
at that period.
ALMANSA, a small city of Spain, in the province of
Albacete, to the north of the river Segura. A pyramid
erected near it commemorates the decisive battle fought
here in 1707, when the French and Spaniards, under the
Duke of Berwick, gained a complete victory over the united
forces in the interest of the Archduke Charles. It now
contains 8700 inhabitants.
ALMANSUR, i.e., the Victorious, the second caliph of
the house of A1 Abbas, succeeded his brother Abul Abbas A1
Saffah in the year 753, of the Hegira 136, and in the follow¬
ing year was inaugurated at A1 Hashemiyah. Although A1
Saffah had declared him presumptive heir of the crown, and
he had been proclaimed caliph in the imperial city of Anbar,
yet immediately upon his inauguration his uncle Abdallah
ebn Ali had sufficient interest to cause himself to be pro¬
claimed caliph at Damascus. In Arabia, Syria, and Meso¬
potamia, he collected a numerous army, and arrived at the
banks of the Masius, near Nisibis, where he encamped, ready
to dispute his royal accession by arms. Almansur collected
an immense army in Persia, Khorassan, and Irak, and gave
the command of it to Abu Moslem, who harassed his uncle’s
troops for five months, and at last totally defeated him, a.b.
754. Notwithstanding the services which Abu Moslem had
rendered to the family of A1 Abbas, after this victory he
became an object of jealousy, and was assassinated in the
presence of Almansur himself, by his express order. After
the death of Abu Moslem, the standard of rebellion was raised
by Simon, a Magian, who seized on the treasures of the de¬
ceased governor of Khorassan, and excited the people of
that country to a general revolt; but this insurrection was
suddenly quelled by the general of Almansur, Jamhur ebn
.Morad. The caliph avariciously seized the spoils of this vic¬
tory, which so incensed Jamhur that he immediately turned
his arms against his royal master; but he was soon defeated Almaraa
by the caliph’s forces. The patriarch of Antioch was about II
this time detected in an illicit correspondence with the Gre- ^Imazora'
cian emperor, and consequently was banished into an ob-
scure part of Palestine; and in the mean time the Christians
in the dominions of the caliph were prohibited from building
or repairing any churches, and also were laid under several
other severe restraints.
Almansur sent a large army into Cappadocia in the year
757, fortified the city of Malatia or Melitene, and deposited
in it a great part of his treasures. But in this year he was
attacked by a sect of believers in the metempsychosis, called
the Rawandians. This sect assembled at A1 Hashemiyah,
the residence of the caliph, and, by the ceremony of going
in procession round his palace, intimated their purpose of
invoking him as a deity, and paying him divine homage. In¬
censed by their impiety, the caliph ordered several of these
sectaries to be imprisoned, which roused their resentment,
and led them to form the design of his assassination. The
generous interposition, however, of Maan ebn Zaidet, an
Ommiyan chief, who had been under the necessity of con¬
cealing himself from the caliph’s resentment, defeated their
intention. This insult, received in his capital, induced him
to build the city of Baghdad, and to fix his residence there,
a.d. 762. In the preceding year a plan was formed to de¬
throne him ; but it being discovered, he severely punished
all who were either directly or indirectly concerned in it.
He set out on a pilgrimage to Mecca in the year 774, and
being seized on the road with a dangerous disease, he sent
for his son and intended successor A1 Mohdi, and gave him
some salutary advice. “ I command you,” said he, “to treat
publicly your relations with the greatest marks of distinction,
since this conduct will reflect no small degree of honour and
glory upon yourself. Increase the number of your ffeed-
men, and treat them with all kindness, as they will be of
great service to you in your adversity; but neither this nor
the other injunction will you fulfil. Enlarge not that part
of your capital erected on the eastern bank of the Tigris, as
you will never be able to finish it; but this work I know you
will attempt. Never permit any of your women to inter¬
meddle in affairs of state, or to have any influence over your
councils ; but this advice I know you will not take. These
are my last commands ; or, if you please, my dying advice ;
and to God I now recommend you.” In parting they both
gave vent to their feelings in a flood of tears. He pursued
his journey to Bir-Maimun, i. e., the well of Maimun, where
he died in the 63d year of his age and 20th of his reign.
His remains were interred at Mecca.
ALMARAZ, a small town of Estremadura in Spain.
About two miles south of the town flows the Tagus, which is
here crossed by abridge built by Charles V. in 1552. The
defeat of the French here by Lord Hill on 18th May 1812,
was one of the most brilliant actions of the peninsular war.
ALMARIC, the name of a tenet introduced in France
by one Almaric, in the thirteenth century. It consisted in
holding that every Christian was actually a member of
Christ, and that without this faith no one could be saved.
His followers went farther, and affirmed that every one is
to be saved by the internal operation of the Holy Spirit
alone, without any external act of religion. Their morals
were as infamous as their doctrine was absurd. Their tenets
were condemned by a public decree of the council of Sens,
in the year 1209.
ALMAZARRON. See Mazarron.
ALMAZ ORA, a Spanish town on the sea-shore, in the
province of Castellon de la Plana, remarkable for a grand
tunnelled aqueduct, executed in the year 1640, for conduct¬
ing the waters of the Mijares to irrigate the fine plain of
Castellon. Lat. 39. 53. N. Pop. 3636.
*
600 A L M
Alma ALME, or Alma, singing and dancing girls in Egypt,
. II . who, like the Italian Improvisatori, can occasionally pour
^meiui^ fortj^ a unpreme(Jitated verse.” They are called Alme, from
"^ v having received a better education than other women. I hey
form a celebrated society in that country. 1 o be received
into it, according to M. Savary, it is necessary to have a
good voice, to understand the language well, to know the
rules of poetry, and be able to compose and sing couplets
on the spot, adapted to the circumstances. The Alme know
by heart all the new songs. Their memory is furnished
with the most beautiful tales. There is no festival without
them, no entertainment of which they do not constitute the
ornament. They are placed in a rostrum, from whence they
sing during the repast. They then descend into the saloon,
and form dances which have no resemblance to ours. They
are pantomime ballets, in which they represent the usual
occurrences of life. The mysteries of love, too, generally
furnish them with scen.es. The suppleness of their bodies
is inconceivable; and the mobility of their features gives
at pleasure the impression suited to the characters they play.
The indecency of their attitudes is often carried to excess.
The common people have also their Alme. They are girls
of the second class, who try to imitate the former; but have
neither their grace nor their intelligence.
ALMEHRAB, a niche in the Mahometan mosques, point¬
ing towards the kabba or temple of Mecca, to which they are
obliged to bow in praying.
ALMEIDA, a strong fortress of Portugal, in the province
of Beira. It is situated between the rivers Coa and the
Duas Casas, which forms a branch of the Agueda. The
capture of it by the duke of Wellington in 1811, after it
had fallen into the hands of the French, was deemed one of
the most brilliant exploits of the peninsular war. It is about
four leagues from the Spanish fortress of Ciudad Rodrigo.
It is well fortified, though till the late war it was not con¬
sidered so important as it was then deemed. The Spanish
engineers did not estimate it as a defence to Lisbon, but
merely as covering the province of Beira, into which, ac¬
cording to their judgment, a Spanish army ought never to
attempt to penetrate. This place contains 6200 inhabitants,
an hospital, one monastery, one church, and a poor-house.
Lat. 40. 37. N. Long. 6. 52. W. .
ALMEISAR, a celebrated game among the ancient
Arabs, performed by a kind of casting of lots with arrows,
and strictly forbidden by the law of Mahomet, on account
of the frequent quarrels occasioned by it.
ALMELO, an arrondissement in the province of Ober-
yssel, in the Netherlands, containing five cantSns and 62,000
inhabitants. Its capital, of the same name, contains 3200
inhabitants, chiefly engaged in the linen manufacture.
ALMERIA, a modern province of Spain, comprehend¬
ing the eastern portion of the ancient kingdom of Granada.
It is bounded on the north by Jaen and Murcia, on the
east and south by Murcia and the Mediterranean, and on
the west by Granada. It embraces an area of about 3800
square miles ; with a population in 1849 of 292,234. Its
whole extent is traversed by mountain-ridges, some of
them of considerable elevation ; with corresponding valleys
and plains of great fertility. This province is one of the
richest in minerals of all Spain; the mountains yielding
silver, mercury, lead, antimony, copper, and iron. The
silver mines of the Sierra de Almagrera, opened in 1839,
produced in 1843 nearly 1,700,000 ounces; while the lead
mines of the Sierra de Gador, a branch of the Alpujarras,
are computed to have yielded, from 1795 to 1841 inclusive,
11,000,000 quintals of lead. The principal rivers are the
Almanzora, running from west- to east, with a course of about
50 miles; the Almeria north-west to south-east; and the
Adra from north to south, watering the fertile district be-
A L M
tween the Sierra de Gador and the Alpujarra proper. The Alireria
climate is mild, except in the interior, where the winter is II
cold. On the coast rain seldom falls, and south-wTest winds Almeyda-
prevail. The inhabitants are principally engaged in mining
and in agriculture. All kinds of grain are raised in abun¬
dance. The common fruits are plentiful, as well as oranges,
lemons, and vines. Much excellent silk is produced in the
western districts. Cattle are extensively bred ; those of the
valley of the Almeria are especially remarkable for their
size and beauty. The manufactures consist chiefly of es¬
parto cordage, white-lead, shot, soap, saltpetre, and leather.
The principal exports are lead, esparto, barilla, and soap.
The imports consist of woollen and cotton stuffs from Cata¬
lonia ; silk from Valencia and Malaga, and linen from Mar¬
seilles and Gibraltar. Education in this province is in a
backward state; the means of instruction not extending to
half the population. The ratio of crime is consequently
high, being to the population as 1 to 355.
Almeria, the capital of the above province, is situated
on a rocky promontory near the Cabo de Gata, and from the
strength of the port was deemed by the Moorish kings of
Granada the most valuable of their fortresses and commer¬
cial ports ; from whence their cruisers overawed the Catalans
and Italians, and the merchants conveyed their various
merchandise to Africa, Egypt, and Syria. Almeria is the
see of a bishop, and has a splendid cathedral. Its exports
consist chiefly of lead, esparto, and barilla; its imports of
woollen, cotton, linen, silk, and hardware. Pop. 18,000.
Long. 2. 32. 54. W. Lat. 36. 51. N.
ALMEYDA, Don Francisco, was the son of the count
d’Abrantes, a grandee of Portugal, who served with great
distinction in the w ar of Ferdinand of Castile with Granada.
His important services gained him high esteem in the court
of his sovereign. Without any solicitation on his part he
was nominated the first viceroy of the newly conquered
countries in the East Indies, and set sail from Lisbon in
March 1505 with a powerful fleet. He touched at the Cape
Verde islands, doubled the cape at a considerable distance
to the south, and arrived at Guiloa. From thence he
proceeded to Mombaza, a well-fortified city in an island,
which he reduced, and proceeded to the Angediva islands,
not far from Goa, w here he built a fort: he likewise erected
and garrisoned another fort at Cananore, and arriving at
Cochin, he secured it to the Portuguese interest. The
island of Madagascar was discovered during his government;
and his son Don Lorenzo first surveyed the Maidive islands,
and about the same time discovered the island of Ceylon,
the principal sovereign of which he brought under submis¬
sion to the crown of Portugal. Returning from this expe¬
dition, while employed in the fleet destined against Calicut,
he lost his life in a sea-fight against the Zamorin. His father
sustained his loss with an heroic firmness, saying that “ Lo¬
renzo could not die better than in the service of his country.”
On the arrival of Alphonso d’Albuquerque, who was destined
to be his successor, Almeyda yielded to the impressions of
jealousy; and under the pretence of misconduct he confined
him to the citadel of Cananore. He engaged in 1508 the
whole force of the Mahometans in the port of Diu; and,
gaining a complete victory, facilitated the enterprises of Al¬
buquerque his successor, by contributing to break that for¬
midable league by which the Zamorin was in hopes of being
able to compel the Portuguese to abandon their Indian con¬
quests. Returning home with the great riches which he
had acquired, he unfortunately touched at Saldanha Point,
on the coast of Africa, where some of the sailors, in quest of
water, quarrelled with the natives, who attacked and drove
them to their ships. With a view to revenge this pretended
affront, they persuaded Almeyda himself to go ashore, with
a body of 150 men, armed only with swords and lances.
A L M
Almi"giin While stepping into the boat, Almeyda exclaimed, “ Whi-
|| ther do you carry my sixty years?” The Portuguese fu-
Almo- riously rushed on to attack the natives, whose numbers were
hedes. <rreatly augmented; and Almeyda, with fifty-seven of his
men, was killed in this rash and unprovoked attempt.
ALMIGGIM. See Almuggim.
ALMISSA, a small but strong town at the mouth of the
Cetina, in Dalmatia, famous for its piracies; 16 miles south¬
east of Spalatro. Long. 16. 40. E. Lat. 43. 30. N.
ALMOHEDES, or Almohades, a Mahometan dynasty
mat flourished in Africa and in Spain during the twelfth
and thirteenth centuries. This title was derived from the
religious sect of Al-Mou-ah-hedi, which in Arabic signifies
Unitarians. Mohammed-ben-Toumert, the founder of this
sect, was the son of a lamp-lighter in the great mosque at
Sous-el-Aksa, and was a person of bold, subtle, and ambi¬
tious character. He prepared himself for the part he in¬
tended to play by travelling in the East; and at Baghdad
he became the disciple of the famous philosopher Algazeli,
from whom he acquired a knowledge of those abstruse mys¬
teries by which he hoped to impose on his superstitious
countrymen. For this purpose he connected himself with
Abdelmoumen, a young Mussulman of great abilities, whom
he sent forth as his apostle to propagate the new doctrine;
while in his own person he affected an unusual degree of
piety and mortification, appearing in tattered garments, and
interdicting the use of wine, music, and every gratification
of the senses. His fame spread rapidly among the moun¬
tain tribes of Mahgreb, and the ignorant multitude adopted
his opinions with eager zeal. Entering the city of Marocco,
this new prophet foretold the downfall of the existing dy¬
nasty. and mocked the authority of the reigning prince Ali-
ben-Yusseff'. Ali, lulled in security, despised his predic¬
tions as the mere ravings of a fanatic; and it was not with¬
out some difficulty that he was at length prevailed on to
banish him from the city. Mohammed retired to the moun¬
tains, and fortified the town of Tinmal, which he defended
against every assault of his enemies. Here throwing oft the
mask, he gave out that he was the Imam Mahdi, who had
miraculously disappeared, and now was come as the vicege¬
rent of Mahomet, invested with all temporal and spiritual
authority for the purpose of restoring the true religion.
His retreat became the rendezvous of a numerous sect, who
assumed the title of Almouahhedi, or Almohedes, and as¬
serted that they alone of all the Mussulmans maintained
the religion of Islam in its original purity. Many Arab and
Berber tribes acknowledged this impostor as their political
chief, and 20,000 soldiers rallied around his standard. Ali
only perceived the error he had committed when it was too
late: his armies, at each encounter, were panic-struck, and
fled. Yet notwithstanding the great success of the Almo¬
hedes, the vast empire of the Almoravides was not all at
once subdued: and Mohammed, after an ineffectual attempt
to reduce the city of Marocco, died in the year 1130, having
failed to accomplish the object of his ambition, the posses¬
sion of a throne. Fie was succeeded by Abdelmoumen,
who assumed the title of Emir-el-Moumenin, or commander
of the Faithful. During the thirty years that he reigned,
and under his descendants, Yusseff, and Yacoub called Al-
manzor-Billah, the dynasty of the Almohedes was^ exceed¬
ingly illustrious, and the arts flourished greatly. I hey ren¬
dered themselves masters of the provinces of Fez, Marocco,
Tremecen, Oran, and Tunis; and passing into Spain, they
overran Andalucia, Valencia, and a part of Aragon and of
Portugal, as far as the Ebro on one side, and the Tagus on
the other. But this vast empire was not of long continu¬
ance: for in the year 1212, when the Moslems under Mo¬
hammed were defeated by the Christian princes of Spain in
the great battle of Las Navas, near Tolosa, the governors of
VOL. II.
A L M 601
the several provinces took advantage of that disaster to throw Almond
off their allegiance, and declared themselves independent; li
an example that was the signal for a general revolt. The 1 mon^l '/
dynasty of the Almohedes became extinct in Spain in the ^
year 1257, and in Africa in 1269. The last sovereign of
this race, who had with difficulty maintained a shadow of
power in the city of Marocco, was assassinated by a slave.
They were succeeded by the dynasties of the Hassides, the
Meyanides, and the Merinides. See Almoravides.
ALMOND {Amygdalus communis), a tree belonging to
the natural order Rosaceae, a native of Asia and Northern
Africa, but also acclimated aud cultivated in the milder
parts of Europe. On account of its beautiful vernal flowers
and ornamental appearance it is much grown in England;
but in this climate the fruit seldom arrives at maturity. It
attains the height of 12 or 14 feet; the flowers are of a pink
colour, growing in pairs, and pentapetalous ; the leaves oval,
pointed, and delicately serrated. The covering of the fruit
is a thick-set down on a thin coriaceous pericarp, enclosing
a hard shell which contains an emulsive kernel. The bitter
almond is produced by a variety of the same species: it
yields a yellowish volatile oil when distilled from contact
with water, and is heavier than that fluid. The oil ob¬
tained by expression from either kind is bland and tasteless.
The flavour of the bitter almond is not derived fi*om hydro¬
cyanic acid alone, but from an essential oil, which, however,
is only produced when water comes into contact with the
vegetable albumen of bitter almond; for the dry kernel has
no flavour, and the essential oil is only generated when water
is added to the bruised kernel. Some individuals are highly
susceptible of the poison of bitter almonds ; and instances
have occurred where even death has ensued from eating
them in no great quantity. The leaves also of this tree
contain the hydrocyanic or prussic acid.
Valencia was long famous for its almonds, but the best now
come from Malaga, and the bitter kind chiefly from Moga-
dore in Barbary. The quantity imported into Britain in
1849 was as follows:—sweet almonds, 25,897 cwt.; bitter
almonds, 6141 cwt. The quantity exported was—sweet
almonds, 14,087 cwt.; bitter almonds, 2866 cwt. (t. s. t-l.)
Almond Furnace, among refiners, that in which the slags
of litharge, left in refining silver, are reduced to lead again
by the help of charcoal,
ALMONDBURY, a township of the wapentake of Ag-
brigg, in the west riding of the county of York. It is situ¬
ated on the river Calder, and had formerly a cathedral and
a strong castle. It is 186 miles distant from London, in a
manufacturing district near Huddersfield, and is noted for
its extensive manufactures of woollens. It has a good gram ¬
mar-school. The population in 1841 was 8828; in 1851,
9749.
ALMONDS, in Anatomy, a name sometimes given to
two glands, generally called the tonsils.
Almonds, among lapidaries, signify pieces of rock-crystal,
used in adorning branch-candlesticks, &c., so called from the
resemblance they bear to the fruit of that name.
ALMONER, in its primitive sense, denotes an officer in
religious houses, to whom belonged the management and
distribution of the alms of the house. By the ancient canons,
all monasteries were to spend at least a tenth part of their
income in alms to the poor. The almoner of St Paul’s is to
dispose of the moneys left for charity, according to the ap¬
pointment of the donors, to bury the poor who die in the
neighbourhood, and to breed up eight boys to singing, for
the use of the choir. By an ancient canon, all bishops are
required to keep almoners.
Lord Almoner, or Lord High Almoner of England, is
an ecclesiastical officer, generally a bishop, who has the for¬
feiture of all deodands, and the goods of a fdo de se, which he
4 G
602 A L M
Almorah is to distribute among the poor. He has also, by virtue of
li an ancient custom, the power of giving the first dish from the
vide™" king's table to whatever poor person he pleases, or, instead
v j of it, an alms in money.
ALMORAH, in Northern India, the chief town of the
British province of Kumaon, in the territories of the lieu¬
tenant-government of Agra. It is built on a ridge of the
Himalaya Mountains, 5337 feet above the level of the sea,
and consists chiefly of a single street, about three fourths ot
a mile long, and about 50 feet wide, which runs along the
ridge of the mountain, with scattered dwellings, chiefly in¬
habited by Europeans, to the right and left hand on the de¬
scent of the hill. The main street has a gate at each end ;
and Bishop Heber mentions that it reminded him, on a small
scale, of Chester. The houses all stand on a lower story of
stone, where the shops are. This is open in front, while
the upper stories are faced with a framework of wood, oc¬
casionally carved and painted, supported on the projecting
side-walls below, and surmounted by a sloping roof of heavy
gray slate, on which many of the inhabitants pile up
their hay in small stacks, as winter provender for their
cattle. The town is very neat, arid the street has a natural
pavement of slaty rock, which is kept beautifully clean. It
is very strongly situated, and is approached by a long, steep,
and winding road, which a handful of men might defend
against an army. From Almorah the vast range of the
Himalaya Mountains bounds the prospect to the north. Nun-
didevi, one of the highest peaks in the world, being 25,689
feet above the level of the sea, is within 40 miles from Al¬
morah in a direct line, though it is a nine days’ journey by
the only accessible road through the mountains. There is
an old Ghorkha citadel, which stands on a commanding
point of the ridge, at the eastern extremity ; and several
martello towers have been erected. A citadel, named Fort
Moira, has been constructed on a small eminence at the
western extremity of the town. It is, according to Bishop
Heber, very ill contrived, and incapable of defence against
a resolute enemy. The surrounding country is of a bleak
and desolate character, and there is scarcely a tree within a
circuit of four miles from the walls. Almorah was con¬
quered in 1790 by the Ghorkhas. It subsequently attained
some celebrity as the scene of the British victory which
terminated the war with Nepaul. The attack of the heights
and town by Colonel (now Sir Jasper) Nicolls, on the 25th
April 1815, was crowned with complete success. The
breastworks of the enemy were carried in rapid succession,
and before the evening the British had established them¬
selves in the occupation of a considerable section of the town.
On the succeeding day preparations were commenced for an
assault upon the fort, but while these were in progress, the
Ghorkha commander proposed a suspension of hostilities pre¬
paratory to a permanent pacification. The result was the
conclusion of a convention under which the Nepaulese
evacuated Kumaon, and the province was forthwith incor¬
porated with the British dominions. Distant north-west
from Calcutta by Lucknow and Bareilly 910 miles. Lat. 29.
35. Long. 79. 42. (E> x.)
ALMORAVIDES, a family of Mahometan princes
who reigned in Africa and in Spain in the eleventh and
twelfth centuries. This appellation was derived from the
sect of Al-Morabethin, which in Arabic signifies ‘dedi¬
cated to the service of God.’ The sect which assumed this
title arose about the middle of the eleventh century, among
a poor ignorant tribe of Berbers inhabiting the Mountains
of Atlas on the shores of the Atlantic Ocean, and at a time
when all Western Africa was in the possession of strangers,
and a prey to anarchy. At the request of a sheik of Lam-
touna, who had acquired some taste for learning by travellino-
in the East, Abdallah-ben-Yazim, an Arabian of extraordi-
A L M
nary erudition, consented to instruct the people in the truths Almora-
of Islam. The enthusiasm of Abdallah created a like zeal vides.
in the hearts of his ignorant hearers. All the chief persons
were filled with admiration at his wisdom ; and by the energy
and novelty of his discourses he so inflamed the minds of
his disciples, that they compelled those whom persuasion
could not move to embrace the new religion. Thus Ab¬
dallah found himself at the head of a numerous sect, who
soon began to regard him as their leader, both in temporal
and spiritual matters. A wide field was opened to his am¬
bition ; and by fostering the fanatical zeal of his adherents,
he spread the terror of his arms far and w ide. Under the
name of Almorabethin or Almoravides, they overran the
country of Daza, lying between the desert of Sahara and
the ancient Getulia; and ultimately extended their con¬
quests from the shores of the Mediterranean to the frontiers
of Nigritia. This extraordinary man died on the field of
battle in the year 1058. He was succeeded by Abou-Bekr-
ben-Omar, a man whose abilities were scarcely equal to the
difficulties of the position in which he was placed. The
commencement of his career, indeed, was prosperous; for
he seized upon the province of Fez, conquered Mequinez
and Lewata, and founded the city of Marocco: but, when
an insurrection among the Berbers required his presence in
Atlas, he had the imprudence to entrust the government to
the ambitious Yusseff-ben-Taxefien, a person whose abili¬
ties w ere superior to his own ; and on his return he accord¬
ingly found himself supplanted by his rival. Yusseff pos¬
sessed every requisite of a conqueror and a legislator; and
when he was firmly established in power, he resolved to
turn his arms against Spain. He passed the straits, and
after receiving re-inforcements from all the emirs who had
partitioned among themselves the empire of the Ommiades,
he marched against Alonzo VI., the most potent prince in
Christendom. They met in the plains of Zalaca, and
Alonzo was defeated with terrible slaughter. The news of"
Yusseff’s success induced many of the Arabs of Spain to
enlist under his victorious banner. He then attacked Mo¬
hammed, king of Andalucia; and after a protracted siege
he became master of Seville. This conquest was followed
by the subjugation of Almeria, Denia, Xativa, and Valen¬
cia. The acquisition of the Balearic Isles was the com¬
pletion of this vast empire, which extended from the Ebro
and the Tagus to the frontiers of Soudan. Although Ma¬
rocco was his capital, he frequently visited his Spanish do¬
minions ; and on the last occasion, having assembled the
governors of the provinces at Cordova, he appointed Ali,
the youngest of his sons, as his successor. He then re¬
turned to Marocco, where he died at a very advanced age,
a.d. 1106 (of the Hegira 500), after a reign of forty years.
Few kings have received so noble a heritage as that to
which Ali succeeded. The first years of his x’eign were
prosperous, though disturbed by the Almohedes, who were
preparing the way for the destruction of the Almoravides.
Ali was at last obliged to recal from Spain his son Taxefien,
who was using his utmost endeavours to oppose the victo¬
rious career of Alonzo of Aragon, surnamed the Fighter.
But the valour of Taxefien was of little avail against the
rising power of the Almohedes : disaster followed disaster ;
and w hen, in 1143, he succeeded to the throne, but a moiety
of the kingdom remained. It was in vain that he received
succours from Spain, the troops from that soft climate being
little fitted for service in the wild regions of Atlas. Driven
from Tlemecen, he sought refuge in Oran ; but Abdelmou-
men appeared before its walls, and by threats so intimidated
the inhabitants that Taxefien was compelled to provide for
his safety by flight. Concealed by the darkriess of night he
escaped on horseback, with his favourite wife behind him;
but being closely pursued, he urged his horse over a preci-
A L M
A L N
603
Alms
pice, and with Ins wife was dashed to pieces. Such was
the end of this prince; and with him expired the domina¬
tion of the Almoravides: for although they still remained
in possession of the city of Marocco, their power was com¬
pletely broken. Ishak-Ibrahim, the son of Taxefien was
taken and put to death at Alcazar in 1146, on the surrender
of Marocco by treachery, after a siege which was attended
with all the horrors of famine and disease ; and with him the
dynasty of the Almoravides became extinct. {For the his¬
tory of the Arabians in Spain, see the worhs of Cartas,
Cardonne, Conde, Dombay, St Hilaire, and HHerbelot.)
ALMS, a general term for what is given out of charity
to the poor. In the early ages of Christianity, the alms of
the charitable were divided into four parts ; one of which
wras allotted to the bishop, another to the priests, and a third
to the deacons and subdeacons, which formed their whole
means of subsistence: the fourth part was employed in
relieving the poor, and in repairing the churches. No re¬
ligious system is more frequent or warm in its exhortations
to almsgiving than the Mahometan. The Koran represents
alms as a necessary means to make prayer be heard. Hence
that saying of one of their caliphs : “ Prayer carries us half¬
way to God, fasting brings us to the door of his palace, and
alms introduce us into the presence-chamber.” Hence
many illustrious examples of this virtue among the Mahome¬
tans.
Alms also denotes lands or other effects left to churches
or religious houses, on condition of praying for the soul of
the donor, a tenure by which many of the old monasteries
and religious houses in Britain held their lands. Lands
thus held were free of all rent or service. Hence
Free Alms, Frank Almoign, that which is liable to no rent
or service.
Reasonable Alms, a certain portion of the estates of in¬
testate persons, allotted to the poor.
Alms Box or Chest, a small chest or coffer, called by the
Greeks KqSwriov, wdierein anciently (he alms were collected,
both at church and at private houses.
The alms-chest, in English churches, is a strong box, with
a hole in the upper part, having three keys, one to be kept
by the parson or curate, the other two by the church-war-
dens. The erecting of such alms-chest in every church is
enjoined by the book of canons, as also the manner of dis¬
tributing what is thus collected among the poor of the parish.
ALMUCANTARS, in Astronomy, an Arabic word, de¬
noting circles of the sphere passing through the centre of
the sun or a star, parallel to the horizon, being the same as
Parallels of Altitude.
ALMUCANTAR,s Staff is an instrument usually made of
pear-tree or box, having an arch of 15 degrees ; used to take
observations of the sun, about the time of its rising and set¬
ting, in order to find the amplitude, and consequently the
variation of the compass.
ALMUCIUM, denotes a kind of cover for the head, worn
chiefly by monks and ecclesiastics. It wras of a square form,
and seems to have given rise to the bonnets of the same
shape still retained in universities and cathedrals.
ALMUDE, a liquid measure in Portugal. At Lisbon,
26 almudes make a pipe. It is applied also to a corn mea¬
sure in Spain and Barbary.
ALMUGGIM, Almiggim, or Almug Tree, a certain
kind of wood mentioned in the First Book of Kings (x. 11),
w hich the Vulgate translates ligna thyina, and the Septua-
gint wrought wood. The Rabbins generally render it coral;
others, ebony, brazil, or pine. But it is observed, that the
almug tree can by no means be coral, because that is not
fit for the purposes for which the Scripture tells us the almug
tree was used, such as musical instruments, staircases, &c.
The word thyinum is a name for the citron tree, know n
to the ancients, and very much esteemed for its sweet odour Almunecar
and great beauty. It came from Mauritania. The almug W .
tree, or almuggim, or simply gummim, taking al for a kind / nwiCK-
of article, is therefore, by the best commentators, under-
stood to be an oily and gummy sort of wood, and particu¬
larly that sort of tree which produces the gum ammoniac ;
which is also thought to be the same with the shittim wood
so frequently mentioned by Moses.
ALMUNECAR, a small city of the province of Granada,
in Spain. The soil around it is productive of all the tropi¬
cal vegetables. Sugar-canes grow as large and as juicy as
in the West Indies, the cotton is of excellent quality, and
the rum made here is deemed equal to that of Jamaica. The
anchorage is fit for small vessels only, and its exposure to
gales from the east, which are frequent, renders it insecure.
It contains 5000 inhabitants. Long. 3. 54. W. Lat. 36.
42. N.
ALNAGE, or Aulnage, the measuring of woollen manu¬
factures with an ell. It w:as at first intended as a pi oof of
the goodness of that commodity ; and accordingly a seal was
invented as a mark that the commodity was made according
to statute.
ALNAGER, Alneger, or Aulneger, signifies a sworn
public officer, who, by himself or deputy, was to look to the
assize of woollen cloth made throughout the land, i. e., the
length, width, and work thereof; and to the seals for that
purpose ordained. The office of king’s alnager seems to
have been derived from the statute of Richard L, a.d. 1197,
which ordained that there should be only one weight and
one measure throughout the kingdom ; and that the custody
of the assize or standard of weights and measures should be
committed to certain persons in every city and borough.
His business was, for a certain fee, to measure all cloths
made for sale. The office was abolished by stat. 11th & 12th
Gul. III., cap. 20.
ALNUS, a botanical genus to which our common alder
belongs.
ALNWICK, a thoroughfare town in Northumberland, on
the road to Scotland. Here, in 1093, Malcolm king of Scot¬
land, making an inroad into Northumberland, w*as killed,
with Edward his son, and his army defeated, by Robert
Moubray, earl of this county. Here also William king of
Scotland, in 1174, invading England with an army of
80,000 men, was encountered, his army routed, and himself
made prisoner. The town is in general well built; and has
a large town-house, where the quarter-sessions and county-
courts are held, and members of parliament elected. It has
a spacious square, in which a market is held every Saturday.
From the vestiges of a wall still visible in many parts, and
three gates which remain almost entire, Alnwick appears to
have been formerly fortified. This borough is governed by
four chamberlains, and 24 common council men. It is or¬
namented by a stately old Gothic castle, the seat of the noble
family of Percy, dukes of Northumberland. The manner of
making freemen is peculiar to this place, and is indeed as
ridiculous as singular. The persons who are to be made
free, or, as the phrase is,“leap the well,” assemble in the mar¬
ket-place, very early in the morning, on the 25th of April,
being St Mark’s day. They appear on horseback, with
every man his sword by his side, dressed in white, and with
white nightcaps, attended by the four chamberlains and the
castle bailiff, mounted and armed in the same manner. From
hence they proceed, with music playing before them, to a
large pool called Freeman's Well, where they dismount, and
draw up in a body, at some distance from the water; and
then rush into it all at once, and scramble through the mud
as fast as they can. As the water is generally very foul,
they come out in a dirty condition; but they put on dry
clothes, remount their horses, and ride at full gallop round
604
A L O
ALP
the confines of the district; then re-enter the town, sword
in hand, and are met by women dressed in ribbons, with
bells and garlands, dancing and singing. They are called
timber-wasts. The houses of the new freemen are on this
day distinguished by a great holly bush, as a signal for their
friends to assemble and make merry with them after their
return. The establishment of this singular ceremony is tra¬
ditionally referred to King John, who was mired in this well,
and, as a punishment for not mending the road, made this a
part of their charter. Alnwick is 310 miles north by west
from London, 33 north of Newcastle, and 29 south of Ber¬
wick. Long. 1. 42. W. Lat. 55. 24. N. Pop. in 1851, 6231.
ALOA, in Grecian Antiquity, a festival kept in honour
of Demeter and Dionysius by the husbandmen, and resem
bling our harvest-home.
ALOE or Aloes, the name of a genus of plants of the
natural order of Asphodelece. See Botany. But the name
is also applied to an extract obtained from several species,
and employed in medicine as a cathartic. The most valued
kind is named Socotrine aloes ; although the small island in
the Arabian seas from which it has obtained its name, pro¬
duces but a small part of the drug that goes under its name.
Six kinds are known in commerce. 1. Clear garnet red aloes,
a very rare variety. 2. Socotrine aloes, now chiefly brought
from India. 3. Common East Indian aloes. 4. Barbados,
or Hepatic aloes, much used in farriery. 5. Cape aloes,
often sold as the Socotrine variety. 6. Caballine aloes, a
soft inferior sort, formerly much used by farriers, but now
superseded by the Barbados aloes. The active principle in
this drug is a peculiar extractive matter soluble in water and
in proof spirit, but not in strong alcohol; from which it was
considered as allied to gum resins ; but it is now believed
to be a highly oxidated extract. This substance, called Aloe-
sine, varies in quantity in each species, from 52 to 80 per
cent.—See Christisoris Dispensatory.
ALOGI (a, privative, and Aoyos), in Church History, a sect
of ancient heretics, towards the close of the second century, so
called because they denied that Jesus Christ was the Logos.
They likewise denied the continuance of the charismata, or
special spiritual gifts, in the Christian church, and accord¬
ingly rejected the prophetical portions of the New Testa¬
ment, besides the Gospel of John. They were particularly
opposed to the Montanists; but our information regarding
them is very scanty. They are first mentioned by Epi-
phanius.
ALOGOTROPHIA, among Physicians, a term signify¬
ing the unequal growth or nourishment of any part of the
body, as in the rickets.
ALOPECIA, a term used among physicians to denote a
total falling ofl* of the hair from certain parts.
ALOPECURUS, a genus of the natural order of grasses
or gramineae. A. pratensis is our meadow foxtail: A. ar-
vensis, field foxtail: A. geniculatus, float foxtail.
ALORA, a Spanish town, in the judicial district of the
same name, and province of Malaga. Pop. 6794. This is
the ancient Iluro or Lauro, where Cn.Pompeius the younger
was slain after the battle of Munda.—Florus, Hirtius (Be
Dell. Hispan.)
ALOSA, a fossil genus of fishes of the Cycloid order.
It is also the trivial name of a living Clupea, our herring.
ALOST or Aalst, a town of Belgium, in the province
of East Flanders, and chief town of the arrondissement of
the same name. It is situated on the Dender, about half
way between Brussels and Ghent; and vessels of small size
come up to the town. It is clean and well built; has a
college and other educational establishments; and carries
on a considerable trade in corn, hops, beer, and the produce
of its linen, cotton, and lace manufactories. By the census
of October 1846, it had 3010 houses, and 17,226 inhabitants.
The arrondissement of the same name is divided into 11 Alp Ar-
cantons, 81 communes, and, by the same census, had a po- sla!1-
pulation of 138,251. Lat. 50. 57. N. Long. 4. E.
ALP ARSLAN, or Axan, the second sultan of the dy¬
nasty of Seljuk, in Persia, and great-grandson of Seljuk the
founder of the dynasty. He was born in the year 1030, of
the Hegira 421. In place of Israel, which was his original
name, he assumed that of Mohammed when he embraced
the Mussulman faith ; and, on account of his military prow¬
ess, he obtained the surname Alp Arslan, w hich in the Tur¬
kish language signifies a valiant lion. Having held the
chief command in Khorassan for ten years as lieutenant of
his uncle Togrul Beg, he succeeded him in the year 1063,
and, at the commencement of his reign, saw himself sole
monarch of Persia, from the river Amu to the Tigris. When
he assumed the reins of government, faction and open re¬
bellion prevailed in his dominions; in subduing which he
was ably assisted by Nadham al Molk, his vizier, one of the
most distinguished characters of his time, whose prudence
and integrity in the administration of the affairs of the king¬
dom proved of most essential service to this prince and to
his successor. Peace and security being established in his
dominions, he convoked an assembly of the states; and
having declared his son Malek Shah his heir and successor,
he exacted an oath of fidelity to him from the principal offi¬
cers of the empire. With the hope of acquiring immense
booty in the rich temple of St Basil in Caesarea, the capital
of Cappadocia, he placed himself at the head of the Turkish
cavalry, crossed the Euphrates, and entered and plundered
that city. He then marched into Armenia and Georgia,
which, in the year 1065, he finally conquered. In the for¬
mer country the very name of a kingdom and the spirit of
a nation were totally extinguished; but the native Georgians,
who had retired to the woods and valleys of Mount Caucasus,
made a more vigorous resistance. They too, however, over¬
powered by the arms of the sultan and his son Malek, were
forced to submission, and reduced to slavery. To punish
them for the brave defence which they had made, and as a
badge of their humiliating condition, Alp Arslan obliged
them to w ear at their ears horse-shoes of iron. Some, to
escape this mark of cruelty and ignominy, professed to em¬
brace the religion of Mahomet.
In the year 1068 Alp Arslan invaded the Roman empire,
the seat of which was then at Constantinople. Romanus
Diogenes, the Greek emperor, assuming in person the com¬
mand of his forces, met the invaders in Cilicia. In three
several campaigns his arms were victorious; and the Turks
were forced to retreat beyond the Euphrates. In the fourth
he advanced with an army of 100,000 men into the Arme¬
nian territory, for the relief of that country. Here he w as
met by Alp Arslan, with 40,000 cavalry, or, according to
some authors, a much smaller number ; and the sultan hav¬
ing proposed terms of peace, which were insultingly rejected
by the emperor, a bloody and decisive engagement took
place, in which the Greeks, after a terrible slaughter, were
totally routed. Romanus, deserted by the main body of his
army, with unshaken courage kept his station, till he was re¬
cognised by a slave, taken prisoner, and conducted into the
presence of Alp Arslan. When the terms of his ransom
were about to be settled, Romanus was asked by Alp Arslan
what treatment he expected to receive. To this question
the emperor, with seeming indifference, replied, “ If you
are cruel, you will take my life; if you follow the dictates
of pride, you will drag me at your chariot wheels; if you
consult your interest, you will accept a ransom, and restore
me to my country.” “ But what,” says the sultan, “ would
you have done in such circumstances ?” “ Had I been vic¬
torious,” said the insolent Romanus, “ I would have inflicted
on thy body many stripes.” The conqueror smiled at the
ALP
fierce and unsubdued spirit of his captive; observed that
the Christian precepts strongly inculcated the love of ene¬
mies and the forgiveness of injuries; and, with a noble
greatness of mind, declared that he would never imitate an
example which he disapproved. A ransom of a million, an
annual tribute of 3000 pieces of gold, an intermarriage be¬
tween the families, and the deliverance of all the captive
Mussulmans in the power of the Greeks, were at last agreed
to as the terms of peace and the liberty of the emperor.
Romanus was now dismissed loaded with presents, and re¬
spectfully attended by a military guard. But the distracted
state of his dominions, the consequence of a revolt of his sub¬
jects, precluded him from fulfilling the terms of the treaty,
and remitting the stipulated price of his ransom. The sultan
seemed disposed to favour and support the declining for¬
tunes of his ally; but the defeat, imprisonment, and death
of Romanus interrupted the accomplishment of his generous,
or rather ambitious, design.
At this time the dominion of Alp Arslan extended over
the fairest part of Asia: 1200 princes, or sons of princes,
surrounded his throne; and 200,000 soldiers were ready to
execute his commands. He now meditated a greater enter¬
prise, and declared his purpose of attempting the conquest
of Turkistan, the original seat of his ancestors. After great
preparations for the expedition, he marched with a power¬
ful army, and arrived at the banks of the Oxus. Before be
could pass the river w ith safety, it was necessary to gain
possession of some fortresses in its vicinity, one of which
was for several days vigorously defended by the governor,
Yusuf Cothual, a Carizmian. He was, however, obliged to
surrender, and was carried a prisoner before the sultan, who,
enraged at his obstinacy and presumption, addressed him in
very reproachful terms. Yusuf replied with so much spirit,
that he roused the resentment of Alp Arslan, and was com¬
manded instantly to be fastened by the hands and feet to
four stakes, to suffer a painful and cruel death. Yusuf, on
hearing this sentence, became furious and desperate; and
drawing a dagger which he had concealed in his boots, rushed
towards the throne to stab the sultan. The guards raised
their battle-axes, and moved forward to defend their sove¬
reign t but Alp Arslan, the most expert archer of his age,
checking their zeal, forbade them to advance, and drew his
ALP 605
bow': his foot slipped, and the arrow missed Yusuf, who Alpaca
rushed forward, and plunging his dagger in the breast of the A1 h'abet
sultan, was himself instantly cut in pieces. 1 he wound ^ ^ /
proved mortal, and the sultan expired a few horns after he
received it, in the year 10/2. .
ALPACA, a species of the South American family of
quadrupeds called Llama, the soft hairy wool of which is
now largely employed in the fabrication of cloths of different
sorts. There would appear to be three species of this family,
the Guanaco or wild Llama; the Alpaca, which was domes¬
ticated as a beast of burden by the ancient Peruvians, and
hence considered as the camel of the new world , and tht
Vicuna, a small species, chiefly valued for the softness of
its fine wool. Some consider the paco a fourth species .
but the desciiptions of travellers are too indefinite to enable
us to decide this point. The fleece of the alpaca is fine,
long, and shaggy ; and the animal exceeds much in size the
other two.
ALPARGATES, sandals made of the Esparto rush or
matweed, Stipa tenacissima, which the Spanish peasant/}
also manufacture into mats and thread.
ALPHA, the name of the first letter of the Greek al¬
phabet, answe. ing to our A. As a numeral, it stands for one,
or the first of anything. It is particularly used among an¬
cient writers to denote the chief or first man of his class oi
rank. In this sense the word stands contradistinguished
from beta, which denotes the second person. Plato was
called the Alpha of the wits. Eratosthenes, keeper of the
Alexandrian library, whom some call a Second Plato, is fre¬
quently named Beta.
Alpha is also used to denote the beginning of anything;
in which sense it stands opposed to omega, which denotes
the end. (Rev. i. 8.) These two letters were made the sym¬
bol of Christianity, and accordingly were engraven on the
tombs of the ancient Christians, to distinguish them from
those of idolaters. It was the opinion of Morales that this
custom only commenced since the rise of Arianism, and that
it was peculiar to the orthodox, who hereby made confession
of the eternity of Christ; but there are tombs prior to the
age of Constantine whereon the two letters were found, be¬
sides that the emperor just mentioned bore them on his
labarum before Arius appeared.
ALPHABET.
WE have received the word Alphabet immediately from
the Latin, alphabetum, for which substantive, how¬
ever, there is no better authority in that language than
the writings of Tertullian and St Jerome. The more
classical Juvenal writes, “ Hoc discunt omnes ante alpha et
beta puella? which is literally, “ girls learn this before
their A, B, C.” We do not find the word in Greek.
Athenaeus uses the adjective avuXpalSriros to signify a man
who does not know the first two letters; and it is from
these two letters that our word alphabet is evidently de¬
rived Whatever the subsequent arrangement may be,
the letters A and B stand at the beginning of a great
number of alphabets. The ordinary definition of the
word is a table or list of characters, which are the signs
of particular sounds. Mathematicians have amused them¬
selves by calculating the number of combinations which
may be made of these signs or sounds. Tacquet, accord-
ino- to Harris, writes thus: “ Mille milliones scriptorum
milk annorum millionibus non scribent omnes 24 litterarum
aiphabeti permutationes, licet singuli quotidie absolverent 40
paginas, quarum unaquceque contineret diversos ordines h-
terarum 24.” We may doubt, perhaps, whether this pomp
of numbers will give any very clear notion even to a mathe¬
matician ; but the passage shows, that for any practical pur¬
pose the combinations of elementary sounds, and conse¬
quently the number of words, may well be considered infi¬
nite. The consideration of the peculiar sets of combina¬
tions which constitute, at least in part, what is called the
genius of a language, would be a curious inquiry, that has
received but little attention ; but it does not belong to this
head. It has been asserted that the words of no two lan¬
guages are respectively so unlike as the words in the same
language are to themselves, and to one another when
read backwards; but this consideration also, of whatever
value it be, rather appertains to language itself than to
the elements of which it is composed.
When we read the volumes of Lord Monboddo on the or i¬
gin of language, we know not whether to laugh more at his
countless absurdities and boundless credulity, or to wonder
at his ingenuity and learning. Many other works have been
composed on the same subject, less ridiculous and less ad¬
mirable, but equally unsuccessful in clearing up the di
606
ALPHABET.
Alphabet, culties which they sought to solve. The attempt which is
sometimes made to illustrate the invention of writing by
that of language, proves invariably to be an impotent ef¬
fort to explain one unknown thing by another. The in¬
vention of alphabetic writing is in truth an inexplicable
mystery ; we cannot touch it in any way, or approach it
on any side. As this opinion is contrary to the common¬
ly received notions, we will briefly state our reasons for
adopting it.
It is generally believed that certain steps may be ob¬
served, by means of which we are able to trace the
gradual progress of the invention. These are the songs
and rude drawings of savages, and some simple contriv¬
ances for preserving the memory of numbers by beads
and similar devices ; but especially the Egyptian hierogly¬
phics, the Chinese characters, and certain alphabets that
are said to be syllabic. Learned men have thought fit to
assert that there once was a time when no nation was
able to write; but they are unable to bring any proof of
this assertion, and the evidence of history seems to con¬
tradict it. They tell us that men composed songs and
ballads to preserve the remembrance of past events, and
used paintings and knots to assist the memory. We
know that some nations who are unacquainted with
letters use these artifices; and we can readily believe
that five beads on a string may represent five men, or
five days, or five years, but such a memorial has no con¬
nection with writing. We know, moreover, that in times
when writing is universal, ballads are made and sung, and
paintings are produced; and a person who is unwilling to
forget an engagement sometimes ties a knot on his poc¬
ket-handkerchief. Those who can write often avail them¬
selves of other aids ; and those who cannot, have been ob¬
liged in all ages to do as well as they can without. It is
manifest that we shall not be able to find any firm ground
for placing the first step amongst the operations of sava¬
ges. In common with their civilized brethren, they have
the desire to remember certain events ; but they have not
done any thing to advance the peculiar means of which
' we treat.
The learned president Goguet, in his instructive and
popular work, De V Origine desLoix, desArts, et des Sciences,
discourses at some length and with much ability of the
invention of writing. Having mentioned the substitutes
which are adopted by savages, he brings forward the
Egyptian hieroglyphics thus : “ We have been a long time
in error as to the first use of hieroglyphics : men believed
that the Egyptian priests invented them for the purpose
of hiding their knowledge from the vulgar, but it is through
want of attention that they have been thus deceived.
W e may easily satisfy ourselves, that at the beginning
they only employed hieroglyphics to hand down and
make known their laws, their usages, and their history.
Nature and necessity, not choice, have produced the
different kinds of hieroglyphic writing. It is an im¬
perfect and defective invention, suitable to the igno¬
rance of the first ages : it was through want of the know¬
ledge of letters that the Egyptians had recourse to them.
If this nation had found out alphabetic writing before,
they would have been too sensible of its advantages to
employ any other. The mistake concerning hieroglyphics
lias come from the Greeks. They were only acquainted
with the Egyptians in much later times. This people had
then the use of alphabetic characters. The ancient me¬
thod of writing in hieroglyphics had been neglected by
the mass of the nation ; but the Egyptian priests, who, ac¬
cording to the custom of all the learned men of antiquity,
were only concerned about the means of hiding their
learning, retained the hieroglyphic writing as a fit veil Alphabet,
to hide the knowledge of what they did not choose to v-^^><3
divulge. It is thus that, after the discovery of alphabetic
writing, hieroglyphics became in Egypt a secret and
mysterious kind of writing.” It is plain that a sensible
and learned man here speaks too positively about matters
which no one can know. If the Greeks, who were ac¬
quainted with the Egyptians, although in later times, are
mistaken, how can we, who only know the Egyptians
through their report, venture to correct them ? “ But
how did they arrive at this discovery ?” The president
afterwards candidly asks, “ how did they pass from hiero¬
glyphics, and even from syllabic writing, to alphabetic
characters ?” (It would not have been difficult to have pass¬
ed from syllabic writing if it had ever existed.) “ This is
not easy to imagine. Hieroglyphics and syllabic writing
certainly have no connection with the letters of the alpha¬
bet.” (The latterundoubtedly has, for it represents sounds.)
“ It was necessary, then, to change entirely the nature of
the signs which were used. In vain shall we have recourse
to the writers of antiquity to clear up this question. They
do not show us in what manner these singular transitions
could have been made. We may conjecture that the
abridged marks of hieroglyphic writing, of which I have
spoken above, conducted to the still more abridged method
of alphabetic letters, which by their different combina¬
tions express all the articulations of the voice in a simple
and easy manner. This conjecture becomes very proba¬
ble. When we cast our eyes upon the alphabets of some
ancient nations, the letters which compose them appear,
both by their forms and their names, to have been taken
from hieroglyphic signs. If we compare with attention
what remains of the Egyptians with the hieroglyphic
figures engraved on the obelisks and other monuments,
we shall perceive that the Egyptian letters derive their
origin from the hieroglyphics.” “ The Ethiopic alphabet,
and the majuscule letters of the Armenians, also supply
proofs of what I advance: we find there very distinct
traces of the ancient hieroglyphic character.” We know
not what he means by “ the ancient Egyptian characters,”
unless it be the Coptic alphabet, which is posterior to and
derived from the Greek, as Plate XXL demonstrates. It
shows also the Ethiopic letters, and the ordinary Arme¬
nian, which are not ancient: still less are the majuscules
or capitals: the latter are undoubtedly formed in the
shape of animals, &c.; but they are like the illuminated
letters that were used as initials in the middle ages.
These certainly were not taken from hieroglyphics, but
were designed for ornament; and so is it likewise with
the majuscules of the Armenians, which were a very late
invention ; and it is matter of history, and not of conjec¬
ture, that they were taught them by the Greeks. It is
very doubtful whether the paintings of the Mexicans, of
which some writers have treated largely, had any connec¬
tion with writing, or were intended for any thing but pic¬
tures ; in truth nothing is known about them, and we may
at once dismiss them as having no relation to the subject.
The hieroglyphics appear to be related to the alpha¬
bet ; and as they are very extraordinary in themselves,
and have received much attention from the learned, we
must speak somewhat fully of them; although they will
not enable us to trace any transition or progress towards
alphabetic writing, which is perfect and complete wher¬
ever it exists, the instances usually adduced of imperfect
and incipient writing being in our opinion entirely un¬
founded ; and it is an unwarranted assumption, that the
Egyptian hieroglyphics preceded the use of the letters of
the alphabet, of which there is no proof, whatever testi-
ALPHABET. 607
mony exists being to the contrary. In every generation George Grey, a very estimable young gentleman, who Alphabet,
there have been a few gifted interpreters, who have pro- took a little trip to Egypt in the season, according to the
fessed that they were able to read the hieroglyphics; nor fashion, crept into the great pyramid and out again, saw
have these been wanting in our own times. The expedition every thing, bought a charming pair of mummies, a cock
of the French to Egypt, and especially the discovery of the and a hen, cut them open, and found, without knowing
famous Rosetta stone, which, the late Dr Young declares, it, the “ ring of Polycrates,’’ as Dr \oung says, and per-
was an ample compensation for all that the two armies suf- haps also that of Hans Carvel. He found a Greek
fered, gave a powerful impulse to these studies. It had translation, it is said, of a manuscript, which had re-
been observed on the Egyptian monuments, that clusters cently been brought from Egypt to Paris. The origi-
of figures wrere often included in a ring, scroll, or cartouch ; nal was in the Enchorial character, and the translation
and it was deemed expedient that these should represent showed that it was a sale of land. It wa-s, moreover,
proper names. To meet the exigency of the case the duly registered and probably stamped; but that we are
Phonetic system was devised, which is briefly this: if we not told. That a landowner should go to bed with his
suppose that the scroll contains a dog, an ass, and a yew- title-deeds in his stomach, that the muniments of the de¬
tree, the initials of the three words are taken, and they ceased should be buried with him, ought to astonish us,
form the word Day ; and this by the hypothesis is a proper even in an age of discovery. It shows, however, the per-
name ; and we may infer, if we please, that Potiphar had fection of the enchorial registration in Egypt, that the
read Sandford and Merton, and was greatly delighted with settlement was buried with the first tenant for life who
that excellent work. The language, however, in which died; and it will be a wholesome example to our law-
the objects that supply the initials are to be named, is not commissioners, who are about to introduce registration in
English, but Coptic; but the results, we shall see, are pre- England, and an admonition to make the public title so
cisely the same. Let us assume that the figure of a bird complete, that all private securities may safely be dispen-
denotes A; since the engraving is not executed with the sed with. The papyrus which Mr George Grey brought
exquisite accuracy of a Bewick, it may be an albatross, a from Egypt refers, however, not to the hieroglyphics,
buzzard, a crow, a duck, an eagle—any bird, in short, in but to the characters called enchorial, which are the
the Coptic vocabulary, and any letter in the alphabet; and second in order of the three inscriptions on the Rosetta
so with the tree, which stands for B : it may be an apple, stone. They seem to be alphabetic, although no one has
a beech, a cedar, or any arborescent vegetable whatever: been able hitherto to make out the alphabet. It is hard
and, as if this were not loose enough, each letter has seve- indeed to imagine, that there ever was any writing which
ral visible objects, each of which may be made to run the was not alphabetic. Efforts have been made to interpret
gauntlet of the alphabet. The number of figures contain- these also, but after turning over a few pages of the in-
ed in the scroll, we should have imagined, would control terpretation, the reader is disposed to say to the inter-
the length of the word, and indicate the number of the preter, “ if you are permitted to read an inscription either
letters fbut they are relieved from that slight responsibi- backwards or forwards, to consider the letters as imper-
lity thus: since every allowance ought to be made for a fectly formed, to select them from any alphabet that will
scribe who writes upon granite, IITOAM. will stand for suit your purpose, to turn them round or invert them, to
YlroXitmiQi', or, if there be a redundancy of objects, the supply, and amend, and reject at pleasure, to take any
superfluous letters are disposed of as symbolical, and are form of any word in any language you choose, and to make
classed with the goose and globe, or the goose and grid- great allowances for barbarism, ignorance, foreign spell-
iron, and some other favourite emblems. Although there ing, and so forth,—if you may do all these things, and
be figures enough to complete the name IlroAs/ia/of, that cannot find your own name, your mother s, and mine, in
monarch, if it be not his turn, may be desired to stand any writing whatever, you certainly are not fit to decipher
aside: any three may be chosen to spell Day, and the enchorial characters.” The hieroglyphics which the accom-
other seven may be explained symbolically to signify the plished Dr Young and his admiring disciples, whethei
author of Sandford and Merton, or any thing any body foreign or domestic, were unable to read or to reconcile
pleases. Such is the Phonetic system, and its results with their hypotheses, they boldly declared, after the
are such also as might have been expected. Dr \oung, usage of interpreters, to be spurious, and said that they
an ingenious and learned person, founding himself on had been negligently and unskilfully sculptured at Rome,
certain notions entertained by Warburton, proceeded with in imitation of the Egyptian manner. They speak with
singular zeal and activity to compass and imagine dis- as much confidence about a good and a bad style in
coveries which we are not able to relate. We will only hieroglyphic inscriptions, as if they were critics writing
observe briefly, that any conjecture of that prelate may in the Egyptian Review, if we can fancy that such a
safely be presumed to be wrong; for although his energy, periodical existed under the Pharaohs or Ptolemies, and
learning, and acuteness, were undoubtedly great, experi- deciding, in a summary manner and without appeal, on
ence has shown, that from haste or some other cause his the literary merits of the new obelisks and pyramids
views are commonly erroneous. Dr ^ oung, being in that as they appeared, feo intolerant were they of the claims
vein, of course went on from discovery to discovery, being of what Dr Young in his first zeal termed “ an exorbi-
guided by that warm fancy which usually attends real tant antiquity,” that they condemned as forgeries some
talent; and, as is ever the case on such occasions, every of the finest and most admired of the Egyptian monu-
person who took the pains to investigate the matter found ments. But such aggressions upon the reverential feel-
precisely what he was looking for and most desired : no one ings of mankind being likely to provoke retaliation, and
was ever disappointed. MM. Champollion-Figeac, Syl- to endanger the theory, they devised an ingenious ex-
vestre de Sacy, D’Akerblad, and many other foreigners, pedient, and found, under the more modern scrolls, con-
learned to read,—to run and read. The hieroglyphics taining the names of Ptolemies or Roman emperors, the ves-
were as legible when they rode by the obelisks as the tiges of more ancient scrolls comprehending those of older
names over our shops. Our own countrymen ran a and native princes which had been erased to make way for
bright career of glory. Mr W. J. Bankes, Mr Salt, and the usurpers. Some cf these, it is said, have been deci-
others saw immediately strong confirmations. Even Mr phered. And since it has been the fashion to discover the
608 A L P H
Alphabet, names of the ancient kings of Egypt, many buildings
have been restored to their original rank, and almost
every scroll decided to stand in the place of one that
had been obliterated. We would recommend some ot
the most sharp-sighted of these antiquaries to look well
if there be not a third and older name under the second,
that even “ exorbitant antiquity” may once more be taken
into favour. Mr Salt, in his Essay on the Phonetic Sys¬
tem of Hieroglyphics, shows, that even in the symbolical
department, which of course must be the most, lax, it is
necessary to humour the theory a good deal. This zealous
convert speaks thus of Horapollo : “ Having so often quot¬
ed this author, I may here state, that though I am con¬
vinced, for numerous reasons, that the first book and part
of the second are written by a person perfectly acquainted
with Egyptian hieroglyphics, yet so am I perfectly persuad¬
ed that the remainder is a vile interpolation, excepting per¬
haps the three or four last hieroglyphics, which seem to
have been reserved from the original work, and placed at
the end, more effectually to deceive the reader.” This is
very like choosing so much of a writer as will serve a fa¬
vourite purpose, and rejecting the rest. It is unnecessary,
however, to pursue this part of the subject farther. If we
admit that the discovery of the phonetic system was very
admirable; that it is demonstrated clearly, it may be ma¬
thematically ; that the examples have been adduced with
perfect candour and fairness; that it will afford much
valuable illustration to the history of Egypt; and that it
is madness, or even a crime, to doubt its truth and import¬
ance : if we concede all this, and more, it will not assist
us in discovering the origin of the alphabet. The phone¬
tic system is essentially alphabetic ; the bird, and the
tree, and the other figures within the scroll, are not hiero¬
glyphics, but letters : they represent sounds. It is not a
transition from hieroglyphics to letters : it is not a step
in advance ; but, if it be a step, it is assuredly a step back¬
wards ; for it is merely the substitution of clumsy and
ambiguous letters for others that were simple and certain.
The dog, the ass, and the yew-tree do not represent the
author of Sandford and Merton symbolically or hierogly-
phically. That ingenious person had not any of the pro¬
perties peculiar to these objects. The three figures are an
awkward manner of writing the three letters that com¬
pose his name, and any other object might be agreed up¬
on to denote the same letters without reference to the
initials, which could only have been chosen to assist the
memory. A man, a woman, and a child would of course
spell Day, if it were understood that a man was in the
place of d, and the other figures of the other letters.
Thus every one might compose at pleasure innumerable
phonetic systems.
There is no foundation for the assertion of the pre¬
sident Goguet, and of other learned men, that the Egyp¬
tian hieroglyphics preceded the invention of alphabetic
writing: whatever testimony exists is to the contrary.
It is vain to argue that it is improbable any persons
would use such cumbrous and inconvenient writing af¬
ter they had experienced the advantages of a simple
and convenient method; for there is abundant evidence,
as the learned president admits, that it was practised
long after they had become acquainted with the ex¬
cellent alphabet of the Greeks. It is not easy to un¬
derstand and to reconcile the passages in which the vari¬
ous sorts of writing that prevailed in Egypt are mention¬
ed; the enchorial, the hieratic, the sacred, the demotic, the
Ethiopic, &c. Our limits will not permit us to comment
upon, or even to extract, the statements of Herodotus,
Clemens Alexandrinus, Porphyry, Heliodorus, and others.
ABET.
The first author tells us that, unlike the Greeks, they Alphabet,
wrote from the right to the left; and Clement and Por-
phyry affirm that the hieroglyphics were the invention of
the priests, for the purpose of mystery and religious se¬
crecy. Our physicians write their prescriptions in an un¬
couth character, and with barbarous abbreviations, not be¬
cause they are unacquainted with the ordinary writing, but
through quackery and for concealment; and for the same^
reasons the record in a court of law is made up in the
form of a carpet, or the sail of a ship; and many similar
devices, not unworthy of Tartars or Laplanders, are prac¬
tised there, and in the composition of deeds, not through
ignorance, but of design. If the hieroglyphics be in
truth writing, and history seems to declare that they are,
it is most probable that they are alphabetic ; not only be¬
cause we are told that they were invented when letters were
in use, but because it is impossible to conceive any writing
which is not such. Whether we shall ever obtain the
alphabet, is very doubtful. It is easy to imagine many
systems, but it is perhaps impossible to fix upon any. An
animal or other object might represent a letter; and
the representations might be varied according to fixed
rules; or the parts of an animal might be the letters,
and the animal itself would then be a word. There is
no end of conjectures. It is not impossible, although the
supposition has never been hazarded, that the priests wrote
in initials only, like the Roman lawyers, who, partly for
the sake of brevity, and partly and principally for conceal¬
ment, entered their forms in that manner. A Roman no¬
tary would begin a will thus : T. I. T. L. W. A. T. &c.
“ This is the last will and testament,” &c. Apuleius sup¬
plies a curious passage, which seems to imply that the
sacred books were partly secured against profane readers
by abbreviations. “ Et injecta dextera senex comissimus
ducit me protinus ad ipsas fores aedis amplissimae ; rituque
solemni apertionis celebrate ministerio, ac matutino per-
acto sacrificio, de opertis adyti profert quosdam libros,
literis ignorabilibus praenotatos: partim figuris cujusce-
modi animalium, concept! sermonis compendiosa verba sug-
gerentes ; partim nodosis et in modum rotae tortuosis, ca-
preolatimque condensis apicibus, a curiosa profanorum
lectione munita.” {Metamorph. lib. 11.) We know not
whence the Roman lawyers derived this kind of cipher or
abbreviation, of which they made much use. It was a
favourite practice likewise of the Rabbins to compose me¬
morial words of initials. We are told that the hieroglyphics
were the invention of the priests, and were connected with
religion : it is probable therefore that they contain rituals,
perhaps in an abbreviated form. The frequent repetitions
of the same characters, and the perpetual recurrence of
the same sets of characters, favour this supposition. The
frequent repetitions of the services of the church of
Rome furnished cause of complaint at the Reformation.
In the liturgies of the Greek church they are far more
remarkable. If we open any book of Greek offices, we
shall find such directions as, “ here make 60 kyries, then 30
doxas, then 30 and then 60 more kyries.” The tedi¬
ous ceremonies are infinitely protracted by such wholesale
orders. The ancient Egyptians surpassed all people, even
the Hindoos, in their addiction to religious exercises. We
may read copious details of the prodigious exertions of
the early Egyptian monks, who brought, with the com¬
mon zeal of converts, the peculiar sentiments and habits of
their nation, amongst whom all was prayer and rite, every
thing was sacred, the whole land swarmed with gods. It
we could translate a hieroglyphic inscription, we should
probably find that it comprehended the rites to be observ¬
ed in consecrating a punt. It would direct the faithful
A L P H
Alphabet, waterman to find the day and hour for the ceremony by
certain rules, and to prepare himself and his boat for so
many days in such a manner. At the proper hour, hav¬
ing made all previous preparations, he would be enjoined
to turn his face to the north, and to say such and such
and such prayers so many times, making certain gesticu¬
lations ; and then to turn to the south, and to say the
same, and this, that, and another, ten times as often, with
the same gestures and some others. It is easy to ima¬
gine that the shortest epitome of the formula, although
the boat was not to be used for fishing, or in a part of the
Nile where crocodiles abounded, would cover the walls of
a building as large as Westminster Hall; for if such folly
be once permitted to begin, it is perfectly impossible to
assign a reason why it should ever terminate. If such be
the treasures which are locked up in the sacred charac¬
ters, as it is most likely they are, we need not repine if
we are never permitted to find the key; for it is plain
that an authentic and faithful report of the precise words
which have been uttered in all the masses that have been
said for the repose of the souls of the departed, would be
neither an amusing nor an instructive, although a very
voluminous, pile of writing.
We have shown, we trust, that no assistance can be
derived from the hieroglyphics towards discovering the
origin of the alphabet. We will next examine, more
briefly it is true than we would, the nature of the Chi¬
nese characters, which it is pretended afford much light,
and indeed are an infallible guide to the invention
of the alphabet. Let us suppose that the tradition as
to the sound of the Greek letters, and all that has been
written on the subject, were lost, but that we retained
all the other materials for learning Greek which we still
possess: if it were deemed expedient to study that di¬
vine language, we might still acquire it Avith pain and dif¬
ficulty, as we learn the Chinese ; and considering the word
aXAflf as a symbol, we should call it another ; vo'kvg, ficvg,
frog, and nora/iog, would be regarded as pictures, and re¬
membered as such; and, without reference to their origi¬
nal sound, would be named many, an ox, life, and a river.
In copying these and other words, not as sounds composed
of simple elements, but as drawings of objects, they would
doubtless be much disfigured in the course of ages; it
would even be desirable to vary their forms designedly, and
to make them as grotesque and striking as possible, to as¬
sist the memory, which Avould surely deserve the aid of
the compassionate. They would, moreover, be divided
into classes, according to some clumsy calculation of the
number of strokes by which they are formed, like the
Chinese characters, that they might be arranged in dic¬
tionaries. Some mythic story of the invention of the
Greek symbols would be current in Europe, as similar fa¬
bles are received in China. The ingenious persons who
occupy themselves in finding reasons to account for every
thing just as it exists, or is supposed to exist, and lavish
their admiration upon it, would indulge in raptures at
contemplating the living, moving pictures which these
symbols present. Not Cuyp himself, they would declare,
could paint such a spirited ox as is sketched out by the
image /Sou; ; and if the sign norayog were drawn large and
black, so that the memory might seize on it through the
eye and hold it fast, it would be refreshing, they would
swear, on a sultry day to sit beside it and gaze on it; for
no stream would be so lovely as that gentle Greek river,
Q,ui fluit illimis, nitidis argenteus undis.
It is no light matter to learn Greek now; what would
it be under the circumstances we have supposed! When
VQL. LL
ABET. 609
mankind Avere at last quite weary of admiring the Greek Alphabet,
symbols, and of weeping over myriads of schoolboys
Avho had been fairly flogged to death, some great man
Avould at last arise, Avho, considering that all written
language must of necessity be alphabetic, although the
alphabet may have been lost in some cases amidst na¬
tional convulsions, would proceed patiently to analyze the
characters, not as a logician to seek for genera and species,
nor as an artist to look for exquisite touches of art, but
simply as a grammarian, to make out the letters. He
Avould carefully dissect a character into parts, and assign
arbitrarily to each part its sound, taking due care to make
those parts or letters voAvels which occur in words in
such a manner as to render it necessary or convenient so
to consider them for the purpose of articulation. He might,
for example, call aKhog uttak, and -roXu; gatek : the harmony
of the language would be deteriorated or improved by the
change, according to the taste of the age. But Avhen the
supposed symbols were once more restored to an alphabe¬
tic form, although entirely different sounds might have
been substituted for the ancient, it would not be more dif¬
ficult to acquire the language, than if the original alphabet
had never been lost. “ The Chinese characters, taken in
general, are, as every body knows, images and symbols,
designed to represent directly material objects, by an
imitation more or less exact, and other objects by meta¬
phors more or less ingenious. They are consequently
entirely unconnected with pronunciation, and do not stand
for any sounds. As it is necessary, however, that books
should be read aloud, they attach by convention to each
character a simple or complex syllable, which brings to
the mind, in the spoken language, the same idea as the
character in Avriting; but nothing in the latter denotes the
sound or the syllable, and it is very possible to understand
the one without knowing the other, and vice versa." We
quote these words from the excellent Avork of M. Abel
Kemusat, entitled Recherches sur les Langues Tartares. M.
Freret, who tells the strange tale in his sensible reflections
on the Chinese Avriting, in the sixth volume of the Memoirs
of the Academy of Inscriptions, makes this lively remark—
“ On diroit que cette ecriture auroit ete inventee pour des
muets, qui ignorent Tusage de la parole and we may add,
that when we believe that the whole population of China
are dumb, then will it seem worthy of belief, which is
utterly incredible, that any kind of writing was ever de¬
vised that was not alphabetic. A person who gives from
a Greek book, without naming the words in the original
tongue, a literal translation in English, is like the man
who reads aloud Chinese writing in the spoken language
of China. He renders one language by another, and of two
languages it is possible to know the one and not the other.
Some understand English Avho are ignorant of Greek, and
vice versa. “ It was necessary sometimes,” M. Abel Ke¬
rn usat continues, “ for the Chinese to represent in writing
the proper names of persons and of places, and of neAv
objects and ideas. When their knoAvledge extended, they
found that it was impossible to invent figures sufficiently
exact, or to compose symbols sufficiently characteristic, to
denote, in such a manner that they should be recognised,
different natural objects,—quadrupeds, birds, fishes, trees,
&c. Many expedients occurred, and were successively em¬
ployed. They might take a symbol which was already
known, and make it the sign of an individual. All proper
names in China are characters of this sort. Most com¬
monly there is nothing in these characters to mark this
kind of alteration. Sometimes, however, they add to the
symbol Avhich has been thus stripped of its original mean¬
ing, the sign of the mouth, to show the change it has
4 H
310 ALPHABET.
Alphabet, undergone.” The sign of the mouth is precisely equivalent are understood by many nations. These examples, how- Alphabet
to the use of the capital letter, which with us marks a pro- ever, do not prove that it is possible to contrive a univer-
per name, and shows that Mead signifies, not a liquor, but sal character, or to invent such a language, as the written
a physician, and Rose a man, and not a flower. Why one Chinese is al eged to be. It would no doubt be a work
man should ever have been called Mead and another Rose, of considerable difficulty, but not insuperable, to analyze
is as much a mystery as any thing in Chinese literature, the Chinese characters, and to reduce them to an alpha-
although the question has not yet provoked an elaborate betic form. It would probably be necessary to assign se-
disquisition concerning the first Mead or the origin of veral figures to the same letter—but this is common in
Roses “ The second method is of so much consequence other languages—and other expedients might be needed ;
in Chinese writing, that from the most ancient times it but the result would facilitate immensely the acquisition
has been accounted one of the six rules for forming of a language rich in a prodigious number of finely
characters. It consists in taking, as in the former case, a printed books. Hyde and^ others maintained that the
simple or complex symbol, and adding another, which language of the Manchou Tartars, in which there exist
denotes that it signifies a tree, abird,&c. Almost all the translations of most of the Chinese books, was, like the
names of natural objects are thus represented by two written language of China, symbolic; yet by the labours of
characters, one of which represents the genus, and the MM. Amyot and Langles it has been dissected into very
other the species.” There is nothing peculiar in this comfortable and legible alphabetic letters. The spoken
method it is common to all languages. We make com- language of China is a vulgar, barbarous, and most im¬
pound words by the union of two simple, as tea-pot, perfect jargon, that has never been reduced into writing,
coffee-pot; the latter word denoting the genus pot, and and has essentially no more connection with the written
tlie former, or rather the two together, the species. These language than the Welsh or the Basque. If we must
and similar contrivances, therefore, do not prove that there concede, contrary to reason and probability, that the
was a transition or gradual passage from symbolic to alpha- Chinese characters contain a symbolic writing which is
betic writing. It is urged that tradesmen and ignorant not alphabetic, they do not afford any assistance towards
persons in China frequently use those signs indifferently tracing the invention of the alphabet; for there is no
which have the same names but a different significa- proof that the Chinese, by their own means, and without
tion, for all the several purposes of the various characters; foreign aid, have advanced a single step,
but this is not a step. In like manner, a boy has been The uses of the alphabet are sweet and marvellous,
known, in endeavouring to translate “ thou shalt till” into and its origin, like the signification of the Egyptian
Latin, to have found in his dictionary “ till, donee,” and to hieroglyphics, undiscovered; but its structure is usually
have written down “ donecabis.” If a foreigner arrives in imperfect. It is commonly at once deficient and redun-
China, and it is necessary to give him a name in writing, dant, and the arrangement immethodical. In our own
they usually assign to him some new combination of language, for example, although we have the sounds
characters, which has no reference to the sound of his of the long and short vowels, we have only one cha-
name. It is asserted, however, that they sometimes seek racter for each vowel; and it is left doubtful which
to express by their characters the sound of his name. If it sound is intended, or it is pointed out by the addition of
be Har-ri-son, for instance, they take the three characters other letters. In ben the e is short; in bean, been, bene,
the names of which most resemble in sound the three sylla- it is long, and the syllable might be spelled thus, ben.
bles of the proper name. This would certainly be syllabic Greeks have a distinct character for the long and the
writing; but there is no satisfactory proof that it was ever short e, and two for o likewise ; but their alphabet is as
devised by the Chinese themselves. It would occur very deficient as our own with respect to the other three
naturally to a foreigner who was familiar with alphabetic vowels. If the Romans had used ten signs for vowels in¬
writing, and knew something of the language of the country, stead of five, all that difficult department of grammai which
The spoken language of China consists entirely of mono- teaches the quantity of syllables would have been super¬
syllables; consequently the necessity for such an expedient seded by a simple and mechanical contrivance. Our alpha-
could never arise, except in conjunction with foreigners bet is said to be redundant, because the one sound of c is
who are used to the alphabet. They could have no idea expressed by k, and the other by s. It is true that ch is a
of a syllable, as distinct from and forming part of a word ; peculiar sound, differing from that of sh, as cherry differs
and the name Harrison would not be to their ears one from sherry: it is true, however, that it might be represent-
word of three syllables, but three separate words, each a ed by kh, if our orthographers had thought fit to ordain
monosyllable. We do not wonder if the Chinese have it. F is said to be redundant, because we might spell
picked up from strangers a little instruction in reading; fig, phig: for we write philosopher, whilst the Italians use
we are rather astonished that, in consequence of their ad- Jdosofo ; and so with some other letters. As the Greek is
diction to old customs, they have not learned more. It has pronounced in England, the ^ is superfluous for the pur-
been said that the Japanese have adopted an alphabet of poses of speech, and its place might always be supplied by
syllables of this kind, consisting of as many of the Chinese x. It distinguishes nevertheless many words to the eye,
characters as are necessary to furnish it. We must with- and is useful in etymology, on account of which, letters
hold our assent to the existence of syllabic alphabets, that would be redundant if they were to be tried by the
until we have actually examined one that is not manifest- verdict of the ear alone, have been retained in many alpha-
ly composed of letters. We read also that some nations bets. If the number of our own letters be too small, the
of Tartars use an alphabet constructed of Chinese charac- deficiency is not very great. Those who affirm that there
ters, either entire or mutilated. If we were to select 26 is the largest amount of simple sounds in our language,
of these characters, we might of course write our own would not extend it beyond 32 or 33 characters, and their
language in the same cipher; and the only consequence opponents would cut it down to about half the number:
would be, that we should adopt very incommodious letters. 26, therefore, is a tolerably fair mean between these ex-
Musical sounds, numbers, the signs of the Zodiac, and a tremes.
few other matters of peculiar simplicity, are marked by The lo\ers of method complain grievously that the ar-
arbitrary symbols, which have no reference to sound, and rangement of the letters is most unphilosophical. There
A L P H
Alphabet, is no reason, they truly affirm, why b should succeed to a.
or c to & in the Latin and English, or g in the Greek and
Hebrew alphabets. The vowels, they maintain, ought
to walk first, and to be marshalled precisely according to
the aperture that each demands from the mouth to give
it due utterance ; and the consonants ought to be arranged
with reference to the organ to which they are chiefly
indebted,—the lips, the teeth, the tongue, the throat. If
we were about to compose an alphabet for the first time,
such precision might be permitted; but this change, like
most others, would be attended with many inconveniences.
The next generation, for example, could not use our dic¬
tionaries and encyclopaedias; and as the letters are sorted
on the next page of the primer, although not in the
alphabet itself, the advantage would be very trifling.
An extreme and rigid regularity does not suit mankind;
men love anomalies, exceptions, and varieties. In some
languages, as in the Italian, and very probably, if we
can judge of the pronunciation of the ancient Romans,
in the Latin, each letter performs its office with great
constancy and uniformity, and indicates the sound ac¬
cording to a few simple and well-observed rules; in
others, as in some of the Celtic tongues, the only use of
letters seems to be to mislead, and to show what is not
the true pronunciation. The English orthography tor¬
ments foreigners, and presents difficulties that appear at
first to be insuperable: by perseverance, however, they
find the clue to the labyrinth, and acknowledge that the
maze is not always without a plan. The mode of spelling
that was observed in the middle ages, especially in Eng¬
lish and French, was to admit into words every letter that
could possibly claim a shadow of right to be there. It re¬
sembles the style of law proceedings, the grand canon of
composition and construction therein being, so that all is
there that ought to be, it matters little how much is there
that ought not: the excess may help, but cannot hurt, and
may be rejected as surplusage. The French, after their
peculiar manner, by means of the Roman letters, have
cooked up strange kickshaws of words; their pronuncia¬
tion, however, whimsical as it is, being practically, and
especially amongst those who speak soberly and moder¬
ately, less absurd than the extraordinary persons who com¬
pose grammars of that language would have us believe.
The forms of letters in different systems are of course
very various. It is curious to contrast the complicated
characters of the Gothic, or of German text, or of some
languages that are less generally known, with more sim¬
ple alphabets, especially with those used in modern sys¬
tems of short-hand. These extremely simple letters,
however, are not so favourable to rapidity in reading as
in writing: plainness and distinctness, a certain form that
fills the eye, giving to each its proper individuality, are
essential to give facility to the reader’s office. If there
were no other books but manuscripts, it would certainly
be of great importance that such characters only should
be used as the transcriber could execute with the utmost
celerity: but as copies are now multiplied by printing,
it matters little whether the letters are simple or com¬
plex ; for although it may be more difficult to make the
punches, and more troublesome to cast the types, these
considerations cannot greatly influence the price of books.
The manner of arranging letters and words is also va¬
rious. The Chinese, and a few other people, dispose the
words in perpendicular lines, one word below another;
but most nations conform to the general practice of
placing them in horizontal rows: and the world is nearly
equally divided on the question, whether it be expedient
to begin to write at the right or the left side of the page.
ABET. 611
The people of the East usually adopt the former, and Alphabet,
those of the West the latter method. There are some
ceptions, however : the Sanscrit is written, like the Eng¬
lish, from the left to the right; and the Etruscans seem to
have committed a similar error in longitude, for they pro¬
ceeded, like the Arabs, from the right towards the left.
The one arrangement is quite as convenient as the other.
Persons who are prejudiced in favour of every thing to
which they have been accustomed, have imagined reasons
in support of the superiority of our method: daily prac¬
tice convinces us that it is very excellent; but we must
acknowledge, notwithstanding, that the best writers are to
be found amongst the people wdio write from the right
hand to the left. The Chinese, it is said, in their peculiar
way, attain to great skill and excellence.
There is one kind of arrangement that was anciently
in use among the Greeks, which is very remarkable : the
letters proceed from the left to the right, and back again
from the right to the left, or vice versa, alternately, like the
course of an ox in ploughing, whence it has received the
name fiovcrgotpridov. We can imagine that a person writ¬
ing running-hand very rapidly might be tempted to adopt
this alternate path for the sake of dispatch—although such
perhaps would not be the result—in order to save the time
that is wasted in carrying the hand back from the end of
one line to the beginning of the next; but this could not
be the motive that suggested its use in the inscriptions
that are now in existence. It was probably esteemed
sacred from its connection with ploughing, which was al¬
ways a holy thing. A treaty written thus was more likely
therefore to be observed. If a bill of exchange had a
better chance of being accepted or paid were it sped like
the plough, the sacred arrangement would no doubt be
adopted by the drawers of these instruments.
The inconveniences of a diversity of characters have in¬
duced some speculative persons to endeavour to devise a
universal character, and even to remedy the curse of Babel
by a universal language. The great Leibnitz employed
himself much, it is said, on these speculations, but with¬
out success. John Wilkins, bishop of Chester, a less able
man, composed An Essay towards a Real Character and
an Universal Language, which was printed by the Royal
Society in 1668. Whoever will open this thick folio, will
not be surprised that the husband of Oliver Cromwell’s
sister had but few disciples, or, whatever learning and in¬
genuity the book may display, that it has long been for¬
gotten. It has rarely happened that men of distinguished
ability have sought to introduce a severe uniformity into
any science. Speculators who propose to furnish characters
that will faithfully represent all the sounds of all the letters
of all languages, only show that they have not accurate
ears: sounds are infinite, and cannot be thus portrayed.
Men have vainly discoursed also concerning a natural
language : there is no language natural to man. It is not
natural to call a horse a horse, or by any other name ;
but it is perfectly natural, for it is the universal prac¬
tice, to call that animal by some name or other which
is understood by those writh whom we communicate.
If there were a universal character to represent words,
and it were generally received, so that the character
for a horse should be read by an Englishman horse,
by a Frenchman cheval, by a Spaniard caballo, and by
a German pferd, as has been recommended, it would
avail little. The syntax and construction of languages
are so various, that although the characters might be un¬
derstood, and every word intelligible by itself, the sense
of a whole passage that had been written by a Ger¬
man would be utterly unintelligible to a Frenchman.
612 ALP H
Alphabet. The Chinese is said to be a language ot which the struc-
ture is remarkably easy and simple. As a proof that
it is not enough to know the meaning of the words, but
that it is necessary to be familiar with the collocation,
in order to comprehend the sense of the author, let us
take an example at hazard from the grammar of M. Abel
Remusat. The following is a literal translation : “ Sicut
amat sicut scit agit earn amat earn eam^ qui earn qui qui
non qui non” Could Bishop Wilkins himself detect the
meaning which lurks in these few and very plain words ?
They are rendered thus, having been re-arranged accord¬
ing to the rules of a system which is far moie aitificinl,
but with which, through habit, we are conversant: “ Ce-
lui qui la connoit (la 'vertii) ne vaut pas celui qui^ Vaime;
celui qui Taime ne vaut pas celui qui la pratique^ If we
are unable to interpret a short and easy sentence in an
inartificial language, with the forms of which we are un¬
acquainted, is it not certain, that if one of the long and
rhetorical periods of Demosthenes, to say nothing of more
obscure writers, were transcribed in the universal charac¬
ter, it would be as incomprehensible as a Babylonian
brick covered with arrow-headed characters, to a person
familiar with the universal writing, but who had not mas¬
tered the majestic but abstruse idiom of the Greek
tongue ? Nor is there a natural collocation of words. All
collocation is artificial; and that to which the reader is
most accustomed seems to him to be the most natural.
He who speaks of the natural order of a sentence, and
recommends that it should be observed in his projects for
grammatical uniformity, commits the same error as the
sailor who condemned the Spaniards with many oaths, as
a most unnatural race, for calling a hat sombrero, and not,
like men, by its natural name, a hat.
Having spoken as largely as our limits will permit of the
alphabet in general, we will next call the attention of our
readers to a few particular alphabets, not perhaps with so
much minuteness as some might desire, nor certainly to all
that are worthy of attention. The Greek alphabet is by far
the most important to literature, not only because the most
precious remains of antiquity have been preserved by
its means, but because it is the parent of the Latin, which
has been adopted by, and prevails amongst, the most ci¬
vilized nations of the world. Plate XIX., which is the first
of the three plates connected with this subject, is entirely
devoted to elucidate its origin and history. The plate
has been taken, except that part on the right hand which
is headed “ Greek,” from Astle’s work on the Origin and
Progress of Writing, and was compiled from authorities
which we regret that it would greatly exceed our limits
to enumerate. It would be easy to extract the passages
which would explain it; but as the book is generally acces¬
sible, we will content ourselves by referring to it; and as
that admirable treasure of alphabetic lore, the Nouveau
Traite deDiplomatique (6 tom. 4to, Paris, 1750-65), whence
Astle has chiefly derived his authorities and the forms of
the letters, may easily be consulted, we will not avail
ourselves of the assistance it would afford. Joseph Sca-
liger was the first who endeavoured to show systemati¬
cally, and with elaborate learning, the derivation of the
Greek letters from the Phoenician. He has had many fol¬
lowers and imitators. A cursory inspection of the nu¬
merous specimens of Phoenician letters which this plate
affords will prove, that if their forms are sometimes like
those of the ancient Greek characters, they are often very
dissimilar, at least if we may suppose that we have obtain¬
ed from coins and inscriptions the true characters of the
Phoenicians; and if the powers of the letters were the
same as in the Hebrew, as the order appears to have
ABET.
been, there was a great dissimilarity in sound also. That Alphabet,
portion of the plate which is headed “ Greek” is taken
from a plate inscribed Varice Alphabeti Greed per cetatis
ordinem formce, published in the Pcecilographia Gree-
ca of Hodgkin, and in vol. ix. of the Classical Journal.
The first column on the left consists of the ordinary
letters, of which the number is increased to 27 by the
insertion of the Fccu i-Tiori,uov, which marks the number 6,
after E, of cam, 900, and of Mwa, 90, after II. The
second column is headed “ Cadmi A. c. 1500,” and is
taken from Morton. The next column, standing im¬
mediately below “ Greek,” gives the various forms of
the Sigean inscription, as published by Chishull, and is
headed “ Sigeum, circa 600 a. c.” The third column is
inscribed “ Simonidis, A. c. 500,” and is also from Mor¬
ton. The remainder of the letters are of the date
450, a. c., and are given on the authority of Wachter,
from W. Massey's Essay on the Origin and Progress
of Letters. Mr Hodgkin has published in the same
work a large and valuable collection of abbreviations
and connections. The fac-similes of the Herculanean
papyri present the Greek characters that were in or¬
dinary use at the time when they were written. M.
d’Agincourt, in his valuable Histoire de l'Art par les
Monumens, has given many curious examples of Greek
manuscripts of the middle ages, extracted from the un¬
published treasures of the Vatican library; and Mr Rose
has collected, with much care and accuracy, the various
forms of letters from inscriptions at Athens and in Attica.
It would be easy to multiply references to other volumes.
Although the philologist may not accept all Mr Payne
Knight’s conclusions, as they are presented in his well-
known Analysis of the Greek Alphabet, he cannot refuse
him credit for much learning and ingenuity, for novelty
sometimes amounting to paradox, and an energy often
approaching to anger. The two learned dissertations
of M. 1’abbe Renaudot, in the second volume of the
Memoirs of the Academy of Inscriptions, are well known.
It is impossible not to remark, that, whenever a new in¬
scription is discovered, archaeologists instantly fly to it,
and for a time, commonly until something else is turned
up, endeavour to solve every phenomenon by means of it.
This fickleness is undoubtedly suspicious, and resembles
the conduct of men who are ill at ease in their theories.
The letters which we find on coins and marbles of the
earliest periods are only of certain peculiar forms; but
it would be a rash deduction to infer, therefore, that
they did not use letters of a different shape for other
purposes. These have remained, because the materials
on which they were impressed or engraven were du¬
rable; and the cursive writing, which probably existed
and was inscribed on perishable substances, and for tem¬
porary purposes, has been lost. If all lettered monuments
of the 19th century had disappeared except our money,
the inference would be most erroneous, that the inhabit¬
ants of Great Britain knew no other characters save the
Roman capitals, which are alone to be found on the so¬
vereign ; and will seem ridiculous to all who are aware
that the bank-note that circulates with it presents, in
evidence of its mercantile origin, specimens of every kind
of hand which an ambitious schoolmaster, anxious to dis¬
play his penmanship, could devise.
On the Greek alphabet, as on many others, the question
arises, What is properly to be considered a letter ? If we
accept the ordinary definition, that it is a mark for a cer¬
tain known sound, it is plain that h is entitled to the honour¬
able appellation. The Romans include it in the alphabet,
and, except perhaps in prosody, grant to it all its rights.
A L P H
Alphabet. By most of the nations of the west it is duly recognised,
and by the orientals it is usually had in great honour.
The Greeks, however, have attenuated it into a spirit,
and translated it, as such, out of the alphabet, and ele¬
vated it above the heads of its fellows. The practice ot
sending letters aloft, that were supposed to have a turn
for climbing, exists indeed in many other languages. The
two dots or lines, for instance, that sometimes hang over
the vowels in the German, are the remains of e .• thus
pokel was formerly written poekel; and some grammarians
have recommended that the old orthography should be
resumed. It is unnecessary to multiply examples from
other tongues. This letter was anciently marked by the
sign H, as in the Latin and our own language. When that
sign was applied to denote the >?, it was cut in two, and
one half was suspended in the air to mark the spiritus
asper, the rough breathing, or the h, which, according to
the definition, is a letter; the other half was hung up in
the same manner for a very peculiar purpose, not to de¬
signate any letter, not as the mark of any known sound,
but, under the name of the spiritus lenis, it signified the
absence of a letter—it became a negative sign in gram¬
matical algebra. Since the spiritus lenis merely imports
the absence of the spiritus asper, or h, if a sign be used to
show the absence of one letter, there ought equally to be
a sign to denote that of every other letter in the alpha¬
bet ; and on this principle there ought to be as many ne¬
gative as positive signs. If it be supposed that the reader
who sees the word all cannot understand that the word
does not begin with h, and is not hall, unless a spirit
tell him so, and a mark be prefixed to signify that the
word all does not begin with h, he must need the like
assistance to enable him to comprehend that every other
letter also is wanting. He ought to be told that the word
all does not begin with b, c, d, &c. and that it is not ball,
nor call, nor pall, nor tall. Since the initial is not more
intelligible than the remainder of the word, every other
letter of every word ought on the same principle to be pre¬
ceded by the negative signs of all the letters, to show that it
is nothing more than itself. To such absurdities must we
be reduced, if we abandon the plain rule, that the ab¬
sence of a letter alone is sufficient to show that it is want¬
ing. We should wonder the more that a people so intel¬
ligent as the Greeks should have fallen into such an error,
if, as far as we know, Lanzi had not been the first to no¬
tice it. His reductio ad absurdum of the spiritus lenis has
not hitherto received the attention which its acuteness
merits. In Arabic, the mark gesma, unless we look upon
it as representing the hyphen, is also a negative sign, im¬
porting, however, a more extensive negation. It has been
conjectured that the Greek accentual marks were con¬
trived to assist persons in reading aloud, before the prac¬
tice of leaving a space at the end of each word was adopt¬
ed. They certainly would be extremely useful in this re¬
spect, and they afford great help in perusing a manuscript
written continuously. For this purpose the spirits are
more useful than the accents; for they show that the
vowels over which they are placed are initials, ignorance
whereof is a fertile source of ambiguity; and for this pur¬
pose the spiritus lenis is as necessary as the aspirate. I he
latter is a letter, and an orthographical mark besides; the
former is only a mark that the E begins another word, as in
the example KAIEm, which is equivalent to KAI Em,
the sign ^ being equal to the space between the twro
words. It was afterwards usual to place a period after
each word, as a spirit general affecting equally vowels
and consonants, thus, KAI.Em.AEm; and this expedient
is applicable to all words : and many manuscripts that were
ABET. 613
written continuously have received the convenient addi- Alphabet,
tion at a time long subsequent to the date of the writing.
If we consider the spiritus lenis in this point of view, the
inventors of it will be exculpated from the absurdity of
which Lanzi sought to convict them, and it will attach to
those grammarians only who retained the mark after the
practice of leaving a space at the end of every word be¬
came prevalent. We must esteem the Greek accents and
spirits, especially if we acquiesce in this theory of their in¬
vention, as venerable relics of aiitiquity—as contrivances
which have been superseded. On this account, and from
habit, it is difficult for a scholar to consent to abandon
them, or to rest satisfied with a work, however well print¬
ed it may be in other respects, in which they are omitted.
Orthographical expedients to facilitate reading are nu¬
merous and ingenious, as spaces, punctuation, capitals for
proper names and at the beginning of sentences, the apos¬
trophe, and many others. It would be an interesting pur¬
suit to trace their origin and history. Much attention
has always been paid to reading and writing by the Chris¬
tians, the Jews, the Mahometans, and, in short, by all na¬
tions whose religion is comprehended in ancient writings.
Among the Greeks and Romans, little of their worship had
been reduced into writing, nor did they profess to be in
possession of a code of divine laws, like the Koran and
similar volumes that are studied, transcribed, and vene¬
rated, by the orientals. The reverence that Alexander
the Great displayed for the poems of Homer, remarkable
as it appeared to his contemporaries, was but a faint sha¬
dow of the homage and adoration that the people of the
East lavish on their sacred volumes. The treatment which
the Sibylline books received at Rome was perhaps in
some respects similar; but they were not publicly read;
the grand object, indeed, of those in whose custody they
were placed being, although they were not wanting in
veneration for the prophetic volumes, to conceal, and not
to publish, their mysterious contents. We cheerfully
acknowledge that the religion of Greece and Rome, as a
political institution, had many important advantages; but
it is not to be denied that it was less favourable to the
diffusion of reading and writing than Christianity and
some of the religions of the East. The translations of the
Scriptures have preserved for the philologer many curious
fragments of languages, of which there are no other re¬
mains. In pagan Rome, as in Greece, public recitation
and reading aloud were practised to a great extent; but
these exercises were always performed by persons of some
learning, and of considerable experience, who were com¬
paratively few in number. When the Christians increased,
public readers were greatly augmented: it became neces¬
sary to read the Scriptures, homilies, and other pious
compositions, not only to learned men in cities, but to
the poor and ignorant in the most obscure villages of
the most remote provinces; and this office was com¬
monly performed by men of extremely moderate at¬
tainments. It became expedient, therefore, to devise
every contrivance that could facilitate the task of reading
in public. The Biblical critic knows, that we owe to this
cause many orthographical advantages, which are now
commonly enjoyed, although the source of them is not
generally understood. We are unable, however, to pur¬
sue this part of the subject at present; nor can we find
leisure to trace our ordinary running-hand. It may be
followed step by step from the Greek cursive, in such
works as the Palceographia Grceca, sive de Ortu et
Progressu Literaruni Grcecarum, of Bern, de Montfau-
con; in the curious publication of the Abate Marini,
the principal librarian of the Vatican, entitled I Pa-
alphabet.
Alphabet, piri Diplomatici raccolti ed illustrati; in the specimens
of D’Agincourt, and in similar publications. I he Ara¬
bic alphabet, which, especially in the hands of the Per¬
sians, seems expressly designed to favour rapid wnteis,
has six unconnectible letters; and when the Greek cha¬
racters are written in running-hand, there are several let¬
ters which may not be joined, some with those that pre¬
cede, others with those that follow. In our cursive every
letter in every word may be united; but as it was hist
adapted to the Latin language, the school-boy who has
written even a theme in that tongue must have remarked
that the letters unite more easily and pleasantly than in
English.
The second plate (No. XX.) presents a comparative
table of hieroglyphic and alphabetic characters. We
cannot dwell upon this very singular assemblage of
signs and symbols, or point out in detail the absurdity
of the theories which would deduce alphabetic writing
from the Egyptian hieroglyphics; but it will manifest
itself most strikingly and plainly, and without preju¬
dice, to an intelligent person who will examine atten¬
tively this table, which has been arranged expressly for
the purpose of presenting an untenable and unfounded
hypothesis in the least unfavourable light. The first co¬
lumn on the left, headed “ Chaldaic Letters,” contains an
alphabet which is so important in the history of literature,
that we must not pass it over without some notice. The
Chaldaic or Hebrew alphabet consists of 22 consonants,
of which the forms are given on the extreme left of the
comparative table, and their powers on the extreme right,
and of 14 vowel points, making a total of 36 letters, if we
may reckon the points, which are held to be less ancient
than the consonants, and are often omitted in manuscripts
and printed books, as letters. There are, besides, in a great
number, accentual and other marks, designed to facilitate
reading, and sometimes perhaps chanting or singing. Of
some of these, however, the use is not at present under¬
stood ; our business is with the 22 consonants only, and
with their forms. The third letter, g, is called Gimel,
which signifies the camel. Camelus suo nomine Syria-
co in Latium venit, as Varro elegantly writes. There
can be no doubt about the derivation of the animal’s
name, but the letter is as much like any other creature as
a camel. Pe, the 17th letter, is called the mouth;
it resembles the nose or the eyes equally. And the let¬
ter that immediately precedes it, as its name implies, is
thought to be a picture of the eye; but it is as faithful a
representation of any other feature, or even of the whole
face. The ingenuity of the engraver could not humour
the appearance of the teeth so as to make it remind us, as
it ought, of the last letter but one—Shin. A very learned
Rabbi, from whom we formerly received some instruction
in Hebrew, gravely affirmed that the letter Pe, the mouth,
is the true image of that organ; and that if it had not
been the Sabbath, he would have written it, and shown,
moreover, that there is a piece of pudding in it. Being of¬
fered a dry pen, that he might point it out in a book, he
refused to do even that act. Such a severe observance of
the day of rest appeared very surprising to persons unac¬
quainted with the strict literal interpretation that pre¬
vails in the East. He consented indeed to explain by words
that the piece of pudding is that mark which is inserted
in the 17th letter, Pe, and serves to distinguish it from
the 11th letter, Caph. The learned Jew, however, did
not regard consistency in his explanation, nor do these
ingenious people in general; for Caph is the palm of the
hand; and by placing a piece of pudding in it, although
it would probably be more welcome to the mouth, it
would not be made to resemble it in form. Jod, which Alphabet
immediately precedes Caph, is the hand also ; and these
letters are equally unlike the hand and each other.
We will not speak longer, however, of this miserable
nonsense: the immense load of absurdity would soon
become intolerable, if, in passing through several lan¬
guages, we were to pick up in each some new extrava¬
gance. It is true that the names of the greater part, if
not all, of the Hebrew letters, signify visible objects; but
it does not follow that the letter ever resembled in form
the object of which it bears the name. Nouns are used
in the second intention without regard to shape; neither
the horse for drying clothes, nor the dogs on which wood
is burned, nor the cock of a barrel, nor a crow-bar, will re¬
mind us of any of the animals that lend them titles; nor
do we ever see a boot-tree or a saddle-tree flourishing,
like real trees, with leaves, flowers, and fruit. If we
were to teach that our letter B derives its form and name
from the insect, and that our alphabet, if considered in
the same manner, would furnish a key to the Egyptian
hieroglyphics, and would explain the origin of writing, we
should not trifle more egregiously than certain expositors
of the Hebrew characters.
Our third and last plate (No. XXL) comprehends spe¬
cimens of some remarkable alphabets. We will treat
them in the order in which they stand. In the Syriac,
the number and order of the letters are the same as
in the Hebrew, and their names and powers are nearly
the same also. The row of characters on the right is
that square writing which is called Estranghelo. The
letters in the next row are commonly termed Chaldee.
Many of them resemble the former, and some are dif¬
ferent. The open letters are the same as the first row,
except that they are formed with greater regularity,
and are more square. The remaining lour columns con¬
sist of the ordinary Syriac letters, varying more or less in
form from the Estranghelo, and arranged from the right
to the left in order, as initial, medial, final, and solitary
letters. Of these alphabets, the Estranghelo is the most
ancient and solemn. Some maintain that the Hebrew
Scriptures were originally written in this hand. It corre¬
sponds in its origin and use with the Roman capitals,
which we esteem older than the small letters, and now
use only for titles, inscriptions, and the like. The se¬
cond column, or Chaldee, is called also the reformed
Syriac, being a medium between the Estranghelo and the
ordinary Syriac. Vowel points are added to these letters;
but it is acknowledged that the use of them, in this lan¬
guage at least, is entirely modern. The Illyrian and Ser¬
vian alphabets are evidently derived from the Greek:
Graeco fonte cadunt; we cannot add, however, parce
detorta: the order of the letters is the same, many
being inserted. The two rows of letters on the left, which
are usually very like the Greek originals, are the Servian,
and are commonly called the alphabet of St Cyril, being
ascribed to that saint. The other two rows of letters,
which are, as it were, double, and frequently of an extra¬
ordinary form, are the Illyrian, or Dalmatian, and are
named the alphabet of St Jerome. We are apt to wonder
why the good father should have taken so much trouble,
if he was indeed the inventor, to disfigure the elements of
speech. The appearance of the Illyrian, when we see an
entire passage in this character, is still more strange: it is
impossible indeed to judge of its effect from a mere table
of letters. We regret, therefore, that our space will not
suffer us to give a specimen of this whimsical and unusual
writing. The Russian alphabets, both ancient and mo¬
dern, are formed from the Greek by additions and altera-
ALPHABET.
Alphabet, tions, the order of the letters being nearly the same. The
Ethiopic alphabet, which occupies the middle of the plate,
is extremely interesting, because it is said to be a great
and important step in the history of writing; and it is ex¬
pressly referred to by the very learned President Goguet,
as a specimen of a syllabic alphabet: “ rectius syllaba-
rium quam alphabetum.” Syllabic writing, if it ever exist¬
ed, would not be a step from hieroglyphic to alphabetic
writing: it would be a kind of alphabetic writing, in which
the alphabet would be very numerous, and the sounds
expressed by each letter complex; but it would have no
connection with hieroglyphics ; the pretended link would
be united to the chain at one end, but not at the other.
If we suppose prosterner, the word chosen by Goguet, to
be represented by three letters only, each of which is a
syllable, as cr<rv, the w, which stands for pro, would mark a
complex sound, but it would not be in any respect hiero¬
glyphic. It would not denote a sensible object or an idea,
and so of the other two syllabic letters <s and v, and of all
the rest. The conjecture would appear probable in itself,
that syllabic characters are compounded of other and less
complex forms ; nor is the aspect of the alphabets that are
put forth as belonging to this class so simple as to exclude
the supposition. It is easy in the Ethiopic to trace the vowel
which is added with tolerable uniformity to the simple let¬
ter. There are a few anomalies, no doubt, as in the gram¬
matical arrangements of all languages. The first column on
the left, next to the name, shows the simple letter. It is not
combined with the vowel a, as it would seem at first sight;
for that union is effected in the fourth or middle column.
A moment’s inspection of this alphabet and table of syl¬
lables will satisfy any one that it is composed of 26 con¬
sonants—we must use the word in an eastern sense—com¬
bined with six vowels, precisely like the tables ba, be, bi,
bo, bu, by, &c., in our spelling-books; and that it does
not in any respect resemble the case which is put by Go¬
guet, of the word prosterner being spelled by three letters.
As the Sanscrit alphabet is not shown on our plates, we
will not analyze it to prove that it is not to be considered
as syllabic. The Persian is as much entitled to that ap¬
pellation, because the junctic*a of the letters being often
difficult, they write, for the assistance of learners, books
full of syllables. It is not by steps built of such mate¬
rials as these that we can hope to ascend to the origin of
that most wonderful invention, the alphabet. The Ethio¬
pic is derived from the Arabic: it is a dead language, like
the Latin, and it is called the language of study, or the
language of books: the Abyssinian, or Amharic, so called
from Amhar, the principal province of Abyssinia, and
termed the royal language, has taken its place as a living
speech; and seven letters have been added to the 26 of
the Ethiopic alphabet, which we have given. These two
languages may be studied in the grammars of Job Ludol-
phus, who tells us that they are of difficult acquisition,
and declares the words to be exceedingly unutterable—
“ maxime esse ineffabilia.” Jbe aspect of the characters,
when arranged in words and sentences, is uncouth and
unsightly: they somewhat resemble the Tironian notes,
which, although their appearance is unpromising, were
written, as we are informed by positive testimony, with
great rapidity. Contractions, abbreviations, and connec¬
tions, far from indicating that writing is in an imperfect
condition, evince that penmanship is far advanced.
The Armenian alphabet consists of 38 letters. They
have several other kinds of writing. We have given that
which is called the round hand, and is used in printed
books. Like ourselves, they write from the left to the
right. The appearance of their printed books is neat and
agreeable. The leaning of the letters was perhaps learn-
615
ed from the Italic, which was chiefly used by the Alphabet,
printers of Venice. The greatest benefactors to their
literature and typography have been the congregation of
Armenian monks, who resided at Methone in the Pelo¬
ponnesus, and afterwards removed to Venice. This lan¬
guage possesses a few original works, but is chiefly rich in
translations from the writings of St Chrysostom and other
Greek fathers, which have improved and refined it. Those
who are curious on the subject may consult the disserta¬
tion of Schroder, Be Antiquitate et Fatis Linguae Arme-
naicce ; and the historian of a nation, to whom it is said we
owe the apricot, and who have always been renowned for
skill in the ancient, delightful, and honourable art of gar¬
dening, Moses Chorenensis. The Iberian or Georgian
letters, as expressed in types, are commonly somewhat
lighter than our engraved alphabet of 36 letters. The
Georgians write also from the left, and have several kinds
of writing. The plate represents the ordinary hand. The
Coptic language derives its name from Coptos, a city of
Upper Egypt, where it was chiefly spoken. It is said to
be a mixture of Greek with the ancient language of Egypt,
Ethiopic, and the old Persian. The alphabet, which is
borrowed from the Greek, superseded the use of the older
letters in Egypt, as the characters introduced by Cadmus
possibly took the place of those that were used by the
Greeks before his time. The names, figures, and order of
the letters, are the same as in Greek. Eight letters were
added to express sounds unknown to the Greeks. Seven
of these follow the omega; psi is put out of its place, being
the last letter; and v, under the name So, is duly in¬
serted after the epsilon. This tongue has attracted some
little attention, in consequence of the phonetic system, of
which we have spoken. A full and handsome grammar
was published at Rome in 1778, by the Society de pro¬
paganda Fide. The examples are given in Arabic, as well
as Coptic. The Gothic alphabet of the patriarch Ulphi-
las, which is the last of our specimens, was formed in part
from the Latin, and in part from the Greek: the letters
are arranged in the order of the former language. We
know not whether certain theorists will consider the
double letters at the end as syllabic characters. The Ru¬
nic alphabet is interesting from its connection with Scan¬
dinavian antiquities. It is nearly identical with the Ice¬
landic : the letters are copied from the Greek and Roman,
being a little varied for the sake of notching them more
conveniently on sticks or staves ; but the order of the six¬
teen letters is very different from both these alphabets.
There are many specimens in Hickes’s Thesaurus. These
letters have afforded much scope for controversy. Those
who are most favourable to the antiquity of the Runic in¬
scriptions assign to them nearly 2000 years. Olaus Rud-
bechius teaches that the Greeks used these letters before
the time of Cadmus. Those who are least so say that
they are not older than the third century of our era.
The best kind of Anglo-Saxon writing was very elegant;
the small round characters that we see in charters are neat
and extremely legible. Domesday book is written in a hand
less perfect, but somewhat similar. After the Norman con¬
quest writing deteriorated in England, and became quaint,
affected, and illegible. In proportion as a nation is civilized
or barbarous, the pronunciation of its language, it has been
maintained, varies from the orthography. In the Celtic
languages the variation is prodigious; in our own tongue
it is very considerable; in the Anglo-Saxon, so far as we
are able to judge, it was much less. That language was
assiduously cultivated before the conquest, especially in
poetry; many poems were composed, and in extremely
difficult and complicated metres. After that event trench
became the language of the aristocracy; and the Saxon
616 A L P H
Alphabet or English was long neglected, and was spoken only by the
vulgar, for a long period, during which the foundations of
our present orthography were laid.
The Irish claim “ an exorbitant antiquity, for their
tree alphabet, in which the order of the letters is peculiar,
and the name of each of them is borrowed from some
tree. B, under the name Beith, which signifies a birch-
tree, is the first of them: it is fit that the tree of know¬
ledge should lead the band. This alphabet is commonly al¬
lowed to be a modern fabrication : a few antiquaries, how¬
ever, are ready to maintain that it is many centuries older
than the creation. In most languages words are pro¬
nounced in a manner somewhat different from that in
which they are written; but in the Irish the aberration of
the sound from the spelling is so great, that the only use
of letters seems to be, to show how words are not pro¬
nounced by omitting all that are really wanted, and insert¬
ing all but the right. As straight lines placed in differ¬
ent positions will form most of the letters of the Roman
alphabet, so the various arrangement of lines, shaped like
wedges or the heads of arrows, would make a sufficient
variety of characters not altogether dissimilar to the
Roman. Two of them inclining towards each other at
the bottom would be V, one wedge at right angles to
another might represent L, and three might be so placed
as to designate either F or H. It is not necessary to
pursue the subject farther. The structure of the arrow-
headed, cuneiform, or ancient Persian alphabet, must be
already sufficiently intelligible. Inscriptions in this cha¬
racter, which perhaps was also esteemed sacred, closely
resemble the Runic Ogham, represented in General Val-
lancey’s Irish Grammar.
The twenty-five instructive and excellent plates in the
second volume of the Collection of Plates, published
with the French Encyclopedic, contain many curious spe¬
cimens of alphabets. They are taken, however, almost
entirely and without acknowledgement, after the man¬
ner of the French literati, from the valuable publica¬
tions of the Society de propaganda Fide at Rome. M.
du Marsais, the writer of the article on the alphabet
in that Encyclopedic, evinces a passionate desire to
regenerate the world—such was the taste of the age
—and strenuously recommends a new alphabet: had it
been adopted, according to his advice, we should un¬
doubtedly be using the old one at the present day. The
numerous publications of the Society we have mentioned
well deserve attention; and many curious alphabets are
given in Niebuhr’s Travels, and in other works that we
need not enumerate. We have spoken already of the
advancement which the arts of reading and writing have
received from religion: we will mention a very remark¬
able and important alphabet, which derived its origin and
its general diffusion from the same source. The Arabic
letters are said to be the invention of the unfortunate
Vizier Moclah, who flourished at the beginning of the 10th
century, and lost at different times, for political offences,
his right hand, which had thrice copied the Koran, his
left hand, and his tongue; cruel privations for a man of
letters and an elegant penman. The Cuphic, a most grave
and goodly character, appears to stand in the same vene¬
rable relation of paternity to the Arabic, as the Estranghelo
to the vulgar Syriac. In the Arabian Nights, that faith¬
ful mirror of eastern manners, we find that the second
Calender, who was a king’s son, after describing his critical
knowledge of the Koran, and of the commentaries on “ that
blessed book,” boasts of his excellent penmanship thus:
“ But one thing, which I highly admired and succeeded in
to admiration, was to form the characters of our Arabian
language, wherein I surpassed all the writing-masters of
ABET.
our kingdom that had acquired the greatest reputation." Alphabet.
The Arabic character, especially as it has been modified
by the Persians, who have added to it much elegance,
with some affectation, is not only favourable to the most
daring flights of the pen, but in an eminent degree also
to rapid execution. Wherever the Koran penetrated
it was received, and it superseded the older and more
tedious modes of writing. This alphabet consists of
twenty-eight or twenty-nine letters, for it is a question
whether Lam-alif is to be accounted a letter; but it
has as much right to the title as 4/, and some others in
the Greek alphabet, and it can plead a proverb in its
favour, “ from alif to lam-alif” being exactly equivalent to
“ from alpha to omega.” For twenty-eight or twenty-nine
letters there are only seventeen primary figures, and
these perhaps may be reduced to fifteen ; and the letters
of which the figures are similar are distinguished by the
number and position of certain dots, which are called dia¬
critical or distinctive points. It is precisely as if a nume¬
ral were added, as a co-efficient, to a letter in order to
change its power entirely (we refer to this alphabet with¬
out a plate, as being generally known): thus, lb is b, but
2b perhaps is j, 3b is n, 4b is t, and 5b is th ; again, If is
f, but 2f is k, and so with the rest. It is impossible to
conceive a more clumsy device, or one more fruitful in
mistakes, especially as they are distinguished, not by nu¬
merals, but by dots, which are easily omitted or misap¬
plied. The Persians have added four more letters, by
means of additional dots, without introducing a new figure.
They content themselves, nevertheless, with a smaller
number than the Arabs, and the same as the Greeks, for
the purposes of their own tongue ; never using eight of the
letters except in words adopted from the Arabic. Thus,
with the Romans k, y, and z, held offices in the foreign
department only. The Persians vary the character in
many hands, some of which are very beautiful, others very
legible, and others very rapid. The Indians, when they
write in the Arabic character, increase the number by
three more letters, which they distinguish by additional
points. The order of the Arabic letters has been changed;
for their numerical value is the same as that of the
twenty-two equivalent letters in the Hebrew, the six let¬
ters that have been added differ in their points only, and
not in figure. It is a remarkable difference, that in the lan¬
guages of the East, at least in that family which is called
Semitic, the vowels are not expressed, but only the conso¬
nants. On the contrary, in all the languages of the West,
the vowels and consonants enter equally into the compo¬
sition of the writing. Besides the twenty-eight or twenty-
nine letters, eleven other marks are used in the Arabic.
In the Semitic family the vowels are not of the essence
of the word, the radical meaning resides entirely in the
consonants, and so is it also in the Teutonic tongues. In
our own we have, for example, sang, sing, song, and sung,
and innumei'able other instances. Whatever may have
been, therefore, the parent of the Greek, it is impossible
to agree with Colonel Vans Kennedy, who maintains in
his late work On the Origin of Languages, that the Teuto¬
nic tongues are the offspring of the Sanscrit, in which the
vowels are radicals.
It has been conjectured with some ingenuity, but
without foundation, that the Arabic characters in which
the vowels are not expressed were invented for the
common use of several dialects, in which the conso¬
nants alone were determined in an invariable manner,
and the pronunciation of the vowels varied. They have
certainly been applied thus, but they were invented to
facilitate those who transcribed the pure Arabic ot the
Koran, as the Hebrew letters were used without points to
ALP
Alphabet copy the Jewish law. Abbreviations and simple charac-
II ters, that are of easy formation, are not merely advanta-
Alpheiy. geous to tjie rep0rter) kut are useful also to the man of
letters, for instantly catching the warm thought as it is¬
sues from the imagination; and perhaps also as a cipher,
that the rash surmise, the first hasty impression, may not
be exposed to the rude gaze of those who, never being origi¬
nal themselves, never give birth to errors, and accordingly
are intolerant of them in others. Short-hand, therefore,
independently of its ingenuity, is so useful, that it de¬
serves notice in an essay on the alphabet; but we re¬
fer to it only to illustrate the Arabic. The use of an
extremely simple character, which is very cursive, and
joins easily, and of many contractions, and the total omis¬
sion, in languages like our own, where they are not radi¬
cal, of all the vowels, are the means by which the short¬
hand writer attains to expedition. These are the wings on
which his pen flies; they are the characteristics also of
the Arabic alphabet. Let us suppose that all Great Britain
was smitten with an immense love of writing—printing
being still unknown—and that it was deemed the chief
good to copy as much as possible; that for this purpose
all men learned short-hand, and, finding that it increased
their powers, and the passion continuing, laid aside all
the ordinary hands, so that they were forgotten. Such
was the origin of the Arabic writing. When the short¬
hand writer would make his writing more legible, he adds
the more important vowels by dots, and by various dia¬
critical marks resolves ambiguities and clears up difficul¬
ties. If it were necessary to explain it to children and to
strangers, and to interpret the abbreviations of distant
times—and it would be were stenography universal—
many orthographical signs would be required, whereby
men would in truth return to the course which they had
formerly quitted. Such was the origin of the vowel points
and their adjuncts.
When we reflect that we have the very words of So¬
crates, as he spoke them, unless Plato and Xenophon have
deceived us, we cannot wonder, since the power of letters
is really so great, that men have sometimes attributed to
them a little more influence than they possess. Hence
originated the belief in magical spells, and charms, and
characters; and certain mysterious properties were as¬
signed to writing, not only amongst the Pagans, but by
ALP 617
many of the Christians. It is somewhat remarkable that Alphabet
it has always been the practice from the earliest times, II
and it still prevails in Catholic countries, for the bishop, A^Phonsinj
when he consecrates a church (the order of this ancient
and venerable rite may be read in the Pontificale), to in¬
scribe twice on the pavement, in the form of a cross, all
the letters of the Roman alphabet. History assigns the
highest antiquity to the most precious art of alphabetic
writing. The author of the book of Job was familiar with
it. Moses speaks of it constantly in the Pentateuch, and
he acquired his human learning in Egypt, where it was
necessarily well known at that time. The better opinion
seems to be, that although Cadmus, the contemporary of
Joshua, introduced an alphabet into Greece, which was
accepted there, it was only taken in exchange for that
which had been previously in use. Josephus, it is true,
with his usual desire to exalt his own nation and its laws
at the expense of the Gentiles, asserts, without hesitation,
that letters were unknown in Greece even in the time of
Homer, and to Homer himself; and some of the fathers
of the church, who piously but unfairly endeavoured to
degrade the learning of the Greeks, accepted the assertion
as well founded. The startling paradox of the Jew,
whose nationality has been less doubted than his vera¬
city, has been maintained, at different periods, with much
ingenuity: it is capable, however, of an easy refuta¬
tion. The more diligently we inquire, the more ample
and unequivocal shall we find the testimony of history
to be in favour of the antiquity of alphabetic writing,
and also, as reason alone teaches us, that no other ever
existed.
The Egyptian hieroglyphics, the Chinese characters,
and the supposed syllabic alphabets, have been examined,
and they do not afford, as is commonly asserted, any clue
to lead us to the invention of the alphabet. Since we are
unable, either in history or even in imagination, to trace the
origin of the alphabet, we must ascribe it, with the Rab¬
bins, who are prepared with authenticated copies of the
characters they used, and of those of Seth, Enoch, and
Noah, to the first man, Adam ; or we must say with Pliny,
“ ex quo apparet seternus literarum ususor we must
admit that it was not a human, but a divine invention, and
that the artist who made men, Prometheus, says truly,
JLt'ivgov avroig y^a/x/xarav n GuvtktSug. (t. J, h.)
ALPHiEUS, or Cleophas, father of James the Less,
and husband of Mary the sister of our Lord’s mother; for
which reason James is called “ the Lord’s brother.” It
would seem that Alphaeus was his Greek, and Cleophas, or
rather Clopas, his Hebrew, or Syriac name. Compare John
xix. 25, with Luke xxiv. 10, and Matt. x. 3.
ALPHERY, Mikipher, or Nikephor, a clergyman of
the English church, was descended from a branch of the
imperial line of Russia. That country being distracted by
intestine commotions in the latter end of the sixteenth cen¬
tury, he and his two brothers were sent over to England, and
recommended to the care of Mr Joseph Bidell, a Russia mer¬
chant. Mr Bidell, when they were of age fit for the univer¬
sity, sent them to Oxford, where, during the prevalence of
the small pox, two of the brothers died of that disease. The
surviving brother entered into holy orders, and in the year
1618 was presented to the rectory of Wooley in Hunting¬
donshire, a living rated under L.10 in the king’s books. Here
he did his duty with great cheerfulness and alacrity; and
although he was twice invited back to his native country
by some who would have ventured their utmost to have set
him on the throne of his ancestors, he chose rather to re-
vol. n.
main with his flock, and to serve God in the humble station
of a parish priest. Yet in 1643 he underwent the severest
trials from the rage of the fanatics, who, not satisfied with
depriving him of his living, insulted him in the most bar¬
barous manner. Having left Huntingdonshire, he went to
Hammersmith, where he resided till the Restoration put
him in possession of his living again. Being upwards of 80
years of age, and very infirm, he retired to his eldest son’s
house at Hammersmith, where soon after he died, much
honoured and respected, and affording a remarkable instance
of the vicissitudes of the world.
ALPHEUS, the chief river of Peloponnesus, now called
Alfeo, Rofeo, or Ryfo. Its sources are in the mountains of
Arcadia, in the east of Megalopolis. Being fed by a great
number of small streams it becomes navigable, and traver¬
sing Elis, empties itself into the Ionian sea. In mythology,
the Alpheus, or rather the river god of the same name, acts
a very prominent part, especially as the lover of the nymph
Arethusa.
ALPHONSE, two small rocky islands in the Indian
Ocean.
ALPHONSIN, in Surgery, an instrument for extract-
4 l
618
ALP
Alphonso. ing bullets out of gunshot wounds. This instrument de-
rives its name from the inventor, Alphonso herri, a phy¬
sician of Naples. It consists of three branches, which are
closed by a ring. When closed and introduced into the
wound, the operator draws back the ring towards the handle,
upon which the branches opening take hold of the ball;
and then the ring is pushed from the haft, by which means
the branches grasp the ball firmly; and so it is extracted
from the wound.
ALPHONSO, Alfonso, or Alonzo. This name, so
famous in the annals of the Spanish Peninsula, has been
borne by no fewer than two-and-twenty of its sovereigns,
viz., by eleven of Leon and Castile, five of Leon, and six
of Portugal.—(La Coronica General de Espana, by Mo¬
rales ; Catalogo Real y Genealogico de Espana, by Rod.
Mendez Silva ; History of Spain, by Mariana)
1st. Leon and Castile.—Alphonso I., surnamed the Ca¬
tholic, was the son of Pedro, Duke of Biscay, and a lineal
descendant, it is said, of King Recaredo. On the death of
Favila the son of Pelayo, in 739, Alonzo, who had mar¬
ried Ormisinda, the daughter of the latter, was proclaimed
king of Asturias. He conducted in person a war against
the Moors, which lasted almost throughout his reign ; ex¬
tended his territories by the conquest of many important
places; and united to his crown the kingdom of Leon. He
was a prince of an excellent understanding, equally skilled
in the arts of peace and of war, and fortunate in all his un¬
dertakings. He died at Cangas in 757, at the age of 74 ;
and was succeeded by his son Fruela, who founded the city
of Oviedo in Asturias.
Alphonso II., surnamed the Chaste, son of King Fruela
who was assassinated in 768, was but a child at his father’s
death. He was invested with regal authority by King
Silon in 774; on whose demise in 783 he became sole
monarch. He was afterwards dethroned by his uncle Mau-
regatus, assisted by the Moors, and retired into Biscay,
where he had numerous friends. Mauregatus reigned five
years, and was succeeded by Bermudo, who, two years
afterwards, took Alonzo as his partner in the throne. Alonzo
engaged in war against the Moors, and obtained a great
victory over them at Ledas. Bermudo reigned only six
and a half years. Alonzo, taking advantage of the dissen¬
sions among the Moors, captured the city of Lisbon. After
this event, a great rebellion among his subjects obliged
Alonzo to fly into Galicia; but with the assistance of Theu-
dius, he was soon re-instated in his dominions. Charlemagne
was invited into Spain by Alonzo ; and it was in this reign
that the famous battle of Roncesvalles was fought. The
city of Oviedo was greatly adorned by Alonzo, who was the
first sovereign who made it the capital of the kingdom.
Here he died in 843, aged 85, having reigned 52% years.
Some historians have erroneously ascribed his surname of
Chaste to his having refused to concede the tribute of a hun¬
dred virgins to the Moors: but this story is fabulous, that
epithet having been derived from his observing an absolute
continence towards the queen, his wife, in fulfilment of a
vow. He left his throne to Don Ramiro, the son of King
Bermudo.
Alphonso HI., the Great, was 18 years of age on the
death of his father Ordono, in 862. In the first year of
his reign the title of King of Galicia was usurped by
Fruela, son of King Bermudo, and Alonzo retired to Alava,
which was part of his own dominions : but the tyranny of
Fruela soon after occasioned his assassination, and Alonzo
returned to Asturias. Shortly afterwards, his four brothers,
jealous at his elevation, conspired against his life ; but they
were seized, deprived of their eyes, and cast into prison.
Alonzo then commenced those wars against the Moors by
which he acquired the epithet of Great. He built Sublan-
A L P
cia, and Cea, near Leon; also the cities of Porto, Viseo, Alphonso
Chaves, Oca, and Zamora ; besides taking from the Moors
Coimbra, Simancas, Duenas, and all the territory of Campos.
But fresh conspiracies arrested his victorious career. The
malcontents, at the head of whom was his own son Don
Garcia, charged him with overtaxing the people for the sup¬
port of his wars. Alonzo then attacked Don Garcia, and
having vanquished him, cast him into prison. Ximena the
queen, who was of the blood royal of France, espoused the
cause of the insurgents ; and Hernandez earl of Castile,
the father-in-law of Garcia, united with her other two sons
for the deliverance of Don Garcia. The people adopted
their cause, and a war ensued which lasted two years; when
the king, despairing of any other means to restore peace,
abdicated the throne, a.d. 910. But Alonzo could not re¬
linquish the sword with the sceptre. In the true spirit of
the age, he undertook, as the lieutenant of his son, an ex¬
pedition against the Moors, and acquired fresh laurels in this
campaign. In the same year, 911, he died at Zambra, after
a reign of 48 years, and having added to his dominions a
part of Portugal and of Old Castile. He is the reputed
author of Annals of Spain, which embrace that period from
the time of Wamba, towards the end of the seventh century,
to that of Ordono. Alonzo was tall and of a pleasing coun¬
tenance, affable, and gentle, and exceedingly liberal to the
poor.
Alphonso IV., called the Monk, King of Leon, began to
reign in 924. On the death of his wife, about six years
afterwards, he resigned the crown to his brother Don Ra¬
miro, and retired into a cloister: but soon growing weary
of the monastic life, he made an attempt to resume the
sceptre. Upon this, King Ramiro besieged him in Leon ;
and having taken him captive, he put out his eyes, and
threw him into a dungeon, where he ended his days.
Alphonso V. succeeded his father King Bermudo in 999,
being then but five years of age. Gonsalez earl of Galicia,
and his wife, were appointed by the late king to be the
guardians of his minority ; and, on arriving at manhood,
he espoused their daughter Donna Elvira. Alonzo made
war on the Moors, and lost his life at the siege of Viseo,
a.d. 1028. He rebuilt, at his own cost, the city of Leon,
which had been ruined by the Moors. During this reign
the Moorish kingdom was subdivided into several small
principalities. Alonzo was succeeded by his only son, Don
Bermudo.
Alphonso VI., surnamed the Valiant, was the son of Fer¬
nando the Great, king of Castile and Leon. On the death
of his father in 1065, the kingdom was divided among his
three sons. Sancho, the eldest, received as his portion Cas-
tille; to Alonzo was given the kingdom of Leon, the terri¬
tory of Campos, part of Asturias, and some towns in Galicia;
and Garcia, the youngest brother, received a part of Galicia
and of Portugal. Peace was not long maintained between
the three brothers. Sancho made war on Alonzo, and de¬
feated him in a bloody battle at Piantaca. Alonzo recruited
his army, and defeated Sancho on the banks of the river
Carrion ; but an attack being made on his camp during the
night, Alonzo was taken captive, and compelled to abdicate,
a.d. 1071. Escaping from the monastery where he was con¬
fined, he found refuge with Almenon the Moorish king of
Toledo, wholodgedhim in a superb palace, gave him a retinue
of Christians, and assigned him a pension. Sancho took
possession of Leon, and advanced into Galicia against Garcia,
whose kingdom was in an uproar. The two brothers met
at Santarem, where the Galicians were defeated with great
slaughter, and Garcia himself captured and thrown into
prison. Sancho being assassinated in 1073, Alonzo was re¬
instated in his dominions, after he had made a solemn de¬
claration that he was guiltless of his brother s death. This
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Alphonso. solemn oath was administered to him by the famous Roderigo
Diaz de Bivar, commonly called the Cid, whose exploits
have rendered his name illustrious in the annals ot chivalry.
Don Garcia, on receiving his freedom, was making efforts
to re-instate himself on his throne ; when Alonzo, under the
pretext of assisting him, obtained possession of his person,
and immured him in a dungeon, where he died ten years
after. He then turned his arms against the Moors, and com¬
mitted great ravages in their territories, taking much spoil.
No less treacherous than he had proved himself unnatural,
Alonzo, after feigning some scruples of conscience, devas¬
tated the territories of Hiaya Aldirbil king of Toledo, whose
father had befriended him in his adversity ; and, assisted by
many strangers, he invested his capital, which, after a siege
of five years, a.d. 1085, was taken from the Saracens, in
whose possession it had been for about 370 years. Alonzo
prosecuted the war against the Moors, taking many of their
towns; and being sovereign of a great part of Spain, and
king of Aragon, he now assumed the imperial title. This
prince was married six times. His third wife was Zayda,
the daughter of Ben-Abed the Moorish king of Seville.
Alonzo having invited the Almoravides from Africa to assist
his father-in-law in his project of reducing all Mahometan
Spain under his sway, the Almoravide king sent over a
large force under the command of Hali Ben-Axa: but that
chief soon finding occasion of quarrel with the Moorish king,
a battle ensued in which Ben-Abed perished, and Hali took
possession of his kingdom, a.d. 1091. The other Moorish
princes w ere quickly subdued or submitted to him; and
Alonzo had the mortification to see such of them as were
tributary to himself throw off their allegiance, at the same
time that he lost those towns which he had received as the
portion of Zayda. The army he sent to oppose the victorious
Moors was routed near llhoda; and another mighty force
which he gathered for that purpose was defeated at Cacalla
near Badajoz with great slaughter. Many strangers now
flocked to his assistance from all parts, especially from France
under Raymond of Bourgogne and Raymond of 1 oulouse,
upon which the Moors prudently retired without coming to
an engagement.
In the year 1093 appeared Peter the Hermit preaching
the first crusade for the recovery of Jerusalem from the
Saracens. About this time the king married his three
daughters; of whom Teresa, illegitimate, was given to Henry
of Lorraine, with the title of Earl of Portugal, which he held
as a fief of the crown of Castile. This was the origin of the
kingdom of Portugal, which title wTas afterwards assumed,
and continued in the line of this prince above 400 years.
Alonzo died at Toledo in 1109, after a reign of 43 years,
aged seventy-nine. It is worthy of notice, that in 10 / 7, when
Gregory Vil. declared in a bull that Spain had anciently
been tributary to the Holy See, Alonzo consented to pay a
tribute, which was abolished by his successors.
Alphonso VII. The same as Alonzo I. of Aragon.
Alphonso VIII. {Raymond) This prince, born in 1106,
was proclaimed king by the states of Galicia met at Com-
postella; and his mother Uraca, on account of his youth,
was associated with him in the government. The conten¬
tions that arose from this arrangement were only terminated
by the death of Uraca in 1126: after which, Alonzo strove
to repress the internal dissensions of his kingdom, and by
salutary laws to ameliorate the condition of the country. He
then made war on the Moors ; and, elated with success, he
assembled the cortes at Leon, and was solemnly crowned
emperor of Spain. He married Eleanor the daughter of
Henry II. of England, a princess of great personal attrac¬
tions. Her jointure consisted of a part of Castile, Burgos,
Medina del Campo, with many other towns, and half of all
that should be taken from the Moors. Another expedition
which A lonzo undertook against the Moors in Africa, was sig- Alphonso.
nalised by the brilliant victory of Jaen in 1157: but in return-
ing homewards he died, in the fifty-first year of his age,
and 31st of his reign. This prince is distinguished in his¬
tory for his rigid observance of the rights and privileges of
his subjects. His daughter Constance was married to Louis
VII. le Jeune, king of France; which was the first alliance
by marriage between those two crowns. After the example
of his predecessors, Alonzo divided the kingdom between
his two sons. In 1156 he instituted the older of Saint
Julian, which afterwards became so celebrated under the
name of Alcantara. See Alcantara.
Alphonso IX., the Noble, son of Sancho II., was only three
years of age on the death of his father in Ho8. His minor¬
ity was disturbed by the contention of two powerful houses
for the regency : but when he had attained the age ot fifteen
he was proclaimed by the cortes assembled at Burgos, and
commenced his reign by making war on those Christian
kings of Spain who had leagued together to dispossess him
of his heritage. After repulsing them, he turned his arms
against the Moors ; and at Alarcos, in 1195, sustained one
of the most disastrous defeats recorded in the annals of
Spain. This disaster encouraged the kings ot Leon and
Navarre to renew their hostilities. About this time occurred
a tragical event illustrative of the fierce spirit of the age.
A young Jewess, whose beauty had enthralled the king, was
accused as the author of all the public calamities; and the
nobles, undaunted by the presence of their sovereign, plunged
their daggers into her bosom before his eyes. This outrage
aroused Alonzo from inactivity, and he soon repaired the
defeat at Alarcos by the splendid victory of Tolosa. He
died soon after, in 1214. This prince was an encourager of
literature, and founded the university of Palencia, the first
in Christian Spain.
It ought to be observed that the kingdoms of Castile and
Leon were at this time separate: the prince of whom we
shall presently speak reigned over the first; and over the
latter reigned another Alonzo, also the ninth of the name.
He waged war successfully against the Moors, and was the
founder of the celebrated university of Salamanca. He died
in 1230, having reigned 42 years.
Alphonso X., surnamed El Sabio, the Wise or the
Learned, succeeded his father Fernando the Good, king of
Castile, in the year 1252. He obtained the appellation of
wise, not for his political knowledge as a king, but for his
scientific and literary accomplishments. In consequence of
the general opinion of his princely qualities, and his uncom¬
mon generosity, he ascended the throne with universal ap¬
probation. The ill-concerted projects of his ambition, how¬
ever, disturbed the prosperity of his reign. Pretending a
better right than Henry III. of England to the territory of
Gascony, he directed his first attempt towards its acquisition.
The arms of England, however, proved too formidable ; and
he was compelled to renounce his claim, on condition that
Henry’s son, afterwards King Edward I., should marry his
sister Eleonora. At an expense which drained his treasures,
and obliged him to debase his coin, he prepared for an ex¬
pedition against the Moors in Barbary; but his maternal
right to the duchy of Suabia, which he was called to defend,
diverted him from it. Thus he formed a connection with
the German princes, and became a competitor, with Richard
Earl of Cornwall, for the imperial crown, a contest in which
they both expended immense sums of money. The claims
of several of the princes of the blood gave exercise to his
military talents, and he was successful both in opposing and
defeating them. He formed the romantic design of visiting
Italy in the year 1268 ; but the states firmly remonstrating,
he was obliged to relinquish it. But although he abandoned
the design, it produced such discontents among the common
V
620
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Alphonso. people, and conspiracy among the nobles, that it required
considerable exertion before the king could allay the ferment.
Alonzo being still desirous to ascend the imperial throne,
made another attempt after the death of Richard Earl of
Cornwall, and even after Rodolph of Hapsburg was actually
elected emperor of Germany; and for that purpose took a
journey to Beaucaire, to obtain an interview with the pope,
in order to prevent him from confirming the election. The
Moors, ever ready to draw the sword against him, took this
opportunity of entering his dominions for the purpose of
ravaging them. This ambitious journey, undertaken at so
vast an expense, and productive of so much confusion in his
kingdom, proved unsuccessful; for the pope would not
realise his claim, or alter the former election. But his ex¬
cessive ambition was soon punished by domestic calamity;
for his eldest son died in this interval, and his second son
Don Sanchez, having obtained great reputation in opposing
the infidels, to the prejudice of his brother’s children, laid
claim to the crown. This claim was admitted by the states
of the kingdom ; but Philip king of France, supporting the
cause of the children, whose mother was his sister Blanche
of France, involved Alonzo in a war; which occasioned the
retreat of his own queen Yolande or Violante to the court
of her father, the king of Aragon. While thus harassed
with dissensions, he proclaimed war against France, and
by the authority of the pope renewed the war with the
Moors, which proved so unfortunate, that he reluctantly con¬
cluded a truce with them, and engaged in a contest with the
king of Granada.
These various measures exhausted his treasure ; taxes
were multiplied, and the affairs of the kingdom were in such
confusion, that he was under the disagreeable necessity of
calling an assembly of the states, which was held at Seville
in the year 1281, where, on the king’s proposal, the states
consented to give a currency to copper money. In conse¬
quence of the intrigues of Don Sanchez his son, another
assembly of the states was held at Valladolid, a. d. 1282,
which deprived Alonzo of the regal dignity, and appointed
Sanchez regent. Reduced to almost insurmountable diffi¬
culties, Alonzo solemnly cursed and disinherited his son,
and by his last will, in the year 1283, confirmed the act of
exclusion, and appointed for the succession the infants de la
Cerda, and, upon the failure of their heirs, the kings of
France; and at the same time supplicated the assistance of
the king of Marocco against the power of his son. At the
commencement of the next year, when Alonzo received
information from Salamanca that Sanchez was dangerously
ill, his heart relented. He pardoned his son, revoked his
curses, and then died, on the 4th of April 1284, in the
eighty-first year of his age. His remains were interred in
the cathedral of Seville; and he left behind him the charac¬
ter of a learned man, but a weak king. Alonzo has been
charged with irreligion and impiety, chiefly on account of a
well-known but differently interpreted saying of his, that
“ ^ he had been of God’s privy council when he created the
world, he could have advised him better.”
To this prince science is indebted for the set of astrono¬
mical observations known as the Alphonsine Tables, which
were drawn up under his auspices by certain Jews of Toledo.
In the palace of Segovia a chamber is still shown as the
observatory of Alonzo. He was also distinguished as a poet
and a legislator. In the Escurial is preserved a curious
manuscript containing some hymns of his composition ; and
he was the principal compiler of that code of laws which is
still extant under the title of Las Siete Partidas.
Alphonso XL, the Avenger. This prince was an infant
when he succeeded his father Ferdinand IV. in 1312. Dur¬
ing his long minority the kingdom was cruelly distracted
by intestine warfare. Assuming the reins of government in
his fifteenth year, he strove to repress the turbulent spirit of Alphonso.
the nobility, and to put down that system of brigandage to ^
which it had given rise. His inflexible severity towards all
such offenders procured for him the title of the Avenger. As
commander of the allied armies of Catholic Spain, on the 29th
Oct. 1340 he gained a complete victory over the kings of
Marocco and Granada, who had besieged Tarifa. The slaugh¬
ter was immense, and the booty so rich that the value of gold
is said to have fallen one sixteenth. In 1342 Alonzo laid
siege to Algeziras, where cannons were employed for the
first time in Europe by the Moors in defence of their walls.
This siege had lasted two years, when the Moors capitulated
on condition of a truce between the two nations for ten
years: but the king of Castile broke his word a few years
after by besieging Gibraltar, where he died of the plague on
the 26th March 1350, aged 40. He was the father of Pedro
the Cruel, who succeeded him. From this reign dates the
institution of regidors or jurats, to whom was committed
the administration of the communes; and these regidors
became the exclusive electors of the cortes, in which the
people ceased to have a voice.
2d. Aragon.—Alphonso I., surnamed the Fighter, king
of Navarre and Aragon, was the second son of Don Sancho
Ramirez, and succeeded his brother Pedro I. in 1104. At
that period Aragon was exhausted by the interminable
wars which its successive sovereigns had waged against the
Moors. The power of the Almoravides, which the exertions
of the Cid were unable to check, menaced all Christian
Spain; and the only prince that still was able to oppose
them was the aged Alonzo VI., king of Leon. It was in this
juncture of affairs that Alonzo I. by many years of peace
had gathered strength to pursue that headlong career which
afterwards caused him to be surnamed the Fighter. Very
shortly after his marriage with Uraca the daughter of Alonzo
VI. of Leon, some misunderstanding alienated his affections
from that princess. The haughty Castilian nobles, indignant
at her treatment, rescued her from the fortress where she
was confined, and bore her away in triumph. In the mean¬
time Alonzo was occupied with his schemes of aggrandize¬
ment. The capture of Tudela from the Arabs was the pre¬
lude to his invasion of the kingdom of Saragoza in 1110.
In dissolving his marriage with Uraca, he attempted to re¬
tain the greater part of her dowry; but she had a powerful
friend in her brother-in-law Henry Count of Portugal, whose
army already menaced Navarre. This obliged him eventu¬
ally to renounce all pretensions to the states of Leon and
Castile, and to recognise, as king of Galicia, Alonzo Ray¬
mond the son of Uraca, a.d. 1113. His marriage was dis¬
solved by a council of Castilian bishops, and their decision
was ratified by the pope. At this period commenced the
struggle between the Aragonese and Almoravides. The
army of the governor of Granada was cut to pieces near
Saragoza, and Alonzo obtained another victory over a large
army sent by Ali of Marocco under the command of his
ablest generals to avenge Ben Mezdeli. In this short cam¬
paign Alonzo displayed extraordinary ability. No longer
concealing his designs upon Saragoza, he obliged Amad Dola
to surrender that city, from which point he commenced his at¬
tempts to subdue the kingdom (a.d. 1118). This hard-earned
acquisition was the means of involving him in interminable
troubles. In 1120 his territories were menaced by a large
force sent against him by Ali; but engaging the enemy
near Daroca, he left 20,000 Almoravides dead on the field.
This victory placed Daroca and Calatayud in his power.
Three years afrerwards, while the king of Marocco was frilly
occupied at home by the rise of a dangerous sect of Almo¬
ravides (see Abdul-Mumenand Almohades), Alonzo seized
the opportunity to invade the territory of Valencia. The bril¬
liant victory he obtained at Alcaraz seemed to open up the
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621
Alphonso. way for the conquest of all eastern Spain. In 1125 he un-
dertook a new expedition against Granada. The spoil taken
from the Andalucians was dearly bought by the Christians ;
but it was not upon Alonzo that the Moors made their re¬
prisals. They invaded Estremadura, and defeated the Cas¬
tilians near Badajoz. The king of Aragon, so far from ren¬
dering his neighbours any assistance, determined to take
advantage of the critical position of Alonzo Raymond, as
well as of the troubles which the death of Uraca had occa¬
sioned in several parts of his dominions. But, when on the
point of battle with the king of Leon upon his own territory,
Alonzo agreed to an accommodation, and resolved to turn
his arms in another direction. He imagined the time was
arrived for achieving with ease the conquest of Saragoza.
Two cities, Mequinenza and Fraga, still held out. He re¬
duced the first, and put the garrison to the sword on account
of their devotion to the Almoravides. He then laid siege to
Fraga; where, during a sally from the town, he received a
mortal wound. Alonzo had been victorious in 29 battles,
and his arms had never received a check until this day,
when he beheld, whilst dying, the utter destruction of his
followers. The camp of the Christians with its rich spoils
indemnified the Moors for the losses they had sustained at
his hand. His ancient rival, Alonzo Raymond, hastened
to avenge his defeat, and to succour the remnant of his
army.
Alphonso II.began to reign in 1162, and was almost con¬
stantly at war with Raymond V. Count of Toulouse. He
was a patron of the troubadours, and wrote some poems in
the Provencal language. He died in 1196.
Alphonso III. ascended the throne in 1285. His short
reign was remarkable for the establishment of the most
liberal political constitution of that age, the justiza being
invested with the right of citing the king himself to appear
before the cortes, and with the power of deposing him if he
infringed the privileges of the subject. Alonzo vainly en¬
deavoured to avoid taking the oaths of adherence to the
articles to which his predecessors had subscribed, by absent¬
ing himself from the solemn ceremony of ceronation ; but
the nobles obliged him to appear according to custom. Un¬
der this reign also were united the cortes of Valencia, Ca¬
talonia, and Aragon, which each sovereign on his elevation
engaged by oath never to disunite. Alonzo died in 1291,
aged 26.
Alphonso IV. ascended the throne in 1327. Almost the
whole of his reign, which lasted ten years, was occupied in
war with the Genoese.
Alphonso V., the Magnanimous, commenced his reign
in 1416. He was the son of Fernando the Just, of Castile,
whom the Aragonese had chosen for their king. Alonzo
was one of the greatest princes of the fifteenth century.
The first act of his reign was to destroy a list containing the
names of those who had conspired against him. But the
free nature of the constitution, which was almost republican,
imposed restraints little in accordance with Alonzo’s ardent
aspirations after fame, and he resolved to seek a wider
sphere of action. Accordingly he left his kingdom, and
during a reign of forty-three years scarcely revisited it, un¬
less momentarily, or when urgent affairs demanded his pre¬
sence. The shores of the Mediterranean were to be wit¬
nesses of his exploits, where the possession of the Balearic
Isles, Sardinia and Sicily, gave him dominion. His first
expedition was directed against Corsica, then in possession
of the Genoese. Thence sailing to Naples, he offered to
make John II. his heir if he would assist him against Louis
of Anjou. Being recalled to Spain by an attack made by
the Castilians upon his hereditary states, he left his brother
Don Pedro at Naples ; and coasting the Adriatic, he sud¬
denly descended on Provence, and captured Marseilles, which
pertained to the Duke of Anjou, his competitor for the king- Alphonso.
dom of the two Sicilies. Alonzo, ever generous in war, pre-
served the city from pillage; and refusing a present that
was offered him in acknowledgment of his forbearance, con¬
tented himself with carrying away the body of a canonized
bishop. After restoring peace at home, he directed his
arms anew against Naples, where his cause appeared to be
compromised. In 1435, Queen Joanna being dead, he be¬
sieged Gaeta; but when he had reduced that place, Philippo
Maria Visconti, Duke of Milan, appeared with a fleet be¬
fore the town, and after a bloody engagement, took Alonzo
prisoner, with a great number of his followers. The high
character which Alonzo bore induced the conqueror to treat
him honourably: he made him his ally, and without ransom
restored him to liberty, with all his suite. Immediately on
recovering his freedom, Alonzo made his third attempt on
the kingdom of Naples. After an obstinate resistance the
city was taken by assault, in 1442, and Alonzo entered it in
triumph. The states were convoked, and he was solemnly
proclaimed; his elevation being sanctioned by Pope Eu-
genius IV., who had promised to Rene that honour. Alonzo
fixed his residence at Naples, where he died on the 27th June
1458, at the age of sixty-four, while preparing for a new
war against several of the Italian princes. Possessed of
many noble qualities, he united humanity with valour; but
his amorous disposition sometimes inclined him to abuse his
authority. He was a lover and patron of literature, and de¬
lighted in Caesar’s Commentaries, a copy of which he always
carried about with him. His secretary, Antonio de Paler¬
mo, has left a life of this prince.
3d. Portugal.—Alphonso I., Enriquez, son of Henri
of Bourgogne, Count of Portugal, and Teresa of Castile, was
born in 1094. The Count Henry dying when Alonzo was
but three years old, he was placed under the tutelage of his
mother; and when he came to age, he was obliged to wrest
from her by force that power which her vices and incapa¬
city had rendered disastrous to the state. Being proclaimed
Count of Portugal in 1128, he defeated a body of troops
which his mother had armed against him, and made her his
prisoner. He also vanquished the Castilians who came to
support his enemies, and freed Portugal from dependence
on the crown of Leon. Then turning his arms against the
Moors, on the 26th July 1139 he obtained the famous vic¬
tory of Ourique, which gave him a crown. Not satisfied,
however, with being proclaimed king by his army on the
field of battle, he assembled the cortes of the kingdom in
1145 at Lamego, where he received the crown from the
hands of the archbishop of Braganza. Holding a naked
sword in his hand, he said—“ I have delivered you with this
sword from the power of the Moors : I have conquered your
enemies: you have made me your king. Let us at once
establish laws for maintaining order, justice, and peace, in
this realm.” The constitution of the kingdom was accord¬
ingly voted by the deputies, and the freedom of Portugal
was proclaimed as follows:—“ You are asked if you wish
that the king should pay tribute to Castile, and appear be¬
fore the states of this kingdom as a vassal.” Upon which
a shout was raised,—■“ We are free, and our king shall be
free also.” Such was the result of the famous assembly at
Lamego, and the foundation of the Portuguese monarchy.
Alonzo continued to signalise himself by his exploits against
the Moors, from whom he wrested Lisbon in 1147, after a
siege in which both parties displayed the most heroic valour.
He next engaged in the war that had broken out among the
kings of Spain. Being disabled during an engagement by
a fall from his horse which fractured his leg, he was made
prisoner by the soldiers of the king of Leon, who obliged
him to give up as his ransom almost all the conquests he
had made in Galicia. Alonzo was then eighty years old;
622 A L P
Alphonso. but he had still sufficient energy to relieve his son Sancho
who was besieged in Santarem by the Moors. This was his
1 ast exploit. He died in 1185, at the age of ninety-one,
having reigned seventy-three years. Alonzo was of gigan¬
tic stature, even seven feet in height according to some
authors. His victories and his laws, his Christian life and
chivalry, as well as the numerous religious houses he esta¬
blished, are claims on the admiration and the gratitude of
the Portuguese, among whom, accordingly, he has long been
regarded as a saint.
Alphonso II., the Fat, born in 1185, succeeded his father,
Sancho I., in 1211. He endeavoured to repress the ambi¬
tion of the clergy, and to apply a portion of their enormous
revenues to purposes of national utility. Having been ex¬
communicated by the pope, he was anxiously negotiating
for absolution when death overtook him in 1223, in the
39th year of his age, and 12th of his reign. He framed a
code of laws in which it was enacted that capital punish¬
ment should not be inflicted until the expiry of twenty days
after condemnation.
Alphonso III., son of the preceding, succeeded his bro¬
ther Sancho II. in 1248. He, like his father, was fre¬
quently embroiled with the ecclesiastics. He died in 1279.
Alphonso IV., in 1325 succeeded his father Dionisio the
Liberal, whose death he had hastened by his intrigues and
rebellions; and his persecution of Alonzo Sancho proved
him to be no less unnatural as a brother. To an immode¬
rate love of the chase he sacrificed his duties as a king ; and
on one occasion, while expatiating on his favourite sport be¬
fore the council, he was plainly told by the indignant minis¬
ters of the wrong he was inflicting on the nation, and that,
if he did not amend his life, they would depose him. Alon¬
zo was filled with rage; but suddenly recovering himself,
he confessed that their announcement had opened his eyes,
and that in future they should find him a very different
king. Hostilities with the Castilians and with the Moors
occupied many years of his reign: but one bloody act, of
which the mass of Camoens has perpetuated the memory,
has fixed an indelible stain on his character. The murder
of Inez de Castro, who was secretly espoused to his son
Don Pedro, recals the sad history of that young prince, and
the troubles in which it involved the kingdom. Alonzo
was scarcely reconciled to Don Pedro when he died, in the
77th year of his age, a.d. 1376.
Alphonso V., Africano, king of Portugal, was the son of
Duarte I., whom he succeeded in 1438, being then but six
years old. In 1471 he landed in Africa with a fleet of
300 sail and 30,000 men, and there acquired by his con¬
quests the title of Africano. During this expedition he
heard of an ancient tradition that, at Fez, was jealously pre¬
served a sword which should become the spoil of a Christian
prince ; and supposing that its accomplishment was reserved
for himself, he instituted the chivalrous order of The Sword.
In returning to Portugal in 1475, his ambition led him into
Castile, where two princesses were disputing the succession
to Henry IV. Supported by a powerful party, Alonzo
caused himself to be proclaimed king of Castile and Leon.
Being defeated at Toro by Ferdinand of Aragon, the hus¬
band of Isabella of Castile, he applied for assistance to
Louis XI. of France; but finding himself deceived by
Louis, he became disgusted with the regal state, and for¬
warded his abdication to his son. A few days after he ap¬
peared in Portugal, and was constrained by his son, Juan
II., to resume the sceptre, which he continued to wield for
two years longer; after which he fell into a deep melan¬
choly, and retired into a monastery at Cintra, where he died
of the plague in 1481, aged 49. He was a brave prince,
and ruled equitably; and he was the first king of Portugal
who possessed a private library.
a L p
Alphonso VI. was the son of that Duke of Braganza who Alphonso
succeeded to the crown as the representative of the ancient II
dynasty of Portugal. He succeeded his father in 1656; Alpini.
and in 1667 was compelled to abdicate the throne, of which
his vices had rendered him unworthy.
ALPHONSUS a Sancta Maria, or Alfonso de Carta¬
gena, a celebrated Spanish historian, was born in 1396, and
died in 1496. He succeeded his father as Bishop of Burgos.
He was the author of several works, the principal of which
is a History of Spain from the earliest times down to the
year 1496, printed at Granada in 1545, fol.
ALPINI, Prospero, in Latin Prosper Alpines, a
celebrated physician and botanist, was born at Marostica, in
the republic of Venice, in November 1553. In his early
years his inclination led him to the profession of arms, and
he served some time in the Milanese. By the encourage¬
ment and persuasion of his father, who was a physician, he
retired from the army, and devoted his attention to litera¬
ture. To prosecute his studies with more advantage, he
went to the university of Padua, where he was soon after
elected deputy to the rector, and syndic to the students.
He continued his medical studies with zeal and success;
and after having acquired the necessary qualifications, he
was admitted to the degree of doctor of physic in 1578.
Soon after this he left the university, and settled as a phy¬
sician in Campo San Pietro, a small town in the Paduan
territory, at the invitation of its citizens.
In the course of his studies he had paid particular atten¬
tion to plants, and had become an enthusiast in botanical
science; but the sphere of his present practice was too
limited to afford him much opportunity of prosecuting his
favourite study. He wished particularly to extend his
knowledge of exotic plants; and considered that the only
means of attaining this was to study their economy and
habits in their native soil. To gratify this laudable curio¬
sity an opportunity soon presented itself. George Emo,
the consul for the Venetian republic in Egypt, appointed
Alpini his physician. They sailed from Venice in Septem¬
ber 1580, and, after experiencing a tedious and dangerous
voyage, arrived at Grand Cairo in the following year. Al¬
pini spent three years in Egypt, and, by his industry and
assiduity, greatly improved his botanical knowledge, having
travelled along the banks of the Nile, visited every place,
and consulted every person from whom he expected any
new information. From a practice in the management of
date-trees, which he observed in this country, Alpini seems
to have deduced the doctrine of the sexual difference of
plants, which was adopted as the foundation of the celebrated
system of Linnaeus. He says, that “ the female date-trees,
or palms, do not bear fruit unless the branches of the male
and female plants are mixed together; or, as is generally
done, unless the dust found in the male sheath, or male
flowers, is sprinkled over the female flowers.”
When Alpini returned to Venice in 1586, he was ap¬
pointed physician to Andrea Doria, prince of Melfi; and
during his residence at Genoa, he was esteemed the first
physician of his age. The Venetians were unwilling that
the Genoese state should number among its citizens a per¬
son of such distinguished merit and reputation ; and in the
year 1593 he was recalled to fill the botanical chair in the
university of Padua, with a salary of 200 florins, which was
afterwards augmented to 750. He discharged the duties
of his professorship for many years with great reputation,
till his declining health interrupted his labours. He died in
1617, in the 64th year of his age, and was succeeded as bo¬
tanical professor by one of his sons. Alpini wrote the fol¬
lowing works in Latin:—1. De Medicina jEgyptiorum libri
iv. Venice, 1591, 4to ; 2. De Plantis ^Egypti liber, Venice,
1592, 4to; 3. De Balsamo Dialogus, Venice, 1592. 4to;
ALP
Alpiste 4. De Praesagienda Vita et Morte ^Egrotantium libri vii.
|| Venice, 1601, 4to; 5. De Medicina Methodica libri xiii.
Alps- Padua, 1611, folio ; 6. De Rhapontico Disputatio, Padua,
1612, 4to. Of all these works there have been various
editions given to the world; and, besides these, two post¬
humous treatises were published by his son : 1. De Plantis
Exoticis libri ii. Venice, 1627, 4to; 2. Historic Naturalis
Egypti libri iv. Lugd. Bat. 1635, 4to. Several other works
of Alpini remain in manuscript.
ALPISTE, or Alpia, a sort of seed used to feed birds
with, especially when they are to be nourished for breed¬
ing. The alpiste seed is of an oval figure, of a pale yel¬
low, inclining to an isabel colour, bright and glossy. It
is an article of the corn-chandlers and seedmen’s trade.
ALPS. On taking a general view of the continent of
Europe, we can distinguish two great mountain masses,
from which proceed the various chains of mountain
groups that characterize it. The first of these is the
mountain mass of St Gothard, in Switzerland, between
the sources of the Rhine, the Rhone, the Etch, and
the Aar: the second is the Wolchonsky-wald, in Rus¬
sia, between the Wolga and the sources of the Don,
Dnieper, and Dwina.
The mountains connected with St Gothard are the
Alps, which in their full extent reach from long. 4° 20'
to 19° E. from Paris, and from lat. 44° to 47° N. The
central point of the Alps is in Switzerland, the numerous
branches of it extending through Savoy, France, Italy,
Germany, Croatia, and Sclavonia. They are bounded on
the south-west by the Rhone, in southern France ; on the
north-east by the Danube, in Hungary; on the south
and south-east by the Mediterranean Sea, and the rivers
Kulpa and Sau; on the north and north-west by the Da¬
nube, in Germany ; by the Rhine on the northern boundary
of Switzerland; and by the Doubs in the Jura. Hence it
appears that this great high land passes through France,
Savoy, Switzerland, Italy, Germany, Croatia, and Sclavo¬
nia. The southern part of the chain in Croatia, in long.
35°, does not reach its extremity, but continues onwards
to the left bank of the Sau and Danube, fully ten de¬
grees of longitude farther.
Origin of In the Celtic language, the word alb, alp according to
the name, some authors, signifies white. As the highest peaks of
this Alpine land are perpetually covered with snow, they
were by the ancient inhabitants named Alps ; by the
Greeks AAcrs/f, who, however, knew only the Maritime Alps;
by the Romans Alpes, and by modern writers Alps.1
History. The Romans, although they knew well that the Gauls
under Bellovesus (620 years before Christ) made an
irruption into Upper Italy across the Alps, were entirely
ignorant of the route he followed. It was not until
Hannibal had crossed the Alps (300 years after Bello¬
vesus) that the Romans thought of examining this grand
barrier. Polybius described the Alpine country tra¬
versed by the military host under Hannibal, fifty years
after that remarkable event; and Cincius Alimentus heard
Hannibal himself detail his passage of the Alps. Livy,
and other writers, both Latin and Greek, also speak
of the Alps. Fifty-two years after Hannibal s irruption
into Italy (in the year of Rome 587, before Christ 178),
the Romans, under the consuls Claudius and Marcellus,
conquered the Cisalpine Gauls, who inhabited the coun¬
try between the Po and the Alps; and seven years after¬
wards, under Fulvius Nobilis, they for the first time
crossed the Alps to Nice and Antibes, in order to aid the
Marsilians against the Ligurians. For one hundred and
ALP 623
fifty years from this period, the Romans frequently tra- Alps,
versed this chain, partly with the view of subjugating the
various tribes inhabiting it, and partly in extending their
conquests into Spain, Gaul, and Germany After the
death of Caesar, the whole Alpine population threw off
the Roman yoke. The emperor Augustus sent against
them (in the year of Rome 747, before Christ 18) his le¬
gions, under Drusus, Tiberius, Terentius Varro, and Lu¬
cius Silus. This long-continued warfare terminated m
the conquest of forty-six Alpine tribes or nations, whose
names were inscribed on the celebrated triumphal arch of
Augustus, erected near Nice. From this period until the
fifth century after Christ, the Romans continued in com¬
plete possession of the north and south sides of the Alps.
During the long domination of the Romans, the Alps
received the following names, which are still retained, by
geographers, viz. Maritime, Cottian, Grecian, Pennine,
Leopontine, Rhaetian, Noric, Carnic, Julian, and Dinarian.
DIVISIONS OF THE ALPS.
1. Maritime Alps (Alpes Maritimae).—These extend Divisions
from the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, between Onegha 01 the A1l)a-
and Toulon, across the Cols Ardente and Tende, to Mont
Viso (Vesulus), separating Piedmont from Provence and
the Mediterranean Sea.
2. Cottian Alps (Alpes Cottiae) extend from Mont
Viso by Mont Genevre to Mont Cenis, a distance of
twenty-five leagues, thus separating Piedmont from Dau-
phiny. It is in this range that we first meet with heights
analogous to those of the central chains of the Alps.
The Po and the Durance rivers have their sources here.
The name is derived from Cottius, who, in the time of
Caesar and Augustus, had his chief place of residence
at Seguvium, the present Susa, and ruled as king or chief
of this part of the Alps.
3. Graian or Grey Alps (Alpes Graiae) extend from
Mont Cenis, across the Iseran and the Little St Ber¬
nard, to the Col de Bonhomme, separating Piedmont
from Savoy. They were named Grey Alps from their
grey colour, owing to the partial cover of snow. The
Little St Bernard is considered as the Alpis Graia of the
ancients.
4. Pennine Alps (Alpes Penninae), also named by
Caesar Alpes Summae, extend from the Bonhomme across
Mont Blanc, the Great St Bernard, Combon, onwards
to Mont Cervin and Mont Rosa, separating Piedmont
from Savoy and the Lower Vallais. The Celts named
every high mountain a Ben or Penn; hence the loftiest
summits and the most exalted of their deities were named
Penn. In the time of the Romans, in one of the valleys,
a temple was built, and a statue erected in it, to one of
their gods, named Penn, by the Romans Deus Pen-
ninus, and afterwards Jupiter Penninus. Hence these
Alps were named Alpes Penninae. In this part of the
great Alpine range there occur Mont Blanc, the highest
mountain in Europe, and Mont Rosa, the next in elevation
to that monarch of European mountains.
5. Lepontine Alps, also named Alps of Switzerland, or
Aulae. They extend from Mont Rosa on both sides of
the Rhone, or valley of the Vallais, across St Gothard,
the Moschelhorn, and Bernardino in the Grisons, thus
separating Lombardy from Switzerland. The distance
from St Gothard to Bernardino is 15 leagues. They
were named Lepontine after a people, the Lepontii, who
formerly inhabited the confines of Rhaetia, Helvetia, and
Italy.
1 Some authors derive Alp from db, a verdant height.
X
624
A L
Alps. 6. Rhcetian Alps (Alpes Rhaeticse) extend from Ber-
' nardino through the whole of the Grisons and the Tyrol,
to the Dreiherrn peak, on the borders of fealtzburg and
Carinthia, and more southerly to Mont Pelegrino; thus
separating Lombardy and a great part of the Venetian
terra firma from Northern Rhsetia and Germany.
7. Noric Alps (Alpes Noricae) extend from the Drei¬
herrn peak through the whole of Carinthia, on the left
bank of the Drau, through Saltzburg, Austiia, and Styria,
to the Oedenburg plain in Hungary. They have their
name from the Roman town Noricum.
8. Carnic Alps (Alpes Carniae) extend from Pelegri¬
no, between the rivers Drau and 8au, to Terglou, at the
source of the Sau.
9. Julian Alps (Alpes Juliae) extend from Terglou,
between the right bank of the Sau, the Kulpa, and the
Adriatic Sea, to the rock Kleck, near Zenk in Dalmatia;
thus separating the Friaul from Idria, and in general the
whole of Upper Italy from Carinthia, Carniola, Croatia,
and Servia. The present Civita di Friuli occupies the
site where formerly stood the Forum Julii, which gave
name to this division of the Alps.
10. Dinarian Alps, so named from Mount Dinaria, which
has an elevation of 6046 feet, extend from Kleck to Sophia,
ranging along the right bank of the Sau and Danube, and
join the Hsemus or Balkan, on the Black Sea.
Direction The general direction of the Alps, excluding the Ma-
of the Alps. ritime Alps, which range nearly from south to north, is
Direction from west-south-west to east-north-east. The most con-
of valleys, siderable valleys, those named longitudinal, run parallel
with the direction of the chain; and others, named trans¬
verse, run from south and south-east to north and north¬
west, or from north and north-west to south and south¬
east.
Great ac- The great crest of the Alps, the watershed (divortia
clivities of aquarum) of this vast high land has declining from it two
the Alps. acciivitieSj one towards the north, the other towards the
south. The north acclivity declines towards the ocean,
the North Sea, and the Baltic; the south acclivity towards
the Mediterranean and Adriatic Seas. The northern
acclivity has a gentle inclination, and is much more ex¬
tensive than the southern, which is comparatively abrupt
and steep. From the nature of these two acclivities or
inclined plains, we naturally expect to find the principal
and most numerous secondary chains on the northern, and
this is actually the case. Mont St Gothard, in some de¬
gree the central point of the whole chain, is distant in a
straight line from the Mediterranean about 52 leagues,
from the Adriatic 75 leagues, from the ocean 175 leagues,
from the North Sea 168 leagues, from the Baltic 185
leagues.
Heights of heights of the more remarkable mountains
mountains. in the alps.
I. Maritime Alps.
English Feet.
1. Col de Tende  5,818
2. MontVenteux  7,235
II. Cottian Alps.
3. Mont Viso  13,828 Zach.
4. Mont Genevre  11,788
5. Mont Cenis  11,460
P s.
III. Graian Alps.
English Feet. '
6. Mont Iseran  13,278 Welden.
7. Summit of the Little St Bernard.... 9,594
8. Col de Bonhomme  8,027
IV. Pennine Alps.
9. Mont Blanc  15,781
Alps.
Mont Blanc is the highest mountain in Europe. The
Elbruz in the Caucasus, which is 16,411 feet, cannot be
reckoned a European mountain. Notwithstanding its vast
height, Mont Blanc is much inferior in elevation to some
mountains in the New World and in Asia; for, according
to late measurements, there are in Upper Peru mountains
25,250 feet above the sea; and in the Himalaya ridge
summits soaring to a height of 26,000 feet.
10. Great St Bernard  11,011
11. Mont Cervin  14,784
12. Mont Rosa  15,540 Welden.
Mont Rosa is the next in elevation to Mont Blanc, and
therefore the second highest mountain in Europe. By
some it is stated to be even higher than Mont Blanc, but
we do not know the authority for this statement.
13. Col de Geant  11,275
14. L’Alle Blanche  14,775
15. Breithorn  12,800
V. Lepontine Alps—Group of St Gothard.
16. Petchiroa (one of the summits)  10,529 Welden.
17. Fienda, another summit  10,180
18. Furca  14,040
19. Piz Pisoc  12,792
20. Pettina  9,153
21. Finsteraarhorn..  14,116
22. Schreckhorn  13,397
23. Jungfrau or Virgin  13,720
24. Diablerets  10,732
25. The SimplonI. 2 3 4 5 1  6,590
26. Ruffi or Rossberg  5,154
27. Rigi  6,050
VI. Rhcetian Alps— Great Rhcetian Chain.
Grisons and Tyrol.
28. Muschel Horn  10,948
29. Bemhardino  10,187
30. Orteles  12,859 Welden.
31. Greiner  9,380
32. Brenner    6,463
Northern Rhcetian Chain.
Chain between Tyrol and Bavaria.
33. Watzmann  9,655
34. Breithorn  7,772
VII. Noric Alps.
35. The Great Glockner  13,713
36. Hohenwart  11,076
37. Hahe-varr  11,334
VIII. Carnic and Julian Alps.
38. Kleck  6,692
39. Terglou  9,096
1 There is a great road over the Simplon. It was improved hy the Emperor Napoleon at an expense of nine millions of francs. It
runs along the Savoy side of the lake of Geneva, and connects the ridge of the Jura with the Alps. At St Maurice it falls in with the
road that traverses the Swiss margin of the lake, passes up the Vallais beyond Sion, and conducts the traveller to the lake Maggiore and
Milan. See Simplon.
Alps.
Snow line.
Glaciers.
ALPS.
625
Heights of Passes across the Alps.
English Feet.
1. Pass of Mont Cenis  6,773
2. Pass of the Little St Bernard   7,194
3. Pass of the Great St Bernard  7,966
4. Pass of the Cervin  10,100
5. Pass of St Gothard  6,800
6. Pass of Gemmi  7,378
7. Pass of Airolo  7,192
8. Pass of the Splugen  6,310
9. Pass of Mont Julien  7,280
Heights of Lakes in the Alps.
1. Lake of Mont Cenis  6,280
2. Lake of the Dead, on the Grimsel  7,067
3. Lake Refen, in the Tyrol  6,151
4. Lake Zegern, Tyrol  2,480
5. Lake Lugano  936
6. Lake Como  636
7. Lake of Geneva  1,207
8. Lake of Neufchatel  1,370
Heights of Sources of Rivers in the Alps.
1. Sources of the Rhone  5,748
2. Sources of the Reuss  7,088
3. Sources of the Tagliamento  4,412
Elevated Habitations in the Alps.
Priory of Chamouni  3,354
Convent of St Gothard  6,796
Hospital of the Grand St Bernard (high¬
est habitation in Europe)  7,966
Hospital of the Grimsel  6,003
The cold of the atmosphere continually increases with
the elevation; and at a certain height, depending on cli¬
mate or latitude, perpetual frost prevails. Where the earth’s
surface attains this height, it is, with the exception of mural
precipices, continually covered with snow. The snow in¬
creases from season to season; for though it may melt
slowly from the heat of the ground on which it rests, yet
it suffers little loss externally in the way of melting, except
what the air carries off by evaporation. If in the neigh¬
bourhood of Edinburgh we had mountains 6000 feet High,
their summits would be always covered with snow, and con¬
sequently we should here have perpetual snow within a
few hours’ walk. But in Great Britain none of the moun¬
tains reach to the snow line of the latitude,—an arrange¬
ment very different from what prevails in the Alps, where
whole ranges are covered with eternal snow. When moun¬
tains are covered with perpetual snow, its lower limit, or
the snow line, descends in winter and rises again in sum¬
mer ; so that in the Alps in winter the snow line reaches
the low country, while in summer it ascends, and in the
autumn, when the heat is greatest, it attains its maximum
of height.
The lower edge of the snow line differs much from that
Above it, and might more properly be called the ice line;
because the snow, owing to the influence of rain, the heat
of the sun, and the heat of the earth, is there partially
melted every summer, and frozen again in the winter,
forming an icy boundary. This ice is named glacier ice, or
simply glacier. Above this zone, the region of the glaciers,
the snow is seldom moistened by rain or softened by the
rays of the sun. These glaciers or vast accumulations of
ice have received particular names in different parts of the
Alps. Those in Dauphiny and Savoy are named glacier;
in Switzerland, gletcher; in the Grisons, wader; in the Tyrol,
ferner; in Salzburg and Carinthia, kas; and by the Italians
VOL. II.
who inhabit the Alps, vedretto. They fill all the upper, Alps,
and principally the transverse valleys, from Dauphiny to
the frontier of Salzburg; few of them are less than three
miles, many 18 or 20 miles in length, from one to two miles
broad, and from 100 to 600 feet thick. They frequently
run into each other, and thus surround the peaks on all
sides, in such a manner that they appear rising like islands
through a sea of ice. Where the glaciers are largest, they
send down great arms or branches into the cultivated country,
and into the fruitful valleys, 3000 feet above the sea. The
chain of Mont Blanc affords a striking example of these de¬
scending arms; for there are twenty-five glaciers, descend¬
ing from it into the valleys of Chamouni, Entreves, and
Bionnay. The glaciers are frequently traversed by rents,
often of great width and depth ; so that when hid by a thin
covering of snow or ice they become extremely dangerous
to travellers. It is therefore proper to have experienced
guides when visiting the dreary and desolate scenes where
they occur. The unfortunate Mr Escher, mentioned by
M. de Luc, was cautioned by his guide not to separate
from his companions when they arrived at the glacier.
Hurried on, however, by that indescribable sensation which
people sometimes experience when they reach lofty sum¬
mits, and observing at the top of the glacier, a little distance
before him, two chamois hunters, who were resting them¬
selves, he hastened to join them; but he disappeared in
a moment, and was precipitated to the bottom of a fright¬
ful fissure. He met with an instantaneous death, which
was caused by the compression of his body in the narrow
part of the rent. Bodies of those destroyed in fissures
are sometimes brought to light by the glacier streams.
Other adventurers have been even less fortunate than
Escher ; for there are instances in the melancholy records
of these dreary regions, of bodies having been found un¬
injured, lying on projecting ledges in the fissures, and even
sometimes suspended in narrow parts of these horribly
dark gulfs: thus showing that the wretched sufferers had
had a slow and awful death. All around the lower edges
of the glaciers there are vast heaps of stones; these are
partly masses which have fallen from the mountains on
their surface, or which have been thrown from under the
glacier in its progress downwards. The collection of earth
and stones is termed by the inhabitants of Switzerland,Moraine-
moraine.
The glaciers are not stationary, but occasionally move
downward, and with a motion more or less quick. The
movement of the glacier sometimes takes place unexpec¬
tedly; as was experienced by the priest of the Grindenwald,
who, along with a chamois hunter, felt the glacier over which
they were travelling moving under them. The travellers
were resting themselves, and had lighted their pipes, when
suddenly a frightful noise resembling thunder was heard.
Every thing around them began to move; their fowling-
pieces, which they had laid on the ice, moved about.
Masses of rock, which a few moments before lay quietly
on the surface of the glacier, bounded about in all direc¬
tions ; fissures closed with a loud noise, like that of cannon,
and forced the water contained in them several fathoms
upwards. New rents, from 10 to 12 feet, burst open
with indescribably disagreeable noises. The whole mass
of the glacier moved forward several yards : a dreadful
convulsion appeared approaching; but in a few seconds
all was still again, and the dead silence was interrupted
only by the call of the marmot. The total number of Number of
glaciers in the whole range of the Alps may be between glaciers.
500 and 600, which together form an icy sea of enormous
extent.
These are masses of snow separated from the general Ava-
snowy cover, which in their course downwards carry- lanches.
4 K
x
626 A L
Alp* ing along with them fragments of rock, and branches and
trunks of trees, rapidly increase in size, and sometimes,
before reaching the bottom of the valleys, have accumu¬
lated to an enormous magnitude. They destroy houses
and villages, break down whole forests, and sometimes even
interrupt the course of rivers. Those who are unfortunately
enveloped in these avalanches have little chance of escape.
In 1478 sixty soldiers in the district of St Gothard were
destroyed by an avalanche. One hundred men were en¬
veloped in an avalanche in the Great St Bernard, in the
year 1500. In 1595 the course of the Rhine was so much
interrupted by the fall of a great avalanche across it,
that the water rose and drowned many men and cattle.
In 1624 three hundred soldiers were enveloped in an
avalanche in Italian Switzerland, but the greater num¬
ber were dug out alive. Many other details of a similar
description are to be found in the records of modern tra¬
vellers.
The snows and glaciers of the Alps already described
are the never-failing sources of water for the great rivers
which rise from them, as the Rhine, Po, Danube, and
Rhone.
Population The inhabitants, as is well known, are in many respects
of the Alps, highly interesting, more especially those inhabiting the
more remote and magnificent districts. The population
of the whole range may be between 6,000,000 and
7,000,000. Of these, from 1,000,000 to 2,000,000 belong
to the Celto-Gallic stem, from 800,000 to 900,000 to the
Italian, about 1,000,000 to the Sclavonian, and nearly
5,000,000 to the German states. Among these there
may be at least 1,500,000 who lead a pastoral life, and who
occupy themselves exclusively with Alpine economy and
the rearing of cattle. „
Distribu- In the Alps the upper limit of vegetation ascends above
tion of the snow line ; for we observe plants growing on mountains
vegetables, situated above that line, but which are so steep that snow
will not lie on their sides. Thus, an androsacea and a si-
lene.were found growing at a height of 10,156 feet, on the
mountains around Mont Blanc. At an elevation of 11,041
feet, on the same group of mountains, there were found,
growing and in a healthy state, a cardamine, a draba, a gen¬
tian, and other plants that do not fear the glacier zone. At
elevations between 8188 and 7537 feet, where the snow
and glaciers cease, we find growing, not upon rock, but on a
fertile soil watered by the snow-water, dwarf willows in the
midst of Alpine herbaceous plants. This region presents
here and there islands or patches of snow, in places screened
from the sun’s rays. In the bare patches of ground among
these islands, excellent clover grows, which, however, can
only be reached by traversing these snowy patches. Lower
down we reach that Alpine region so celebrated for the
magnificent pasturages it contains; and still lower, be¬
tween /531 and 4914 feet, new plants make their appear¬
ance ; viz., the rhododendron ferrugineum, the rhododen¬
dron hirsutum, and ericaea or heaths. We find the alder
at 6394 feet; and here we enter into the region of trees.
The pinus mughus appears at 5553 feet; the pinus picea,
or pitch pine, at 4780; the birch at 4780 and 4473; the
yew at 4473. The region of great trees does not ascend
higher than 4338 feet; beech stops here. Oaks do not
pass beyond 3510 feet. At this height the cerealio, can¬
not be advantageously cultivated. The cherry ranges
upwards as high as 3195 feet; walnut tree and chesnut
to 2556. The vine is planted as high as 1782. The
olive is cultivated at the foot of the Alps, and on the coast
of Italy; and there also we find the orange, the citron, and
other fruit-trees. Local circumstances occasion changes
in the limits of these vegetables: barley, oats, and wheat
range to 4473, and even to 5751 feet.
P s.
The animal world exhibits similar distributions with the Alps,
vegetable. Thus, the ibex and the chamois occur among
the most elevated summits, amidst snow and ice; but
these two quadrupeds, the chamois in general occupies a tio.n
lower situation than the ibex. Lower down we meet with ammals*
the marmot and the white hare, the bear and the mole;
still nearer the low country, wolves, foxes, the lynx and the
wild cat.
Among the feathered creation the feathered vulture or
lammergeyer is the species which is observed at the great¬
est heights, being seen soaring above very lofty snow-
covered pinnacles. The ptarmigan wanders along the edge
of the snowline; the heath-cock frequents pine forests; the
grey partridge and other birds occur in still lower regions.
Various aquatic birds frequent the lakes and rivers, and
have also their appropriate distribution. The distribution
of fishes is also interesting, as they occur at different
heights, whether in lakes or rivers. Where the water is
abundantly supplied from the glaciers, fishes do not thrive,
and are rarely to be found. Insects, too, as we shall
partially explain in our article on the geography of the
animal world, are met with in the Alps, from spots amidst
the snows of the loftiest peaks to the deepest valleys,
increasing in number, variety, and beauty, as we approach
the lower country. Even the testaceous molluscae, and
creatures lower in the animal scale, exhibit on the great
acclivities of the Alps a similar mode of distribution.
In this vast high land there are examples of all Geological
the different rock formations of which the crust of thecomp08*-
earth is composed, from the deepest-seated primitivetlon*
rock to the most superficial and newest alluvial depo-
site. The higher and also many of the deeper ranges
and valleys are composed of primitive rocks, viz. gra¬
nite, gneiss, mica slate, clay slate, limestone, trap, por¬
phyry, syenite, serpentine, and quartz rock. Resting upon
these, and frequently at a great height, rocks of the tran¬
sition class appear, as grey wacke, clay slate, quartz rock,
granite, gneiss, mica slate, limestone, syenite, trap and
serpentine. The secondary rocks, or those of the third
class, although frequently occurring at a great height, yet
more generally occupy lower situations than the primitive
and transition rocks. The following secondary deposites
are enumerated by authors as occurring in the Alps. We
enumerate them in their order of deposition, beginning
with the first or oldest.
1. First secondary sandstone, or coal formation.
2. First secondary limestone, or magnesian limestone.
3. Second secondary sandstone, or new red sandstone.
4. Second secondary limestone, or shell limestone.
5. Third secondary sandstone, or keuper sandstone and
marl.
6. Third secondary limestone, or Jura, and Lias, and Oo¬
lite limestones.
7. Fourth secondary sandstone, or green and iron sand,
and quader-sandstone formation.
8. Fourth secondary limestone, the chalk deposite of geo¬
logists.
Resting upon these secondary deposites, we find in many
parts vast accumulations of strata of newer rocks belonging
to the fourth or tertiary class. These tertiary deposites
consist of sand, sandstone, and conglomerate; of clays,
marls, and coals, and of various limestones ; all more or
less abounding in fossil organic remains. The bottoms of
the valleys, even their sides to a considerable height,
are more or less covered with clays, sands, rolled masses,
&c., belonging to the diluvium of authors. And we find
in every situation, from the lofty peak to the bottom of
the deep valley, spread over the other deposites already
enumerated, a more or less deep cover of that alluvial de-
A L
Alps, tritus which is daily forming, and which consists of broken
masses more or less angular, gravel, sand, clay, loam-clay,
shell-marl, peat, &c. The common vegetable soil rests
upon this alluvium, in beds varying in thickness from a
few inches to several feet.
These secondary and tertiary rocks are variously inter¬
mingled with trap and old volcanic rocks, and the dilu¬
vial and alluvial deposites with newer igneous or volcanic
rocks.
Fossil or- No fossil organic remains occur in the primitive rocks ;
ganic re- few appear in those of the transition class; whereas in the
mains. various members of the secondary and tertiary classes fos¬
sil plants and animals are abundant, and so disposed as
to assist in characterizing the different deposites or for¬
mations. The diluvial and alluvial deposites also abound
in fossil organic remains; but for details we refer to the
article Geology.
Minerals Varieties of almost every species of the European simple
and ores, minerals are met with in the Alps or their connecting
chains; and in the long range of this high land we find
gold, and many different and valuable ores of silver, lead,
copper, iron, bismuth, nickel, cobalt, zinc, manganese,
mercury, antimony, arsenic, molybdena, uranium, tita¬
nium, and tungsten. These occur in veins, beds, imbedded
masses, or are disseminated in rocks of various descriptions,
particularly those of the primitive and transition classes.
Most re- The loftiest and most interesting mountains are Mont
markable Blanc, Mont Rosa, the Jungfrau, the Great Glockner, and
mountains. ^ie Ortler. The ascent to the summits of these colossal
masses exhibits all those varied displays of scenery, of cli¬
mate, and of distribution of animal, vegetable, and mineral
production which so much excite the curiosity of the tra¬
veller and the naturalist. The ascent to the summit of the
Great Glockner and the Ortler Spitze is described by
Schultes and other travellers; that of Mont Rosa by Saus-
sure, but more particularly by Von Welden, in his account
of that mountain ; and that of the Jungfrau by Agassiz and
Forbes. Mont Blanc being more in the track of travellers,
has excited greater attention than any of the other great
Alpine mountains. To reach the summit of the highest
mountain in Europe has always been an object of desire with
adventurous travellers; hence repeated attempts have
been made to reach the top of Mont Blanc, Some of
these have been successful, others have been the contrary.
The first attempt to reach the summit was made in the
year 1762, by Pierre Simon of Chamouny, who endeavour¬
ed to accomplish it by the Glacier du Buissons, and again
from the French side ; but failed in both. Another unsuc¬
cessful attempt was made by some villagers in 1773; and
again in 1783 by M. Bourrit of Geneva. Bourrit made a
second attempt in 1784, which was also unsuccessful. In
1785 M. de Saussure, M. Bourrit, and M. Bourrit junior,
with fifteen guides, left Bionassy in the beginning of Sep¬
tember, and ascended the glacier of the same name.
They slept near the base of the Arguille du Goute, and
next day climbed to the summit of it; but the snow was
so soft that they could proceed no farther. They re¬
turned to the place where they had slept the night be¬
fore, and next day descended into the valley. In June
1786 six Chamouny guides next attempted it, but gave
it up through fatigue and fear: they were alarmed by the
black appearance of the sky. Jacques Balma, as they
were returning, strayed from the party, and lost his way
among the hills and blocks of ice on the glacier, and was
unable to regain his party. He remained all night in some
hole or cave which he found in the ice. Next morning
he wandered about, and discovered a route by which he
thought he could reach the summit, and then returned
to Chamouny with a determination to keep it a secret.
P S. 627
Dr Paccard, a native of Chamouny, had some suspicion Alps,
that Balma knew an accessible track leading to the summit,
and tried in vain to get this information from him; but
they agreed at last to go together and make the attempt.
Therefore, on the 7th of August 1786, they left the Priory,
and slept on the summit of the mountain of La Cote.
Thence they started next morning at four o’clock; and
after surmounting many difficulties, they attained the
summit at half-past six in the evening. They left it at
seven, and about midnight arrived at the spot where
they had slept the night before; and at eight o’clock on
the morning of the 9th returned to Chamouny. M. de
Saussure having heard of the success of this journey, hast¬
ened to the valley, and, with seventeen guides, immediately
attempted to follow the route of Jacques Balma; but from
the bad state of the weather he did not succeed. In July
1787 Saussure sent Balma to reconnoitre the glacier,
who reported that it was not in a fit state ; but on the 1st
of August this illustrious philosopher and indefatigable
traveller left Chamouny at seven a. m., with a servant
and eighteen guides. At two o’clock they arrived on the
summit of the mountain of La Cote. Next day they
crossed the glacier, and halted on the second plateau at
four. Here they passed the night, and next day gained
the summit at eleven in the forenoon. They remained on
it for nearly four hours, leaving it at about three o’clock, and
descended to about 1100 yards below the summit, slept
there, and next day reached the Priory. M. Bourrit set
out on the enterprise on the day of their return, but bad
weather drove him back. On the 9th August of the same
year, Colonel Beaufoy, with ten guides, attained the sum¬
mit, having left Chamouny the day before, and returned
to it on the 10th. He was enabled to ascertain that the
latitude of the summit of Mont Blanc is 45° 49' 59" N.
At twelve o’clock the mercury in the thermometer stood
at 38° in the shade. At the same hour, in Chamouny,
and in the shade, it stood at 78°. In 1788 M. Bourrit,
his son, Mr Woodley, and Mr Camper, set out together;
but when at a great height, a severe storm separated
the party, of whom Mr Woodley was the only one who
reached the summit, which was on the 5th of August.
He and his guides suffered severely. M. Bourrit never
attempted the ascent again. In 1791 four Englishmen
made an unsuccessful attempt to reach the summit. On
the 10th of August 1802 a native of Lausanne and
a German, with seven guides, reached the summit.
They remained on it twenty minutes, and then de¬
scended part of the way, performing the remainder
and arriving at Chamouny on the 11th, having taken
three days to accomplish it. On the 10th of Septem¬
ber 1812 M. Rodalz of Hamburg got to the summit.
On the 4th of August 1818 a Russian gentleman reach¬
ed the summit. On 12th July 1819 Dr Van Ranselaer
and Mr Howard, Americans, ascended the mountain and
reached the summit; and on the 13th of August of the
same year Captain Undrell, R. N. made a successful at¬
tempt. On the 19th August 1820 Dr Hamel, a Mosco-
vite, with three gentlemen and twelve guides, ascended
to the great plateau. In climbing from it up the side of
Mont Blanc, an avalanche swept away the whole party.
Some of them extricated themselves; but three guides
were driven into a crevice and perished. On the 22d
August 1822 Mr Clissold, who has published an account
of his journey, reached the summit. On the 4th Sep¬
tember 1823 Mr Jackson arrived on the summit and de¬
scended the same day to Chamouny, being, it is understood,
the first who ever accomplished this arduous task in so
short a time, having been absent only thirty-six hours and a
half from Chamouny; but he remained on the summit only
x
628
ALP
A L S
Alps, three or four minutes. On the 26th August 1825 Dr E.
Clarke and Captain M. Sherwill made the ascent, employing
three days in the expedition. On the 25th July 1827, M.
C. Fell owes and M. H. Hawes gained the summit, having
discovered a new route. Their journey occupied nearly
three days. On the 9th of August the summit was attained
by Mr Auldjo of Cambridge, who has published a highly
interesting account of his journey. He says, “ My ascent
to the Grand Mulet was on the 8th, and thence to the sum¬
mit on the following day, pursuing the route discovered in
July. I remained on the summit one hour, and descended
to Chamouni the same day, being absent thirty-seven hours.
There have, therefore, been fourteen successful ascents, says
Mr Auldjo; and, not including guides, eighteen persons
have gained this great height. The majority of these are
Englishmen, ten being their number. Of the rest, two are
Americans, two Swiss, one Russian, one German, and one
Savoyard. Some years ago a party of guides made the
ascent for pleasure, and Maria de Mont Blanc, a high-spirited
girl, accompanied them, being the only female who has ever
reached the summit. Napoleon also ordered a party of guides
to ascend, and plant a cross on the summit, which was done;
but it was blown down in a day or two afterwards.
Among the more recent successful ascents, may be no¬
ticed that of Dr Martin Barry and his party in 1834, that
of Mr Albert Smith and his companion in 1851, and that
of Messrs Browne and Goodall in June 1852.
The most interesting accounts of the Alps are contained
in the following works :—Saussure, Voyages dans les Alpes,
4 vols. 4to; 2. Ebel. iiber den Ban der Erde in dem Alpin-
Gebirge, 2 vols. 1808; 3. Schultes, Reise durch Salzburg,
&c., 4 vols. 1804; 4. Alpina, 4 vols. 1806-9. Agassiz,
Etudes sur les Glaciers, et Recherches sur les Glaciers, I.
II. Forbes’s Travels in the Alps. (r. J.)
Alps, besides its proper signification, by which it denotes
a certain chain of mountains which separate Italy from France
and Germany, is frequently used as an appellative to denote
any mountains of extraordinary height or extensive range.
In this sense, Ausonius and others called the Pyrenean
Mountains Alps, and Gellius the Spanish Alps, Alpini His-
pani. Hence also we say, the British Alps, meaning the
Grampians, &c., the Asiatic Alps, meaning the Altaic chain,
&c.; the American Alps, meaning the Andes, &c.
Alps, Higher, Department of. This department is bound¬
ed on the north by the department of Isere and Savoy, on
the east by Piedmont, on the south by the department of
the Lower Alps, and on the west by that of the Drome and
part of that of Isere. The soil consists of enormous moun¬
tains and narrow valleys. Two-thirds of the surface are use¬
less for agricultural purposes. The north wind, which gene¬
rally prevails, renders the climate cold; and the snow remains
in some of the valleys eight months of the year. The prin¬
cipal river is the Durance, which is extremely rapid, and
commits great ravages by its inundations. The extent of
this department is 2161 square miles. It is divided into
three arrondissements, twenty-four cantons, and 189 com¬
munes, having in 1851 a population of 132,038. It returns
two members to the chamber of deputies. Gap is the capi¬
tal town of the department, with a population of 7726.
Alps, Lower, Department of, in France. This depart¬
ment is bounded on the north by the department of the
Upper Alps, on the east by Piedmont, on the south by the
department of the Var and the north-east extremity of that
of the Bouches-du-Rhone, and on the west by the depart¬
ments of Vaucluse and the Drome. It presents a succes¬
sion of high rugged mountains, with vast forests and nume¬
rous low rich valleys. Its extent is equal to 2666^ square
miles. It is divided into five arrondissements, thirty can¬
tons, and 256 communes, having in 1851 a population of
Alsace.
152,070. The chief town is Digne, with 4119 inhabitants. Alpteghin
This department returned two members to the chamber of
deputies.
ALPTEGHIN, the founder of the Ghuznevite dynasty,
and grandfather of the celebrated Mahmoud of Ghuzni. He
was originally a slave in the service of Ahmed-ibn-Ismail,
the second sultan of the race of Saman; and having obtained
his liberty, rose gradually till he was made governor of Kho-
rassan. He finally revolted, and made himself independent
at Ghuzni. He died a.d. 775.
ALPUJARRAS, or Alpuxaras, a mountainous district
in the province of Granada, in the south of Spain, to which
the Moors of the capital were banished after the destruction
of their kingdom under Ferdinand and Isabella. It is a
range parallel to the Sierra Nevada, but separated from it
by the Rio Grande, which runs to the Mediterranean by
Motril. Its slope there extends about 17 leagues in breadth
from Almeria to Motril, and its highest ridge is about 13
from the sea. The mountains are composed of a clay-slate
highly favourable to the culture of the vine, and produce
the wine called Pedro-Ximenes, so highly prized in Spain.
The declivity of this range is very rapid to the north, but
on the south the descent towards the Mediterranean Sea
is very gradual, and the inclined planes are highly prolific.
The highest part of the range is the Sierra de Gador, which
has an elevation of 6550 feet, and is covered with snow
eight months of the year; but it is below the line of perpetual
snow, which in that latitude is upwards of 9500 feet above
the sea.
ALQUIERE, a measure used at Lisbon for dry goods,
sixty of which equal a moye, or 23,03 English bushels.
ALREDUS, Alured, or Aluredus, of Beverley, one of
the most ancient English historians, was born at Beverley,
in Yorkshire. He wrote in the reign of Henry I.; but no
circumstance of his life is known with any degree of certainty.
It is generally believed that he was educated at Cambridge,
and that he afterwards became one of the canons and trea¬
surer of St John’s at Beverley ; and we learn from a note
of Bishop Tanner’s, that for the sake of improvement he
travelled through France and Italy, and at Rome became
domestic chaplain to Cardinal Othoboni. He died in the
year 1128 or 1129, leaving behind him the following works :
—1. The Annals of Alured of Beverley, published at Ox¬
ford in 1716, by Mr Hearne, from a manuscript which be¬
longed to Thomas Rawlinson, Esq. It contains an abridg¬
ment of our history from Brutus to Henry I., written in
Latin, and with great accuracy, elegance, and perspicuity.
2. Libertates Ecclesiae S. Johannis de Beverlac, &c., a manu¬
script in the Cottonian library. It is a collection of records
relative to the church of Beverley, translated from the Saxon
language.
ALRESFORD, a market-town in the middle division of
the county of Hants, 7 miles from Winchester and 58 from
London. It consists of two parishes, having been in past
ages a place of more consideration than of late years, as the
river Itchen, on the banks of which it is built, has long ceased
to be navigable. Pop. in 1851, 2141.
ALSACE, before the Revolution, a province of France,
bounded on the east by the Rhine, on the south by Switzer¬
land, on the west by Lorraine, and on the north by the pa¬
latinate of the Rhine. It was formerly a part of Germany,
but was given to France by the treaties of Munster and Rys-
wick. It is one of the most fruitful provinces in Europe,
abounding in corn, wine, wood, flax, tobacco, pulse, fruits,
&c. The mountains which divide it from Lorraine are very
high, and generally covered with fir, beech, oak, and horn¬
beam. Those on the side of Switzerland are lower, and
furnished with all sorts of wood, as well for fuel as for build¬
ing. The country itself is diversified with rising hills and
A L S
Alsen fertile vales, besides large forests; but that between the
II rivers 111, Hart, and the Rhine, as far as Strasburg, is in-
Alsop. ferior to the rest, on account of the frequent overflowing of
the Rhine. In High Alsace there are mines of silver, cop¬
per, and lead. There are iron works in several parts of
Alsace, and particularly at Retford. At Sulzmatt, near
Munster, in High Alsace, there is a mineral spring, which
is in great reputation for the cure of palsy and gravel, and
as a general tonic. The original inhabitants of Alsace are
honest and good-natured, but wedded to their own manners
and customs. The fruitfulness of their country renders
them indolent and inactive ; for the Swiss make their hay
and reap their corn, as well as manage the vintage of High
Alsace. The common language is the German, but the
upper classes in the towns speak French ; and even in the
country they speak French well enough to be understood.
By the late division of France, this province forms two de¬
partments, viz., those of the Upper and Lower Rhine; the
capital of the former being Colmar, and that of the latter
Strasburg.
ALSEN, an island of Denmark, situated in the Little
Belt, between Sleswick and Funen, 100 miles west of Co¬
penhagen. It extends in length six leagues, and about two
in breadth. The soil is fertile, producing abundance of
fruit and variety of grain, with large crops of anise, a car¬
minative much used in seasoning food, and mixing with the
bread, over all the Danish dominions. Long. 9. 55. E. Lat.
55. 12. N. Pop. 22,000. Sonderborg its capital has 3100.
ALSFELD, the capital of the bailiwick of the same name
in Hesse Darmstadt. It stands on the river Schwalm, and
has 3800 inhabitants, chiefly engaged in making coarse wool¬
len cloth.
ALSHASH, the name of a province and of a very beauti
ful city in Bokhara, supposed to be the same with that which
is now called Tashkend, the capital of the eastern part ot
Turkistan, possessed by the Kassats. It is situated on the
river Sihon, now Sirr, and had a well-watered garden for
every house; but was ruined by Jenghis Khan, who took
the city, and caused a great number ot its inhabitants to be
massacred. Lat. 43. N.
ALSHEDA, a parish in the province of Jonkoping, in
Sweden, where a gold mine was discovered in 1738.
ALSIRAT, in the Mahometan Theology, a bridge laid
over the middle of hell, finer than a hair, and sharper than the
edge of a sword, over which people are to pass, after their
trial on the day of judgment. To add to the difficulty of
the passage, Mahomet affirms that the Alsirat is beset with
briars and thorns; which, however, will be no impediment
to the good, who shall fly over it like the wind; whereas
the wicked shall soon miss their footing and tumble head¬
long into hell, which is gaping beneath to receive them.
ALSIUM, an ancient city on the coast of Etruria, about
25 miles north-west of Rome. It was much resorted to by
the wealthy Romans, and Pompey had a villa here. Its site
is now occupied by the modern village of Palo.
ALSOP, Anthony, an English divine and poet, was
educated at Westminster School, and from thence elected
to Christ Church, Oxford, where he took the degree of
M.A. in March 1696, and of B.D. in December 1706. On
his coming to the university, he was very soon distinguished
by Dean Aldrich, and published Fabularum JEsopicarum
Delectus, Oxon. 1698, 8vo, with a poetical dedication to
Lord Viscount Scudamore, and a preface in which he took
part against Dr Bentley in the famous dispute with Mr
Boyle. His death, which happened on the 10th June 1726,
was occasioned by his falling into a ditch that passed his
garden door. A quarto volume was published in 1/52, un¬
der the title of Antonii Alsopi, JEdis Christi olim Alumni,
Odarum lihri duo. Four English poems of his are in
A L S 629
Dodsley’s Collection, one in Pearche’s, several in the early Alsop
volumes of the Gentleman’s Magazine, and some in The II
Student. Alsop is respectfully mentioned by the facetious v A _'v
Dr King as having enriched the commonwealth of learning
by Translations of Fables from Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic;
and not less detractingly by Bentley, under the name of
“ Tony Alsop, a late editor of the TEsopean Fables.”
Alsop, Vincent, an English nonconformist divine, was
born in Northamptonshire, and educated at St John s Col¬
lege, Cambridge, where he took the degree of master of arts.
When he received deacon’s orders, he went to Rutlandshire,
and settled at Oakham, where he was an assistant to the
master of the free school. He was settled at W ilby, in the
county of Northampton, whence he was ejected in 1662 for
nonconformity. After this he ventured to preach sometimes
at Oakham, and at Wellingborough, where he lived, and
was once six months in prison for praying by a sick person.
After the revolution, Mr Alsop gave public testimonies of
his attachment to government; yet upon all occasions he
spoke very respectfully of King James, and retained a very
high sense of his clemency in sparing his only son when at¬
tainted of treason. The remainder of his life he spent in
the exercise of his ministry, preaching once every Lord’s
day ; besides which he had a Thursday lecture, and was one
of the lecturers at Pinners Hall. On grave subjects he
wrote with a becoming seriousness; but where wit might
properly be shown, he displayed it to great advantage. He
lived to a great age, and, preserving his spirits to the last,
died in May 1703.
ALSTAHAUG, a small town of Norway, in the island
of Alster, and province of Nordland. It is the seat of the
bishop of Nordland and Finmark.
ALSTED, Johann Heinrich, a German Protestant
divine, and one of the most indefatigable and voluminous-
writers of the seventeenth century. He was some time pro¬
fessor of philosophy and divinity at Herborn, in the county
of Nassau. From thence he went into Transylvania, to be
professor at Weissenberg, where he continued till his death,
in 1638. His Encyclopeedia, the most considerable of the
earlier works of that class, was long held in very high esti¬
mation. It was published in 1630, in two large folio vol¬
umes. His Thesaurus Chronologicus has gone through
several editions. He also wrote Iriumphus Biblicus, to
show that the principles of all arts and sciences are to be
found in the Scriptures. He was a Millenarian, and pub¬
lished, in 1627, a treatise De Mille Annis, in which he as¬
serted that the reign of the saints on earth was to begin in
1694.
ALSTON, Charles, M.D., a botanical and medical
writer, was born in the west of Scotland in the year 1683.
He began his studies at the university of Glasgow ; and on
the death of his father, the Duchess of Hamilton, to whom
he was related, took him under her patronage, and thus
afforded him an opportunity of pursuing the bent of his in¬
clination for the study of physic. About the age of 33,
along with his friend and companion the celebrated Alex¬
ander Monro, he went to Leyden, and studied three years
under Boerhaave. On their return to their native country,
they, in conjunction with Rutherford, Sinclair, and Plum¬
mer, undertook departments in the college of Edinburgh,
and by their abilities and industry laid the foundation of
that school of physic. The branches of botany and materia
medica were long the favourite studies of his life ; conse¬
quently he undertook that department, and continued to
lecture on them with increasing reputation until his death,
which happened in November 1760, at the age of 7 7 years.
His talents, which appear to have been naturally great, w ere
improved and strengthened by his great assiduity and in¬
dustry, and employed successfully in the service of science.
x
630
ALT
ALT
Alston- In the year 1753, Iris dissertation on the sexes of plants, in
Moor which he combats the doctrine of Linnaeus, was published
Altai *n vo^ume of the Edinburgh Physical and Lite-
j vary Essays. In the fifth volume of the Edinburgh Medi-
' cal Essays, there is a short paper of his on the efficacy of
the powder of tin to destroy or expel worms from the bowels.
Dr Alston also engaged in a chemical controversy respect¬
ing quicklime with Dr Whytt. But the most valuable of
all his works are his lectures on the Materia Medica, which
were published in the year 1770, in two volumes 4to.
ALSTON-MOOR. See Aldston-Moor.
ALT, in Music. See Music.
Alt, or Alut, a branch of the Danube, rising in Tran¬
sylvania, east of the Carpathians, through which it descends,
about 18 miles S.S.E. of Hermanstadt, and falls into the
Danube, opposite to Nicopolis, after a course of about 250
miles.
ALTAI. This name has been erroneously extended by
geographers to several chains of mountains stretching
through the northern parts of Asia, and supposed to form
an unbroken chain from the vicinity of the Aral Sea to that
of Ochotsk : but in fact no such continuous chain exists ;
and the true Altai is a group of mountains, certainly of great
magnitude, that form the southern boundary of the exten¬
sive plains of Siberia. This group extends through 2.\ de¬
grees of latitude between 50. and 52. 30. N., and through
21. of longitude, or about 700 geographical miles from west
to east, from the junction of the small river Ouba with the
Irtysh, near the rich mines of Schlangenberg, to mount
Goubi, south of the Baikal. The name Altai-Alen, in the
Mongolian, signifies “ Golden mountainsand in the cu¬
rious Chinese geography of the last century, translated by
Klaproth in 1831, these mountains are named Kin-Tchan,
which has the same meaning in Chinese. No doubt they
are so named, by both nations, from their remarkable auri¬
ferous deposits. The mountains east of the Baikal, which
have been confounded with the Altai, are several indepen¬
dent systems of mountains, generally running south-west
and north-east, nearly at right angles to the true Altai.
The eastern branch of the Altai is distinguished by the
names Mountains of Sayane, Tangnou, and Malakha. The
Russians confine the designation of Altai to that portion of
the group which projects from the west end of the central
chain, like an enormous promontory, into the vast plains of
the province of Tomsk, and which contains the loftiest sum¬
mits of the Altai group. This portion has been impropei’ly
divided by western geographers into Great and Little Altai,
from an obscure passage in Aboulghassi’s General History
of the Tartars, published at Leyden in 1726. What are now
considered as the true Altai by the Russian geographers,
are named Altai-Roly van, the group passing northward
between the rivers Irtysh and JeniseT. It is divided into
five parallel chains by deep valleys. The general appear¬
ance of these mountains is grand and imposing. They rise
beyond the limit of perpetual snow, and some of these
towering summits are alpine needles, or terminate in abrupt,
truncated cones, soaring far above extensive fields of snow.
The inaccessible snowy summit of Katunia towers to 12,900
feet; and the fine peak of Bieloukha rises to 10,900 feet
above the ocean. Many of the peaks extending to the west
of Bielay, and north of Katunia, have an elevation from
7500 to 8500 feet. A glacier, exactly similar to those
of Switzerland, and tei urinated by large ancient moraines
descends from the south flank of Bieloukha (the white moun¬
tain) to the river Katunia. The next in altitude to Bieloukha
are the peaks of Alailon and Irbislon, about 40 leagues far¬
ther east, near the sources of the Karugom river. The
glaciers of the Altai seldom reach farther down than 8000
feet above the sea.
Altamura
II
Altar.
V '
occur in beds. Rose found that the diorites are mixtures of
amphibole and albite.
From the south and west slopes of the Altai Kolyvan, im¬
mense mineral wealth has been extracted, between the
years 1736 and 1845. It was in this chain that in 1725
Niksten Demidof established his copper-works, which have
given the name of Kolyvanshoi to the whole country ; but
the scarcity of fuel, and the demand for it since the dis¬
covery of the rich auriferous silver, have caused the removal
of the copper furnaces to the confluence of the Barnaoulka
and the Obi.
The Altai yields gold, silver, copper, and iron in great
quantity. All, except the first, occur in the Devonian sys¬
tem of rocks, especially in the vicinity of veins of green¬
stone or beds of porphyritic rocks. The gold chiefly occurs
in alluvial deposits near the plains. It is in the same de¬
posit that the bones of the mammoth (Elephas Primigenus)
and rhinoceros are found. The quantity of fossil ele¬
phant’s tusks is so enormous, as to make ivory mining an
important branch of industry in those countries. The dio-
rite porphyries and granites of the Altai furnish materials
for extensive manufactures of superb vases and other orna¬
mental articles. The quantity of malachite found in the
copper-mines afford the finest specimens of that beautiful
material, and furnished those magnificent ornaments that
formed such conspicuous objects in the Great London Ex¬
hibition of 1851. The Kolyvan branch of the Altai is bet¬
ter known to Europeans than the rest of the group : but it
is believed that other parts of the chains would yield to ex¬
plorers the same valuable products. (t. s. t.)
ALTAMURA, a city of the kingdom of Naples, in the
province of Bari. It is the seat of a royal governor, and
confers the title of prince on a noble family. It contains
16,500 inhabitants, a great part of whom are Greeks.
ALTAR, an artificial elevation for the purpose of offer¬
ing sacrifices. The heathens at first made their altars only
of turf; afterwards they were made of stone, of marble, of
wood, and even of horn, as that of Apollo in Delos. Altars
differed in figure as well as in materials: some were round,
others square, and others triangular. All of them were
turned towards the east, and stood lower than the statues
of the gods ; and they were generally adorned with sculp¬
ture, representing either the gods to whom they were erect¬
ed, or their symbols. The height of altars also differed ac¬
cording to the different gods to whom they sacrificed. Ac¬
cording to Servius, those altars set apart for the honour of
the celestial gods, and gods of the higher class, were placed
on some pretty tall pile of building, and for that reason were
called altaria, from the words alta and ara, a high elevated
altar. Those appointed for the terrestrial gods were laid
on the surface of the earth, and called arce. And, on the
contrary, they dug into the earth, and opened a pit for those
of the infernal gods, which they called fiodpoi, Xolkkol, scrobi-
culi. But this distinction is not everywhere observed : the
best authors frequently use a? a as a general word, under
The basis of the Altai is granite, and other rocks usually
denominated primary, which are mingled with diorite por¬
phyries and greenstone. The unstratified rocks are covered
by gneiss and mica slate ; while the flanks of the mountains
present graywacke slate, covered by secondary limestone
rocks which the English geologists describe as belonging to
the Silurian and Devonian systems.
The rarity of petrifactions in the limestone of the Altai
is remarkable ; but in one place Humboldt found encrinites
in a compact sedimentary rock. He considers the limestone
of the Altai in many places as belonging to the carbonife¬
rous strata. Mica slate is the principal rock, sometimes pass¬
ing into chloride slate ; granite is not so abundant, and
gneiss is rather scarce. The porphyries and diorite often
ALT
Altar, which are included the altars of the celestial and infernal,
as well as those of the terrestrial gods. The Greeks also
distinguished two sorts of altars : that whereon they sacri¬
ficed to the gods was called /Sw/xos, and was a real altar,
different from the other whereon they sacrificed to the he¬
roes, which was smaller, and called eo^apa. Pollux makes
this distinction of altars in his Onomasticon : he adds, how¬
ever, that some poets used the word ecr^apa for the altar
whereon sacrifice was offered to the gods. The Septuagint
version does sometimes also use the word eaxapa for a sort
of little low altar, which may be expressed in Latin by cra-
ticula, being a hearth rather than an altar.
Before temples were in use, altars were erected sometimes
in groves, sometimes in the highways, and sometimes on
the tops of mountains ; and it was a custom to engrave upon
them the name, ensign, or character of the deity to whom
they were consecrated.
In the great temples of ancient Rome, there were gene¬
rally three altars. The first was placed in the sanctuary,
at the foot of the statue of the divinity, upon which incense
was burnt and libations offered ; the second was before the
gate of the temple, and upon it they sacrificed the victims;
the third was a portable altar or table, upon which were
placed the offering and the sacred vessels. Besides these
uses of altars, the ancients swore upon them, and swore by
them, in making alliances, confirming treaties of peace, and
on other solemn occasions. Altars also served as places of
refuge for all those who fled to them.
The first altar we read of in the Bible was that erected by
Noah on leaving the ark. According to a Rabbinical legend,
it was partly formed from the remains of one built by Adam
on his expulsion from Paradise, and afterwards used by Cain
and Abel, on the identical spot where Abraham prepared to
offer up Isaac (Zohar, In Gen. fol, 51, 3, 4; Targum, Jona¬
than, Gen. viii. 20). After the giving of the law, the Israelites
were commanded to make an altar of earth: they were also per¬
mitted to employ stones, but no iron tool was to be applied to
them. This has been generally understood as an interdiction
of sculpture, in order to guard against a violation of the second
commandment. Altars were frequently built on high places
(Pu/jm'i) ; the word being used not only for the elevated spots,
but for the sacrificial structures upon them. They were some¬
times built on the roofs of houses : in 2 Kings xxiii. 12, we read
of the altars that were on the top of the upper chamber of
Ahaz. In the tabernacle, and afterwards in the temple, two
altars were erected, one for sacrifices, the other for incense :
the table for the shew-bread is also sometimes called an altar.
The altar of burnt-offering belonging to the tabernacle
was a hollow square, 5 cubits in length and breadth, and 3
cubits in height: it was made of shittim-wood, and overlaid
with plates of brass. In the middle there was a ledge or pro¬
jection, deambu lacrum,on which the priest stood while officiat¬
ing : immediately below this, a brass grating was let down into
the altar to support the fire, with four rings attached, through
which poles were passed when the altar was removed. As the
priests were forbidden to go up by steps to the altar (Exod.
xx. 26), a slope of earth was probably made rising to a level
with the deambulacrum. According to the Jewish tradition
this was on the south side: on the east was 4 the place of the
ashes’ (Lev. i. 16): and the laver of brass was probably near
the western side, so that only the north and south sides were
left.
The altar of burnt-offering in Solomon’s temple was of
much larger dimensions, “ twenty cubits in length and breadth,
and ten in height” (2 Chron. iv. 1), and was made entirely of
brass.
Of the altar of burnt-offering in the second temple, the
canonical Scriptures give us no information excepting that it
was erected before the foundation of the temple was laid (Ezra
iii. 3, 6) on the same place where it had formerly been built,
(Joseph. Antiq. xi. 4,1). From the Apocrypha, however, we
may infer that it was made, not of brass, but of unhewn stone,
for it is said, “ They took whole stones (xl6ov; IXoxXripous), accord-
ALT 631
ing to the law, and built a new altar according to the former” Altar.
(1 Macc. iv. 47). ^ v — >
The altar of burnt-offering erected by Herod is thus de¬
scribed by Josephus (De Bell. Jud. v. 5, 6): “ Before this tem¬
ple stood the altar, 15 cubits high, and equal both in length
and breadth, each of which dimensions was 50 cubits. The
figure it was built in was a square; it had corners like horns,
and the passage up to it was by an insensible acclivity from the
south. It was formed without any iron tool, nor did any iron
tool so much as touch it at any time.” A pipe was connected
with the south-west horn, through which the blood of the vic¬
tims was discharged by a subterraneous passage into the brook
Kedron. Under the altar was a cavity to receive the drink-offer¬
ings , which was covered with a marble slab, and cleansed from
time to time. On the north side of the altar several iron rings
were fixed to fasten the victims. Lastly, a red line was drawn
round the middle of the altar to distinguish between the blood
that was to be sprinkled above and below it.
The second altar belonging to the Jewish worship was the
altar of incense, called also the golden altar (Numb. iv. 11).
It was placed between the table of shew-bread and the golden
candlestick, in the most holy place.
This altar in the tabernacle was made of shittim-wood
overlaid with gold plates, 1 cubit in length and breadth, and
2 cubits in height. It had horns of the same materials ; and
round the flat surface was a border of wrought gold, under¬
neath which were the rings to receive “ the staves made of shit¬
tim-wood, overlaid with gold to bear it withal,” Exod. xxx. 1-5
Joseph. Antiq. iii. 6, 8,
The altar in Solomon’s temple was similar, but made of
cedar, overlaid with gold.
The altar in the second temple was taken away by An-
tiochus Epiphanes (1 Macc. i. 23), and restored by Judas Mac-
cabaeus (1 Macc. iv. 49). On the arch of Titus there appears
no altar of incense; it is not mentioned in Heb. ix., nor by
Joseph. Antiq. xiv. 4, 4. (vide Tholuck On the Hebrews, vol.
ii. p. 8; Biblical Cabinet, vol. xxxix.) (Winer’s Realworter-
buch, articles ‘ Altar,’ ‘ Brandopfer altar,’ ‘ Raucheraltar
Bahr’s Symbolik des Mosaischen Cultus, bd. 1. Heidelberg,
1837.)
The altar or table of shew-bread, which stood in the
outer apartment of the tabernacle, was made of shittim-wood,
covered with laminae of gold, and was 2 cubits long, 1 broad,
and 1^ high. The top of its leaf was surrounded by a rim
of gold; the frame, immediately below the leaf, was sur¬
rounded by a piece of wood about 4 inches broad, around
which was a similar border of gold; and lower down, attached
to the legs, were four golden rings for the staves covered with
gold by which it was carried. These rings were not found in
the table afterwards made for the temple, nor in any of the
sacred furniture where they had previously been, except in the
ark of the covenant. Upon this table were placed twelve un¬
leavened loaves (in allusion to the twelve tribes), which were
changed every Sabbath-day, and sprinkled with frankincense
(the Sept, adds salt). The bread was called the “ bread of the
presence,” because it was set forth before Jehovah in his holy
place. Wine was also placed before the table, in bowls,
covered vessels, and cups, which were probably used in making
libations. (Exod. xxv. xxxvii. xl., Lev. xxiv., Numb, iv.)
Forms of Altars.—The direction to the Israelites, at the time
of their leaving Egypt, to construct their altars of unhewn
stones or of earth, is doubtless to be understood as an injunction
to follow the usage of their patriarchal ancestors; and not to
adopt the customs which they had seen in Egypt, or might see
in the land of Canaan. That the patriarchal altars were of
unhewn stones or of earth, is confirmed by the circumstances
under which they were erected, and by the fact that they are
always described as being “ built.”
It may be observed that all the Oriental altars are square
or oblong, whereas those of Greece and Rome are more usually
round; and that, upon the whole, the Hebrew altars were in
accordance with the general Oriental type. It has been sup¬
posed that some of those ancient monuments of unhewn stone
usually called Druidical remains, were derived from the altars of
primitive times: but the ablest archaeologists are of opinion that
these structures were seldom, if ever, used as altars, but were
x
632 ALT
Altar merely depositories of the dead; an opinion which is strength-
11 ened by the fact that human remains are usually found on ex-
Alteland. cavating below them.—See Worsaae’s Scandinavian Anti-
quities.
Altar is also used among Christians for the communion¬
table. In the primitive church the altars were only of
wood, it being frequently necessary to remove them from
place to place ; but the council of Paris in 509 decreed that
no altar should be built but of stone. At first there was
but one altar in each church, but the number soon increased;
and from the writings of Gregory the Great, who lived in
the sixth century, we learn that there were sometimes in
the same church twelve or thirteen. In the cathedral of
Magdeburg there are no less than forty-nine altars.
The altar is sometimes sustained on a single column, as
in the subterraneous chapels of St Cecilia at Rome, &c.;
and sometimes on four columns, as the altar of St Sebastian
of Crypta Arenaria; but the customary form is a massive
frame of stone-work sustaining the altar-table. These altars
bear a resemblance to tombs: consequently we read in eccle¬
siastical history that the primitive Christians chiefly held
their meetings at the tombs of the martyrs, and celebrated
the mysteries of religion upon them ; for which reason it is
a standing rule to this day in the church of Rome, never to
build an altar without inclosing the relics of some saint in it.
ALTAR-THANE, or Altarist, in old law-books, an
appellation given to the priest or parson of a parish, to
whom the profits arising from the altar or altarage belonged.
ALTDAMM, or Damm, a fortified city in the circle of
Randow, government of Stettin, and Prussian province of
Pomerania. It is built in a strong situation at the point
where the river Plone discharges its waters into the Lake
Damische ; and contains 235 houses and 3000 inhabitants.
Long. 14. 58. 47. E. Lat. 53.24. N.
ALTDORF, a town of Bavaria on the Schwartzach,
capital of the bailiwick of the same name, and about twelve
miles E.S.E. of Nuremburg. It was formerly the seat of a
university, now incorporated with that of Erlangen. It has
several breweries and toy manufactories; and in its neigh¬
bourhood are coal-mines and charcoal works. Pop. 3000.
Long. 11. 27. 13. E. Lat. 49. 23. 22. N.
Altdorf, a town on the Schmeidebach, in the bailiwick
of Ettenheim, and circle of Upper Rhine, in the duchy of
Baden. It has 1300 inhabitants, and a palace belonging to
the family of Von Turkheim, with a good library and a
botanical garden.
Altdorf, or Altorf, a town of Switzerland, capital of the
canton of Uri, situated near the southern extremity of the
lake of Lucerne, and at the northern end of the pass over
Mount St Gothard. It has a handsome parish church, a
town-house, two convents, and an old tower, which tradi¬
tion marks as the place where Tell shot the apple from his
son’s head. Pop. 1800. Long. 8. 30. E. Lat. 46. 50. N.
ALTDORFER, Albert, a Bavarian painter and en¬
graver, was born in 1488, and died in 1538. His few pic¬
tures show surprisingly minute and careful finish, in the an¬
cient German manner, as is seen in his picture of the battle
of Arbela, in the museum of Munich. His wood engrav¬
ings are considered next in execution to those of Diirer,
and his copperplates are well known, and very numerous.—
See Bartsch. Peintres-graveur.
ALTEA, a town of Spain, on the bay of the same name,
in the province of Alicante. It contains 5502 inhabitants,
principally sailors and fishermen.
ALTELAND, a district in the province of Bremen, in
the kingdom of Hanover, denominated a royal justiceship,
kdnigliche Gerichte. It is situated on the banks of the
Elbe, and is divided into three portions by the small rivers
Schwinge, Este, and Luhe, which cross it. The extent is
ALT
79 square miles, or 50,560 acres. The soil is peculiarly Altena
fertile. The inhabitants amount to 15,000, mostly living II
on separate farms, in prosperous circumstances. As a part
of the ancient duchy of Bremen, the district possesses some v irc en'
peculiar privileges.
ALTENA. See Altona.
Altena, a circle in the government of Arnsberg and
Prussian province of Westphalia. Its extent is 193 geo¬
graphical square miles. The chief rivers are the Lenne,
which receives the waters of the Nette and the Erse, and
the Wipper, both of which run to the Rhine. The agricul¬
ture is bad, and in many parts can scarcely produce oats. It
has some pasture land, and, besides, yields wood, game, iron,
marble, and good stones for building. Its population, which
amounts to 43,054, depends almost wholly on the several
manufactures which are spread over the whole circle. These
comprehend almost every species of iron goods, which, though
clumsy in form, are very substantial, and find a ready sale.
Altena, a city, the chief of the circle of the same name,
in Prussia. It contains 689 houses, and 4889 inhabitants,
who trade in the several kinds of goods made in the vi¬
cinity. It is situated on the Lenne. Long. 7. 41. 23. E.
Lat. 5 L 15. 36. N.
ALTENBERG, a city, capital of the bailiwick of the
same name in the circle of Dresden in Saxony. It con¬
tains 2042 inhabitants, who depend on the mines, the transit
traffic with Bohemia, and the manufacture of bone lace.
ALTENBRUCH, a market-town on the Werne, in the
district of Hadeln, in the kingdom of Hanover. It con¬
tains 378 houses and 2500 inhabitants ; and has a small
harbour, by means of which it carries on trade in corn, fruit,
and cattle. It is in Long. 8.51. 3. E. and Lat. 53. 50. 5. N.
ALTENBURG. See Saxe-Altenburg.
Altenburg, the chief town of the duchy of Saxe-Alten¬
burg, near the river Pleisse, and about twenty-four miles
south of Leipsic, with which it has been connected by railway
since the end of 1842. The town, from its hilly position, is
irregularly built, but its streets are wide, and ornamented
with many large and beautiful buildings. Its ducal castle
is a very ancient building, surrounded by picturesque scenery,
with a beautiful garden, and an extensive library. Of its
public buildings the most remarkable are the cathedral, and
St Bartholomews church, with its two steeples. It has
several other churches, a gymnasium with a considerable
library, a theatre, an infirmary, an obstetric institution, and
several elementary schools and charitable institutions. The
trade in grain is very considerable, as well as in cattle and
in silk; and sealing wax, tobacco, woollen goods, and gloves,
are among its manufactures. Pop. 15,300.
Altenburg, or Owar, a small but strong town of Hun¬
gary, with 3500 inhabitants. It is seated in a marsh, near
the river Danube, and is surrounded by deep ditches. It
is forty miles south-east of Vienna. Long. 17. 15. E. Lat.
47. 50. N.
Altenburg is also the name of several small towns and
villages in Austria, Bavaria, Switzerland, &c.
ALTENKIRCHEN, a circle in the government of Co-
blentz, and the Prussian province of the Lower Rhine. Its
extent is 208 square miles, or 133,120 acres. It contains
two market-towns, 155 villages, and 37,857 inhabitants, of
whom 18,114 are Roman Catholics, and 19,548 Lutherans.
The Jews amount to 195. The whole of the circle is on the
Westerwalde, and from its lofty position the soil is unpro¬
ductive. Its mines of iron, lead, and copper, give the chief
employment to the people, who are an industrious race;
and the females spin much linen yarn. The circle is wa¬
tered by the rivers Sieg, Niester, and Wiedbach, the banks
of which afford pasturage to cattle. The whole district
suffered severely from being the seat of war in 1796.
ALT
ALT 633
Alterants ALTERANTS, or Alterative Medicines, such as cor-
I! rect the bad qualities of the blood, and other humours,
Alting. occasioning any sensible evacuation.
ALTERN-BASE, in Trigonometry, a term used in con¬
tradistinction to the true base. Thus, in oblique triangles,
the true base is either the sum of the sides, and then the
difference of the sides is called the altern-base ; or the true
base is the difference of the sides, and the sum of the sides
is called the altern-base.
ALTERNATE, in Heraldry, is said in respect of the
situation of the quarters. Thus, the first and fourth quar¬
ters, and the second and third, are usually of the same
nature, and are called alternate quarters.
ALTERNATION, in its primary sense, denotes a suc¬
cession by turns.
Alternation is sometimes us.ed to express the different
changes or alterations of orders in any number of things
proposed. This is also called permutation, &c., and is easily
found by a continual multiplication of all the numbers, be¬
ginning at unity. Thus, if it be required to know how
many changes or alternations can be rung on six bells,
multiply the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, continually into one
another, and the last product gives the number of changes.
ALTERNATIVE is particularly used for the choice of
two things proposed. In this sense we say, to take the
alternative of two propositions.
ALTHEA, a genus of the natural order of Malvaceae,
of which the A. officinalis, or marsh mallow, and A. rosea,
or hollyhock, are the best known.
ALTIN, a money of account in Muscovy, worth three
copecs, 100 of which make a ruble, worth about 3s. 2^d.
sterling.
Altin, a lake of Siberia, in the government of Tomsk,
from whence issues the river Ob or Obi, in Long. 85. 55. E.
Lat. 52. 0. N. This lake is called by the Russians Teloskoi
Osero, from the Telessi, a Tartar nation who inhabit its
borders, and who give it the name of Altin-Kul. By
the Calmucks it is caWed Altinnor. It is 77 miles long and
52 broad, with a rocky bottom. The north part of it is
sometimes frozen so hard as to be passable on foot, but the
southern part is never covered with ice. The water in the
Altin lake, as well as in the rivers which run through the
adjacent places, only rises in the middle of summer, when the
snows on the mountains are melted by the heat of the
sun.
ALTING, Heinrich, a German divine, was born at
Embden in 1583. His father was minister of the church
of Embden, and early destined his son to the same profes¬
sion. In the year 1602, after a grammatical course, he was
sent to the university of Herborn. There he studied with
so much assiduity and success, that he had the honour of
being appointed tutor to the three young counts of Nassau,
Solms, and Isenburg, who studied with the elector prince
palatine, first at Sedan, and afterwards at Heidelberg.
Alting was appointed preceptor to the prince in 1608, and
was chosen to accompany the elector into England. There,
# among the number of celebrated men to whose acquaintance
he was introduced, was Dr Abbot, archbishop of Canter¬
bury. In 1613, returning to Heidelberg after the marriage
of the elector with the princess of England, he was appointed
professor of theology, and in 1616, director of the College
of Wisdom. In 1618, along with Scultetus, he represented
the university in the Synod of Dort.
In 1622 Count Tilly toojk the city of Heidelberg, and
devoted it to plunder. In order to escape the fury of the
soldiers, Alting endeavoured to pass by a back door into
the chancellor’s house, which was under guard; but as
he was entering, the commanding officer said to him,—
“ With this battle-axe I have to-day killed ten men, and
vol. ir.
Alting, if I knew where to find him, should be the eleventh : Alting.
who are you?” Alting, with singular presence of mind '
replied—“ I am a teacher in the College of Wisdom.” The
officer took him under his protection; but the Jesuits un¬
fortunately taking possession of the house next day, left the
generous officer no time, at his departure, to take care of
the teacher in the College of Wisdom. Alting evaded the
hands of the Jesuits by hiding himself in a garret; and a
cook of the electoral court, who happened to be employed
by Count Tilly in the kitchen occupied by him in the chan¬
cellor’s house, supplied him with food. In this perilous
situation he remained till an opportunity offered of making
his escape to Heilbron, whither his family had been pre¬
viously conducted.
But Alting was now as much harassed by ecclesiastical
intolerance as he had formerly been endangered by military
hostility. With the permission of the duke of Wirtemberg,
he retired for a few months to Schorndorf, after the desola¬
tion of the palatinate by the victorious forces of Count
Tilly.
In 1623 Alting retired with his family to Embden, and
afterwards followed to the Hague his late pupil, now king
of Bohemia. Such was the unfeigned esteem of this prince
for Alting that he still retained him as preceptor to his
eldest son, and prevented him from accepting the charge of
the church at Embden, and likewise of a professorship in
the university of Franeker. In 1627, Alting, with some
difficulty, obtained leave from his patron to remove to Gron¬
ingen, where he was appointed to the chair of divinity ; and
there he continued to lecture with increasing reputation
until his death, which took place in 1644. The ardent de¬
sire and repeated endeavours of several universities to ap¬
propriate to themselves the honour and benefit of his ser- t
vices, is the most unequivocal proof of the general esteem in
which his character was held.
The states of Groningen refused to give their consent to
his removal, when the university of Leyden solicited him to
come and labour among them. But some time after, the
prospect of extensive usefulness in re-establishing the uni¬
versity of Heidelberg, and restoring the churches of the
palatinate, determined him to accept the office of professor
of divinity and ecclesiastical senator, presented to him by
Prince Lewis Philip. In the year 1634, amidst numerous
hardships, to which the existing war exposed him, he set
out for Heidelberg, ^nd pursued his journey as far as Frank¬
fort ; when the battle of Norlingen, in which the imperial¬
ists were victorious, rendered his further progress imprac¬
ticable. He therefore with great difficulty returned to Gro¬
ningen.
Alting was a man of eminent talents, extensive learning,
and amiable dispositions, and always more solicitous to
serve the public than to benefit himself. He was averse to
quarrels and disputes about trifles, although no friend to
the innovations introduced at this period by the Socinians;
and, adhering to what he considered the plain doctrine of
Scripture, he was equally desirous to avoid fanatical scrupu¬
losity and sophistical subtilty. The productions of his pen
are, Notee in Decadem Problematum Jacobi Behm, Heidel-
bergae, 1618, Notes on a Decade of Jacob Boehmen’s Pro¬
blems ; Loci Communes, Common Places ; Problemata,
Problems; Explicatio Catecheseos Palatinee, Explanation
of the Palatine Catechism ; Exegesis Augustame Confes-
sionis, See., Amst. 1647, Exposition of the Augsburg Con¬
fession ; Methodus Thcologice Bidacticce et CatecheticeR,
Amst. 1650, A Method of Didactic and Catechetic Theo¬
logy. The Medulla Historice Profance, Marrow of Profane
History, published under the name of Paraeus, was written
by Alting.
Alting, Jacob, son
of the preceding, was born at Hei-
4 L
>
634 ALT
Alting delberg, in 1618. After the usual course of grammatical
.11 studies he became a student, and soon after professor of
Altitude.^ divinity in the university of Groningen. The oriental lan-
“~ v-*- guages were his favourite studies, and in 1638 he put him¬
self under the tuition of a Jewish rabbi at Embden. De¬
termining to take up his residence in England, he arrived
there in 1640, and was admitted to clerical orders by Dr Pri-
deaux, bishop of Worcester. By an offer of the Hebrew pro¬
fessorship in the university of Groningen, he was soon in¬
duced to alter his plan of life, and consequently returned
to Germany in 1643. His active assiduity in the study of
the languages, and his knowledge in other sciences, procured
him universal esteem and great reputation as a scholar.
About this time he received many academic honours ; he
was admitted doctor of philosophy, academic preacher, and
at last professor of divinity in conjunction with a colleague,
Samuel des Marets, with whom, as being an admirer and
follower of the subtleties of the scholastics, Alting had a long
and painful controversy, which was only terminated by a for¬
mal reconciliation when Marets was on his deathbed.
By the permission of the curators of the university, Des
Marets appeared as public accuser of Alting, and produced
a long list of erroneous propositions to the divines of Ley¬
den, for their opinion. The divines pronounced Alting in¬
nocent of heresy, but imprudently fond of innovation ; and
they declared Des Marets deficient in modesty and candour.
Such was the protection given to Alting, that whenever any
of the order of ecclesiastics proposed any further measures
against him, they were immediately rejected by the civil
power.
Alting died of a fever in 1679. The fondness which he
showed for rabbinical learning, gave birth to the general
report that he was inclined to become a Jew. His opinions,
which seem to have excited more general attention than
they deserve, may be seen at large in his writings, which
were collected a few years after his death, and published
in five volumes folio, by his pupil, the well-known Balthasar
Bekker.
Alting, Memo, the elder, father of Heinrich Alting, a
distinguished divine of the Reformed Church, was born in
1541, and died in 1612. He was president of the Consistory
of the Calvinist church at Embden, and took a prominent part
in the controversy with the Lutheran party. His grandson,
of the same name, was a burgomaster of Groningen, and
wrote a valuable geographical work entitled Notitia Ger¬
mania Inferioris, &c. He was born in 1636, and died in
1713.
ALTINUM, an ancient town of Venetia on the right
bank of the Silis. Its site is occupied by the modern village
of Altino.
AL 11 fUDE, Accessible and Inaccessible. See Geo¬
metry.
Altitude of the Eye, in Perspective, is a right line let
fall from the eye, perpendicular to the geometrical plane.
Altitude, in Astronomy, is the distance of a star or other
point in the mundane sphere from the horizon. This alti¬
tude may be either true or apparent. If it be taken from
the rational or real horizon, the altitude is said to be true
or real; if from the apparent or sensible horizon, the alti¬
tude is apparent, or rather, the apparent altitude is such as
it appears to our observation, and the true is that from
which the refraction has been subtracted.
The true altitudes of the sun, fixed stars, and planets,
differ but very little from their apparent altitudes, because
of their great distance from the centre of the earth, and the
smallness of the earth’s semidiameter when compared there¬
with. But the difference between the true and apparent
altitude of the moon is about 52°.
Altitude Instrument, or Equal Altitude Instrument, is
A L T
that used to observe a celestial object when it has the same Altkirch
altitude on the east and west sides of the meridian. H
ALTKIRCH, an arrondissement in the department of
the Upper Rhine, in France. The extent is 446 square i r
miles, or 285,440 acres, and it contains seven cantons and
158 communes, with 149,874 inhabitants, in 1851. The
chief city of the arrondissement is of the same name, and is
situated on a hill whose base is washed by the river 111, about
two leagues from Mulhausen. It has 3371 inhabitants.
Long. 7. 11. E. Lat. 47. 37. N.
ALTMUHL, a river of Bavaria which rises seven miles
north-east of Rothenburg, and flows into the Danube be¬
tween Ratisbon and Kehlheim, after a course of 150 miles.
This river has lately been connected with the Regnitz by
the Ludwigo Canal, by which means the rivers Rhine and
Danube are now united.
ALTO Basso, or in Alto et in Basso, in Law, signifies
tbe absolute reference of all differences, small and great,
high and low, to some arbitrator or disinterested person.
The following are examples of the use of the phrase:—
Pateat universis per prcesentes, quod Willielmus Tylar de
Yetton, et Thomas Gower de Almestre, posuerunt se in Alto
et in Basso, in arbitrio quatuor hominum ; viz., de quadam
querela pendente inter eos in curia. IS os et terram nostram
alte et basse ipsius domini Regis supposuimm voluntati.
Alto-faggotto, a wind instrument of music, resembling
in form a small bassoon. It is played with a reed and mouth¬
piece similar to a clarinet, and produces a very fine tone.
Alto Relievo. See Relievo and Sculpture.
Alto Ripieno. See Music.
ALTOMONTE, a very handsome town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, in Calabria Citerior, 15 miles north-west
of Bisignano. Long. 16. 22. E. Lat. 39. 40. N.
ALTON, a market-town in the hundred of the same
name in the county of Hants, 47 miles from London, and
16 from Winchester. It stands on the river Wey, and is a
well-built place. Pop. in 1851, 2828.
Alton, or Alveton, a village in Staffordshire, five miles
north of Uttoxeter. Here may be seen the ruins of a castle
which is supposed by some to have been built before the
Norman conquest; but Dr Plot is of opinion that it was
erected by Theobald de Verdun in the beginning of the
reign of Edward II.
ALTONA, or Altena, a city in the duchy of Holstein,
a part of Germany, but included within the dominions of
Denmark. It is situated on the banks of the Elbe, and only
separated from Hamburg by a ditch between the suburbs
of the two cities. It is on an ascent, very gradually rising
from the water’s edge, with streets well-built, overlooking
each other. In 1847 it contained 32,200 inhabitants, of
whom 2300 were Jews, who are here allowed the free ex¬
ercise of their religion, and have two synagogues and a high
rabbi. Altona is a free port, and carries on a very exten¬
sive shipping trade, and also engages in the herring and
whale fisheries. The number of vessels that entered the
harbour in 1845 was 5253. The ship-building is consider¬
able, and there are manufactures of woollen, cotton, silk, to¬
bacco, leather and glass ; besides breweries, distilleries, and
sugar-refineries. The town is well built, and contains a
royal observatory, a town-house, six churches, an anatomical
theatre, a gymnasium, a public library, and an orphan asy¬
lum, &c. Altona was raised from the insignificance of a
fishing village on passing into the possession of the Danes
in 1640, who erected it into a city in 1664. It was burnt
to the ground in 1713 by the Swedes under General Sten-
bock. It is in Long. 9. 57. 15. E. and Lat. 53. 43. 30. N.
ALT ORE. See Altdorf.
ALTRANSTADT, a town in Saxony, famous for the
treaty between Charles XII. king of Sweden and Augustus
ALU ALU 635
Altring- elector of Saxony, in 1706, wherein the latter resigned the
ham kingdom of Poland.
II ALTRINGHAM, or Altrincham, a township and mar-
^um‘ j ket-town in the county of Chester, 180 miles from London.
It is a neat and clean place. Its manufactures are chiefly
cotton and worsted. There are many gardens in its neigh¬
bourhood which supply Manchester with vegetables. The
Duke of Bridgewater’s canal passes the town, and it is con¬
nected with Manchester by railway. Pop. in 1851, 4488.
ALT SOL, or Zwolen, an imperial free city on the Gran,
where that river falls into the Zalathna, in the lower circle
of the palatinate of Solor in Hungary. It has one church,
and a castle that belonged to Prince Esterhazy. Pop. 2400.
Long. 19. 12. 47. E. Lat. 48. 21. 50. N.
ALTSTRELITZ,or Old SxRELiTZ,a town in the duchy
of Mecklenburg-Strelitz in Germany. It has an old castle,
several tanneries, and tobacco manufactories, and a great
horse market. Population 3800, of whom about 600 are
Jews. This town was founded about the year 1349, and is
two miles to the south of New Strelitz.
ALUCEMAS, San Agustin y San Carlos de las, a
small rocky island, with a garrison and criminal establish¬
ment, belonging to Spain, on the coast of Africa, between
Capes Morro and Quilates in Marocco. Long. 4. 12. W.
Lat. 35. 16. 30. N. It contains 28 houses, including the
governor’s residence, an hospital, and a church. It is sup¬
plied with the necessary articles of consumption from the
neighbouring coast of Ceuta.
ALUDELS, in the older and more complicated che¬
mical apparatus, were earthen pots without bottoms, in¬
serted into each other, and used in sublimations.
ALUM, a compound salt employed by dyers and other
artists in their different processes. It is soluble in water,
has an astringent, acid, and sweetish taste; reddens
vegetable blues, and crystallizes in regular octahedrons.
When heated, it liquefies; and if the heat be continued,
the water of crystallization is driven off, the salt frothes
and swells, and at last a white matter remains, known by
the name of burnt alum.
Its constituents are sulphuric acid, alumina, an alkali,
and water. The alkali may be either potash, soda, or
ammonia. Hence there are three distinct species of
alum, depending upon the nature of the alkali which
each contains. Potash alum (in which the alkali is pot¬
ash) is the common alum of this country. In France
both potash and ammoniacal alum are manufactured;
while soda alum is met with native in different states,
and probably in considerable quantity, in South America ;
for it is curious that, on that continent, soda almost uni¬
formly replaces potash. Instead of nitrate of potash,
which occurs in the old continent, there are great depo-
sites of nitrate of soda in South America. It is likely
that albite will be found replacing felspar in the granite
of South America.
The progress made by chemists in the discovery of the
constitution of alum was very slow. The species first in¬
vestigated was potash alum. That it contained sulphuric
acid as a constituent, was known even to the alchemists.
Pott and Margraaf demonstrated that alumina was another
constituent. Mr Pott, in his Lithogeognosia, showed that
the earth of alum, or the precipitate obtained when
an alkali is poured into a solution of alum, is quite dif¬
ferent from lime and chalk, with which it had been con¬
founded by Stahl. Margraaf went much farther. He not
only showed that alumina is one of the constituents of
alum, but that this earth possesses peculiar properties, is
different from every other substance, and is one of the in¬
gredients in common clay. {Experiences faites sur la Terre
d’Alun: Margraaf’s Opusc. ii. 111.) Margraaf showed like¬
wise, by many experiments, that crystals of alum cannot Alum,
be obtained by dissolving alumina in sulphuric acid, and v-^~v~v
evaporating the solutions. The crystals formed are always
soft, and quite different in their appearance from alum
crystals. But when a solution of potash or ammonia is
dropt into this liquid, it immediately deposits perfect
crystals of alum. {Sur la Regeneration de VAlun : Mar¬
graaf’s Opusc. ii. 86.) He mentions likewise, that manu¬
facturers of alum in general were unable to procure the
salt without a similar addition, and that at first it had
been customary to add a quantity of putrid urine, and
that afterwards a solution of carbonate of potash was sub¬
stituted in its place. But subsequent chemists do not
seem to have paid much attention to these important ob¬
servations of Margraaf: they still continued, without any
rigid examination, to consider alum as a sulphate of
alumina.
Bergman indeed had observed, that the addition of
potash or ammonia made the alum crystallize, but that
the same effect was not produced by the addition of soda
or of lime. {De Confectione Aluminis : Bergman’s Opusc.
i. 225.) He had observed likewise, that sulphate of potash
is frequently found in alum. He decomposed the solution
of alum by means of ammonia, evaporated the filtered
liquid to dryness, and exposed the residue to a red heat.
A quantity of sulphate of potash often remained behind
in the crucible. {Ibid. p. 326.) From these facts he drew
the conclusion that sulphate of potash readily combines
with sulphate of alumina. Yet it is obvious, from the
whole of his dissertation, that he had no conception that
alum is a double salt. He ascribed the difficulty of crys¬
tallization to the excess of sulphuric acid present. He
thought that the only use of the potash was to saturate
this excess ; and advises manufacturers to substitute clay
instead of potash, as a method which would not only sa¬
turate the excess of acid, but increase the quantity of
alum. This very bad advice was not, we presume, fol¬
lowed by any alum-makers. If they had tried it, they
would soon have been convinced of its injurious conse¬
quences. Instead of alum, they would have obtained an
insoluble, tasteless powder, well known by the name of
alum saturated with its earth.
After Klaproth had discovered the existence of potash
as an ingredient in leucite and lepidolite, it occurred to
Vauquelin, that it was probably an ingredient likewise in
many other minerals. He recollected that alum crystals
often make their appearance during the analysis of stony
bodies ; and, considering that alum cannot be obtained in
crystals without the addition of potash, he began to sus¬
pect that this alkali constituted an essential ingredient in
the salt. A set of experiments, undertaken on purpose to
elucidate this important point, soon satisfied him that his
conjecture was well founded. Accordingly, in the year
1797 he published a dissertation, demonstrating that alum
is a double salt, composed of sulphuric acid, alumina, and
potash. {Annales de Chimie, xxii. 258.) Soon after, Chaptal
published the analysis of four different kinds of alum,
namely, Roman alum, Levant alum, British alum, and
alum manufactured by himself. This analysis led to
the same result as that of Vauquelin. {Ann. de Chim.
xxii. 280.)
Since that time alum has been admitted by chemists
to be a triple salt; and various analyses of it have been
made to determine its constituents. Vauquelin {Ann. de
Chim. 1. 167), Thenard and Roard {ibid. tom. lix. 72),
Curaudau {Journal de Physique, Ixvii. 1), and Berze¬
lius {Ann. de Chim. Ixxxii. 258), successively published
the results of their experiments. These analyses gradually
led to an accurate knowledge of the composition of this
x
636 ALUM.
Alum. salt. The atomic weights of the constituents of alum are
as follows:—
Sulphuric acid 5
Alumina 2’25
Potash   6
Soda 4
Ammonia  2" 125
Water  P125
Potash alum is a compound of
4 atoms sulphuric acid  = 20
1 atom potash  =r 6
3 atoms alumina  =: 6'75
25 atoms water  = 28*125
Hence the integrant particle of it weighs 60*875
Every atom of the sulphuric acid is combined with an
atom of base; so that potash alum is a compound of
sulphate of potash and sulphate of alumina, in the pro¬
portion of one atom of the former salt to three atoms of the
latter. We may therefore state the constituents of pot¬
ash alum as follows :—
3 atoms sulphate of alumina.... r= 21*75
1 atom sulphate of potash  = 11
25 atoms water  = 28*125
60*875
Soda alum differs from potash alum in containing sul¬
phate of soda instead of sulphate of potash. Its con¬
stituents are as follows:—
3 atoms sulphate of alumina  = 21*75
1 atom sulphate of soda  = 9
25 atoms water  = 28*125
58*875
The weight of an integrant particle of this alum is only
58*875; because the alum of soda weighs only 4, while
that of potash is 6.
The constituents of ammoniacal alum are as follows :—
3 atoms sulphate of alumina  = 21*75
1 atom sulphate of ammonia.... = 7*125
25 atoms water  = 28*125
57
The weight of the integrant particle is only 57, because
ammonia has an atomic weight of only 2*125.
One of the most remarkable differences between these
three species of alum is the solubility of each in water.
At the temperature of 60°, 100 parts of water dissolve
9*37 parts of ammoniacal alum,
14*79 parts of potash alum,
327*6 parts of soda alum.
This great solubility of soda alum renders the manufac¬
ture of it very difficult. It does not easily crystallize;
indeed, when the weather is hot, crystals of it can hardly
be obtained. This great solubility, together with the in¬
ferior weight of its integrant particle, would render it
more convenient and more economical for dyers and cali¬
co printers, provided it could be furnished at the same
rate with common alum. But the greater difficulty at¬
tending the making of it would probably prevent it from
being saleable at a price sufficiently low to make it avail¬
able as a mordant.
Soda alum was first mentioned by Mr Winter in 1810
in his account of the Whitby alum processes (Nicholson’s
Jour. xxv. p. 254, 255); but before that time it had been
made by Charles Macintosh, Esq. of Crossbasket. Mr Alum.
William Wilson, at Hurlet, near Glasgow, afterwards
made it in considerable quantities. Specimens of it have
been still more recently sent by Dr Gillies from the
neighbourhood of Mendoza, in South America, where it
occurs native in considerable quantity.
These three different species of alum differ also some¬
what from each other in their specific gravities, which are
as follows:—
Ammoniacal alum  1*56 Sp. Gr.
Potash alum  1*75
Soda alum  1-881
The word alumen, which we translate alum, occurs in
Pliny’s Natural History. In the 15th chapter of his 35th
book, he gives us a detailed description of it. By com¬
paring this with the account of grvvrri^a given by Diosco-
rides in the 123d chapter of his 5th book, it becomes quite
obvious that he alludes to the same substance. Hence it
follows, that (STvnrrigia. is the Greek name for alumen. Pliny
informs us that alumen was found naturally in the earth.
He calls it salsugo terrce. Different substances, he informs
us, were distinguished by the name of alumen ; but they
were all characterized by a certain degree of astringency,
and were all employed in dyeing and in medicine. The
light-coloured alumen was useful in brilliant dyes, the
dark-coloured only in dyeing black or very dark colours.
One species of alumen was a liquid, which was apt to
be adulterated; but, when pure, it had the property of
striking a black with the juice of the pomegranate. This
property seems to characterize a solution of sulphate of
iron in water. It is quite obvious that a solution of our
alum would possess no such property. Pliny says that
there is another kind of alum which the Greeks call
schistos. It forms in white threads upon the surface of
certain stones. From the name schistos, and the mode of
formation, there can be little doubt that this species was
the salt which forms spontaneously on certain slaty mine¬
rals, as alum slate and bituminous shale, and which con¬
sists chiefly of sulphate of iron and sulphate of alumina.
Possibly in certain places the sulphate of iron may have
been nearly wanting, and then the salt would be white,
and would answer, as Pliny says it did, for dyeing bright
colours. Several other species of alumen are described
by Pliny, but we are unable to make out to what minerals
he alludes.
The alumen of the ancients, then, was not the same
with the alum of the moderns. It was most commonly
a sulphate of iron, sometimes probably a sulphate of alu¬
mina, and usually a mixture of the two. But the ancients
were unacquainted with our alum. They were acquaint¬
ed with sulphate of iron in a crystallized state, and dis¬
tinguished it by the names of misy, sory, chalcanthum.
{Pliny, xxxiv. 12.) As alum and green vitriol were ap¬
plied to a variety of purposes in common, and as both are
distinguished by a sweetish and astringent taste, writers,
even after the discovery of alum, do not seem to have
discriminated the two salts accurately from each other.
In the writings of the alchemists we find the words misy,
sory, chalcanthum, applied to alum as well as to sulphate
of iron ; and the name atramentum sutorium, which ought
to belong, one should suppose, exclusively to green vitriol,
applied indifferently to both.
When our alum was discovered is entirely unknown.
Beckman devoted a good deal of time to trace the history
of this salt, and published a curious dissertation on the
1 "fhe soda alum whose specific gravity is here given was the native, from the province of St Juan, on the north of Mendoza. It
contains less water, and therefore is probably heavier than common soda alum.
ALUM.
637
Alum, subject; but his attempts to trace its origin were unsuc-
cessful. The manufacture of it was discovered in the
East, but at what time or place is totally unknown. It
would appear that, about four or five hundred years ago,
there was a manufactory of it at Edessa in Syria, at that
time called Rocca; hence, it is supposed, the origin of
the term Rock alum, commonly employed in Europe :
though there are others who pretend that the term ori¬
ginated at Civita Vecchia, where alum is made from a
yellow mineral in the state of a hard rock.
Different alum works existed in the neighbourhood of
Constantinople. About the time of the fall of the Grecian
empire, the art of making alum was transported into Italy,
at that period the richest and most manufacturing coun¬
try in Europe. Bartholomew Pernix, a Genoese mer¬
chant, discovered alum ore in the island of Ischia, about
the year 1459. Nearly at the same time John di Castro,
who was well acquainted with the alum works in the
neighbourhood of Constantinople, suspected that a mine¬
ral fit for yielding alum existed at Tolfa, because it was
covered with the same trees that grew on the alum mine¬
ral near Constantinople. His conjecture was verified by
trials, and the celebrated manufactory at Tolfa establish¬
ed. Another was begun in the neighbourhood of Genoa;
and the manufacture flourished in different parts of Italy.
To this country it was confined for the greater part of a
century. Various manufactories of it were established in
Germany by the year 1544. In the time of Agricola
there was a manufactory of it at Commotau, in Bohemia.
About the same time an alum work was established at
Alcmaron, near Carthagena, in Spain.
England possessed no alum works till the reign of
Charles I. Thomas Chaloner, Esq. son of Dr Chaloner,
who had been tutor to Charles, while hunting on a com¬
mon in Yorkshire took notice of the soil and herbage,
and tasted the water. He found them similar to what he
had seen in Germany, where alum works were establish¬
ed. In consequence of this, he got a patent from Charles
for an alum work. This manufactory was worth two
thousand a year, or perhaps more. But some of the
courtiers thinking this too much for him, prevailed with
the king, notwithstanding the patent, to grant a moiety of
it to another person. Jhis was the reason why Mi Cha¬
loner was such a partisan of the parliament, and such an
enemy of the king, that, at the end of the civil war, he
was one of those who sat in judgment upon his majesty
and condemned him.1 Since that time various alum
works have been established in different parts of England
and Wales ; but no one at present exists in Britain except
the Whitby works, originally established by Mr Chaloner,
and two works at Hurlet and Campsie, both in the neigh¬
bourhood of Glasgow.
Several alum works likewise exist in Sweden, particu¬
larly in West Gothland. There is one, for example, at
Haensaeter, near the borders of the W ene Lake, on the
west side of the mountain called Kinnekulle. But, for a
description of the Swedish works, we refer to Bergmans
Opuscula, vol. i. p. 284, or the English translation, yol. i.
p. 342. We do not know if any alum works exist in
Poland or Russia; but as the greater part of these ex¬
tensive countries consists of alluvial soil to a great
depth, it is probable that little alum ore will be found in
them. , „
Various minerals are employed in the manufacture of
alum, but by far the most important of them are the fol¬
lowing three : ohf/n~sto/ic, alum~slatc, bituTTiiitous shale*
Alum-stone was first observed at Tolfa, in the neigh¬
bourhood of Rome; afterwards in Hungary; and Cordier
has shown that it is very common in volcanic rocks, but
that it never occurs anywhere else. {Annales dcs Mines,
tom. iv. p. 205, and tom. v. p. 303.)
The colour is white, greyish-white, or sometimes yel¬
lowish-white ; most commonly amorphous; but it occurs
also crystallized in rhomboids approaching to cubes, the
angles being about 89° and 91°. In some crystals the
apex of the rhomboid is replaced by a tangent plane.
The size of these crystals varies from 0*03937 to 0*11811
of an inch in length.
The specific gravity is 2*7517; but the amorphous
specimens, owing probably to cavities, are rather lighter.
Haiiy states the specific gravity to be 2*587; harder
than calcareous, but softer than fluor spar; fracture fo¬
liated in a direction perpendicular to the axis of the rhom¬
boid ; in all other directions the fracture is conchoidal;
fragments irregular, with blunt edges ; easily pulverized ;
feels harsh, and does not stain; decrepitates before the
blowpipe; gives out sulphureous acid when heated on
platinum-foil; and tastes of alum when applied to the
tongue. In a strong heat it loses its acid, and becomes
tasteless.
The constituents of the pure crystals, according to the
analysis of Cordier, are—
Sulphuric acid 35*495
Alumina 39*654
Potash 10*021
Water and loss 14*830
100
This approaches very nearly to
3 atoms trisulphate2 of alumina... = 35*25
1 atom sulphate of potash r= 11
7 atoms water = 7*875
Alum.
54*125
We see from this constitution that alum-stone contains
in itself all the ingredients of alum. The absence of iron
accounts for the superior purity for which Roman alum
was so long celebrated.
In the alum manufactory at Campsie, near Glasgow,
the alum is made from a shale taken out of the old aban¬
doned coal-pits in the neighbourhood. At first this shale
furnished alum by simple lixiviation with water. This
process having been continued for a number of years, a
great quantity of washed shale gradually accumulated
in the neighbourhood of the works. This shale, when
burnt, was found to yield a new crop of alum. Now,
in this burnt shale thin bands of a greyish-white matter
occasionally make their appearance, intermixed with por¬
tions having a yellow colour, and which are unequally
distributed. The fracture is earthy; the matter is opaque,
friable, and has an astringent, acid, and sweetish taste. The
specific gravity is 1*887.
It occurred to the writer of this article, that this sub¬
stance bore a considerable analogy to alum-stone. This
induced him to subject it to chemical examination.
When digested in water it dissolves, with the excep¬
tion of a white powder, amounting to 15*31 per cent.,
which is a subsulphate of alumina.
i betters nr Men by Eminent Persons in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, &c.; and Lives of Eminent Men, by John Aubrey, Esq.
V°* MsuIplmiTof akimina is meant a compound of three atoms of alumina and one atom of sulphuric acid. Persulphate indicates
a compound of three atoms of sulphuric acid and one atom of base.
X
ALUM.
638
Alum. When heated it melts somewhat like alum, and gives out
pure water. When heated to redness it swells out like
alum, and finally leaves a yellowish-white, porous, taste¬
less matter, nearly similar to what would be left by alum
treated in the same manner, making allowance for the
difference of colour.
The constituents were found to be—
1. Insoluble portion, amounting to 15‘31 per cent.
Alumina  5*11
Sulphuric acid lO-SO
15-31
2. Soluble portion, amounting to 84*69 per cent.
Sulphuric acid 30-225
Alumina 5*372
Peroxide of iron 8*530
Potash 1-172
Water 36-295
Loss, chiefly water   3-096
84-690
These constituents are equivalent to
24 atoms sulphate of alumina,
9 atoms bipersulphate of iron,
1 atom bisulphate of potash;
and each of these atoms is combined with about 5 atoms
of water.
From this analysis we see that the substance which
appears after burning the Campsie shale is not the same
with alum-stone; but it constitutes an excellent article
for the manufacture of alum, being highly productive;
and is consequently much valued by the manufacturers.
Alum-slate is a much more abundant mineral than
alum-stone. It is said to alternate with primitive clay-
slate. It occurs abundantly along with transition-slate;
and there can be little doubt that it occurs likewise in
the flcetz formations. In West Gothland in Sweden, it
constitutes a part of different hills, as Kinnekulle, Hunne-
berg, and Halleberg; in all of which it appears to alter¬
nate with floetz trap rocks. It occurs likewise abundantly
at Whitby, in Yorkshire. We have never ourselves been
upon the spot ;• but, from the general structure of York¬
shire and the neighbouring counties, indeed of the whole
east coast of England, there can be very little doubt that,
in this position, it is also a flcetz rock.
Alum-slate, as the name implies, is a slaty rock, though
sometimes it occurs in balls. The colour is bluish-black,
with a strong shade of grey; fracture straight slaty;
fragments tabular; its internal lustre is glimmering; it
retains its colour in the streak, but acquires more lustre;
soft; not particularly brittle ; when exposed to the air it
effloresces, and acquires an aluminous taste.
This mineral has never been accurately analyzed; but
there can be no doubt that it contains silica, alumina,
iron, sulphur, charcoal, and often likewise potash. Pro¬
bably this was the mineral upon which the alumen scissile
of the ancients was found.
Bituminous shale, the Brandschiefer of the Germans, is
a slaty mineral, which almost constantly accompanies beds
of coal, and accordingly is very common in Great Bri¬
tain. Its colour is brownish-black; its fracture is thin
slaty; fragments tabular ; internal lustre glimmering,
but the colour is not altered; very soft; rather sectile ;
feels rather greasy; easily frangible. When heated it
burns with a pale flame and sulphureous odour, and be¬
comes white. It has never been accurately analyzed;
but it is probably nothing more than slate-clay, which oc- Alum,
curs so abundantly in the independent coal formation,
impregnated with the matter of coal. Its other principal
constituents must be silica, alumina, and iron pyrites.
Slate-clay itself, at least not sufficiently impregnated
with coaly matter to deserve the name of bituminous
shale, is frequently employed in the making of alum. This
is the case in the neighbourhood of Glasgow.
Several native varieties of sulphate of alumina and soda
alum occur in South America, some of the most remark¬
able of which it may be proper to specify.
1. Sulphate of alumina from Rio Saldana. It is said
to occur in nests in the transition-slate of the Andes.
The colour is white, here and there tinged yellow, obvi¬
ously from external impurities. It occurs in fine crystal¬
line needles; lustre silky; taste that of alum, but strong¬
er ; specific gravity 1.6606; soft; before the blowpipe
behaves like alum. The writer of this article subjected
it to a chemical analysis, and found its constituents as fol¬
lows :—
Water 46-375
Alumina   14-645
Peroxide of iron 0-500
Soda 2-262
Sulphuric acid 35-872
Mechanical impurity, consisting of
ferruginous silica   0-100
99-754
This is equivalent to
1 atom sulphate of alumina,
6 atoms water,
atom sulphate of soda,
atom persulphate of iron.
So that if the sulphate of soda and persulphate of iron be
only accidental ingredients, the mineral is a compound of
1 atom sulphate of alumina  = 7*25
6 atoms water  — 6-75
14
2. Polcura, or alum-earth, found near the summit of a
lofty ridge near El Paso de las Damas, in the Chilian
Andes, and used as a mordant by the inhabitants in dye¬
ing red. This mineral was brought over to Great Britain
by Dr Gillies, who was kind enough to favour the writer
of this article with a specimen. It occurs in hard masses,
partly earthy, partly fibrous. The fibres have a silky
lustre. The colour is white, and the taste that of alum.
When digested in water, a portion was dissolved, and a
portion remained in the form of a white insipid earth.
The quantity of insoluble matter differed very much in
different parts of the specimen. The least was 8-62, and
the greatest 34-65 per cent. This insoluble matter con¬
tained a little sulphur; for, when heated, it emitted a
blue flame with the smell of sulphureous acid. The rest
of it was a mixture of alumina and silica, tinged yellow
by peroxide of iron. The portion dissolved in water, be¬
ing subjected to analysis, was found to consist of
1 atom disulphate1 of alumina   r= 9-5
1 atom sulphate of soda.....   = 9
18-5
3. Soda-alum. It occurs native in the province of St
Juan, situated to the north of Mendoza, on the east side
of the Chilian Andes, at about lat. 30° S. The alum
is white, and composed of fibres adhering longitudinally,
1 By disulphate of alumina is meant a compound of atom of sulphuric acid and two atoms of alumina.
ALUM.
Alum. and having a certain breadth, but very thin. It bears
some resemblance to fibrous gypsum, but is harder, not
being scratched by the nail, though the knife scratches it
with great ease. It is sectile. The outer fibres are white
and only slightly translucent, as if they had lost a por¬
tion of their water; but the internal fibres are transpa¬
rent, and have a silky aspect.
It tastes precisely like alum, and is very soluble, wa¬
ter at the temperature of 62° dissolving 3*773 parts of it,
and boiling water dissolving any quantity whatever. When
exposed to heat, it behaves very nearly as common alum.
Its constituents were found to be—
Sulphuric acid 20*000
Alumina 6*360
Soda 4*000
Silica 0*012
Lime 0*136
Protoxide of iron 0*423
Peroxide of iron 0*110
Water 22*209
53*250
It will be observed that the sulphuric acid constitutes
just four atoms, the soda one atom, and the alumina just
0*29 less than three atoms. But the quantity of lime and
oxides of iron present is exactly equivalent to 0*29 atom
of alumina. Hence these substances appear to have dis¬
placed a small quantity of alumina in the salt. The wa¬
ter amounts to very nearly twenty atoms. It is obvious
from all this, that the true constitution of the salt is—
3 atoms sulphate of alumina  = 21*75
1 atom sulphate of soda  = 9*00
20 atoms water  z= 22*50
53*25
It contains five atoms less water than soda-alum artifi¬
cially crystallized.
4. There is a mineral called aluminite, which was ob¬
served in the environs of Halle many years ago, and which
was afterwards detected by Mr Webster in the chalk
rocks of Newhaven in Sussex, which, if it were suffi¬
ciently abundant, would constitute an excellent material
for the manufacture of alum.
Its colour is snow-white. It occurs in reniform pieces
of greater or smaller size ; fracture fine earthy; dull;
streak glistening ; opaque; adheres feebly to the tongue ;
soils very slightly; very soft; feels fine, but meagre ;
specific gravity 1*7054. Its constituents, as determined
by three several analyses of Stromeyer, are—
I atom sulphuric acid  = 5
3 atoms alumina  = 6*75
9 atoms water      = 10*125
21*875
It is therefore a hydrous trisulphate of alumina.
Four different processes are employed in the manufac¬
ture of alum, according to the nature of the mineral from
which the alum is to be extracted.
The process employed at Tolfa is the simplest of all.
If the Tolfa stone be kept constantly moistened with
water for about two months, it falls to powder of itself,
and yields alum by lixiviation. But this is not the pro¬
cess employed by the manufacturers. The alum-stone is
broken into small pieces, and piled on the top of a perfo¬
rated dome, in which a wood fire is kindled. The smoke
and flame of the wood penetrate through the pieces of
alum-stone, and a sulphureous odour is disengaged, owing
to the decomposition of a portion of the sulphuric acid in
the stone. This roasting is twice performed ; the pieces of
639
ore which, the first time, were at the edge of the dome, Alum,
being the second time put in the middle. The process
of roasting this stone requires considerable attention. If
the heat be too great, the quality of yielding alum is
destroyed: if the heat be too small, the stone does not
readily fall to powder. There can be little doubt that the
unroasted stone would yield more alum than the roasted;
but probably the additional labour requisite in the latter
case would more than swallow up the increase of product.
The roasted stone, which has now acquired a reddish
colour, is placed in rows between trenches filled with
water. This liquid is so frequently sprinkled on it, that
the stone is always moist. In two or three days it falls
to powder, like slacked quicklime; but the daily watering
is continued for a month. The success of this part of
the operation is said to depend very much on the weather.
When the weather is rainy, the alum is all washed out,
and little or nothing left for the manufacturer to extract.
In such cases, it is obvious that the alum-stone should be
protected from the rain by a shed.
When the stone has by this process been reduced to a
sufficiently fine powder, it is thrown into a leaden boiler
filled two thirds with water. During the boiling, the
powder is frequently stirred up, and the water that eva¬
porates is replaced. When the boiling has been conti¬
nued for a sufficient time, the fire is withdrawn, and time
allowed for the earthy matter to subside to the bottom.
A cock is then opened, which allows the clear liquor to
flow out into deep wooden square vessels, so made that
they can be easily taken to pieces. Here the alum gra¬
dually crystallizes, and attaches itself to the sides and bot¬
tom of the vessel. The mother liquid is now drawn off
into shallower wooden troughs, where more alum crystals
are deposited. The liquid has now a red colour, and is
muddy; and the last alum crystals are mixed with this red
matter. They are washed clean in the mother liquor,
which is finally pumped into a trough, and used in subse¬
quent processes.
The alum obtained at Tolfa is known by the name of
Homan alum, and is in very high estimation. It is always
mixed with a little reddish powdery matter, which is easily
separated from it. What this red matter is, has not been
ascertained; but it is not peroxide of iron. To the eye
it has very much the appearance of a vegetable matter.
We have some notion that it is added artificially by the
sellers of Roman alum. Probably Roman alum at first
had a red tinge, in consequence of the red matter in the
mother liquor remaining partially attached to it. The
goodness of the alum may have given the purchasers a
partiality to the red colour, and induced the sellers to add
a red powder artificially. We have never had an oppor¬
tunity ourselves of examining this matter, but have been
informed by those who have, that it contains no iron.
It is not improbable that this process would be improv¬
ed by grinding the Tolfa stone to a fine powder in a mill,
without any previous roasting, and then keeping the pow¬
der moistened with water for a considerable time. If the
residual earth, after the alum is extracted, be boiled with
sulphuric acid, the liquid yields alum crystals by evapo¬
ration. This is a demonstration that neither the alumina
nor the potash is exhausted, and that the sulphuric acid
driven off by the roasting is so much alum lost to the
manufacturer. Indeed the quantity of sulphuric acid in
the alum-stone is not sufficient to occupy the whole of the
potash in the formation of alum. It would be necessary
to add about one tenth of the weight of the alum-stone
of sulphuric acid, if it were wanted to employ the whole
potash present in the stone. The consequence of this ad¬
dition, supposing no loss, would be an additional quanti-
x
640 A L
Alum, ty of alum, amounting to rather more than one fifth of the
weight of the alum-stone employed.
Alum-slate, being very different in its composition, re¬
quires a different treatment to fit it for yielding alum. If
the alum-slate contain a notable quantity of lime or mag¬
nesia, it does not answer the purposes of the manufac¬
turer so well. Indeed the proportion of lime present may
be conceived to be such that no alum whatever would be
obtained. As alum-slate has never been subjected to
accurate analysis, we do not know in what proportion
these two earths exist in it, or whether they may not, in
many cases, be absent altogether. The essential ingre¬
dients in alum-slate, for the alum-makers, are alumina and
iron pyrites.
The first process is to roast the ore. In Sweden, where
the fuel is wood, and consequently expensive, it is cus¬
tomary to use the alum-slate itself as fuel for roasting the
ore. For this purpose a small layer of brushwood is
covered with pieces of alum-slate, and set on fire ; and, as
the combustion proceeds, new layers of alum-slate are
added. It is usual to place alternate layers of roasted and
unroasted alum-slate. The combustion continues for a
month or six weeks. At Whitby, coal is employed for
roasting the alum-slate. Indeed the alum-slate of Whitby
is lighter coloured than that of Sweden, and probably
would not burn of itself. So great is the quantity of com¬
bustible matter in the Swedish alum-slate, that it is em¬
ployed as fuel for burning limestone. Great quantities of
limestone are burnt in this manner at Hunneberg, near
the south side of the lake Wener. The roasted ore has
usually a brown colour. When it is red, the quantity of
alum which it yields is considerably diminished.
By this roasting the pyrites is decomposed. The sul¬
phur is converted into sulphuric acid, while the iron is
oxidized. In what manner this change is produced it is
not easy to say. Indeed it does not seem certain that
pyrites is a constant ingredient in alum-slate. We have
never been able to detect any, by the eye, in any speci¬
mens of Whitby alum-slate which we have examined.
At Haensaeter, in Sweden, no sulphate of iron crystallizes
when the liquid is evaporated; yet, if pyrites had been
present, it is difficult to see any reason that should pre¬
vent this salt from being formed. Hence it is probable,
that in alum-slate the sulphur is sometimes at least com¬
bined with other substances than iron. It must always
be in a state of combination; for, if it were in a loose
state, it would be driven off by the roasting. This point
deserves to be elucidated by analyzing different varieties
of alum-slate.
I he roasted ore has an astringent taste, owing to the
sulphate of iron and sulphate of alumina which it con¬
tains. The next process is to lixiviate it with water, in
order to dissolve these salts. For this purpose it is put
into reservoirs made of wood or masonry, with a stop¬
cock at the bottom to draw off the water. The usual
method is to keep the water for twelve hours in contact
with ore that has been twice lixiviated; then to draw
!t on, and allow it to remain for an equal period on ore
that has been once lixiviated. Lastly, it is run upon
fresh ore, and allowed to remain on it for twelve hours
longer. If the specific gravity of the liquid thus treated
be 1-25 at the temperature of 55°, it may be considered
as saturated with sulphate of alumina and sulphate of
iron. But we presume that this specific gravity is not
often obtained.
The liquid, thus impregnated with salt, is now boiled
down in leaden vessels to the proper consistency for crys¬
tallization. In Sweden, the fuel employed for this pur¬
pose is alum-slate. By this means a double effect is
U M.
produced; the liquid is evaporated, and the alum-slate Alum,
is roasted. During the boiling, abundance of oxide of^-^v^>
iron falls mixed with selenite, if lime be one of the con¬
stituents of the alum-slate. When the liquid is suffi¬
ciently concentrated, it is let into a square reservoir, in
order to crystallize. Great quantities of sulphate of iron
crystals are usually deposited in this vessel. These are
collected by drawing the liquid off into another reservoir.
When all the sulphate of iron that can be obtained has
been separated, a quantity of sulphate of potash, muriate
of potash, or putrid urine, is mixed with the liquid. The
sulphate of potash is procured from the sulphuric acid-
makers, and the muriate of potash from the soap-makers.
By this addition, alum is formed in the liquid, and it
gradually deposits itself in crystals on the sides of the
vessel. These crystals are collected, and dissolved in the
smallest quantity of boiling water that will take them up.
This solution is poured into large wooden casks. In a
fortnight or three weeks the alum crystallizes, and covers
the sides and bottom of the cask. The hoops are now
taken off, and the staves of the cask removed. A mass
of alum crystals, having the shape of the cask, remains.
This mass is pierced, the mother liquor allowed to run
out, and preserved for a subsequent process. The alum,
being now broken in pieces, is fit for sale.
The manufacture of alum from bituminous shale and
slate-clay bears a considerable resemblance to the manu¬
facture from alum-slate, but differs in several particu¬
lars. There are two works of this kind in the neighbour¬
hood of Glasgow, managed with great skill, and excellent
in every respect. We shall give a sketch of the pro¬
cesses followed in these works. The bituminous shale
and slate-clay employed are obtained from old coal-pits,
which are very extensive in the neighbourhood of Glas¬
gow. The air in these coal-pits is moist, and its average
temperature about 62°. The shale, having been exposed
for many years, has gradually opened in the direction of
its slaty fracture, so as to resemble in some respects a
half-shut fan; and all the chinks in it are filled with a sa¬
line efflorescence in threads. This salt is white, with a
shade of green ; has a sweetish astringent taste ; and con¬
sists of a mixture of sulphate of iron and sulphate of alu¬
mina. In order to obtain these salts in a state of solu¬
tion, nothing more is requisite than to lixiviate this shale
with water. The lixiviated ore being left exposed to the
weather, forms more salt, which is gradually washed out
of it by the rain-water, and this water is collected and
preserved for use.
The next step in the process is to boil down the liquid
to a sufficient state of concentration. At Campsie, all
these boilers are composed of stone, and the heat is applied
to the surface. This is a great saving, as leaden vessels
are not only much more expensive, but require more fre¬
quent renewal. When the liquid is raised to a sufficiently
high temperature in the stone reservoir, pounded sul¬
phate of potash, or muriate of potash, as they can be
procured, is mixed with it; and there is an agitator in the
vessel, by which it is continually stirred about. This ad¬
dition converts the sulphate of alumina into alum. The
liquid is now let into another trough, and allowed to re¬
main till it crystallizes. In this liquid there are two salts
contained in solution, viz. sulphate of iron and alum ; and
it is an object of great consequence to separate them
completely from each other. The principal secret con¬
sists in drawing off the mother liquor at the proper time ;
for the alum is much less soluble in water than the sul¬
phate of iron, and therefore crystallizes first. The first
crystals of alum formed are very impure. They have a
yellow colour, and seem to be partly impregnated with
A L V
Alum, sulphate of iron. They are dissolved in hot water, and
the solution poured into troughs, and allowed to crystal¬
lize a second time. These second crystals, though much
purer, are not quite free from sulphate of iron; but the
separation is accomplished by washing them repeatedly
with cold water; for sulphate of iron is much more solu¬
ble in that liquid than alum. These second crystals are
now dissolved in as small a quantity of hot water as pos¬
sible, and the concentrated liquid poured while hot into
large casks, the surface of which is covered with two cross
beams. As the liquor cools, a vast number of alum crys¬
tals form on the sides and surface. The casks are allow¬
ed to remain till the liquid within is supposed to be
nearly of the temperature of the atmosphere. This, in
winter, requires eleven days; in summer, fourteen or
more. We have seen the liquid in a cask that had stood
eleven days in summer, still more than blood-hot. The
hoops are then removed, precisely as in the manufacture
of alum from alum-slate.
There always remains in the boilers a yellowish sub¬
stance, consisting chiefly of peroxide of iron. This is ex¬
posed to a strong heat in a reverberatory furnace, and it
becomes red. In this state it is washed, and yields more
alum. The red residue is ground to a fine powder, and
dried. It then answers all the purposes of Venetian red
as a pigment. By altering the temperature to which this
matter is exposed, a yellow ochre is obtained instead of
a red.
In France, where alum-ores are by no means abundant,
alum is manufactured from clay. This method of making
the salt was first put in practice by Chaptal, when pro¬
fessor of chemistry at Montpellier. His methods have
been since gradually improved, and brought to a state of
considerable perfection. The first process tried was this:
the clay was reduced to a fine powder in a mill, and then
mixed with sulphuric acid. After remaining some days,
it was exposed for twenty-four hours to a temperature of
about 130°. It was then lixiviated, and the liquid mixed
with urine or potash. This method being found inconve¬
nient, was abandoned for the following: the clay being
well ground, was mixed with half its weight of the saline
residue from a mixture of sulphur and nitre. This resi¬
due is little else than sulphate of potash. The mixture
was formed into balls about five inches in diameter, which
were calcined in a potter’s furnace. They were then
placed on the floor of a chamber in which sulphuric acid
was made. The acid vapour caused them to swell, and
to open on all sides. In about a month they were suffi¬
ciently penetrated with the acid. They were then ex¬
posed to the air, under shades, that the saturation might
become more complete. Finally, they were lixiviated,
and the liquid being evaporated, yielded pure alum.
This process has been considerably improved by Berard,
the present proprietor of the Montpellier alum work. In¬
stead of exposing the calcined balls to the fumes of sul¬
phuric acid, he sprinkles them with a quantity of sulphuric
acid of the specific gravity 1*367, equal to the weight of
the clay employed : but it is obvious that the proportion
must vary with the nature of the clay. The solution takes
place with the greatest facility, and crystals of alum are
obtained by evaporating the liquid.
Another process was put in practice by Chaptal, in the
neighbourhood of Paris, and is still followed, or was at
least followed some years ago, by M. Bouvier. A mixture
is made of 100 parts of clay, 50 parts of nitre, and 50 parts
of sulphuric acid of the specific gravity 1*367; and this
mixture is put into a retort, and distilled. Aquafortis
comes over, and the residue in the retort being lixiviated
with water, yields abundance of excellent alum.
VOL. II.
A L V 641
We may mention another process described by Carau- Alva,
dau, and certainly practicable, and even easy, though we^-^v^*^
do not believe that it would be attended with profit. He
forms 100 parts of clay into a paste with water, holding 5
parts of common salt in solution. This paste is formed
into cakes, and calcined in a reverberatory furnace. The
calcined mass is reduced to powder, and well mixed with
the fourth part of its weight of concentrated sulphuric
acid. When the muriatic acid vapours are dissipated, as
much water is added as there had been employed of acid,
and the mass is carefully kneaded. A strong heat is pro¬
duced ; the composition swells ; more water is added; and
at last a solution of potash, in which the alkali amounts to
one fourth of the acid employed. The liquor is now drawn
off, and, on cooling, it yields a copious deposite of alum
crystals. (t. t.)
ALUNNO, Nicolo, a painter ofFoligno, who flourished
between 1468 and 1492. The heads in his historical pictures
are generally portraits, which gave a vivacity and force to
his compositions rarely seen in works of that age. Lanzi
Stor. Pittor. II.
ALUNTIUM, or Aloxtium, in Ancient Geography, a
town in the north of Sicily, situated on a steep eminence at
the mouth of the Chydas; said to be as old as the war of
Troy. It is now in ruins; and from these has arisen the
hamlet San Filadelfo, in the Val di Demona.
ALVA de Tobmes. See Alba.
Alva, or Alba, Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, Duke of,
was born in 1508, and descended from one of the most il¬
lustrious families in Spain. His grandfather, Ferdinand of
Toledo, was his preceptor in the military and political arts;
and he displayed his valour at the battle of Pavia and at the
siege of Tunis. The ambitious Charles V. selected Alva as
a proper instrument for conducting his military enterprises.
In 1538 he made him his general; and, after several ope¬
rations, in which he displayed both valour and military skill,
in 1542 he successfully defended Perpignan against the
dauphin of France.
In 1546 Alva was made general-in-chief of the army which
marched against the German Protestants, who were mar¬
shalled under the banners of the elector of Saxony. Francis;
the king of France, died at Rambouillet, and by his death a
considerable change was made in the state of Europe.
Charles therefore instantly began his march from Egra on
the borders of Bohemia, and entering the southern frontier
of Saxony, attacked Altorf upon the Elster. Incessantly push¬
ing forward, he arrived on the evening of the 23d of April
on the banks of the Elbe, opposite to Muhlberg. The river
at that place was three hundred paces in breadth and about
four feet in depth, its current rapid, and the bank possessed
by the Saxons was higher than that which he occupied. In
opposition to the opinion of the duke of Alva and his other
officers, Charles, with undaunted courage, though with inex¬
pressible difficulty, led his army through the river and en¬
gaged the Saxons. The elector displayed great personal
courage and military knowledge; but having received a
wound in the face, he at last surrendered himself prisoner.
The emperor proceeded towards Wittenberg, whither the re¬
mains of the Saxon army had fled, carrying along with him
the captive prince, as a spectacle of consternation and amaze¬
ment to his own subjects. But when he approached the
town, he found it defended by the vigorous efforts of the
elector’s wife, Sibylla, along with the inhabitants. He sum¬
moned her once and a second time to open the gates, inform¬
ing her that if she persisted in her obstinacy the elector should
answer for it with his head. Accordingly he brought his
prisoner to an immediate trial. The proceedings against
him were as irregular as the stratagem was barbarous. In¬
stead of consulting the states of the empire, or remitting the
4 m,
ALVA.
642
Alva, cause to any court, which, according to the German consti-
tution, might have legally taken cognizance of the elector s
crime, he subjected the greatest prince in the empire to the
jurisdiction of a court-martial. The emperor selected the
unrelenting duke of Alva as a proper instrument to carry
into effect any measure of violence and oppression, and
therefore made him president of that court, composed of
Spanish and Italian officers. Moved more by the entreaties
of his wife than by a sense of his own danger, the elector, in
order to save his life, submitted to all the rigorous and un¬
just measures that were proposed; but when it was added
that he should also renounce the Protestant faith and be¬
come a Roman Catholic, he refused to act in opposition to
his conscience, and bravely fell a sacrifice to the cause of truth.
In 1552 Alva was intrusted with the command of the
army intended to invade France, and was constrained by
the opinion and authority of the emperor to lay siege to
Mentz, in opposition to his own military knowledge; but,
notwithstanding all his valour and abilities, the duke of Guise
successfully defended the place. In consequence of the
success of the French arms in Piedmont, he was made com-
mander-in-chief of all the emperor’s forces in Italy, and at
the same time invested with unlimited power. Success did
not, however, attend his first attempts, and after several un¬
fortunate attacks he was obliged to retire into winter quar¬
ters. The next year he was sent into the pope’s territories ;
and, had he not been restrained by his master, he would
have taken possession of all his fortified places, and deterred
Henry from entering into any new connection with him, and
have thereby prevented the renewal of the war. Philip was
strongly disposed to peace, but Alva was inclined to severe
measures. He yielded, however, to the instructions of his
master, until being deluded, and sometimes haughtily an¬
swered, he at length sent Pino de Loffredo with a letter to
the college of cardinals, and another to Paul, in which, after
enumerating the various injuries which his master had re¬
ceived, and renewing his former offers of peace and friend¬
ship, he concluded with protesting that, if his offers were
again rejected, the pope should be chargeable with all the
calamities that might follow. The pope threw Loffredo into
prison; and, had not the college of cardinals interposed, he
would even have put him to death; and on account of
Philip’s failing to pay tribute for Naples, he deprived him
of the sovereignty of that kingdom. This violent conduct
of Paul gave great offence throughout all Europe, and greatly
lessened his influence in Italy ; but Philip, though a young,
ambitious, and powerful monarch, and of a temper impatient
of injuries and affronts, moved with a religious veneration,
discovered an amazing reluctance to proceed to extremities.
After much time spent in negotiation, Philip was at last
forced to give orders for Alva to take the field. He cheer¬
fully obeyed, and began his march in the beginning of Sep¬
tember 1556, with a well-disciplined army; and after re¬
ducing several towns in the Campagna di Roma, he pursued
his conquests to the very gates of Rome. The circum¬
stances, however, in which Alva found his army induced
him to make a truce of forty days, and after several nego¬
tiations he yielded to peace. One of its terms was, that the
duke of Alva should in person ask forgiveness of the haughty
pontiff whom he had conquered. Proud as the duke was
by nature, and accustomed to treat with persons of the
highest dignity, yet such was the superstitious veneration
then entertained for the papal character, that he confessed
his voice failed him at the interview, and his presence of
mind forsook him. Not long after this he was sent at the
head of a splendid embassy to Paris, to espouse, in the
name of his master, Elizabeth, daughter of Henry, king of
France.
Philip II., his new master, being strongly devoted to the
Roman see, and determined, by the most unrelenting se- ^ AIva-
verity and unbounded cruelty, to reclaim rebels to his go- v—
vernment and dissenters from his faith, pitched upon Alva
as the fittest person to carry this system into practice. With
this design, therefore, he was sent into the Low Countries
in 1567. Having received his orders, armed with such power
as left only the shadow of authority to the natural governor,
and provided with 10,000 veterans, he marched towards that
devoted country. When he arrived, he soon showed how
much he merited the confidence which his master reposed
in him, and instantly erected a bloody tribunal to try all per¬
sons who had been engaged in the late commotions which
the civil and the religious tyranny of Philip had excited. He
imprisoned the counts Egmont and Horn, the two popular
leaders of the Protestants, and soon brought them to an un¬
just trial, and condemned them to death. In a little time he
totally annihilated every privilege of the people, and, with
uncontrolled fury and cruelty, put multitudes of them to
death. Beholding herself deprived of all authority, and her
subjects devoted to destruction, the duchess of Parma re¬
signed her office, disdaining to hold a nominal power, while
the actual government was in the hands of Alva. I his event
increased the general tide of wretchedness, and every place
was filled with scenes of horror and dismay. Unable for
the present to administer the least aid, the prince of Orange
saved his life by flight. This noble prince suddenly collect¬
ing an army in Germany, returned to the relief of his coun¬
trymen ; and at the same time Prince Lewis, his brother,
marched with an army into Friesland. Although success
at first attended Lewis, yet the activity and experience of
Alva prevailed, and he was totally defeated. The prince
of Orange proved a more formidable foe ; and it required the
united talents of Alva and his son Frederick of Toledo to
prevent the prince from making a descent upon the Nether¬
lands. But notwithstanding all the address and military skill
of the prince of Orange, the descent was prevented ; and
Alva had the glory of baffling that great leader, and of com¬
pelling him, after great loss of men, to disband the remainder
of his army. Alva could now indulge his cruelty unre¬
strained. The executioner was instantly employed in remov¬
ing all those friends of freedom whom the sword had spared.
In most of the considerable towns Alva built citadels. In
the city of Antwerp he erected a statue of himself, which was
a monument no less of his vanity than of his tyranny: he
was figured trampling on the necks of two smaller statues,
representing the two estates of the Low Countries. By his
unusual and arbitrary demand of new supplies from the states,
he greatly aggravated this haughty insult. The exiles from
the Low Countries, roused to action by his oppression, fitted
out a kind of piratical fleet, and, after strengthening them¬
selves by successful depredations, ventured upon the bold
exploit of seizing the town of Briel. Thus Alva, by his
cruelty, became the unwitting instrument of the future in¬
dependence of the seven Dutch provinces. The fleet of the
exiles having met the Spanish fleet, totally defeated it, and
reduced North Holland and Mons. Many cities hastened
to throw off the yoke : while the states-general assembling
at Dordrecht, openly declared against Alva’s government,
and marshalled under the banners of the prince of Orange.
This situation of affairs convinced Alva of the instability of
a government upheld by terror and oppression; he there¬
fore began, when too late, to employ more lenient measures.
His preparations to oppose the gathering storm were con¬
certed with his usual vigour, and he succeeded in recover¬
ing Mons, Mechlin, and Zutphen, under the conduct of his
son Frederick, where his soldiers more than retaliated upon
the prince of Orange. With the exception of Zealand and
Holland, he regained all the provinces ; and at last his son
stormed Waerdan, and massacring its inhabitants with the
A L V
Alvarado, most savage cruelty, proceeded to invest the city of Haar-
v—lem. Fully convinced of the miseries that awaited their
surrender, this city stood an obstinate siege; and nothing
less than the inflexible and persevering spirit of Alva could
have overcome difficulties almost insurmountable. Despair¬
ing of success, Frederick was at one time disposed to raise
the siege, but the stern reproaches of his father urged him
on ; and at length the inhabitants, overcome with fatigue,
surrendered. The victorious Frederick gave tolerable con¬
ditions to the town ; but his inhuman father arriving on the
third day after the surrender, sacrificed to his vengeance
many who had been flattered with a promise of mercy.
Their next attack was upon Alcmaar; but the spirit of des¬
perate resistance was raised to such a height in the breasts
of the Hollanders, that the Spanish veterans were repulsed
with great loss, and Frederick constrained reluctantly to re¬
tire. Alva now resolved to try his fortune by sea, and with
great labour and expense fitted out a powerful fleet, with
which he proceeded to attack the Zealanders ; but was en¬
tirely defeated, and the commander taken prisoner. About
the same period the prince of Orange proceeded to at¬
tack the town of Gertruydenberg. Alva’s feeble state of
health and continued disasters induced him to solicit his re-
cal from the government of the Low Countries ; a measure
which, in all probability, was not displeasing to Philip, who
was now resolved to make trial of a milder administration.
In December 1573 that devoted country was relieved from
the presence and oppressions of the duke of Alva, who, re¬
turning home, accompanied by his son, made the infernal
boast that during the course of six years, besides the mul¬
titudes destroyed in battle and massacred after victory, he
had consigned 18,000 persons to the executioner.
Returning from this scene of oppression and blood, he
was treated for some time with great distinction by his
master. Justice, however, soon overtook the crimes of
Alva; for his son, having debauched one of the king’s atten¬
dants, under promise of marriage, was committed to prison;
and being aided in his escape by his father, and married
by him to a cousin of his own, Alva was banished from
court, and confined in the castle of Uzeda. In this dis¬
graceful situation he remained two years, when the success
of Don Antonio, in assuming the crown of Portugal, deter¬
mined Philip to turn his eyes towards a person in whose
fidelity and abilities he could on this occasion most confide.
A secretary was instantly despatched to Alva, to ascertain
whether his health was sufficiently vigorous to enable him
to undertake the command of an army. The aged chief
returned an answer full of loyal zeal, and was immediately
appointed to the supreme command in Portugal. It is a
striking fact, however, that the enlargement and elevation
of Alva were not followed by forgiveness. In 1581 Alva
entered Portugal, defeated Antonio, drove him from the
kingdom, and soon reduced the whole under the subjection
of Philip. Entering Lisbon, he seized an immense treasure,
and suffered his soldiers, with their accustomed violence and
rapacity, to sack the suburbs and vicinity. It is reported,
that Alva being requested to give an account of the money
expended on that occasion, sternly replied, “ If the king
asks me for an account, I will make him a statement of king¬
doms preserved or conquered, of signal victories, of success¬
ful sieges, and of sixty years’ service.” Philip deemed it
proper to make no further inquiries. Alva, however, did
not enjoy the honours and rewards of his last expedition,
for he died in 1583, at the age of 74. See Holland.
ALVARADO, Pedro de, a native of Badajos, who, as
the lieutenant of Hernando Cortes the famous conqueror
of Mexico, was himself scarcely less celebrated. He died
in 1541.—See Barcia, Historiadores Primitivos ; and De
Solis, Ilistoria de la Conquista.
ALU 643
ALVARES de Luna, treasurer and favourite of John Alvaree
II., king of Castile, celebrated for the powerful ascendency II
which he gained over this prince. He was a natural son of Alvinz-
Don Alvaro de Luna, lord of Canete in Aragon, and of a
woman of infamous character. He was born in 1388, and
named Peter ; but Pope Benedict XIII. who was charmed
with his wit though yet a child, changed Peter to Alvares.
He was introduced to court in 1408, and made a gentleman
of the bed-chamber to King John, in whose service he ac¬
quired the most distinguished favour. In 1427 the hostility
of the courtiers occasioned his banishment from court for a
year and a half. His absence was a source of the utmost
affliction to the king, who could now speak or think of no¬
thing but Alvares. He was therefore recalled ; and being
invested with his former authority, he revenged himself
severely upon his enemies, by persuading the king to banish
them. He spent 45 years at court, and during 30 of them
maintained such an ascendency over the king, that nothing
could be done without his concurrence: nay, it is related
by Mariana, that the king could not change an officer or
servant, or even his clothes or diet, without the approbation
of Alvares. He was master of the treasury, and had so
gained the affections of the subjects by his profusion, that
the king, though his eyes were now opened, and his favour
withdrawn, was afraid to complain. A day of retribution
however was at hand ; the popular favour, as well as the
affections of the monarch, declined, and Alvares was thrown
into prison. Being brought to trial and condemned, he was
removed to Valladolid, and there beheaded in the market¬
place. He met his fate with the utmost intrepidity.
ALVAREZ, Francisco, of Coimbra, a priest, and al¬
moner to Emanuel king of Portugal, was sent in 1515 as
secretary to Duarte Galvaon on an embassy to David, king
of Abyssinia. The expedition having been delayed by the
way, it was not until 1520 that he reached Abyssinia, where
he remained six years, and returned to Lisbon in 1527. In
1540, the year of his death, he published at Lisbon an ac¬
count of his travels in one volume folio, entitled Descrip-
cam das Terras de Preste Joam, fyc. This curious work
was translated in Latin, under the title of De Fide, Pegione,
et Moribus TEthiopum, by Damien Goez, a Portuguese
gentleman ; and has often been reprinted and translated
into other languages. The information it contains must,
however, be received with caution, as the author is prone
to exaggerate, and does not confine his remarks to his own
observation.
Alyarez, Don Jose, an eminent Spanish sculptor, born
at Priego in 1768. He was originally a stone mason, but
by talent and perseverance he gained the royal gratuity,
which sent him to study at Rome, and there obtained much
reputation for Ids invention, the expression, and the grace
of his figures. He was favourably noticed by Napoleon
when studying at Paris ; and was considered by his coun¬
trymen as the Canova of modern Spain. His Ganymede
is his masterpiece. He was an uncompromising Spanish
Patriot; on which account he was imprisoned at Rome,
where he chiefly resided. He returned to Madrid in 1826,
but died in about a year. There was another Spanish sculp¬
tor of merit named Manuel Alvarez, who flourished
about the middle of the last century.—See Bermisdez Dic-
cionario.
A LVERCA, a town and small port on the Tagus, 16
miles north-east of Lisbon. Pop. 3000.
ALVEOLUS, in Natural History, the name of the
waxen cells in bee-hives. Also the name of a sea-fossil, of
the order of Polyparia, of a conical figure, composed of a
number of cells like bee-hives, joined into each other with
a pipe of communication.
ALVINZ, a market-town on the Maros, in the Austrian
x
644 A L Y
Alyattes province of Transylvania. It contains a Catholic, a Greek,
II and a Reformed church, and a Franciscan monastery. The
Alytarcha. inhabitants, who are chiefly Bulgarians and Magyars, amount
 ' to 3500.
ALYATTES, king of Lydia, father of Croesus. He was
buried under an immense tumulus near Sardis, by the lake
Gygaea; which is described by Chandler as still retaining
the form mentioned by Herodotus, among a multitude of
smaller tumuli, though erected 562 years b.c.
ALYZIA, an ancient city of Acarnania, about 15 stadia
from the coast, the ruins of which are still to be seen in the
valley of Kandile.
ALWAIDII, a sect of Mahometans who believe all
great crimes to be unpardonable. The Alwaidii stand in
opposition to the Morgii. They attribute less efficacy to
the true belief in the salvation of men than the rest of the
Mussulmans.
ALWUR, in Central India, the capital of the native
state of the same name, in the province of Rajpootana,
and the residence of the reigning Rajah. This chief has
attracted the notice and commendation of the British Go¬
vernment by his departure from the native mode of admini¬
stering his possessions, and introducing the British method
in its place. Under the reformed system the custom of
farming the revenue has been abolished ; justice is admini¬
stered separately in the civil and criminal department; re¬
venue duties are no longer blended with those of police,
and the troops are maintained by cash payments instead of
territorial assignments. The experiment is the more inter¬
esting, inasmuch as since its introduction this principality
has been represented by competent authority (the late
Colonel Sutherland) as one of the most flourishing native
states of India. Distance north-west from Calcutta 900
miles. Lat. 27. 34. Long. 76. 40. (e. t.)
ALYPIUS of Antioch, a geographer of the fourth cen¬
tury. He was sent by the emperor Julian into Britain as
deputy-governor ; and after remaining in this situation for
some time, he received orders from the emperor to rebuild
the temple of Jerusalem. An account of the extraordinary
interruption of that undertaking by fiery eruptions from the
earth, is given under the article Jews ; and may be read at
length in Ammianus Marcellinus, xxxiii. Among the let¬
ters of Julian are two (29 and 30) addressed to Alypius;
one inviting him to Rome, the other thanking him for a
geographical treatise, which no longer exists.
Alypius, one of the seven Greek writers on music w hose
works are collected and published, with a commentary and
explanatory notes, by Meibomius. The time in which he
flourished cannot be precisely ascertained. He is said to
have written before Euclid and Ptolemy; and Cassiodorus
arranges his work, entitled Introduction to Music, between
those of Nicomachus and Gaudentius. In this wrork is to be
found the most complete nomenclature of all the sounds of
the different scales and modes in the ancient Greek music
which have escaped the wreck of time.
Alypius of Tagasta, a Christian divine of the fourth cen¬
tury. He was baptized at Milan in 388, and consecrated
bishop of Tagasta in Africa in 394. He assisted his friend
St Augustine in opposing the tenets of the Donatists, who
claimed the exclusive honour of being the true Church.
In 419 he was sent by the African bishops to Honorius, and
was employed by Pope Boniface against the Pelagians.
Alypius died in 430. There is extant an epistle of his in
Greek addressed to St Cyril, on the heresy of Nestorius.
ALYTARCHA, a magistrate who, at the games insti¬
tuted in honour of the gods, presided over the officers who
carried rods to clear away the crowd and keep order. In
the Olympic games, the alytarchai had the same command,
and obliged every person to preserve order and decency.
A M A
ALYTH, a burgh in Perthshire, with 1840 inhabitants, Alyth
who support themselves by the manufacture of linen-thread , !l
„ j • Amadeus,
and weaving. v  ^
ALZIRA. See Alcira.
AM A, in Ecclesiastical Writers, denotes a vessel wherein
wine, water, or the like, was held for the service of the
eucharist. In this sense the word is also written amula;
sometimes also hama, and hamula.
AMAB YR, a barbarous custom which formerly prevailed
in several parts of England and Wales, being a sum of money
paid to the lord when a maid was married within his lord-
ship. The word is old British, and signifies the price of
virginity.
AMAC, surnamed Bokharai, a very distinguished Persian
poet, and one of the illustrious men who adorned the court
of Kheder Khan. His most celebrated poems are the His¬
tory of the loves of Joseph and Zoleiskah, from the Koran,
and an Elegy on the daughter of the Sultan Sandjar.
AMADEUS V. count of Savoy, succeeded his uncle
Philip in 1285. In him it appeared that mental excellence
can rise superior to riches or extent of territory; for although
his dominions were by no means extensive, nor his riches
great, yet, in consequence of his wisdom and success, he
obtained the surname of Great. The cautious prudence of
Amadeus, however, enabled him greatly to increase his ter¬
ritory by means of marriage, purchase, and donations. In
this situation, with extended dominion, and distinguished
for wisdom and prudence, he rose to such eminence among
the European powers, that he was constituted their umpire
to settle their differences; which office he performed with
much reputation to himself and advantage to them. In his
character valour and wisdom were combined: for when the
Turks attempted to retake the isle of Rhodes from the knights
of St John of Jerusalem, he acquired great renown by the
valour with which he defended it. A Maltese cross with
the letters F. E. R. T. in future became the arms of Amadeus
and his successors, in memory of this signal victory. The
explanation of this motto is said to be Fortitudo ejus Rhodum
tenuit, his valour preserved Rhodes. For this important
service the grand-master conferred on him the grant of a
palace at Lyons. Andronicus, the emperor of the East, had
married his daughter ; and in order to promote the views of
his son-in-law, Amadeus took a journey to Avignon to per¬
suade Pope John XXII. to preach a crusade in favour of
Andronicus. He died there in the year 1323. Deep pene¬
tration, keen discernment, consummate prudence, great
valour, together with no small portion of the religious super¬
stition of his time, appear the most striking features in his
character.
Amadeus VIII. count of Savoy, succeeded his father
Amadeus VII. in 1391. With the large sum of 45,000 florins
of gold he purchased the country of Genevois from its last
earl. Anxious to extend his territories, he purchased the
city of Rumilli, upon the lake of Geneva, from the widow'
of the count of Genevois; and thus the house of Savoy be¬
came so powerful, that the emperor Sigismund erected Savoy
into a duchy in the year 1416. Historians relate that he
assisted John Paleologus against the duke of Milan, who
endeavoured to wrest from him the duchy of Montferrat.
Deeply sensible of the services which he had received, Pa¬
leologus not only resigned to the duke Chivas, Brandis, and
several other estates, but submitted to hold all the marqui-
sate of Montferrat as a fief from the house of Savoy. These
fortunate acquisitions of territory were not yet limited; for
upon the marriage of his daughter with Philip Maria, duke
of Milan, he received Vercelli; and about the same time
the count of Crescentino submitted to become his feudary.
In his ambitious pursuit he laid claim to the sovereignty of
the city of Geneva; but that claim, though enforced by the
A M A
Amadeus, pope, was rejected by the citizens with disdain; and the
emperor Sigismund, taking it under his protection, declared
it an imperial city. After such an extensive acquisition of
dominion, and amassing such sums of money, he formed the
singular scheme of abandoning his throne and family; and
for that purpose retired to a religious house at a place called
Ripaille. But although he resigned the dukedom of Savoy
to his eldest son Lewis, and made his youngest son Philip
count of Genevois, yet their honours were merely nominal;
for he constrained them to live on a very scanty allowance,
while he in his retirement received all the revenues, and
collected such sums of money, that he is said to have pur¬
chased the papal honours. Having assumed great sanctity
of manners during the previous part of his life, the motives
for his retirement were generally reckoned religious ; but it
was soon discovered that his hermitage was the abode of
voluptuous pleasure and of the most refined luxury. In¬
stead of a religious habit, he wore purple robes; and upon
his mantle was embroidered a golden cross. His table
groaned under a weight of dainties, and the softest music
cheered his daily feast: in short, such was the luxury of the
place, that in the French language the phrase faire ripaille
signifies to make exquisitely good cheer.
He instituted a secular knighthood in that place, under
the appellation of St Maurice. The brethren assumed the
name of hermits, wore beards, and excluded women from
their community ; and in other respects exhibited the cha¬
racter of decent epicures.
When he obtained the papal dignity, and was crowned
by the cardinal of Arles at Basil, all Europe was filled with
astonishment in consequence of his elevation; for he had
never entered into holy orders. But he had found means
to remove every objection, the council confirmed his elec¬
tion, and with pretended reluctance he put on the pontifical
ornaments, and was consecrated in the church of St Maurice,
under the title of Felix V. The papal dignity was severely
contested between him and Eugenius; and, notwithstand¬
ing all the importunities of the council, the emperor refused
to acknowledge his elevation. This religious dispute in¬
volved all Europe in contention. Historians relate that
Germany remained neutral, while France, England, Italy,
Spain, and Hungary, declared for Eugenius ; but Aragon,
Poland, and Bretagne, recognised the council only; at the
same time that Savoy, Switzerland, Basil, Strasburg, Pome¬
rania, and one of the duchies of Bavaria, recognised Felix.
The emperor Frederick III. held a council at Frankfort,
before which both the popes urged their respective rights
by means of deputies. This attempt, however, to establish
peace in Europe proving unsuccessful, the emperor repaired
to the vicinity of Basil, and had a personal interview with
Felix. Amadeus, that he might the more freely indulge
his sensual appetite, again repaired to his favourite retreat;
and after the fathers of the council had frequently solicited
him in vain to reside at Basil, he prevailed upon them to
remove to Lyons, which was near the seat of his pleasures.
During the contest Eugenius had excommunicated Felix,
the council, and several of the German princes, so that the
whole church was then filled with confusion and disorder.
The struggle, however, was terminated by the death of
Eugenius, when the cardinals at Rome elected Thomas de
Sarzan, who assumed the name of Nicholas V. In this state
pf affairs Amadeus deemed it prudent to enter into a nego¬
tiation for the resignation of the papal crown. His policy
and address were such that Nicholas was induced to annul
all the acts of Eugenius; to confirm the determination of
the council of Basil to appoint him perpetual apostolical
legate in Savoy, Piedmont, and the other places of his own
dominions; and even to confer on him the bishoprics of
Basil, Lausanne, Strasburg, and Constance. Nor did his
A M A
645
vanity forsake him even in this political transaction, for he Amadeus
provided that he should continue to wear the pontifical dress, II
unless in a very few particulars. In order to gratify the Anial-
same haughty disposition, he stipulated that he should not
be obliged to go to Rome to attend any general council;
and that when he had occasion to approach the pope, he
should rise to receive him, and instead of kissing his toe,
should be permitted to kiss his cheek. Amadeus retired
to Lausanne, and died there at the age of 69, in the year
1451.
Amadeus IX., count of Savoy, succeeded his father
Lewis, in his dominion and honours. His bodily constitu¬
tion was weak, and he was afflicted with the falling-sick¬
ness ; yet, on account of his piety, virtue, benevolence, and
justice, he was surnamed the Happy. The clemency of his
temper was such that he readily pardoned those who offended
him, and in few instances was he induced to punish. In his
character the virtue of benevolence shone with peculiar
splendour among the other virtues of the Christian. In
1472, in the seventh year of his reign, and the thirty-seventh
of his life, he died universally lamented by all his loyal sub¬
jects.
AMADIA, a trading town of Asia, in Kurdistan, belong¬
ing to the Turks. It is seated on a high mountain. Long.
42. 43. E. Lat. 37. 25. N.
AMADIS de Gauea, the hero of a famous romance of
chivalry, written in prose by Vasco Lobeira, a Spaniard,
about the end of the twelfth century. It has appeared in
numerous editions, and under a variety of forms, both in
prose and in verse. The Gaula of the original signifies
Wales, and the subject, characters, and localities, are British:
the story relates to the fabulous achievements of Welsh and
English heroes, previous to the time of Arthur and the
knights of the Round Table ; and was probably derived by
Lobeira from some ancient British or Welsh legend.—See
Warton’s History of English Poetry.
AMADOU, a kind of brown match, tinder, or touch-
wood, which comes from Germany. It is made of a sort of
large mushroom, Boletus igniarius, which commonly grows
on old trees, especially the oak, ash, and fir. This substance,
after being boiled in common water, is dried and well beaten,
is then put into a strong ley prepared with saltpetre, after
which it is again put to dry in an oven. The druggists sell
this match wholesale in France, and it is also retailed by
hawkers. Some give to the amadou the name of pyrotech-
nical sponge, because of its aptness to take fire. It is used
in surgery to stop haemorrhage.
AMAIN, in the sea language, a term importing to lower
something at once. Thus, to strike amain is to lower or
let fall the topsails; to wave amain is to make a signal, by
waving a drawn sword, or the like, as a demand that the
enemy strike their topsails.
AMAK, a small island in the Baltic Sea, near Copen¬
hagen, from which it is separated by a canal over which
there are three bridges. Amak is about six miles long
and three broad, and is chiefly peopled by the descendants
of a colony from East Friesland, to whom the island was
consigned by Christian II. at the request of his wife Eliza¬
beth, sister of Charles V., for the purpose of supplying her
with vegetables, cheese, and butter. From the inter-mar¬
riages of these colonists with the Danes, the present inha¬
bitants are chiefly descended; but as they wear their own
dress, and enjoy peculiar privileges, they appear a distinct
race from the natives. The island contains about 6000
inhabitants. It has two churches, in which the ministers
preach occasionally in Dutch and Danish. Long. 12. 35.
E. Lat. 55. 30. N.
AMAL, a town of Sweden, in the province of Weners-
borg, seated on the lake Wener. It has a good harbour,
x
646
A M A
Amalagan and carries on a great trade, in iron, timber, deals, and tar.
Long. 12. 40. E. Lat. 58. 50. N.
AMALAGAN, one of the Ladrone Islands in Lat. 18.4.
N. Long. 165. 24. 3. E.
AMALARIC was the son of Alaric II., and king of the
Visigoths. Deprived of his father when an infant, he
would have been bereft of his crown, had not his grand¬
father Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, interposed in his
behalf. In defence of the royal infant, Theodoric expelled
from the throne his natural brother, who had usurped the
government; and, ruling the kingdom during his life, pre¬
served the crown to the natural heir. In 526 the grand¬
father died, and Amalaric assumed the royal authority. In
527 he married Clotilda, the daughter of Clovis, an amiable
lady, who inherited both the piety and orthodoxy of her
mother, who was of the same name. The Catholic histo¬
rians relate, that the king, being violently attached to the
Arian cause, used means indicative rather of a cruel than
of a pious disposition, to compel his queen to embrace the
same opinions. With all the firmness of a great mind, and
the amiable patience of a Christian, she endured her wrongs
for a considerable period; but at length, worn out with in¬
jurious treatment, she was forced to apply to her brothers
for assistance, and sent them a handkerchief stained with her
blood, in proof of her cruel usage. In order to relieve their
sister, one of them, Childebert, king of Paris, entered the
territories of Amalaric, who then resided with his court at
Narbonne ; and their forces having joined battle, the troops
of Amalaric were totally defeated, and the king himself
forced to save his life by flying into Spain, a.r. 531. It is
reported that, when endeavouring to regain Narbonne, he
was either slain by an assassin employed by Theudis, his suc¬
cessor, or fell in battle. Some historians say that he died in
Barcelona.
AMALASONTHA, or Amalesuenta, the daughter of
Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths, was born about
the year 498. The sister of Clovis was her mother ; and in
515 she married Eutharic, the only remaining heir of the legal
race of the Amali. Her father having formed the design of
making him his successor, sent to bring him from Spain for
that purpose. But he never arrived at the destined honour ;
for Eutharic died before his father-in-law, leaving an only
son, Athalaric. The well-known abilities of Amalasontha
induced Theodoric to place Athalaric, to whom he had left
the kingdom of Italy, under the care of his mother. This
princess inherited an ample share of her father’s talents,
which he had been exceedingly careful to improve by means
of a liberal education. She became a great proficient in
the philosophy and morals of that age, and with equal ele¬
gance and grace could converse in the Greek, Latin, and
Gothic languages. Nor were her talents merely qualified
to adorn private life : she displayed them in the administra¬
tion ot public justice, and in political discussion. When the
chiefs of the Goths were strongly inclined to treat the Ro¬
mans as a conquered people, she mildly restrained their
violent oppression and their ungovernable rapacity. She
relieved her subjects from some of the severer impositions
of her father; but carefully retained all his laws, magis¬
trates, and political institutions. She patronised learning
with an assiduous care, by regularly paying the salaries of
public teachers, and giving every encouragement to the
improvement of genius. Prompted by maternal affection
and a highly cultivated mind, she exerted all her ingenuity
in the education of her son Athalaric. Unfortunately, how¬
ever, both for the mother and the son, neither the gene¬
ral character of the Gothic nation, nor the wayward inclina¬
tions of the boy, seconded her laudable endeavours. The
Gothic nobles murmured against the effeminate education
of their prince, and insisted upon his release from the bond-
A M A
age of learning, and from the restraints of a mother. The Amale-
unfortunate youth was thus dragged from the habitation of kltes-
learning, prudence, and virtue ; and, plunging into all-
the extravagancies of dissolute pleasure, his mind became
inspired with contempt and aversion for his virtuous mother.
At the early age of sixteen, he fell a victim to his debau¬
cheries and follies, and Amalasontha was left devoid of any
legal claim to the crown. Spurning the idea of retiring to
a private station, she chose her cousin Theodat as her co¬
regent. Theodat, a man of great ability but little principle,
soon entered into an intrigue with the ambassador of the
emperor Justinian, by which he agreed to remove the un¬
fortunate queen, to make way for the union of the Byzan¬
tine and Gothic powers. He accordingly issued an order
for her confinement in an island on the lake Bolsena; and
in the year 535 she was strangled in the bath. Some his¬
torians ascribe this deed to the influence of the empress
Theodora, whose jealousy was excited by the respect paid
to Amalasontha by Justinian.
AMALEKITES, a powerful people who dwelt in Arabia
Petrsea, between the Dead Sea and the Red Sea, or be¬
tween Havila and Shur (1 Sam. xv. 7), sometimes in one
country and sometimes in another. It does not appear that
they had cities, for there is no mention of any but one in
the Scriptures (1 Sam. xv. 5): they lived generally in ham¬
lets, caves, or tents. They were the descendants of Ama-
lek, the son of Eliphaz, by Tirana his concubine, and the
grandson of Esau. (Gen. xxxvi. 12, and 1 Chron. i. 36.)
Amalek succeeded Gatam in the government of Edom.
The Israelites had scarcely passed the Red Sea on their
way to the wilderness, before the Amalekites came to attack
them in the deserts of Rephidim (Exod. xvii. 8, &c.), and
cruelly put to the sword those who were obliged either
through fatigue or weakness to remain behind. Moses, by
Divine command, directed Joshua to take vengeance upon
this people for their inhumanity. He accordingly fell
upon them and defeated them with great slaughter (Exod.
xvii. 13).
The ground of the enmity of the Amalekites against the
Israelites is generally supposed to have been an innate
hatred, from the remembrance of Jacob’s depriving their
progenitor both of his birthright and blessing. Their fall¬
ing upon them, however, and that without any provocation,
when they saw them reduced to so low a condition by the
fatigue of their march and an excessive drought, was an in¬
human action, and justly deserved the severe punishment
inflicted on them by Joshua. Under the Judges (vi. 3), we
see the Amalekites united with the Midianites and Moabites
in a design to oppress Israel; but Ehud delivered the Is¬
raelites from Eglon, king of the Moabites (Judg. iii.), and
Gideon (chap, viii.) delivered them from the Midianites and
Amalekites. About the year of the world 2930, Saul
marched against the Amalekites, advanced as far as their
capital, and put all the people of the country to the sword;
but he spared the best of the cattle and movables, contrary
to a Divine command; which act of disobedience was the
cause of his future misfortunes.
After this war the Amalekites scarcely appear any more
in history. However, about the year of the world 2949, a
troop of Amalekites came and pillaged Ziklag, which be¬
longed to David (1 Sam. xxx.), where he had left his two
wives, Ahinoam and Abigail; but on returning from an ex¬
pedition which he had made in the company ot Achish into
the valley of Jezreel, he pursued, overtook and dispersed
them, and recovered all the booty which they had carried
off from Ziklag.
The Arabians maintain that Amalek was the son of Ham,
and grandson of Noah; that he was the father of Ad, and
grandfather of Schedad. Calmet thinks that this opinion is
A M A
Amalfi, by no means to be rejected, as it is not very probable that
Amalek, the son of Eliphaz, and grandson of Esau, should
be the father of a people so powerful and numerous as the
Amalekites were when the Israelites departed out of Egypt.
Moses, in the Book of Genesis (xiv. 7), relates, that in Abra¬
ham’s time, long before the birth of Amalek the son of
Eliphaz, the five confederate kings carried the war into
Amalek’s country, about Kadesh; and into that of the Amo-
rites, about Hazezon-tamar. Moses also (Num. xxiv. 20)
relates, that the soothsayer Balaam, observing at a distance
the land of Amalek, said, in his prophetic style, “ Amalek
is the first, the head, the original of the nations; but his
latter end shall be that he perish for ever.” Our commen¬
tator observes that this epithet of the first of nations cannot
certainly agree with the Amalekites descended from the
son of Eliphaz, because the generation then living was but
the third from Amalek. Besides, Moses never reproaches
the Amalekites with attacking their brethren the Israelites;
an aggravating circumstance which he would not have omit¬
ted had the Amalekites been descended from Esau, in which
case they would have been the brethren of the Israelites.
Lastly, we see the Amalekites almost always classed in
Scripture with the Canaanites and the Philistines, and never
with the Edomites; and when Saul made war upon the
Amalekites, and almost utterly destroyed them, we do not
find that the Edomites made the least attempt to assist them,
or to avenge their cause afterwards. Thence it is thought
probable that the Amalekites who are so often mentioned
in Scripture were a free people descended from Canaan,
and devoted to the curse as well as the other Amorites, and
very different from the descendants of Amalek, the grand¬
son of Esau.
The accounts which the Arabians give us of the Amalek¬
ites destroyed by Saul are as follows: Amalek was the
father of an ancient tribe in Arabia, exterminated in the
reign of Saul. This tribe contained only the Arabians who
are called Pure, the remains whereof were mingled with
the posterity of Joktan and Adnan, and so became Mosa-
rabes or Mostaarabes; that is to say, Arabians blended with
foreign nations. They further believe that Goliath, who
was overcome by David, was king of the Amalekites ; that
the giants who inhabited Palestine in Joshua’s time were
of the same race; and that at last part of the Amalekites
retired into Africa while Joshua was yet living, and settled
upon the coasts of Barbary, along the Mediterranean Sea.
The son of Amalek was Ad, a celebrated prince among the
Arabians. Some make him the son of Uz, and grandson of
Aram the son of Shem. Be this as it may, the Mahometans
say that Ad was the father of an Arabian tribe called Adites,
who were exterminated, as they tell us, for not hearkening
to the patriarch Eber, who preached to them the unity of
God. Ad had two sons, Schedad and Schedid.
AMALFI, seven miles to the west of Salerno, and
thirty to the south of Naples, wras one of the first Italian
cities in which the spirit of commercial enterprise revived
after it had been suppressed by the irruption of the barbari¬
ans. Though now an obscure village, containing only about
3500 fishermen, it attained, at a remote epoch, to distinction
as a maritime republic, and is said by Gibbon to have pre¬
ceded Venice in re-opening an intercourse with the East.
But the more recent researches of Darn, who enjoyed sources
of information inaccessible to previous historians, show that
this statement is inaccurate, and that Venice carried on a
considerable traffic with the Levant before any competitor
appeared in the field. But the Amalfitans entered at a very
early period on this career, with singular energy and success.
A M A 647
In the ninth century, their city is said to have had 50,000 Amalgam
inhabitants. They were extensive navigators and merchants. II
Their trade comprised the products of Africa, Arabia, and 'Araalga"
the East; and their settlements in Antioch, Jerusalem, and ^ nation. ^
Alexandria, acquired the privileges of independent colonies.
William of Apulia, a writer of the eleventh century, has
noticed Amalfi in verses, partly quoted by Gibbon, and
said by him to “ contain much truth and some poetry.”
The government was popular under the administration of
a duke and the supremacy of the Greek emperor. The
mariners who swarmed in her ports excelled in the theory
and practice of navigation and astronomy.
We are said to owe a peculiar and not easily exaggerated
debt of gratitude to Amalfi. It was, says Sismondi, a
citizen of that republic, Flavio Gioja, who invented the com¬
pass or introduced it into navigation; in her was found a
unique copy of the Pandects which revived the knowledge
and the study of jurisprudence in the west; and the mari¬
time laws of Amalfi (Tabula Amalphitand) early acquired
in the Mediterranean the same influence that was enjoyed
by the laws of the Rhodians in antiquity, and that was ac¬
quired at a later period by the laws of Oleron in the countries
bordering on the Atlantic. Very large deductions must,
however, be made from this too partial statement. Gioja
may have improved the compass by rendei’ing the needle
more suitable to the purposes of navigation; but if he did
this much, it is all, for there can be no doubt that it had
already been applied to them. Some authorities treat as a
fable the story of the famous manuscript of the Roman law
carried off by the Pisans from Amalfi, and now at Florence.
And though there be no reasonable ground for this exag¬
gerated scepticism, Savigny and others have shown that the
study of the civil law was vigorously prosecuted long pre¬
viously to the alleged discovery of the MS. referred to. The
statements respecting the Tabula Amalphitana appear to be
entitled to no credit, and to be wholly founded on a mistake.
Though several distinguished authorities have referred to
this table, none of them quote it, or appear to have seen it.
No trace or vestige can now be found of any such table or
law. And the presumption is, that it never had any real
existence, and that some other law had been mistaken for it.
Though brilliant, the prosperity of Amalfi was but short. It
was sacked by the Pisans in 1135, when the MS. of Jus¬
tinian’s Compilations is said to have fallen into their hands,
and was soon after subjugated by the Normans. Her com¬
merce having been diverted into other channels, she speedily
sunk into total obscurity.1
At present Amalfi is subject to Naples, and is the see of an
archbishop. It is but a shadow of what it was in its flourish¬
ing state, when it extended over the stupendous rocks that
hang on each side, still crowned with battlemented walls and
ruined towers. Its buildings, Mr Swinburne says, are not
remarkable for elegance or size, and contain at most 4000 in¬
habitants, who seem to be in a poor line of life. The ca¬
thedral is an uncouth building. Under the choir is the
chapel and tomb of the apostle St Andrew, to whose honour
the edifice was dedicated, when Cardinal Capuano, in 1208,
brought his body from Constantinople.
AMALGAM, mercury united with any other metal.
AMALGAMATION, the operation of making an amal¬
gam, or mixing mercury with any metal.
For the combination of one metal with another, it is gen¬
erally sufficient that one of them be in a state of fluidity.
Mercury being always fluid, is therefore capable of amalga¬
mation with other metals without heat, iron excepted; never¬
theless, heat considerably facilitates the operation.
1 For the above description we are chiefly indebted to Mr M'Culloch’s History of Commerce contained in his Treatises on Economical
Policy.
X
648
A M A
Amalia To amalgamate without heat requires nothing more than
II rubbing the two metals together in a mortar ; but the metal
A mama. |-0 uniteci with the mercury should be previously divided
into v^ry thin plates or grains. When heat is used (which
is always most effectual, and with some metals indispensably
necessary), the mercury should be heated till it begin to
smoke, and the grains of metal made red hot before they are
thrown into it. If it be gold or silver, it is sufficient to stir
the fluid with an iron rod for a little while, and then to throw
it into a vessel filled with water. This amalgam is used for
gilding or silvering on copper, which is afterwards exposed
to a degree of heat sufficient to evaporate the mercury.
Amalgamation with lead or tin is effected by pouring an
equal weight of mercury into either of these metals in a state
of fusion, and stirring with an iron rod. Copper amalga¬
mates with great difficulty, and iron not at all.
AMALIA, Grand Duchess of Saxe-Weimar, the enlight¬
ened patroness of Wieland, Herder, Schiller, and Goethe,
governed the duchy after her husband’s death till 1775,
when she resigned it to her son. She died in 1807. See
Weimar.
AMALTEO, Girolamo, Giovanni Battista, and Cor-
nelio, three celebrated Latin poets of Italy, who flourished
in the sixteenth century. Their compositions were printed
at Venice in 1627, and at Amsterdam in 1684. One of
the prettiest pieces in that collection is an epigram, by Giro¬
lamo, on two children of extraordinary beauty, each of whom
was deprived of an eye :
Lumine Aeon dextro, capta est Leonilla sinistro:
Et potis est forma vincere uterque Deos.
Parve puer, lumen quod habes concede sorori;
Sic tu caecus Amor, sic erit ilia Venus.
Amalteo, Pomponio, an excellent painter of the second,
or most brilliant epoch of the Venetian school, a pupil of
Pordenone, distinguished for his correct design, as well as
for his skill in colouring. He was born in 1505, and died
in 1588.—See Zanetti, and Lanzi, tom. hi.
AMALTHJ3A, the name of the Cumaean Sibyl, who
offered to Tarquinius Superbus nine books containing the
Roman destinies, and demanded 300 pieces of gold as their
price. The monarch disregarding her demand, she threw three
of them into the fire, and returning asked the same price
for the remaining six; which being also denied, she burnt
three more, and returning demanded the same price for the
three that were left. Tarquin, astonished at her behaviour,
consulted the pontiffs, who advised him to buy them. These
books were so highly esteemed, that two magistrates {duum¬
viri) were created to consult them upon extraordinary oc¬
casions.—See Roman History, xix.
Amalth.ea, in Pagan Mythology, daughter of Melissus,
king of Crete, and nurse of Jupiter, whom she fed with
honey and goats’ milk. According to others, Amalthaea was
a goat, which Jupiter translated into the sky, with her two
kids, and gave one of her horns to the daughters of Melissus,
as a reward for their care over his infant years. This horn
had the peculiar property of furnishing them with whatever
they wished for, and was thence called the cornu copicc, or
horn of plenty.
AMAMA, Sixtinus, professor of the Hebrew tongue in
the university of Franeker, a man of great learning, was born
in Friesland, and studied under Drusius. He published a
criticism upon the translation of the Pentateuch; collated
the Dutch translation of the Bible with the original and the
most accurate translations; and wrote a censure of the Vul¬
gate translation of the historical books of the Old Testament,
Job, the Psalms, and Canticles. It is impossible to answer
the reasons whereby he shows the necessity of consulting
the originals. This he recommended so earnestly, that
some synods, influenced by his reasons, decreed that none
A M A
Amand
should be admitted into the ministry but such as had a com-
netent knowlege of the Hebrew and Greek text of the Scrip- . H
tures. Amama died in 1629. ^ ;
AMAND, Marc Antoine Gerard, Sieur de St, a
French poet, was born at Rouen, in Normandy, in 1594.
In the epistle dedicatory to the third part of his works, he
tells us that his father commanded a squadron of ships in the
service of Elizabeth, queen of England, for 22 years, and was
for three years a prisoner in the Black Tower at Constan¬
tinople. He mentions also that two brothers of his had
been killed in an engagement with the Turks. His own
life was spent in a continual succession of travels, which
proved of no advantage to his fortune. The miscellaneous
poems of this author are chiefly of the burlesque and the
amorous kind; and though they abound in blemishes, yet
his manner of reading them was so agreeable, that they were
universally admired. Amand wrote also a very devout
piece, entitled Stances d M. Corneille, sur son Imitation
de Jesus Christ, which was printed at Paris in 1656. He
was admitted a member of the French academy when it
was first founded by Cardinal Richelieu, in the year 1633 ;
and M. Pellisson informs us that in 1637, at his own de¬
sire, he was relieved from the obligation of making a speech,
which each member was obliged to make in rotation, on con¬
dition that he should collect the burlesque terms, and compile
the comic part of the dictionary which the academy had un¬
dertaken. For this task he was peculiarly adapted, his writ¬
ings proving him to be extremely conversant in these terms,
which he seems to have diligently collected from the market¬
places, and other resorts of the populace. He died in 1661.
Amand, Saint, a town in France in the department of
Cher, capital of the arrondissement of the same name, about
40 miles W.N.W. of Moulins. It is situated on the river
Cher. It was built in 1410, on the ruins of Orval. Its
principal, trade is in cattle, chesnuts, and leather. Popula¬
tion of the town, 7747; of the arrondissement, 103,723.
Lat. 46. 40. N. Long. 2. 30. E.
Amand, Saint, a town of France, in the department du
Nord, on the river Scarpe, about 7 miles N.W. of Valen¬
ciennes* It is much frequented for its mud baths, and its
mineral and artesian wells. Large quantities of flax are grown
in the vicinity. Pop. 9500. Lat. 50. 27. N. Long. 3. 25. E.
AM ANTE A, a seaport town and bishop’s see of the
kingdom of Naples, situated near the bay of Euphemia, in
the province of Calabria, 15 miles south-west of Cosenza.
Pop. 3000.
AM ANUS, a mountain of Syria, separating it from
Cilicia ; a branch of Mount Taurus (Cicero, Strabo, Pliny),
extending chiefly eastward, from the sea of Cilicia to the
Euphrates. It is now called Monte Negro, or rather Mon¬
tagna Neres, by the inhabitants ; that is, the watery moun¬
tain, as abounding in springs and rivulets.
AMARA SINHA, a celebrated Sanscrit poet and
grammarian, who published a valuable Thesaurus of that lan¬
guage, called Amara Kosha. He is believed by some to
have flourished in the fifth century of our era. It is stated
by Wilson, that his work contains only the roots of San¬
scrit, amounting to 10,000. The best edition of his work is
that of Serampore, by H. T. Colebrooke, in 1806, reprinted
in 1829. See Wilson’s Sanscrit Diet., and Asiat. Res. vii.
AMARANTE, an order of knighthood instituted in
Sweden by Queen Christina in 1653, at the close of an
annual feast celebrated in that country called Wirtschaft.
This feast was solemnized with entertainments, balls, mas¬
querades, and similar diversions, and continued from evening
till the next morning. Christina considering the name too
vulgar, changed it into that of the feast of the gods, because
each of the party represented some heathen deity. The
queen herself assumed the name of Amarante ; that is, un-
A M A
Am iran- fading, or immortal. The young nobility, dressed in the
taceae habit of nymphs and shepherds, served the gods at table.
II . At the end of the feast the queen threw off her habit, which
Amatos^ wag covere([ with diamonds, leaving it to be pulled in pieces
by the maskers ; and, in memory of so gallant a feast, founded
a military order, called in Swedish Geschilschaffi, into which
all that had been present at the feast were admitted, includ¬
ing sixteen lords and as many ladies, besides the queen.
Their device was the cipher of Amarante, composed of two
A’s, the one erect, the other inverted, and interwoven to¬
gether ; the whole enclosed with a laurel crown, with this
motto, Dolce nella memoria.
AMAH ANT ACEdE, a natural order of plants, some of
which are indigenous with us ; but most of them are tropi¬
cal. None of them are poisonous.
AMARAPURA. See Ummerapura.
AMARYNTHIA, or Amarysia, a festival of Artemis,
celebrated with extraordinary splendour at Amarynthus in
Euboea, and afterwards at Athens, and elsewhere.
A M A R Y L LID E /E, a natural order of plants with mo-
nopetalous flowers, and bulbous roots, several of which are
deadly poisons, as the Hcemanihus toxicanus used by the
Bosjesmans of the Cape, to poison their arrows. Many of
them contain wholesome fecula when the acrid juice is se¬
parated from it.
AM AS A, son of Abigail, a sister of David king of Israel,
and commander of Absalom’s army in his rebellion. He
afterwards obtained a similar command from his uncle.—
(2 Sam. xvii. 25, xix. 13.)
AMASIA, an ancient town of Turkey, in Natolia, and
the birthplace of Strabo the geographer. It is the residence
of a bashaw, and gives its name to the province where it is
situated, which produces the best wines and fruits in Na¬
tolia. It is situated near the river Iris or Yeshil-Irmak, and
was anciently the residence of the kings of Cappadocia.
Long. 36. 26. E. Lat. 40. 33. N.
AMASIS, king of Egypt, ascended the throne b.c. 569.
From the rank of a common soldier he gradually rose to be
one of the principal officers in the court of Apries. Being
commissioned by his prince to pacify some insurgents who
had rebelled against the royal authority, he attached the
disaffected subjects to his own interest, and took up arms
against his master. Apries, apprised of his treachery, sent
another of his officers to bring the rebel before him; but
this messenger returning with an insolent reply from Amasis,
was barbarously mutilated by the tyrannical monarch. The
nobles who still remained obedient to their prince, shocked
by the barbarity with which he treated his ambassador, im¬
mediately joined the standard of the usurper. The tyrant,
thus deserted by his subjects, took the field with an army
of mercenaries, and meeting Amasis near Memphis, was de¬
feated and taken prisoner. The usurper treated the captive
prince with great lenity; but so violent was the popular
hatred, that he was compelled to deliver him into the hands
of his enraged countrymen, who instantly put him to death
by strangling.
Under his prudent administration Egypt enjoyed the
greatest prosperity. He adorned it with numerous and splen¬
did buildings, among which were a portico to the temple of
Minerva, at Sais, and the great temple of Isis, at Memphis.
He also erected a colossus before the temple of Vulcan, 75
feet in length, resting on its back ; and on the basis stood
two statues, each 20 feet high, cut out of the same stone.
Besides these, he erected several monuments in Greece.
The liberality and respect for science which Amasis dis¬
played, and the encouragement he gave to learned strangers,
particularly to the Greeks, to visit his country, manifested
an enlightened mind. To induce Grecian strangers to re¬
main in Egypt, he marked out settlements for them on the
VOL. II.
A M A 649
sea-coast, permitting them to build temples, and to observe Amati
all the rites of their religion unmolested. Solon, the cele- II
brated lawgiver, is reported to have visited Amasis. Such Amaziab.
was his generorsity, that when the temple of the Delphians ^ v ^
was burnt, he presented them with 1000 talents to assist
them in rebuilding it. To gratify the vanity, or secure the
alliance of the Greeks, he married a Grecian lady, named
Ladice, the daughter of Battus. The evening of his reign
was clouded by the prospect of the invasion of Cambyses,
king of Persia, who shortly after subjugated his kingdom. In
this emergency Phanes, captain of the Greek auxiliaries in
the service of Amasis, being offended at his master, deserted
his cause, and went over to the enemy. Poly crates also,
tyrant of Samos, who had long been a friend and ally of the
Egyptian monarch, now joined the standard of Cambyses.
Whether apprehensions of the impending storm tended to
impair his health, is not related; but about this time he died,
in 525 b.c., after a reign of 44 years.
AMATI, Pasquale, an Italian antiquary, born at Savig-
nano in 1716, the author of several learned works, the best
known of which is that—De Destitutions Purpurarum.
His two sons were also distinguished: the elder, Girola¬
mo, was the author of several dissertations on inscriptions, and
other learned works; and Basilio, the younger son, wrote
UIsold del Congresso triumvirale, &c., and some poetry.
AMATUS LUSITANUS,properly Joao Roderiguez,
a learned Hebrew physician of the sixteenth century. Con¬
cealing his religion, he studied at Salamanca, and long lived
in Italy, where he was called to attend Pope Julius HI.,
about the middle of that century. The fear of the Inquisi¬
tion drove him to Thessalonica, where he openly professed
the Jewish religion. His remarks on Dioscorides show him
to have been skilled in Greek and Arabic; and his Latin
work on practical medicine contains many curious observa¬
tions. He was born in Portugal in 1511, and died at Thes¬
salonica (Saloniki) in 1568.
AMAUROSIS, afjuivpaxrL's, a deprivation of sight, the
eye remaining seemingly unaffected. A perfect amaurosis
is when the blindness is total. When there is still a power
of distinguishing light from darkness, the disease is called
by M. de St Ives an imperfect amaurosis. There is a pe¬
riodical sort, which comes on instantaneously, continues for
hours or days, and then disappears.
AMAXICHI, a seaport and capital of Santa Maura, one
of the Ionian Islands. The town is small and ill built; and
the harbour is only fit for small craft. Population 6000.
It is the residence of a British governor and of a Greek
archbishop.
AMAZIAH, the eighth king of Judah, succeeded his
father Joash in the 25th year of his age. At the commence¬
ment of his reign he showed some reverence for the Divine
authority, but, in the language of Scripture, “ not with a
perfect heart.” He speedily inflicted capital punishment
on the murderers of his father; but from respect to the law
of Moses he spared their families, an extension of clemency
not very common in those times. He gave early proof of
his military spirit, by collecting a numerous army to attack
the Edomites. This force was composed not only of all his
own subjects capable of bearing arms, but of a powerful
body of auxiliaries hired from the children of Israel. By
the advice of a prophet, however, the Israelites, amounting
to 100,000 men, were dismissed, and he prosecuted his en¬
terprise with the remainder of his army. Having engaged
the Edomites in the valley of Salt, he defeated them with
the loss of 10,000 men, and following up his victory, made
himself master of Selah, their metropolis. He also pos¬
sessed himself of the enemy’s idols, and impiously made
them the objects of his adoration. Meanwhile the Israelites,
whom he had discharged, either offended by their dismissal,
650 A M A
Amazon, or disappointed of their hope of plunder, turned their arms
v/—^ against the kingdom of Judah, and plundered many of the
cities. Amaziah, elated by his success, sent a hostile chal¬
lenge to Joash, king of Israel, to which Joash contemptu¬
ously replied in a fable. (2 Kings xiv. 9.) Indignant at
the insult, Amaziah immediately took the field, and encoun¬
tering the Israelites at Bethshemesh, was defeated and taken
prisoner. After his victory, Jcash proceeded to Jerusalem,
carrying along with him his vanquished enemy; and having
broken down part of the wall of the city, and plundered the
temple and palace, he returned with the spoil to Samaria.
This misfortune seems to have damped the military ardour
of Amaziah ; for although he reigned 15 years after his de¬
feat, we are not informed of his engaging in any hostility
with his neighbours. He fell by the hands of conspirators,
in the 29th year of his reign. (2 Kings xiv.; 2 Chron.
XXV.)
AMAZON, Maranon, or Orellana, a river of South
America, and the largest in the world. Its proper and most
remote source is the Ucayale, a branch of which rises near
La Paz, in 18° of south latitude. The Maranon, a more
northern branch, rises in a lake north-eastward of Lima,
and, after a course of many miles to the north, is joined by
the Chinchipe at Jaen. From this point, which is only about
200 miles from the Pacific Ocean, the river continues navi¬
gable to its embouchure in the Atlantic, a distance of 2100
miles in a direct line, or 3000 miles by the course of the
stream. Humboldt measured the height of this spot by the
barometer, and found it to be 194 toises, or 1240 English
feet; and hence it appears that the fall in the bed of the
river is on an average about five inches per mile; but the
inclination is of course greater in the upper than in the lower
part of the stream. Condamine found the width of the river
at some distance below Jaen to be 135 toises, or 860 feet,
and the depth to exceed 180 feet. The Maranon is joined
by the Ucayale in west longitude 73°, by the Napo at 71^°,
by the Japura at 65°. The other most considerable branches
are the Negro on the north side, and the Juruay, the Ma¬
deira, and the Tapajos, on the south. Many of the tribu¬
taries of the Amazon greatly surpass in size the Rhine or
the Danube; and their number is very great. It flows
* through 22° of longitude, near the equator. The country,
watered by the river and all its branches, embraces an area
of 2,100,000 square English miles, and includes one third
part of South America. At a pass called the Pongo, about
140 miles below Jaen, the bed of the stream is suddenly
contracted from 250 fathoms to 25, the Amazon having here
cut its way through the rocks, which rise like perpendicular
walls to a great height. At the junction with the Napo, in
longitude 7l^°, its breadth is 900 fathoms, and its depth was
found to exceed 100 fathoms. Between the Negro and the
Madeira it has the breadth of a league, which extends to two
leagues at those parts where islands abound; but during the
annual swell of the water it covers a great part of the adjoin¬
ing country, and has then no determinate limits. At Pauxis,
200 miles from the sea, the tides are sensibly felt every
ten hours; and Mr Condamine infers, from the time which
the swell of the waters requires to travel this distance, that
there must be a succession of tides in the river at all times,
and that its surface of course presents an undulating line.
This traveller computes that the water passes from Jaen to
the sea in 45 days, flowing about 66 miles per day, or 2| miles
in the hour. But the influence of the tides is felt 400 miles
from the embouchure. In the rainy season the rapidity of
this river is four miles an hour ; and where it meets the ocean
its breadth is fully thirty miles. The sea retreats before this
mighty mass of rushing water, which causes a very agitated
swell; and the river current is said to be still perceptible
at more than 400 miles from the shore. Some reckon the
A M A
Rio Tunguragua the source of the Maranon, which would Amazons,
give it a course of 3300 English miles; but if we consider
the Rio Ucayale as its source, its course cannot be less than
3700 English miles.
It receives enormous tributaries,—from the north the Rio
Napo and Rio Putumayo, each about 700 miles long; the
Yapura, 900 miles ; the Rio Negro, 1400;—from the south,
the Yavari, the Yutia,the Tefe, the Puru, and above all, the
Rio Madeira, that joins the Maranon after a course of 1800
miles; besides the Topayos of 900, and the Xingu of 1000
miles.
It is a remarkable fact that the great South American
rivers, the Maranon and Orinoco join, by a large branch,
the Rio Cassiquiare. The Amazon traverses a region thickly
covered with lofty forests, which are the haunts of the jaguar,
bear, panther, and many other wild animals, and are inha¬
bited by numerous small tribes of savages, among whom the
Spaniards and Portuguese have established missionaries.
The river abounds in fish, many of which are of the most
delicious kinds; and turtles of an excellent quality are nu¬
merous. Large alligators are seen stretched motionless in
the mud, like trunks of trees. Nearly all the branches of
this noble stream are navigable to a great distance from their
junction with the main trunk; and collectively, the whole
afford an extent of water communication unparalleled in any
other part of the globe. What adds to this advantage is,
that as the wind and the current are always opposed to each
other, a vessel can make her way either up or down with
great facility, by availing herself of her sails in the one case,
and committing herself to the force of the current in the
other.
AMAZONS, in Antiquity, a nation of female warriors,
who are said to have founded an empire in Asia Minor, upon
the river Thermodon, along the coasts of the Black Sea.
They are reported to have formed a state, out of which men
were excluded, their commerce with that sex being confined
to strangers. They killed all their male children, and cut
off the right breasts of their females, to make them more
fit for the combat. From the last circumstance they are
supposed to derive their name, viz., from the privative a, and
/xa£o?, mamma, breast. But Bryant, in his Analysis of
Ancient Mythology, vol. iii. p. 463, rejects this account as
fabulous; and observes that they were in general Cuthite
colonies from Egypt and Syria, who formed settlements in
different countries, and that they derived their name from
zon, the sun, which wTas the national object of worship.
The Amazons are mentioned by the most ancient of the
Greek writers. In the third book of the Iliad, Homer re¬
presents Priam speaking of himself as having been present,
in the earlier part of his life, in a battle with the Amazons ;
and some of them afterwards came to the assistance of that
prince during the siege of Troy.
The Amazons are particularly mentioned by Herodotus.
That historian informs us that the Greeks fought a battle
with them on the river Thermodon, and defeated them.
After this victory the Greeks carried off in three ships all
the Amazons they had taken prisoners. But while they were
out at sea, the Amazons conspired against the men, and
killed them all. Having, however, no knowledge of navi¬
gation, nor any skill in the use of the rudder, sails, or oars,
they were driven by wind and tide till they arrived at the
precipices of the Lake Mseotis, in the territories of the Scy¬
thians. Here the Amazons went ashore, and marching into
the country, seized and mounted the first horses they met
with, and began to plunder the inhabitants. The Scythians
at first conceived them to be men ; but after having several
skirmishes with them, and taking some prisoners, they dis¬
covered them to be woman. They were then unwilling
to carry on hostilities against them; and by degrees a num-
AMAZON S.
Amazons, ber of the young Scythians formed connections with them,
and were desirous that these gentle dames should live with
them as wives, and be incorporated with the rest of the Scy¬
thians. The Amazons agreed to continue their connection
with their Scythian husbands, but refused to associate with
the rest of the inhabitants of the country, and especially
with the women. They afterwards prevailed upon their
husbands to retire to Sarmatia, where they settled.
Diodorus Siculus says, “ There was formerly a nation
who dwelt near the river Thermodon, which was subjected
to the government of women, and in which the women, like
men, managed all the military affairs. Among these female
warriors, it was said, was one who excelled the rest in
strength and valour. She assembled together an army of
women, whom she trained up in military discipline, and
subdued some of the neighbouring nations. Afterwards,
having by her valour increased her fame, she led her army
against the rest; and being successful, she w7as so puffed
up, that she styled herself the daughter of Mars, and or¬
dered the men to spin wool, and do the work of the women
within doors. She also made laws, by which the women
were enjoined to go to the wars, and the men to be kept at
home in a servile state, and employed in the meanest offices.
They also debilitated the arms and thighs of those male
children who were born of them, that they might be ren¬
dered unfit for war. They seared the right breasts of their
girls, that they might be no interruption to them in fight¬
ing : whence they derived the name of Amazons. rl heir
queen, having become extremely eminent for skill and
knowledge in military affairs, at length built a large city at
the mouth of the river Thermodon, and adorned it with a
magnificent palace. In her enterprises she adhered strictly
to military discipline and good order; and she added to her
empire all the adjoining nations, even to the river Tanais.
Having performed these exploits, she at last ended her
days like a hero, falling in a battle in which she had fought
courageously. She was succeeded in the kingdom by her
daughter, who imitated the valour of her mother, and in
some exploits excelled her.”
Diodorus also mentions another race of Amazons who
dwelt in Africa, and whom he speaks of as being of greater
antiquity than those who lived near the river Thermodon.
Justin represents the Amazonian republic as having taken
its rise in Scythia. The Scythians had a great part of Asia
under their dominion upwards of 400 years, till they were
conquered by Ninus, the founder of the Assyrian empire.
After his death, which happened about 1150 years before
the Christian era, and that of Semiramis and their son
Ninyas, Ilinus and Scolopites, princes of the royal blood of
Scythia, were driven from their country by other princes,
who like them aspired to the crown. They departed with
their wives, children, and friends ; and being followed by a
great number of young people of both sexes, they passed
into Asiatic Sarmatia, beyond Mount Caucasus, where they
formed an establishment, supplying themselves with the
riches they wanted, by making incursions into the countries
bordering on the Euxine Sea. The people of those coun¬
tries, exasperated by the incursions of their new neighbours,
having united, surprised and massacred the men.
The women then resolving to revenge their death, and
at the same time to provide for their own security, resolved
to form a new kind of government, to choose a queen, enact
laws, and maintain themselves without men, even against
the men themselves. This design was not so very surpris¬
ing as at first sight appears : for most of the girls among
the Scythians had been inured to the same exercises as the
boys; to draw the bow, to throw the javelin, to manage
other arms ; to riding, hunting, and even the painful labours
that seemed reserved for men; and many of them among
651
the Sarmatians accompanied the men in war. No sooner Amazons,
had they formed their resolution than they prepared to '
execute it, and exercised themselves in all military opera¬
tions. They soon secured the peaceable possession of the
country; and, not content with showing their neighbours
that all their efforts to drive them thence or subdue them
were ineffectual, they made war upon them, and extended
their own frontiers. They had hitherto made use of the
instructions and assistance of a few men that remained in
the country; but finding at length that they could stand
their ground and aggrandize themselves without them, they
killed all those whom flight or chance had saved from the
fury of the Sarmatians, and for ever renounced marriage,
which they now considered as an insupportable slavery.
But as they could only secure the duration of their new
kingdom by propagation, they made a law to go every year
to the frontiers, to invite the men to come to them; to de¬
liver themselves up to, their embraces, without choice on
their part, or the least attachment; and to leave them as
soon as they were pregnant. Those whom age rendered
fit for propagation, and who were willing to serve the state
by breeding girls, did not all go at the same time in search
of men: for in order to obtain a right to promote the mul¬
tiplication of the species, they must first have contributed
to its destruction; nor was any one thought worthy of giv¬
ing birth to children till she had killed three men.
If from this commerce they brought forth girls, they edu¬
cated them ; but, with respect to the boys, if we may be¬
lieve Justin, they strangled them at the moment of their
birth.
Plutarch, treating of the Amazons in his life of iheseus,
considers the accounts which have been preserved concern¬
ing them as partly fabulous and partly true. He gives some
account of a battle which had been fought between the
Athenians and the Amazons at Athens ; and he relates some
particulars of this battle which had been recorded by an
ancient writer named Clidemus. In another place he says,
“ It appears that the passage of the Amazons through Thes¬
saly was not without opposition ; for there are yet to be seen
many of their sepulchres near Scottussa and Cynocephalac
and in his life of Pompey, speaking of the Amazons, Plutarch
says, “ They inhabit those parts of Mount Caucasus that look
towards the Hyrcanian Sea, not bordering upon the Alban¬
ians, for Gelae and Leges lie between; and with these people
do they yearly, for two months only, accompany and cohabit,
bed and board, near the river Thermodon. After that they
retire to their own habitations, and live alone all the rest of
the year.”
Quintus Curtius has given a circumstantial account of the
visit of the Queen of the Amazons to Alexander the Great.
Justin also repeatedly mentions this visit of Thalestris
to Alexander; and in one place he says that she made
a march of 25 days in order to obtain this meeting with
him. The interview is likewise mentioned by Diodorus
Siculus.
The Amazons are represented as being armed with bows
and arrows, with javelins, and also with an axe of a parti¬
cular construction, which was denominated the axe of the
Amazons. According to the elder Pliny, this axe was in¬
vented by Penthesilea, one of their queens. On many an¬
cient medals are representations of the Amazons armed with
these axes. They are also said to have had bucklers in the
shape of a half-moon.
That at any period there should have been women who,
without the assistance of men, built cities and governed
them, raised armies and commanded them, administered
public affairs, and extended their dominions by arms, is un¬
doubtedly so contrary to all that we have seen and known
of human affairs, as to appear in a very great degree incre-
x
652 A M B
Ambacht dible ; but that women may have existed sufficiently I’obust
II and sufficiently courageous to have engaged in warlike en-
Ambassa- terprises, and even to have been successful in them, is cer-
dor^ tainly not impossible, however contrary to the usual course
of things. That much of what is said of the Amazons is
fabulous, there can be no reasonable doubt; but it does not
therefore follow that the whole is without foundation. I he
ancient medals and monuments on which they are repre¬
sented are very numerous, as are also the testimonies of
ancient writers. It seems not rational to suppose that all
this originated in fiction, though it be much blended with
it. We now know that in the Negro kingdom of Dahomey
the present ruler of that country, who humbled the power
of the Ashantees, has among his choicest troops battalions
of women, who are as fearless and redoubtable as the ancient
Amazons.
AMBACHT is a word which denotes a kind of jurisdic¬
tion or territory, the possessor whereof has the administra¬
tion of justice, both in alto and basso; or of what is called
in the Scottish law, a power of pit and gallows, i. e., a power
of drowning and hanging. In some ancient writers, ambacht
is particularly used for the jurisdiction, government, or chief
magistracy of a city. The word is very ancient, though used
originally in a sense somewhat different. Ennius calls a
mercenary, or slave hired for money, ambactus; and Caesar
gives the same appellation to a kind of dependents among
the Gauls, who, without being slaves, were attached to the
service of great lords.
AMBARVALIA, in Antiquity, an annual ceremony
among the Romans, on the Ides of May, when, in order to
procure from the gods a happy harvest, they conducted the
victims thrice round the corn-fields in procession before
sacrificing them. Ambarvalia were either of a private or
public nature : the private were performed by the master of
a family, and the public by the priests, called/rafrrs arvales,
who officiated at the solemnity. The prayer preferred on
this occasion, the formula of which we have in Cato, de Re
Rustica, cap. cxlii. was called carmen ambarvale. At these
feasts they sacrificed to Ceres a sow, a sheep, and a bull or
heifer ; whence they took the name of suovetaurilia. The
method of celebrating them was, to lead a victim round the
fields, while the peasants accompanied it, and one of their
number, crowned with oak, hymned forth the praises of
Ceres in verses composed for the occasion. The processions
and ceremonies of Rogation, or Gang-week of the Latin
Church, bore a great resemblance to the ancient ambarvalia.
Since the Reformation the perambulation of the parish boun¬
daries has been substituted in their place.
AMBASSADOR, a word of disputed origin, but pro¬
bably adopted into the English language from the French,
means, in its general sense, a minister authorised by any
state to represent it in some other. In its distinctive sense,
as indicating a particular kind of minister so appointed, it
means the highest class; and by authority as well as prac¬
tice, there are states which may be represented at others,
yet are understood not to be entitled to appoint so high a
representative as an ambassador. ^Messages require to be
interchanged by all moderately civilised nations, unless
those which, like the Chinese or the Japanese, peculiarly
isolate themselves. Hence such messages, and the manner
in which they were sent and received, are familiar occur¬
rences in all histories. Some understanding that the persons
who undertook such a function should enjoy freedom and
safety in the state to which they were sent was absolutely
necessary for its performance. The Romans adopted strict
rules for the safety of ambassadors; but the less definite
provisions of other nations were liable to be affected by
momentary impulses, and many incidents of ancient warfare
arose out of insults or injuries committed on ambassadors.
A M B
It was on the ground of an insult offered to his ambassadors Ambassa-
that Alexander destroyed Tyre. The Persian invasions of ^or-
Greece were stimulated by the slaughter of the ambassadors
of Darius—who, however, demanding earth and water as
tokens of dependence, were rather messengers of hostility than
ambassadors, in anything like the modern sense of the term.
Ambassadors now communicate privately with sovereigns
or official persons, not with legislative bodies. In Greece,
however, ambassadors sometimes pleaded the cause of their
state in the public assemblies, and in Rome they were for¬
mally received by the senate. The legatus of the Romans
answered pretty nearly to our Ambassador Extraordinary;
but the term was also used to mean another and totally
different officer who accompanied the proconsul or governor
of a province, and was more like a colonial secretary. It be¬
came the practice to give honorary legations of this kind on
account of the privileges which they conferred on the holder
in the province to which he was accredited. There is, how¬
ever, a distinction of a generic and very characteristic kind
between the ambassador of modern diplomacy and any ancient
representatives of states. The ambassador of old was chosen
for a particular message or negotiation, and a permanent resi¬
dent representative of one state within another was unknown,
at least as a system. It is not yet intelligible to nations be¬
yond the circle of European diplomacy. The Turks had the
inveterate practice, on going to war with a state, of commit¬
ting its representative to the seven towers; and though the
reason assigned for the practice was the safety of the person
of the ambassador from outrage, even this, if it were sincere,
showed that the feelings of hatred indulged against a mem¬
ber of a hostile state would break out too strongly to be
controlled even by that despotic government. The Chinese,
and their neighbours nearer Hindustan, can look on an
ambassador or diplomatic agent as merely a dignified spy,
to whose presence nothing but necessity compels them to
submit. Nor are they entirely wrong, since the European
embassies may be counted a mutually tolerated system of
espionage. Even Wickefort calls the ambassador an hon¬
ourable spy, protected by the law of nations; and La
Bruyere says epigramatically, that the ambassador’s func¬
tion is to cheat without being cheated. The understanding
that an ambassador was a person ever ready to do whatever
he could with safety to the advantage of his own country, and
the injury of that to which he was accredited, became a
standing object of sarcasm with the wits of the seventeenth
century. Sir Henry Wotton, himself an ambassador, when
asked to write something in an album at Augsburg, could
not resist a sarcasm on the same subject, and spoke of an
ambassador as a person sent abroad to lie for the good of
his country. In its English form, his apophthegm gene¬
rally involves a pun or equivoke in the words “ lie abroad,”
of which the original Latin is, however, not susceptible.
Scioppius published it as a declaration of the morality of
English diplomacy, and brought Wotton under temporary
disgrace with King James ; to whom the jest seemed the
more dangerous that it announced that false and treache¬
rous system of diplomacy on which he with most of the
sovereigns of the age acted when it was safe to do so.
Permanent embassies, with the eminent personal privileges
conceded to ambassadors, have existed in feudal Europe from
an early time. To find the origin of an institution seemingly
so much at variance with the selfish and ravenous national
habits amidst which it arose, we must look to the peculiar
sacredness claimed for their persons by the great community
of European monarchs. The privileges of the ambassador did
not arise from principles of jurisprudence founded on general
public utility, but from the practice of the sovereign invest¬
ing his representative with his own sacredness, and the
acknowledgment on the part of the brother sovereign of the
AMBASSADOR.
bassa- sufficiency of the investiture. Thus in ages when interna-
"dor!81 tional law was rude and little respected, ambassadors claimed
l ^ j privileges which would in the present day be deemed pre¬
posterous ; such total exemption from liability to the laws,
civil or criminal, of the country to which they were accre¬
dited, and the right to have their official places of residence
respected, as sanctuaries for criminals fleeing from justice.
Ambassadors of old, in fact, thus received concessions which,
though claimed by them as belonging properly to their
masters as sovereign princes, and descending to them¬
selves only as substitutes, would not practically have been
enjoyed by sovereign princes though theoretically conceded
to them. The advantage obtained over a state by seizing
the person of the sovereign, would have rendered it unsafe
for the principal to trust to privileges which, in the less
available person of his representative, were scrupulously
respected.
From this fictitious royalty came many of the practical
peculiarities of the embassies of the present day. The
qualification of “ Excellency” applied to ambassadors is a
communication from the titles of sovereign princes. They
have the right of appearing covered before sovereigns in
their formal audiences—a right not actually exercised, but
still symbolically acknowledged. The ambassador’s immu¬
nities extend to the persons brought in his train, not as
participating in his fictitious sovereignty, but as his subjects
who are exempt from the authority of the state to which he
is accredited, and responsible solely to him as their local and
temporary sovereign. Thus, by the “ exterritoriality,” as it
has been termed, of an embassy, the persons of the ambas¬
sador and his suite, his dwelling-house and his carriages
were all deemed a part of his own nation, as inviolable by
diplomatic understanding as the court of his sovereign was
by distance and armed protection. The most prominent
relic at the present day of this fictitious royalty, is the splen¬
dour and costliness of the embassies of the great powers
—qualifications in which the United States of America, not
having the same traditional dignity to support, have had the
good sense not to compete with them.
As the theory, indeed, of the ambassador’s rank and pri¬
vileges were that he represented, not the state or people
from whom he came, but the king, a disposition has often
been shown to deny at least the higher privileges of em¬
bassy to republics. Until Cromwell’s power commanded
respect, the representatives of the English Commonwealth
were treated with much indignity, and two of them were
slain by royalist refugees—Dorislaus in Holland, and As-
cham in Spain. In 1663 the court of Louis XIV. haughtily
refused to concede the usual honours to the representatives
of the Swiss cantoris. It is not the practice of the United
States to profess to accredit ambassadors of the highest di¬
plomatic grade, nor does their condition in European diplo¬
macy fortunately tempt them to transgress this prudent rule.
On the other hand, it is not usual to accredit the highest
class of ambassadors to that frugal government; though, for
the adjustment of the late difficulties about the Oregon
boundary, Lord Ashburton was commissioned with high
and peculiar power to negotiate with the States. It is cu¬
rious to find in the article Ambassadeur in the Encyclopedic
Moderne, written between the fall of Louis Philippe and
the re-establishment of the empire by Louis Napoleon, com¬
plaints of the still extant humiliations to which republican
ambassadors are liable.
The privileges conceded to the fictitious sovereignty of
the ambassador, like many other institutions of a like bar¬
barous origin, have been directed in the progress of civilisa¬
tion to serviceable ends. That the representative should
be able to keep himself from being in any way involved in
the social or political movements of the state to which he is
653
accredited, is an unquestionable advantage. The extern- Ambassa-
toriality has been found serviceable in adjusting many diffi- dor.
culties in international law; that which is done under the
auspices of the ambassador, as a marriage in his chapel,
being deemed the same in law as if it had taken place in his
country. Thus in very intolerant countries an embassy has
often acted as a little centre of toleration, which govern¬
ments, prevented by high priestly influences from avowedly
acting on liberal principles, have been glad rather to cherish
than discourage.
It has always been difficult in countries not despotic to
preserve the sacredness of embassies when circumstances
have made them offensive to the people. Thus it was diffi¬
cult to keep Gundomar the celebrated Spanish ambassador
in James the First’s reign from violence by the London mob
for introducing sedan-chairs, which they called a device for
enslaving Englishmen and making them do the work of
beasts. In the anti-Popery riots of 1780 the chapels of the
Bavarian and Sardinian embassies were burned. It has ever
been usual to exact high satisfaction for injuries offered to
ambassadors, and despotic courts have had no difficulty in
conceding the demand where this was rendered prudent by
the power of the offended party. Diplomatic difficulties of a
serious kind have often occurred, however, in constitutional
countries where the asserted privileges of the foreign am¬
bassador were found to clash with the undoubted rights of
the home citizen. In 1668 the Portuguese minister was
imprisoned for debt in Holland, and in 1708 a similar event
produced a serious diplomatic difficulty in England. The
Russian ambassador, having had his audience of leave, was
arrested for debt by some tradesmen in the open streets of
London. Deeming that he was attacked by bravos, he de¬
fended himself, and was not secured without suffering much
violence and indignity. The Czar immediately demanded
the infliction of capital punishment on those who had been
guilty of the outrage. Much parade was made about insti¬
tuting prosecutions against all the parties concerned in the
affair; but it was impossible for the government ultimately
to treat it otherwise than as a matter for which unfortunately
the law made no provision. All that could be done was to
pass an act to remedy the defect; and to sooth the Czar its
preamble denounced in very angry terms the unparalleled
wickedness of those turbulent and disorderly persons who
had outrageously insulted the person of his excellency the
ambassador-extraordinary of his Czarish majesty, emperor
of Great Russia, to whom a copy of the act was sent with
distinguished pomp. The diplomatic body in general, dis¬
contented with the haughty tone of the English court, took
up the question. When the bill was passing they objected
to some parts of it, and particularly to a condition of the pro¬
tection of ambassadors’ retinues, that their names should be
recorded with the Secretary of State and the sheriffs of Lon¬
don ; but parliament, then exulting in the continental tri¬
umphs of Marlborough, received their demands with haughty
silence.
It happened almost at the same time that the British go¬
vernment had shown a memorable instance of the sternness
with which it insisted on preserving the inviolability of its
own ambassadors. When the Earl of Manchester was ambas¬
sador at Venice in 1708, some persons had managed, under
the protection of his diplomatic privileges, to attempt smug¬
gling operations, and in the efforts to detect them, the Earl’s
gondola was seized with smuggled goods in it. In such
matters the British government has generally acted on the
knowledge that in despotic states the government can pre¬
vent or cause all such incidents. In this instance, there
were, high state-reasons for demanding satisfaction, since
there was reason to suppose that the Senate was secretly
in league with France, then projecting an invasion ot
654
AMBASSADOR.
Ambassa- Britain; and Lord Manchester would not be appeased until
dor. three official persons were sent to the galleys and others
pilloried. In 1716, Britain again excited the indignation of
the diplomatic circle by the seizure of the Swedish repre¬
sentative and his correspondence. His residence was sud¬
denly surrounded by a party of soldiers, and his confidential
papers—some of which his wife was concealing—were ap¬
propriated. The question whether such an act was consis¬
tent with the law of nations, was pretty effectually answered
in the particular occasion, by an exposure of the resident’s
flagitious breach of this law, in employing his opportunities
as ambassador to foster treason and make arrangements for
an invasion of the country to which he was accredited.
The rank of ambassadors is regulated by a double gra¬
dation—the importance of the object of the mission, and the
rank of the court they represent. It has always been the
object of governments rising in power, like that of Prussia
under the great Frederic, to obtain some step in diploma¬
tic rank, while old states have resisted the demand and en¬
deavoured in other ways to hold their previous relative po¬
sition. Ambassadors have, from incidental circumstances,
been admitted to a representative rank in some courts, which
has been denied to them in others. Thus the representa¬
tives of the knights of Malta were in the middle of the
eighteenth century received as ambassadors of the highest
order at the courts of Rome and Vienna.
The various sources of distinction, founded on the title
given to the ambassador, the rank of the state sending, that
of the state receiving, and sometimes the social rank of the
ambassador himself, make an almost insoluble complexity
of positions, which have exercised the ingenuity of the wri¬
ters on diplomacy. But the complexity has this advantage,
that when there is an earnest wish to transact business,
means are found for evading questions of etiquette. The
great resource of those states whose right to send a minis¬
ter of the highest order is disputed, is to transact their busi¬
ness through a minister of a secondary class ; for as the class
may depend as much on the rank of the court sent to as that
of the court accrediting, direct assumptions or humiliations
are thus avoided.
It has been usual since the Congress of Vienna to divide
representatives into three great classes—ambassadors, en¬
voys, and residents or charges des affaires. The first and
second are accredited from the head of the government, and
communicate with the head; the third class have instruc¬
tions from the foreign department of their own government,
and communicate with that of the state they are sent to.
The term Ambassador-Extraordinary having been applied to
those sent on temporary missions of high importance, the
term extraordinary came to be extended to the permanent
ambassadors at the courts of the great powers, as it was
deemed desirable that no diplomatic rank should be deemed
higher than theirs. There are at present (1853) accredited
from Britain, ambassadors-plenipotentiary at the courts of
France and Turkey. To Austria, Prussia, Russia, Spain,
Denmark, Sweden, Hanover, Sicily, the Netherlands, Bel¬
gium, Sardinia, the United States, and Brazil, there are en¬
voys extraordinary. In smaller states our representatives
are called ministers plenipotentiary, or charges des affaires;
and in some states, many of them important in trade, though
not in diplomacy, as China, a consulate is deemed sufficient.
The ceremonial system connected with embassies has natu¬
rally ceased to retain its old importance of late years, a por¬
tion of it only being preserved by routine, but it is still
usual to gratify oriental courts by receiving their represen¬
tatives with noisy pomp. The manner in which an ambas¬
sador’s conduct must be regulated by the relative condition
to each other of the states between which he acts, belongs
to the subject of diplomacy. The ambassador has occupied
a large place in the treatises on diplomacy and international Ambassa-
law from Grotius downwards, and Wickefort devoted two dor-
considerable quarto volumes to L’Ambassadeur et ses Fonc-
tions. See Diplomacy, Inteknational Law.
We subjoin the official return of the allowances of the
ambassadors, envoys, ministers, charges d’affaires, secretaries
of legation, or secretaries of embassy, and paid attaches, in
the diplomatic service of Britain.
France.
Ambassador 
Secretary of Embassy 
First paid Attach^  
Second ditto 
Turkey.
Ambassador 
Secretary of Embassy 
Oriental Secretary  
First paid Attache  
Second ditto  
Third ditto  
Fourth ditto 
Fifth ditto 
Sixth ditto 
Russia.
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary
Secretary of Legation 
First paid Attache  
Second ditto 
Austria.
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary
Secretary of Legation 
First paid Attache  
Second ditto 
Spain.
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary
Secretary of Legation 
Paid Attach^ 
Prussia.
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary
Secretary of Legation 
Paid Attach*} 
United States.
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary
Secretary of Legation 
Paid Attach*} 
Two Sicilies.
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary
Secretary of Legation 
Paid Attach^ 
Portugal.
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary
Secretary of Legation 
Paid Attach^ 
Brazil.
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary
Secretary of Legation 
Paid Attache i 
Netherlands.
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary
Secretary of Legation   
Paid Attach*; 
Belgium.
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary
Secretary of Legation 
Paid Attach*}   
Sardinia.
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary
Secretary of Legation 
Paid Attach*} 
Bavaria.
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary
Secretary of Legation 
Denmark.
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary
Secretary of Legation 
L.8000
1000
400
300
7000
800
500
300
250
250
250
250
250
6700
900
400
300
6400
600
350
250
5400
550
250
5500
550
250
5000
800
200
4400
500
250
4400
500
250
4500
550
250
4000
500
250
4000
750
250
4100
500
250
4000
500
4000
500
A M B
Ambe Sweden. _ _ . • T
l| Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary L.3400
Amber. Secretary of Legation  500
Hanover.
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary 3400
Secretary of Legation  750
Frankfort.
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary 2900
Secretary of Legation  400
Paid Attache  250
Greece.
Minister Plenipotentiary  2800
Secretary of Legation  400
Paid Attachd  250
Wurtemberg.
Envoy Extraordinary and ^Minister Plenipotentiary 2300
Secretary of Legation  500
Paid Attach^  250
Saxony.
Minister Plenipotentiary  2300
Secretary of Legation    850
Tuscany.
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary 2300
Secretary of Legation  400
Paid Attache  500
Switzerland.
Minister Plenipotentiary  2250
Secretary of Legation    400
Mexico.
Minister Plenipotentiary    4000
Secretary of Legation  600
Paid Attache  200
Bolivia.
Charge d’Affaires    365
Buenos Ayres.
Charge d’Affaires    365
Chili.
Charge d’Affaires    365
Monte Video.
Chargd d’Affaires    365
New Granada.
Charge d’Affaires -  365
Peru.
Charge d’Affaires  365
Venezuela.
Charge d’Affaires  365
Persia.1
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary
Secretary of Legation 
First part Attachd   460
Second ditto   
Third ditto •;••• 200
(j.H.B.)
AMBE, in Surgery, the name of an instrument formerly
used for reducing dislocated bones; in Anatomy, a term for
the superficial jutting out of a bone.
AMBER. Bernstein, Germ.; Succin, carahe, ambre
jaune, Fr.; Electrum, succinum, Lat.; Yellow mineral restn,
Haidinger.
This substance has been in repute from the earliest times,
and, in consequence of certain properties it possesses, gave
rise to many romantic and fabulous stories. According to
the poets, when the sisters of Phaethon were lamenting his
fate, their tears, instead of mixing with the waters of the
Po, into which he had been precipitated by the thunder of
the incensed Jupiter, consolidated, and were transformed
into amber, on which the ancients set such an immense value.
Sophocles, too, according to Pliny, hesitates not to avouch
that beyond India it proceeds from the tears that fall from
A M B
655
5000
750
the eyes of the birds Meleagrides wailing and weeping the Amber,
death of Meleager. Again, the electricity of this substance,
which was long observed before it could possibly be under¬
stood, was another source of surprise and conjecture, and
induced individuals to believe that amber was possessed of
some living principle; and Thales went so far as to imagine
it had a soul, and even Pliny appears to have entered into
the same idea. This property, which has subsequently been
discovered in a multitude of other bodies, gave rise to the
science of electricity,—a denomination derived from the
Greek cXeKTpov, by which name amber was known to the
ancients. The Arabian name Karabe, meaning attract-chaff,
is also very significant of this property. We thus find that a
bit of amber was the first electric machine ever put in use.
Little, however, did Pliny and the philosophers of his days,
when debating on the tears of the sisters of Phaethon, or of
the birds that wept the fate of Meleager, dream of the re¬
searches of their successors, or of the effects to be produced
by the multiplication and concentration of the power ori¬
ginally discovered in a bit of amber.
It was not surprising that a substance so prized and so
valuable should be found to possess many important medi¬
cinal qualities. It is to be suspected, however, that, taken
per se, the virtues it possesses may be summed up in what
Pliny states, viz., “ True it is, that a collar of amber beads
worn about the necks of young infants, is a singular pre¬
servative to them against secret poison, and a counter¬
charm for witchcraft and sorceries.” The same feelings may
probably have handed down even to our own time the su¬
perstitious veneration with which the necklace of lammer
beads has always been held among the lower classes of our
own countrywomen, whose necks may still be seen orna¬
mented with this esteemed heirloom, while their backs are
supporting a load of fish or of salt to the market.
The use of amber in medicine might now be considered
as nil, were it not that chemists have succeeded in extracting
from it, by distillation, a liquid of a very pungent smell,
which is a good antispasmodic, but now little used. The oil
of amber entered into the composition of the syrup of karabe,
in the older pharmacopoeias.
As a matter of course, the origin of amber was also wrapt
in mystery, but for this there seems to be no longer occa¬
sion ; with very few exceptions, it seems always to occur in
beds of bituminous wood. “ Near the sea-coast in Prussia
there are regular mines for the working of amber: under a
stratum of sand and clay, about 20 feet thick, a stratum of
bituminous wood occurs, from 40 to 50 feet thick, of a 1
blackish brown colour, and impregnated with pyrites. Parts
of these trees are impregnated with amber, which sometimes
is found in stalactites depending from them. Under the
stratum of trees were found pyrites, sulphate of iron, and
coarse sand, in which were rounded masses of amber. The
mine is worked to the depth of 100 feet; and, from the cir¬
cumstances under which the amber is found, it seems plain
that it originates from vegetable juices.” {Phillips) The
next unequivocal example of this being the fact as to the
origin of amber occurs in the brown coal of Hasen Island
in Greenland. Here it presents itself usually in very small
specks; but these are often of a highly brilliant transpa¬
rent character. Similar repositories are found in France, at
St Paulet, department du Gard; at Coboalles, in the pro¬
vince of the Asturias in Spain ; and in Saxony. Nowhere,
however, does amber occur so abundantly as on the Prus¬
sian coasts of the Baltic, between Koningsberg and Memel.
1 The salaries of the mission in Persia are not charged upon the Consolidated Fund, hut are paid out of the sum of L.12,000, which
is received annually by the Treasury from the East India Company towards defraying the general expenditure of the diplomatic ser¬
vice in Persia.
X
656
A M B
A M B
Amber. The bed of coal which we have described above seems to
extend under the sea; and, subsequent to every heavy storm,
a large quantity of amber is sure to be found on the coast.
It is secured by fishermen by means of nets, and being the
property of the crown, is delivered to the proper officers at
a certain rate. It is said that the revenue derived from
this sometimes amounts to 16,000 or 17,000 dollars. This
has been the great source of supply to the whole of Europe
from the earliest times.
Besides these sources, amber is found in other situations
removed from all apparent connection with vegetable origin.
In the neighbourhood of Paris it occurs in small grains in
the plastic clay; it likewise occurs at Aix in Provence, dis¬
posed in clay ; and it has often been found among the gravel
in the neighbourhood of London. The coasts of Sicily and
the Adriatic likewise afford amber. The most beautiful
specimens are perhaps those which are found at Catania.
They often possess a beautiful play of colour, approaching
to purple, not to be observed in the product of other places.
The predominant colour of amber is yellow, generally of
a pale straw colour; but it passes into honey yellow and yel¬
lowish white. Occasionally it is perfectly transparent, and
in this state it is in the greatest esteem for work.
It has been said that individuals had invented the means
of rendering opaque and dark-coloured amber transparent,
and of even communicating peculiar colours ; but these pro¬
cesses have perished with the inventors. It is said, that by
exposing opaque amber, covered with sand, in an iron pot,
to a gentle heat for forty hours, or by boiling it for twenty
hours in rapeseed oil, it will become transparent; but in
either case it loses its electric qualities.
In mineralogical cabinets amber is placed among the in¬
flammable substances. It occurs in irregular and spheroidal
masses, with a rough uneven surface. It presents no na¬
tural cleavage; its fracture is conchoidal; its lustre is re¬
sinous, and the streak white.
It is brittle, and its hardness varies from 2-0 to 2*5 ; specific
gravity L078 to LOBl ; and, when rubbed, acquires a strong
negative electrical virtue. According to the analysis of
Drapier it consists of
Carbon .SOSO
Hydrogene   7,31
Oxygene   6’73
Lime  L54
Alumina  LIO
Silica.....  063
These three earthy ingredients seem to be accidental; for
Schrotter found in it only carbon, 78*82 ; hydrogene, 10*23;
oxygene, 10*95 ; equivalent to C10 H8 O.
It burns with a pale yellow flame, with a good deal of black
smoke, and evolves an agreeable odour, leaving a carbona¬
ceous residue. It is cut into various ornaments and works
of art, and is a favourite article for the construction of mouth¬
pieces to smoking apparatus.
One of the most singular peculiarities in the history of
amber, is the circumstance of its very often containing in¬
sects and even reptiles enclosed within it. The high prices
which such rarities commanded set the ingenious to work to
imitate and forge specimens to all appearance genuine; which
has cast so much discredit upon the fact itself, that all speci¬
mens of this description are now viewed with jealousy and
suspicion. That, however, being admitted, there can be no
doubt whatever that such objects are actually found in am-
ber, and sometimes present appearances which it would be
extremely difficult if at all possible to imitate. Of those in¬
sects which have been orginally inclosed in amber, some are
plainly seen to have struggled hard for their liberty, and even
to have left their limbs behind them in the attempt; it being
no unusual thing to see, in a mass of amber that contains a
stout beetle, the animal wanting one, or perhaps two of its
legs, and those legs left in different places, nearer that part
of the mass from which it has travelled. This also may ac¬
count for the common accident of finding legs or wings of Amber
flies, without the rest of their bodies, in pieces of amber;
the insects having, when entangled in the yet soft and viscid
matter, escaped at the expense of leaving those limbs behind
them. Drops of clear water are sometimes also preserved
in amber. These have doubtless been received into it while
soft, and preserved by its hardening round them. Beautiful
leaves of a pinnated structure, resembling some of the ferns
or maidenhairs, have been found in some pieces; but these
are rare, and the specimens of great value. Mineral sub¬
stances are also found at times lodged in masses of amber.
Some of the pompous collections of the German princes
boast of specimens of native gold and silver in masses of
amber ; but as there are many substances, as sulphurets of
metals, and mica, that have all the glittering appearance of
gold and silver, it is not to be too hastily concluded that
these metals are really lodged in these beds of amber. The
most celebrated manufactures of amber are, in Prussia, at
Koningsberg and Dantzic ; in Sicily, at Catania and Tripani;
at Leghorn ; and at Constantinople.
The value of amber depends upon its colour, its lustre,
and its size. In 1576 a mass weighing 11 pounds was found
in Prussia, and deemed worthy of being presented to the
emperor ; latterly a mass of 13 pounds was found, for which
5000 dollars were said to be refused. Such masses are of
very great rarity. The principal demand for the amber of'
commerce is among the Armenians, through whom it is con¬
veyed to Egypt, Persia, China, and Japan; and a great
quantity is purchased to be consumed at the shrine of Ma¬
homet, by the pilgrims bound to Mecca.
Amber Tree, the English name of a species of Anthosper-
mum.
AMBERG, a walled town of Bavaria, in the circle of the
Upper Palatinate, and capital of a bailiwick of the same name.
It is situated on the river Vils, on the road between Ratis-
bon and Bayreuth, and 26 miles east of Nuremburg. It
was formerly the capital of the circle of Upper Palatinate,
and at present is the seat of its appeal court. It has a castle,
an arsenal, eight churches (of which St Martin’s has many
beautiful paintings and monuments), a Franciscan cloister,
a theatre, elementary and advanced schools, and several
manufactories, including a royal manufactory of arms. In
its vicinity is an extensive iron mine, and a chapel of the
Virgin Mary, much resorted to by pilgrims. Pop. in 1846,
10,225. Lat. 49. 26. 52. N. Long. 11. 47. 27. E. The
bailiwick has an area of 288 square miles, or 184,320 acres.
Amberg, a lofty mountain of East Gothland, in Sweden.
On this mountain, near the Wetter lake, antimony has been
found. On its top is the burying-place of one of the ancient
kings of the country. The spot is marked by a flat stone.
AMBERGER, Christopher, a German painter, born
at Amberg, who obtained reputation chiefly by his por¬
traits, carefully finished in the style of Holbein. His his¬
torical pieces are small, hard, and dry, and are chiefly to be
seen in his native place. He died in 1568, about 78 years
of age.
AMBERGRIS , or Gray Amber, is a solid, opaque, ash-
coloured, fatty, inflammable substance, variegated like mar¬
ble, remarkably light, rugged, and uneven in its surface, and
of a fragrant odour when heated. It does not effervesce with
acids; it melts freely over the fire into a kind of yellow rosin;
and is hardly soluble in spirits of wine.
Ambergris is found swimming upon the sea, on the sea-
coast, or in the sand near the sea-coast; especially in the
Atlantic Ocean, on the sea-coast of Brazil, and that of Ma¬
dagascar ; on the coasts of Africa, of the East Indies, China,
Japan, and the Molucca Islands; but most of the ambergris
which is brought to England comes from the Bahama
Islands, from Providence, &c., where it is found on the
^ Amber- coast. It is also sometimes found in the abdomen of whales
gris. by the whale-fishermen, always in lumps of various shapes
and sizes, weighing from half an ounce to a hundred and more
pounds. The piece which the Dutch East India Company
bought from the king of Tydore weighed 182 pounds. An
American fisherman from Antigua found, inside a whale,
about fifty-two leagues south-east from the Windward Is¬
lands, a piece of ambergris which weighed about 130 pounds,
and sold for L.500 sterling.
The most satisfactory account of the real origin of am¬
bergris is that given by Dr Swediaur, in the 73d volume of
the Philosophical Transactions.
We are told by writers on ambergris, that sometimes
claws and beaks of birds, feathers of birds, parts of vege¬
tables, shells, fish, and bones of fish, are found in the
middle of it, or variously mixed with it. Of a very con¬
siderable number of pieces, however, which Dr Swediaur
examined, he found none that contained any such thing;
though he allows that such substances may sometimes be
found in it; but in all the pieces of any great size, whether
found on the sea or in the whale, he always found a con¬
siderable number of black spots, which, after the most
careful examination, appeared to be the beaks of the Sepia
Octopodia ; and these beaks, he thinks, might be the sub¬
stances which have hitherto been always mistaken for claws
or beaks of birds or shells. The presence of these beaks
in ambergris proves evidently that all ambergris containing
them is in its origin, or must once have been, of a very soft
or liquid nature; as otherwise those beaks could not so con¬
stantly be intermixed with it throughout its whole substance.
That ambergris is found either upon the sea and sea-
coast, or in the bowels of whales, is a fact universally credited.
It is, however, of consequence to know whether ambergris
is found in all kinds of whales, or only in a particular species
of them; whether it is uniformly to be met with in those
animals; and if so, in what part of their body it is to be
found.
All these questions we find very fully discussed by Dr
Swediaur. According to the best information that he could
obtain from several of the most intelligent persons employed
in the spermaceti whale-fishery, and in procuring and sell¬
ing ambergris, it appears that this substance is sometimes
found in the belly of the whale, but in that particular species
only which is called the spermaceti whale, and which, from
its description and delineation, appears to be the Physeter
macrocephalus of Linnaeus.
The persons who are employed in the spermaceti whale-
fishery confine their views to the physeter macrocephalus.
They look for ambergris in all the spermaceti whales they
catch, but it seldom happens that they find any. When¬
ever they harpoon a spermaceti whale, they observe that it
constantly not only vomits up whatever it has in its stomach,
but also generally discharges its faeces at the same time;
and if this latter circumstance takes place, they are com¬
monly disappointed in finding ambergris in its belly. But
whenever they discover a spermaceti whale, male or female,
which seems torpid and sickly, they are always pretty sure
to find ambergris, as the whale in this state seldom voids
its faeces upon being harpooned. They likewise generally
meet with it in the dead spermaceti whales, which they
sometimes find floating on the sea. It is observed also,
that the whale in which they find ambergris often has a
morbid protuberance, or, as they express it, a kind of ga¬
thering in the lower part of its belly, in which, if cut open,
ambergris is found. It is remarkable that all those whales
in whose bowels ambergris is found, seem not only torpid
and sick, but are also constantly leaner than others ; so that,
if we may judge from the constant union of these two cir¬
cumstances, it would seem that a larger collection of am-
VOL. II.
657
bergris in the belly of the whale is a product of disease, and Amber-
probably sometimes the cause of its death. As soon as they Sr'lB-
harpoon a whale of this description, torpid, sickly, emaciated,
or one that does not void on being harpooned, they imme¬
diately either cut up the above-mentioned protuberance, if
there be any, or they rip open its bowels from the orifice
of the anus, and find the ambergris sometimes in one, some¬
times in several lumps, of generally from three to twelve
and more inches in diameter, and from one pound to twenty
or thirty pounds in weight, at the distance of two, but most
frequently of about six or seven feet from the anus, and
never higher up in the intestinal canal, which, according
to their description, is in all probability the intestinum cae¬
cum, hitherto mistaken for a peculiar bag made by nature
for the secretion and collection of this singular substance.
That the part cut open to come at the ambergris is no other
than the intestinal canal is certain, because they constantly
begin their incision at the anus, and find the cavity every¬
where filled with the faeces of the whale, which, from their
colour and smell, it is impossible to mistake. The amber¬
gris found in the intestinal canal is not so hard as that which
is found on the sea or sea-coast, but soon grows hard in the
air. When first taken out it has nearly the same colour,
and the same disagreeable smell, though not so strong, as
the more liquid faeces of the whale; but on exposing it to
the air, it grows by degrees not only grayish, having its
surface covered with a grayish dust like old chocolate, but
it also loses its disagreeable smell, and, when kept for a
certain length of time, acquires the peculiar odour which is
so agreeable to most people.
In considering whether there be any material difference
between the ambergris found upon the sea or sea-coast
and that found in the bowels or among the faeces of the
whale, Swediaur refutes the opinion that all ambergris
found in whales is of an inferior quality, and therefore much
lower in price. Ambergris, he observes, is only valued for
its purity, lightness, compactness, colour, and smell. There
are pieces of ambergris found on different coasts, which are
of a very inferior quality ; whereas there are often found in
whales pieces of it of the first value; nay, several pieces
found in the same whale, according to the above-mentioned
qualities, are more or less valuable. All ambergris found
in whales has at first, when taken out of the intestines, very
nearly the same smell and blackish colour as the liquid ex¬
crements of that animal; sometimes it is quite hard, some¬
times softish, but never so liquid as the natural faeces. By
being accumulated after a certain length of time in the in¬
testinal canal, it seems even there to become of a whiter
colour, and less ponderous, and to acquire its agreeable
smell. The only reason why ambergris found floating on
the sea generally possesses this agreeable smell and hard¬
ness in a superior degree is because it is commonly older,
and has been longer exposed to the air. It is more fre¬
quently found in males than in females: the pieces found
in females are generally smaller than those found in males,
and inferior in quality. The disproportionately high price
obtained for the larger pieces, therefore, proceeds from an
intrinsic value in respect to quality, rather than a fictitious
value on account of their rarity.
From the preceding account, and his having constantly
found the beaks of the sepia in all pieces of ambergris of any
considerable size, Dr Swediaur concludes, with great proba¬
bility, that all ambergris is generated in the bowels of the
physeter macrocephalus or spermaceti whale, and there mixed
with the beaks of the sepia octopodia, which is the principal
food of that whale. It seems most probable tfyat this sub¬
stance is nothing more than the bile of the animal secreted
in undue quantity, and altered by disease.
The opinion of Dr Swediaur with regard to the origin of
4 O
AMBERGRIS.
658 A M B
Ambert ambergris has been confirmed by the information of Cap-
11 tain J. Coffin, master of a ship employed in the southern
Ambigu- w]iale-fishery, given to a Committee of Privy Council in
v ous' , the year 1791. The ambergris of the whale taken by Cap-
^v^ tain Coffin was mostly sold at 19s. 9d. per ounce; and a
small part of it, when it was scarce, at 25s. It was bought
partly for home consumption, and partly for exportation to
Turkey, Germany, and France. {Philosophical Transac¬
tions, vol. Ixxxi.)
The use of ambergris in Europe is now nearly confined
to perfumery, though it has formerly been recommended in
medicine by several eminent physicians. In Asia and part
of Africa ambergris is not only used as a medicine and a
perfume, but considerable use is also made of it in cookery,
by adding it to several dishes as a spice. The Turks make
use of it as an aphrodisiac.
Ambergris may be known to be genuine by its fragrant
scent when a hot needle is thrust into it, and its melting like
fat of a uniform consistence; whereas the counterfeit will
not yield such a smell, nor prove of such a fat texture.
AMBERT, chief town of the arrondissement of the same
name in France, department of Puy de Dome. The town
is situated on the river Dore, 35 miles south-east of Cler¬
mont, and is chiefly celebrated for its paper-worksand cheese;
besides which it manufactures ribands, lace, woollens, and
pins. Population of town in 1851, 8044; of arrondissement,
90,048. The arrondissement is divided into eight cantons,
and those into fifty-two communes, with an area of 477
square miles, or 305,280 acres.
AMBIANI, or Ambianensis Civitas, now Amiens, a
city of Picardy. It is called Samarobriva by Caesar and
Cicero ; which, according to Valesius, signifies the bridge of
the Samara or Somme. Ambiani is a later name, taken
from that of the people, after the usual manner of the lower
age. This people, according to Caesar, furnished 5000 men
for the siege of Alesia.
AMBIDEXTER, a person who can use both hands with
the same facility, and for the same purposes, that the gene¬
rality of people use their right hand. Many think that, were
it not for education and habit, all mankind would be am¬
bidexters ; and, in fact, we frequently find nurses obliged to
be at a good deal of pains before they can bring children to
forego the use of their left hand. The apparent cause why
the right arm is generally most in use is, that the impetus
of the heart is more directly communicated, in the ordinary
structure, to the right subclavian artery than to the left, and
therefore more blood is thrown into the former: but in
true ambidexters the structure is similar on both sides.
Ambidexter, among English Lawyers, a juror or em¬
bracer who accepts money of both parties for giving his
verdict; an offence for which he is liable to be imprisoned,
for ever excluded from a jury, and to pay ten times the sum
he accepted.
AMBIENT, a term used for such bodies, especially fluids,
as encompass others on all sides. Thus, the air is frequently
called an ambient fluid, because it is diffused round the earth.
AMBIGENtE Oyes, in the heathen sacrifices, an appel¬
lation given to such ewes as, having brought forth twins, were
sacrificed together with their two lambs, one on each side.
We find them mentioned among other sacrifices to Juno.
AMBIGENAL Hyperbola, a name given by Sir Isaac
Newton to one of the triple hyperbolas of the second order,
having one of its infinite legs falling within an angle formed
by the asymptotes, and the other without.
AMBIGUOUS, a term applied to a word or expression
which may. be taken in different senses. An anonymous
writer has published a dictionary of ambiguous words, Lexi¬
con Philosophicum. de Ambiguitate Vocabulorum, Francof
1597, 4to.
A M B
AMBIT, in Geometry, is the same with what is otherwise AmLifc
called the perimeter of a figure. I!
Ambit was particularly used in Antiquity to denote a
space of ground to be left vacant between one building and ^ teUbe‘
another. By the laws of the twelve tables, houses were not
to be built contiguous, but an ambit or space of 2| feet was
to be left about each for fear of fire. The ambitus of a
tomb or monument denoted a certain number of feet in
length and breadth around the same, within which the
sanctity assigned to it was limited. The whole ground
wherein a tomb was erected was not to be secreted from the
common uses; for this reason, it was frequent to inscribe
the ambit on it, that it might he known how far its sanctity
extended: thus, infrontepedes tot, in agrum pedes tot.
AMBITION {ambitid) is generally used, in a bad sense,
for an immoderate or illegal desire of power. In the strict
meaning of the word, however, it signifies the same with the
ambitus of the Romans.
AMBITUS, in Roman Antiquity, the competition for
some magistracy or office, and formally going round the city
to solicit the interest and votes of the people. Ambitus
differed from ambition, as the former lies in the act, the lat¬
ter in the mind. Ambitus was of two kinds; one lawful,
the other infamous. The first, called also ambitus popularis,
was when a person offered his service to the republic frankly,
leaving it to every body to judge of his pretensions as they
found reasonable. The means and instruments here made
use of were various : 1. Amici, or friends, under different
relations, including cognati, affines, necessarii, familiares,
vicini, tributes, clientes, municipes, sodales, collegce; 2. No-
menclatura, or the calling and saluting every person by his
name ; to which purpose the candidates were attended by
an officer, under the denomination of interpres or nomen-
clator ; 3. Blanditia, or obliging persons, by serving them
or their friends, patrons, or the like, with their vote and inte¬
rest on other occasions; 4. Prensatio, the shaking every
person by the hand, offering him his service, friendship, &c.
The second kind was that wherein force, cajoling, money,
or other exti’aordinary influence, was made use of. This
was held infamous, and several severe laws (leges de ambitu)
were enacted from time to time, to prevent bribery. Am¬
bitus was practised not only at Rome and in the forum, but
in the meetings and assemblies of other towns in Italy,
where numbers of citizens were usually found, on account
of trade and business. The practice ceased in the city from
the time of the emperors, as offices were not then to be ob¬
tained by courting the people, but by favour of the prince.
Persons who had causes depending practised the same,
going about among the judges to implore their favour and
mercy. They who practised this were called ambitiosi.
Hence we also meet with ambitiosa decreta, and ambitiosa
justa, used for such sentences and decrees as were thus pro¬
cured from the judges contrary to reason and equity, either
gratuitously or for money.
AMBLESIDE, a small market-town of Westmoreland,
about a mile from the head of Windermere, and 12 miles
north-west of Kendal. During the summer months it is
much frequented by tourists, on account of its beautiful
situation and the numerous places of interest in its vicinity,
including Rydal Mount, for many years the residence of the
poet Wordswmrth. In a field near the lake, are indistinct
remains of Roman fortifications, in which coins, urns, and
other relics, have been frequently discovered. It has a free
grammar school, and manufactories of coarse woollens.
Market-day Wednesday.—Pop. in 1851, 1592.
AMBLETEUSE, a decayed seaport town of France, in
the department of the Pas de Calais, on the English Chan¬
nel, 12 miles south-west from Calais, and 6 north from
Boulogne. From the accumulation of sand in its har-
A M B -
Amblygon hour it lias lost its importance as a seaport, and the town is
II now almost deserted. Pop. 581. At this port Caesar em-
Amboise. i}arked his cavalry when he invaded England; and at it
James II. landed when he abdicated the crown.
AMBLYGON, in Geometry, denotes an obtuse-angled
triangle, or a triangle one of whose angles consists of more
than 90 degrees.
AMBLYGONITE, a mineral of greenish-white colour,
found in Norway and Saxony. It appears to be a phosphate
of alumina and lithia, according to Berzelius. Its form is
a rhombic prism. Specific gravity 3*01.
AMBLYOPY, among Physicians, signifies an obscura¬
tion of the sight, so that objects at a distance cannot be
clearly distinguished.
AMBO, or Ambon, a kind of pulpit or desk in the an¬
cient churches, where the priests and deacons stood to
read or sing part of the service, and preach to the people ;
called also Analogium. The term is derived from ava-
ficuveiv, to mount. The ambo was mounted upon two sides;
whence some also derive the appellation from the Latin
amho, both. The ambo was ascended by steps ; which oc¬
casioned that part of the office performed there to be called
the Gradual. The modern reading-desks and pulpits have
been generally substituted for the ancient ambos; though
in some churches remains of the ambos are still seen. In
that of St John Lateran at Rome there are two moveable
ambos.
AMBOISE, a town of France, in the former province of
Touraine, now the department of the Indre and Loire,
seated at the confluence of the rivers Loire and Masse.
The town is the capital of a district, and has been rendered
famous in history by the conspiracy of the Protestants in
1560, which opened the fatal wars of religion in France.
The castle is situated on a craggy rock, extremely difficult
of access, and the sides of which are almost perpendicular.
At its foot flows the Loire, which is here crossed by a hand¬
some wooden bridge with stone piers. To this fortress the
duke of Guise, when he expected an insurrection among
the Huguenots, removed Francis II., as being a place of per¬
fect security. Only two detached parts of the ancient castle
now remain, one of which was constructed by Charles VIII.
and the other by Francis I. The former of these princes
was born and died at Amboise. Pop. 4859. Manufactures,
fire-arms, files, &c.
Amboise, Francois cV, son of a surgeon to Charles IX. of
France. His eloquence and extensive information raised
him in 1572 to the place of solicitor of the French nation.
He afterwards applied to the study of the law, and became
one of the most accomplished advocates of the parliament
of Paris. He was next advanced to be counsellor in the
parliament of Bretagne, and afterwards to be a master of
requests and counsellor of state. He visited different coun¬
tries, and published the history of his travels, and several
poetical pieces. He prefixed an apologetical preface to the
edition of Abelard’s works in 1616, and with much indus¬
try collected many of his manuscripts. His brother Adrian
rose to considerable consequence in the church; and his
brother James ivas not less eminent as a physician.
Amboise, George <f, a French cardinal and minister of
state, was born in the year 1460. His father was a descen¬
dant of the renowned house of Amboise, and through the
influence of his powerful connections the path of church
preferment lay open before his son: he accordingly des¬
tined him to the clerical order. In these sanguine expec¬
tations he was not disappointed; for he had sufficient in¬
fluence to procure for him the bishopric of Montauban at
the early age of fourteen. Louis XL appointed him one of
his almoners ; and in the course of political events he became
strongly attached to the duke of Orleans, and suffered im-
A M B 659
prisonment in his cause. When this prince, however, had Amboyna.
regained his favour at court, he was elevated to the arch-
bishopric of Narbonne. After he had remained there for
some time, he changed that station for the archbishopric of
Rouen. When the duke of Orleans was governor of Nor¬
mandy, he made him lieutenant-general; and in that situa¬
tion he was of essential service to the province hi restoring
justice and order. When the duke of Orleans became
Louis XII. Amboise was suddenly raised to the elevated
station of cardinal and prime minister. The same regard to
equity which characterised his conduct when lieutenant-ge¬
neral induced him to diminish the imposts, which rendered
him very popular as first minister of France. In 1499, by
his advice, the king Aindertook the conquest of the Milanese;
and on their revolt the prime minister was sent to quell the
rebellion. The great confidence which Louis had reposed
in him induced the pope to make him his legate in France ;
and in that station he piously laboured to reform the eccle¬
siastical orders. He enforced his doctrine by precept, and
not only set them an example of holding only one benefice
at a time, but also devoted two-thirds of its revenue to the
poor, and to the repair of religious edifices. According to
his own account, he was ambitious of the papal chair “ merely
for the purpose of effecting the reformation of abuses and
the correction of manners.” It is said that, upon the death
of Pius III., he would have been elected pope had he not
been deceived by the Italian cardinals. Disappointed in
his views with regard to the papal honours, he persuaded
his master to declare war against the Venetians, to whose
influence he attributed his failure. But this imprudent un¬
dertaking was suddenly interrupted; for, in the prosecution
of his journey for the Venetian war, he was seized with ill¬
ness in the city of Lyons. Affliction rouses the reflecting
powers of the mind, and calls to remembrance the past ac¬
tions of life. The consciousness of his past errors called
forth his pathetic expression of compunction to the lay-bro¬
ther who attended him at the convent of the Celestines:
“ Frere Jean, que n’ai je ete toute ma vie frere Jean !” In
the year 1510, and in the 50th of his age, he breathed his
last in that place. Industry, steadiness, and good intention,
characterised his conduct as a prime minister; and under
his liberal patronage the arts and sciences flourished during
his administration. It may be proper to add that, assisted
by some of the ablest laivyers in the kingdom, he formed a
code of laws to reform the reigning abuses in the nation.
Thus, by steadily pursuing the general welfare, he obtained
the appellation of the “ father of the people.”
AMBOYNA is one of the Moluccas or Spice Islands,
in the Eastern Archipelago, and belongs to the Dutch. It
lies south-west of Ceram, in S. Lat. 3. 41. E. Long. 128.
10., and is 32 miles in length, of a very irregular figure,
with a superficial area of 13’3 geographical square leagues.
Though but fourth-rate in size, it is the most populous of
all the Moluccas, Ceram excepted, the number of its inha¬
bitants in 1840 being 29,660. Its proper name is Hitoe;
but it is usually designated Amboyna, from its town. The
town of Amboyna contains 13,000 inhabitants, and is situ¬
ated on the south-east of the island, in the peninsula of
Leitimor, which is united to Hitoe by an isthmus about one
mile broad. The arm of the sea separating these two very
unequal peninsulas forms the extensive bay and roadstead
of Amboyna, which affords good anchorage for ships, with
shelter from most winds. In the exterior bay there are
no dangerous rocks or shallows: on the contrary, it has a
depth of 50 fathoms, except in a few places ; as, for instance,
in the roadstead itself, towards the point of the Gibbet, and
the other side of the bay, within the point of Laha. Ships,
however, seldom cast anchor in this last place, unless, when
attempting to enter the bay, the wind suddenly becomes
v
660 A M B O Y N A.
Amboyna. contrary, which would otherwise compel them to take to the
open sea.
Amboyna is a clean neat town, with broad unpaved streets
running at right angles to each other, and intersected by
numerous rivulets. The houses are of wood, roofed with
palm leaves, and mostly of one story, the better to endure
the shock of earthquakes, which are not infrequent. I he
Chinese and the Europeans occupy separate quarters of the
town. An esplanade of 250 yards reaches from Fort Vic¬
toria to the town, and is terminated by a handsome range
of houses, with a double row of nutmeg trees in front. An¬
other fort has been erected in a more advantageous position,
and is called Van der Capellen, in honour of the late ex¬
cellent governor of that name. The town-house is a neat
structure of two stories, fronting the esplanade. There are
two Christian churches, a fine garden and menagerie, several
bazaars and markets, and a hospital. The site of the town
is level; but immediately to the east and south the country
is hilly, and many mountain-streams descend to the sea close
to the town : the country around is highly picturesque, and
diversified with numerous villas; the forests are rich and
varied, vegetation is most luxuriant, and the air is embalmed
with the odours of flowers. Viewed from the sea, the aspect
of this fertile island is high and mountainous, watered by in¬
numerable streams, and interspersed with clove plantations.
The average temperature is 80° Fahr., rarely sinking below
72°, and until the great earthquake in 1835 the climate was
accounted highly salubrious; but since that period fever
has been very prevalent, probably in consequence of me¬
phitic vapours still exhaling from the fissures in the earth.
Amboyna produces most of the common tropical fruits and
vegetables, including the sago-palm, bread-fruit, cocoa-nut,
sugar-cane, maize, coffee, pepper, cotton, &c., and a small
quantity of very fine indigo. The variety of its ornamental
woods is such, that Rumphius, the author of the Herb Am-
boniense, had a cabinet composed of no fewer than 400 of
its choice native woods. The governor of the Moluccas
resides here, having under his jurisdiction the islands of
Boeroe, Amblauw, Ceram, Manippa, Kilang, Bonoe, Ha-
roekoe, Honimoa or Saparoea, Noesa-laut, and Hila. The
varied climatic effects of the monsoons are felt at Amboyna,
Ceram, Banda, the east coast of Celebes, and the adjacent
seas; the east monsoon bringing rains, lightning, and hurri¬
canes, the west monsoon fine weather. The monsoons also
occasion irregularities of the tides.
This island is especially remarkable for producing the best
cloves of commerce, and formerly was appropriated almost
exclusively to that production; for its Dutch legislators, in
order to secure a monopoly, exterminated thousands of clove
trees, prohibited their culture in the other islands subject
to them, and often burnt whole cargoes of spices, with the
view to keep up their market-price. By an act passed in
1824 these prohibitory laws were abolished; and conse¬
quently the fraud, extortion, and tyranny to which they
gave rise : the cultivation of land was opened to all; but
on account of the indolence and indifference of the natives
the government deemed it advisable to assign a plantation
of this tree to each negory, or village, under the superinten¬
dence of a chief, who is bound to deliver the annual produce
to government at a just valuation.1
The clove-tree (Caryophyllus aromaticus) attains the
height of 30 or 40 feet, is slender and elegant, with a light-
coloured stem, branches little spread, the leaves entire, small, Amboyna.
and oblong. It bears about its fifteenth year, and its ave-
rage duration is 75 years. The spice is the undeveloped
flowers of the plant, the tubular part being the calyx, and
the knob the unexpanded corolla. A tree will yield an¬
nually from 5 lb. to 20 lb. of cloves, according to its size and
vigour ; and some very large trees are said to produce even
so much as 50 lb. It flourishes best in a dry, rocky soil,
sheltered from blasts and sea-spray, and requires much care.
In the other Moluccas it bears earlier, and is hardier; but
it is in Amboyna that this plant is produced in greatest per¬
fection. From the leaves is extracted an oil powerfully
aromatic. The harvest takes place in November and De¬
cember, and averages from 250,000 to 300,000 lb. of cloves,
which are dried quickly in the shade to preserve their aroma.
The sago-tree (Sagus Rumphii), which furnishes the prin¬
cipal food of the Amboynese, is in danger of becoming
extinct in that island from the constant destruction of the
trees—a circumstance deserving the attention of the go¬
vernment. In Amboyna a tree now yields but about 400 lb.
of sago, while those of Ceram give 1200 lb. or more. It
flowers between its 20th and 25th year, and after lasting two
years in this state, languishes and dies ; but before this
period the pith has become ligneous, and is useless. The
best sago is in small round grains of a pale reddish-white:
as usually found in commerce the grain is larger, and whitened
artificially.
The natives of Amboyna are a mixed race of Haroforas
or aborigines, Malays, Chinese, Arabians, and various Euro¬
pean nations, with a consequent variety of complexion and
feature ; and it is worthy of remark that the descendants of
the Portuguese are much darker than the aborigines. Of
the latter very few now remain, and they are confined to
the mountains. The Malays constitute the main popula¬
tion. They are indolent and effeminate, but expert fishers.
Their corocoros, or war-canoes, are often 100 feet long, and
carry 80 men. They live in wooden houses of one story,
with roofs of palm-leaves, and windows of matted cane
Malay, the common language, is pleasing in utterance : the
Arabic character is employed in writing it, which they de¬
rived from the Arabians in the middle of the 16th century.
The natives are of middle height and well formed. They
are high spirited and of facile disposition, with more incli¬
nation for the military life than the inhabitants of the other
Moluccas. Their costume differs little from that of the
Malays of Java: it consists of a loose frock and trousers,
and a round hat, their glossy hair twisted into a queue, or
turned up with a comb. The chiefs of the villages dress
like the Europeans. Mohammedanism is the prevailing reli¬
gion ; but some profess Christianity, and distinguish them¬
selves by black garments.
If the ancient statistical documents may be relied on, this
island once contained 50,000 inhabitants. The great de¬
crease at the present day has been ascribed to several
causes; such as piracy, the ravages of smallpox and cholera,
enrolment for military service in 1806, 1809, and 1826, the
insurrections of 1817 and 1829, and the epidemic of 1837:
to which may be added the grievous oppression they so
long endured.
Amboyna has the usual domestic animals, but is very
barren in indigenous mammals. Its birds are few in species,
nor is it richer in mollusca and zoophytes. The splendid
1 Many errors have been propagated respecting the policy of the Dutch with regard to their East India possessions ; the fact being
that the chartered privileges of the Dutch Chamber of Commerce (like those of our own East India Company under its original charter),
constitute a monopoly of the carrying trade in the hands of that body, to the exclusion of the majority of the Dutch merchants and mer¬
chant seamen; and all that the British have received in accordance with the provisions in the treaty of 1824 is a parity of exclusion
with the great majority ot the Dutch themselves.—See Edinburgh Review, No. cxcv. p. 71.
A M B
A it. boy na. and valuable shells sold by the Chinese merchants at Am-
boyna are rarely found on its shores ; and in this and other
instances mistakes have frequently arisen in making Am-
boyna the habitat of animals not found there. In the
Moluccas but thirty mammiferous animals have hitherto
been observed: they do not possess a single quadruman,
nor any formidable beast of prey: the feline tribe is not
even represented: no marsupialia: the insectivora are want¬
ing : of the rodentia there is but the mus decumanus, which
is found everywhere, or a species nearly allied to it: no
edentata: the pachydermata are represented by the wild
boar and the horse, and the ruminantia by the deer (Cervus
axis): the monotremata are wanting. The birds of these
islands form characteristic groups: such are the cockatoos
with plumage almost purely white, and parrots beautifully
variegated with scarlet, purple, and bright blue. Among
the gallinaceae are the megapodes, remarkable for the dis¬
proportionate size of their eggs, and their habit of subject¬
ing them to the heat of fermenting vegetable matter, in¬
stead of hatching them in the usual way. The serpents that
occur in Amboyna are described by M. Schlegel as the fol¬
lowing :—Calamaria brackyorrhos,Lycodonmodestus,Den-
drophis rhodopleuron, Dipsas irregularis, and the Homa-
lopsis Schneideri, and Python Schneideri, inhabiting Am¬
boyna ; and in the surrounding seas are found the Hydro-
phis striata, IT. pelamis, H. pelamoides, H. colubrina, and
probably some others. The entomology of these isles is
peculiarly rich; and we may specially notice the brilliant
lepidoptera, and the phasma of enormous size. In the pith
of the sago tree is found the larva of a cerambix, which is
eaten as a great delicacy, like the grugru worm of the West
Indies. The seas are very prolific : the dugon is common :
the antarctic whale, the porpesse, the balsenoptera ovfinner,
but especially the cachalot {Physeter macrocephalus) which
yields the spermaceti of commerce, attract many English,
American, and other vessels to these seas. Extravagant
estimates have been made of the number of cachalots an¬
nually taken ; but it is stated that 190 large whaling vessels
are annually engaged in this pursuit.
Geology.—The greatest part of the island of Amboyna is
composed of rocks of ignigenous formation. To the north
of Leitimor, near the village of Roebang, there is a hill
several hundred feet in height composed entirely of granite;
in other places this rock underlies serpentine, and a calca¬
reous rock of more recent formation. The island in other
parts presents a volcanic aspect; and earthquakes and sud¬
den oscillations of the sea, from time to time, attest the
agency of subterranean fire. Pennant mentions a dreadful
eruption of the Wawani Mountain of Amboyna in 1691.
Sulphur is found in some quantity, and gold occurs in the
granite districts.
History.—Amboyna was first visited in 1512 by the
Portuguese, who established a factory there in 1521 ;
but they did not obtain peaceable possession of it till
1580. They were dispossessed by the Dutch, after re¬
peated attempts, in 1605. The British seized it in 1615 ;
and in turn were expelled by the Dutch, but retained a
factory in the island. The destruction of this establishment
by the Dutch in 1622, and the frightful tortures inflicted
on the unfortunate persons connected with it, long formed
the theme of fruitless political negotiations; till Oliver
Cromwell compelled them to give the sum of L.300,000,
together with a small island, as compensation to the de¬
scendants of those who suffered in the “ Amboyna massacre.”
In 1796, the British, under the Admiral Rainier, captured
Amboyna, but restored it to the Dutch at the peace of
Amiens. They re-captured it in 1810 ; and once more re¬
stored it to the Dutch after the treaty of Paris in 1814.
The sources of public revenue are customhouse and port
A M B
661
dues, imposts on merchandise, a monopoly of arrack, and Ambracia.
various licenses. The exports are spices and other natural
produce: the imports chiefly opium, and some Indian and
European goods.—See Coup-d'oeil General sur les Posses¬
sions Neerlandaises dans VInde Archipelagique, par C.
J. Temminck. Cannabich, Lehrbuch. (t. s. t—l.)
AMBRACIA, or Ampracia, an important town of an¬
cient Epirus, on the left bank of the river Arachthus, about
eight miles from the Ambracian Gulf. It was well fortified
by walls of about three miles in circumference, besides be¬
ing defended on the one side by the river Arachthus, and
on the other by steep and craggy hills, on one of which
stood the Acropolis. It was originally a Thesprotian town,
but tradition stated that it was founded by Ambrax son of
Thesprotus, or by Ambracia daughter of Augeas. About
the year b.c. 635, a colony of Corinthians settled here, on
which it became a Greek city. It soon became the most
important Corinthian colony on the Ambracian Gulf, and
about the time of the Peloponnesian war the Ambracians
had attained their highest importance. They then had pos¬
session of the whole of Amphilochia, including its town
named Argos. A colony from Ambracia had settled here,
and after a time drove out the original inhabitants, and took
possession of the town. The expelled Amphilochians threw
themselves under the protection of the Acarnanians, who,
with the assistance of the Athenians, retook Argos. The
Ambracians two years after (about b.c. 430) made an un¬
successful attack on the town. Having obtained the assist¬
ance of Eurylochus the Lacedaemonian general, they again
determined to attack the town (b.c. 426), but were repulsed
with great slaughter by the conjoined armies of the Amphi¬
lochians and Acarnanians under the command of Demos¬
thenes, their general Eurylochus being left dead on the
field. Being greatly weakened by this last defeat, they for
some time took no active part in the affairs of Greece. Am¬
bracia subsequently fell into the hands of the Macedonians,
and at a later period became subject to Pyrrhus, who made
it the capital of his dominions, and enriched it with nume¬
rous works of art. It afterwards came into the possession
of the Aitolians, and in the war between them and the Ro¬
mans it sustained the siege for which it is so celebrated. In
B.c. 189, the Roman consul M. Fulvius Nobilior resolved
to attack the town, and formed two camps, one on each side
of the river, but with a communication between them ; the
Romans being posted in one, and the Epirots, their allies, in
the other. He then threw up two lines, one of circumval-
lation, the other of contravallation ; and built a wooden
tower in form of a castle, over against the citadel.
The lines being completed, the city was attacked in five
different places at once. The battering-rams shook the wall
on all sides ; and the Romans, from their moveable towers,
pulled down the battlements with a kind of scythes, which
they fastened to long beams. The besieged made a vigor¬
ous defence. They were night and day on the walls, and
indefatigable in preventing the effects of the rams and
scythes. The strokes of the former they deadened by letting
down upon them beams, large stones, lumps of lead, &c., by
means of pulleys, when they were in motion ; the others they
rendered useless, by pulling the beams to which they were
fastened into the city with hooks contrived for the purpose.
But while these operations were going on, the fEtolians
concluded a peace with the Romans, and the city thereupon
opened its gates to the besiegers, who removed many of its
valuable works of art to Rome. Its ruin was afterwards
completed by Augustus, who removed its inhabitants to
Nicopolis, a city which he founded in commemoration of
his victory at Actium.
The modern Arta occupies the site of the ancient Am¬
bracia, where remains of its fortifications are still to be seen.
662 A M B
Ambres- From this time the city of Ambracia made no figure in
ljut'y history.
, Jl AMBRESBURY. See Amesbukt.
Ambrose^ AMBROGI, Domenico, or DEL Brizio, a Bolognese
painter who excelled in design, especially in cabinet pieces.
He was the pupil and favourite of Francesco Brigio, who
was the most distinguished scholar of the Caracci, except¬
ing Domenichino and Guido. Domenico was living in
1678.
AMBRONES, a people of Gaul who lived near the foot
of the Alps, about Embrun, between Switzerland and Pro¬
vence. They invaded the Roman territories in conjunc¬
tion with the Cimbri and Teutones; but were defeated
with great slaughter by Marius, about 101 years before
Christ. Their women, who during the engagement had
staid in a kind of fortification made with their carts, on see¬
ing their husbands flying, and the Romans at their heels,
armed themselves with axes, and, gnashing with their teeth,
fell with fury on the pursuers and the pursued. Their first
rage being spent, they desired to surrender themselves upon
the single condition that their chastity should not be viola¬
ted ; but this equitable request being denied, they first
killed their children and then themselves, not one remain¬
ing alive out of the whole multitude.
AMBROSE, of Alexandria, lived in the beginning of
the third century, and was the intimate friend of Origen.
Jerome and Eusebius differ in the account they give of this
man. The one denominates him a Marcionite, the other a
Valentinian ; but they both agree that he was converted to
the orthodox faith by the preaching of Origen. As is gene¬
rally the case with new proselytes, he became very zealous,
and was appointed deacon either at Alexandria or at Caesa¬
rea, where Protectetus was presbyter. Origen dedicated
many of his works, and among others his book on martyr¬
dom, to Ambrose, at whose desire and expense they were
published. Origen and Ambrose were alike indefatigable
in their application to study, and lived on terms of the most
intimate friendship. According to some historians, Ambrose
died a martyr, along with his friend Protectetus, in the per¬
secution under Maxifnin, about the year 236; but the dedi¬
cation of Origen’s eight books against Celsus proves, that
though he died before Origen, yet he lived to the year 250,
or near that period. Origen speaks of him as a man of
sincere piety, and much devoted to the study of the sacred
Scriptures.
Ambrose, Saint, Bishop of Milan, was one of the most
eminent fathers of the church in the fourth century. He
was a citizen of Rome, and born in France ; according to
some historians, in the year 334, but according to others
in 340. At the period of his birth his father was praetorian
prefect of Gallia Narbonensis; but upon his death the
widow repaired to Rome with her family. Ambrose re¬
ceived a religious education, and was reared in habits of
virtue by his mother, an accomplished woman, and eminent
for her piety. The names of his instructors in the rudi¬
ments of Greek and Roman literature have not been trans¬
mitted to posterity : but in these branches he made early
proficiency ; and, having directed his attention to the law,
he employed his eloquence with such reputation in the prae¬
torian court of Anicius Probus, that he was soon deemed
worthy of a place in the council. After he had continued
in this station fbi some time, I robus appointed him consu¬
lar of Liguria and Emilia, comprehending the territories of
Milan, Liguria, Turin, Genoa, and Bologna. Milan was
chosen for the place of his residence; and, by the prudent
and gentle use of his power, he conducted the affairs of the
province with general approbation and growing popularity.
In the year 374 Auxentius the bishop of that city died
and his death gave sudden change to the fortune and lite-
A M B
rary pursuits of Ambrose. At that period the tide of reli- Ambrose,
gious contention ran high between the orthodox and the
Arians, and there ensued a violent contest concerning the
choice of a new bishop. When the people were assembled
in the church to elect, Ambrose, in the character of gover¬
nor of the place, presented himself to the assembly, and in
a grave, eloquent, and pathetic address, admonished the
multitude to lay aside their contentions, and, in the spirit of
religious meekness, to proceed to the important work of
choosing a bishop. It is reported that when Ambrose had
finished his address, a child cried out, “ Ambrose is bishop.”
The agitated multitude suddenly caught the superstitious
flame, and regarding this as a miraculous intimation, they
unanimously elected Ambrose tpshop of Milan. Some sup¬
pose that this was entirely a device of Ambrose or his
friends, and others ascribe it to mere accident. Ambrose
strongly affected reluctance, and even pretended to fly from
the city in order to avoid the intended honour. The place
of his concealment, however, was soon discovered when the
emperor’s confirmation of his election was made known to
him ; and, after being baptized, he was ordained bishop of
Milan, about the end of the year 374. Whatever we may
think of the singular conduct of Ambrose in accepting an
office for which he was certainly unqualified in respect of
previous studies, habits, and employments, it must be ad¬
mitted that he immediately betook himself to the necessary
studies, and acquitted himself in his new elevation with abi-
lity, boldness, and integrity. Having appropriated his money
to the poor, and settled his lands upon the church, with the
exception of making his sister tenant during life; and hav¬
ing committed the care of his family to his brother, he
entered upon a regular course of theological study, under
the care of Simplician, a presbyter of Rome, and devoted
himself to the labours of the church.
Compelled by the irruption of the Goths and the northern
barbarians, who rushed down upon the Roman empire,
spreading terror and desolation all around, Ambrose, along
with several others, fled to Illyricum; but his exile was of
short duration, for the northern invaders having been quickly
defeated by the forces of the emperor, and driven back with
considerable loss into their own territories, he and his com¬
panions returned to their respective habitations.
His eloquence and abilities soon found ample scope in the
dispute between the Arians and the orthodox. About this
era the doctrine of Arius concerning the person of Christ had
been extensively received, and had many powerful defen¬
ders both among the clergy and the common people. Am¬
brose espoused the cause of the Catholics : Gratian, the son
of the elder Valentinian, marshalled on the same side; but
the younger Valentinian, who was now become his colleague
in the empire, adopted the opinions of the Arians; and all
the arguments and eloquence of Ambrose were insufficient
to reclaim the young prince to the orthodox faith. Theo¬
dosius, the emperor of the East, also professed the orthodox
faith ; yet there were numerous adherents to Arius scattered
throughout his dominions. In this distracted state of reli¬
gious opinion, two leaders of the Arians, Palladius and Se-
cundianus, confident of numbers, prevailed upon Gratian to
call a general council from all parts of that empire. This
request appeared so equitable that he complied without hesi¬
tation ; but Ambrose, foreseeing the consequence, prevailed
upon the emperor to have the matter determined by a
council of the western bishops. A synod, composed of 32
bishops, was accordingly held at Aquileia in the year 381.
Ambrose was elected president; and Palladius being called
upon to defend his opinions, declined, insisting that the
meeting was a partial one, and that the whole bishops of the
empire not being present, the sense of the Christian church
concerning the question in dispute could not be obtained.
AMBROSE.
Ambrose. Ambrose mentioned several precedents in favour of the au-
thority of the court; and added, that the oriental bishops,
being acquainted with the place and nature of the meeting,
might have been present, if they had deemed the matter in
discussion worthy of their attention. Palladius persisted in
his refusal to plead his cause; and on a vote being taken,
he, along with his associate Secundianus, was ejected from
the episcopal office.
Ambrose was equally zealous in combating the heathen
superstitions. Upon the accession of Valentinian II., many
of the senators who remained attached to the pagan idolatry
made a vigorous effort to restore the worship of the heathen
deities. Symmachus, a very opulent man and a great orator,
who was at that time prefect of the city, was intrusted with
the management of the pagan cause, and drew up a petition,
praying that the altar of Victory might be restored to its an¬
cient station in the hall of the senate, and for the proper
support of seven vestal virgins, and the regular observance
of the other pagan ceremonies. Great eloquence and pe¬
culiar insinuation characterised the petition. He argued
that this form of religion had long been profitable to the
Roman state, reminded the emperor how much Rome had
been indebted to Victory, and that it had been the uniform
custom of the senators to swear fidelity to the government
upon that altar. He likewise produced many facts to prove
the advantages derived to the state from its ancient religious
institutions, and insinuated that it was one divinity that all
men worshipped under different forms, so that ancient prac¬
tice should not be rashly laid aside. He even proceeded so
far as to state the justice of increasing the public revenue
by robbing the church, and attributed the late famine which
had overtaken the empire to the neglect of the ancient wor¬
ship. To this petition Ambrose replied in a letter to Valen¬
tinian, arguing that the devoted worshippers of idols had
often been forsaken by their deities; that the native valour
of the Roman soldiers had gained their victories, and not
the pretended influence of pagan priests ; that these idola¬
trous worshippers requested for themselves what they re¬
fused to Christians; that voluntary was more honourable
than constrained virginity; that as the Christian ministers
declined receiving temporal emoluments, they should also be
denied to pagan priests; that it was absurd to suppose that
God would inflict a famine upon the empire for neglecting
to support a religious system contrary to his revealed will in
the Scriptures ; that the whole process of nature encouraged
innovations, and that all nations had permitted these, even
in religion ; that heathen sacrifices were exceedingly offen¬
sive to Christians; and that every Christian prince should
suppress these pagan ceremonies. In the epistles of Sym¬
machus and of Ambrose both the petition and the reply
are preserved, in which sophistry, superstition, sound sense,
and solid argument, are strangely blended. It is scarcely
necessary to add, that the petition was unsuccessful.
The increasing strength of the Arians proved too formi¬
dable for Ambrose. The young emperor and his mother
Justina, along with a considerable number of clergy and
laity professing the Arian faith, requested from the bishop
the use of two churches, one in the city, the other in the
suburbs of Milan. The prelate believing the bishops to be
the guardians both of the temporal and spiritual interests of
the church, and that the religious edifices were the unques¬
tionable property of the church, positively refused to deliver
up the temples of the Lord into the impious hands of the
heretics. Filled with indignation, Justina resolved to em¬
ploy the imperial authority of her son in procuring by force
what she could not procure by persuasion. Ambrose was
required to answer for his conduct before the council. He
went, attended by a numerous crowd of people, whose im¬
petuous zeal so overawed the ministers of Valentinian, that
663
he was permitted to retire without making the surrender of Ambrose,
the churches. The day following, when he was performing
divine service in the Basilica, the prefect of the city came
to persuade him to give up at least the Portian church in
the suburbs. Still continuing obstinate, the court proceeded
to violent measures : the officers of the household were com¬
manded to prepare the Basilica and the Portian churches to
celebrate divine service upon the arrival of the emperor and
his mother at the ensuing festival of Easter. The order
respecting one of them was carried into effect; but the
court perceiving the growing strength of the prelate’s in¬
terest, deemed it prudent to use more lenient measures.
But all measures proved in vain ; the bishop boldly replied,
“ If you demand my person, I am ready to submit: carry
me to prison or to death, I will not resist; but I will never
betray the church of Christ. I will not call upon the people
to succour me ; I will die at the foot of the altar rather than
desert it. The tumult of the people I will not encourage ;
but God alone can appease.” This strong declaration was
followed by a torrent of eloquence from the pulpit, enforcing
his theme with the most fervent zeal. But the court re¬
mained unconvinced; and another attempt being made, un¬
der a strong guard of ferocious Goths, to seize the Basilica,
when they were about to enter, Ambrose thundered the
sentence of excommunication against them, and so over¬
awed them that they retired, while he and his friends re¬
mained in possession of the churches. About this time
also an Arian bishop challenged Ambrose to a dispute be¬
fore the emperor; but he declined, saying that matters of
faith should be determined by a council of bishops.
Many circumstances in the history of Ambrose are strongly
characteristic of the general spirit of the times. The chief
causes of his victory over his opponents were, his great
popularity, and the superstitious reverence paid to the epis¬
copal character at that period of society. But it must also
be admitted that he used several indirect means to obtain
and support his popular authority. Many indigent persons
were supported by his liberal bounty: in his explanations of
Scripture he made constant and severe allusions to existing
and public characters: and the alternate mode of singing
had no small effect upon the minds of the vulgar. At a time
when the influence of Ambrose required vigorous support, he
fortunately was admonished in a dream to search for the re¬
mains of Gervasius and Protasius, two martyrs who quietly
reposed under the pavement of the church. Their skele¬
tons were found entire, stained with blood, and the head of
one of them separated from the body. The vulgar crowded
in thousands to behold these venerable relics. According
to report, a blind man was restored to sight, several demons
were expelled, and sick persons healed, by touching these
bones. Ambrose exulted in these miracles, and appealed
to them in his eloquent sermons; while the court derided
and called in question their existence. The bishop con¬
tinued firm in his opinions, the people believed, and the
existence of the miracles was established. It is a very
singular fact that these and many other miracles obtained
current credit among the Christian historians of the second,
third, and fourth centuries: and Dr Cave, in speaking of
them, says, “ I make no doubt but God suffered them to be
wrought at this time on purpose to confront the Arian im¬
pieties.”
Although the court was displeased with the religious
principles and conduct of Ambrose, yet it respected his
great political talents ; and when necessity required, his
aid was solicited and generously granted. When Maxi¬
mus usurped the supreme power in Gaul, and was me¬
ditating a descent upon Italy, Valentinian sent Ambrose
to dissuade him from the undertaking; and the embassy
was successful. On a second attempt of the same kind
x
664 A M B
Ambrose. Ambrose was again employed; and although he was unsuc-
cessful, it cannot be doubted that if his advice had been fol¬
lowed, the schemes of the usurper would have proved abor¬
tive ; but the enemy was permitted to enter Italy, and Milan
was taken. Justina and her son fled; but Ambrose re¬
mained in his station, and proved beneficial to many of the
sufferers, by causing the plate of the church to be melted
for their relief. Theodosius, the emperor of the East,
espoused the cause of Justina, and by force of arms regained
the kingdom.
In the year 390 a tumult happened at Thessalonica, in
which Botheric, one of the imperial officers, was slain. At
this Theodosius was so enraged that he issued a royal man¬
date for the promiscuous massacre of the inhabitants of that
place ; and about 7000 persons were butchered without
distinction or mercy. The courageous Ambrose, informed
of this deed, wrote to the emperor a severe reproof, and an
earnest admonition, charging him not to approach the holy
communion with his hands stained with innocent blood.
When the emperor was about to enter the church of Milan
to attend upon the service, the bishop met him, and with
a stern countenance prohibited him from approaching the
temple of God. The emperor reminded him that David
had been guilty of murder and of adultery. The bishop re¬
plied, “ You have imitated David in his guilt; go and imi¬
tate him in his repentance.” The prince obeyed the priest,
and, by a course of penitential sorrow during the space of
eight months, he laboured to regain the favour of the church.
After the termination of this period he was absolved, but at
the same time was made to sign an edict that an interval of
thirty days should intervene before the sentence of death
or confiscation should be put in execution. When we re¬
flect on the pernicious effects of sudden and violent passion,
we must acknowledge that this measure was fraught with
policy and humanity.
The undaunted courage of Ambrose received another
severe trial in the year 392, after the assassination of Valen-
tinian, and the base usurpation of Eugenius. Rather than
join the standard of the usurper he fled from Milan; but
after the army of Theodosius was victorious, he generously
supplicated the emperor for the pardon of those who had
supported the cause of Eugenius. Theodosius, soon after
he had acquired the uncontrolled possession of the Roman
empire, died at Milan. The bishop did not long survive the
emperor, but died in the year 397. In his last illness he
preserved perfect composure of mind, informing his friends
that he had endeavoured so to conduct himself that he might
neither be ashamed to live nor afraid to die.
On many accounts the character of the bishop of Milan
stands high among the fathers of the ancient church. With
unvarying steadiness he delivered his religious sentiments
on all occasions ; with unwearied assiduity he discharged the
duties of his office ; with unabated zeal and boldness he de¬
fended the orthodox cause in opposition to the Arians;
with a liberal hand he fed the numerous poor who flocked to
his dwelling; with uncommon generosity he manifested kind¬
ness to his adversaries; and with Christian affection he sought
the happiness of all men. His general habits were amiable
and virtuous, and his powers of mind were uncommonly
vigorous and persevering. Ambition and bigotry were the
chief blemishes in his character.
The writings of Ambrose are voluminous, although little
more than adulterated editions of Origen and other Greek
fathers. The great design of his writings was to defend and
propagate the Catholic faith. In some of these he recom¬
mends perpetual celibacy as the perfection of Christian virtue.
Modern judgment and taste may perhaps induce us to esteem
some of the writings of Ambrose absurd, trivial, and even
ludicrous ; but there is a smartness and vigour in his style,
A M B
and there are excellent sentiments interspersed, which ren- Ambrose
der the writings of the bishop of Milan worthy of a perusal. II
With his usual severity and acrimony, Gibbon too severely ™Us°'
censures this prelate. “ Ambrose,” says he, “ could act bet- v
ter than he could write ; his compositions are destitute of
taste or genius, without the spirit of Tertullian, the copious
elegance of Lactantius, the lively wit of Jerome, or the grave
energy of Augustin.” The most accurate and complete
edition of his works is that published by the Benedictines,
printed at Paris in 1686 and 1690, in two volumes folio.
Ambrose, Isaac, an eminent Presbyterian minister, was
educated at Brazen-nose College, Oxford, where he took
the degree of bachelor of arts, and became minister of Gar-
stang, and afterwards of Preston in Lancashire, whence he
was ejected for nonconformity in 1662. It was usual for
him to retire every year for a month into a little hut in a
wood, where he shunned all society, and devoted himself to
religious contemplation. Dr Calamy observes, that he had
a very strong presentiment of the approach of death, and
took a formal leave of his friends at their houses a little be¬
fore his departure; and on the last night of his life he sent
his discourse concerning angels to the press. The next day
he shut himself up in his parlour, where, to the great sur¬
prise and regret of all who saw him, he was found just ex¬
piring. He died in 1663-4, in the 72d year of his age. He
wrote several other books, as the Prima, Media, et Ultima,
or the First, Middle, and last Things ; War with Devils ;
Looking unto Jesus, fyc.
Ambrose, Saint, an island in the South Pacific Ocean,
on the coast of Chili, four or five leagues due west from St
Felix Island. It lies in Long. 80. 55. W. and Lat. 26. 13.
S. There is a large rock four miles to the northward of
the island, called from its appearance Sail-rock. Captain
Roberts, who was there in 1792, found St Felix Island in¬
accessible. On St Ambrose Island his crew, in seven weeks,
killed 13,000 seals. The island has little else to recommend
it. Fish and crawfish abound.
AMBROSIA (a, privitive, and /Sporos, mortal), in Hea¬
then Antiquity, generally denotes the solid food of the gods,
in contradistinction to their drink, which was called nectar.
But the name ambrosia is also applied to drink, ointments,
and fragrance delighting the gods.
AMBROSIAN Office or Rite, in Ecclesiastical His¬
tory, a particular formula of worship in the church of Milan,
which takes its name from St Ambrose, who instituted that
office in the fourth century. Each church originally had
its particular office; and when the pope in aftertimes took
upon him to impose the Roman office upon all the western
churches, that of Milan sheltered itself under the name and
authority of St Ambrose; from which time the Ambrosian
ritual has prevailed.
AMBROSIN, in the Middle-age Writers, denotes a coin
struck by the lords or dukes of Milan, whereon St Ambrose
was represented on horseback, with a whip in his right hand.
AMBROSIUS Aurelianus, or Aurelius Ambrosius,
a famous general of the ancient Britons, of Roman extrac¬
tion. He was educated at the court of Aldroen of Armorica,
who, at the request of the Britons, sent him over with 10,000
men to assist them against the Saxons, whom Vortigern had
invited into Britain. Ambrosius was so successful against
the Saxons, that the Britons chose him for their king, and
compelled Yortigern to surrender to him all the western
part of the kingdom, divided by the Roman highway now
called Watling Street. Some time after, the Britons being
discontented with Yortigern, and having withdrawn their
allegiance from him, he retired to a castle in Wales. Here,
being besieged by Ambrosius, and the castle taking fire, he
perished in the flames, and left his rival sole monarch of
Britain, who now assumed the imperial purple, after the
A M E
A M E
665
Ambry manner of the Roman emperors. Geoffrey of Monmouth
II tells us that Ambrosius built Stonehenge, near Salisbury, in
Amedabad. Wiltshire. See Stonehenge.
After the Britons had defeated the Saxons, and obliged
them to retire northward, Ambrosius is said to have convened
the princes and great men at York, where he gave orders
for repairing the churches destroyed by the Saxons, and re¬
storing the exercise of religion to its former lustre. “ He
was a man,” says Geoffrey, “ of such bravery and courage,
that when he was in Gaul no one durst enter the lists with
him; for he was sure to unhorse his antagonist, or to break
his spear into shivers. He was, moreover, generous in be¬
stowing, careful in performing religious duties, moderate in
all things, and more especially abhorred a lie. He was
strong on foot, stronger on horseback, and perfectly qualified
to command an army.” The same author tells us that he
was poisoned at Winchester, by one Eopa, a Saxon dis¬
guised as a physician, and hired for that purpose by Pas-
centius, one of the sons of Yortigern; but the generally
received opinion is, that he was killed in a battle which
he lost in the year 508, against Cerdic, one of the Saxon
generals. »
AMBRY, a place in which are deposited all utensds
necessary for house-keeping. In the ancient abbeys and
priories there was an office under this denomination, wherein
were laid up all charities for the poor.
AMBUBALE, in Homan Antiquity, were immodest
women who came from Syria to Rome, where they lived by
prostitution, and by playing on the flute. The word is de¬
rived from the Syriac abub, which signifies a flute.
AMBULANCE, an admirable invention of Baron Percy
of the armies of France, for removing wounded men from
the field of battle. It consists of covered waggons on springs,
in which the wounded are removed to the hospitals. I hose
on whom operations have been performed in the field are
thus carried safely to considerable distances ; and thus, too,
the sick may be removed. The medical men are also, by
a sort of wooden horse on wheels, rapidly conveyed to the
point where their services are most wanted. In the arm\
of the East, the ambulance was fastened on a camel. See
Larrey, Mem. de Chir. Miht. i.
AMBULANT, or Ambulatory. They gave in France
the name of Ambulant Commissioners, to those commission¬
ers or clerks of the king's farms who had no settled office,
but visited all the offices within a certain district, to see that
nothing was done in them against the king’s right and the
interest of the farm.
Ambulant is also used to denote those brokers at Am?
sterdam, or exchange agents, who have not been sworn be¬
fore the magistrates. They transact brokerage business,
but their testimony is not received in the courts of justice.
AMBULATORY, a term anciently applied to such
courts, &c., as were not fixed to any certain place, but held
sometimes in one place and sometimes in another, in oppo¬
sition to stationary courts. The court of parliament was
anciently ambulatory: so also were the courts of king s
bench, &c. . ,
AMBURBIUM, in Roman Antiquity, made
by the Romans round the city and pomcerium, in which they
led a victim, and afterwards sacrificed it, in order to avert
some calamity that threatened the city. This festival was
for the city of Rome what the Ambarvalia was for the
fields. . .
AMEDABAD, or Ahmedabad, an ancient and cele¬
brated city of Hindustan in the province of Guzerat, of
which it was formerly the Mahometan capital. It is situate
v on the banks of the river Sabermatty, which washes its
western walls, and after a course of about 120 miles falls
into the Gulf of Cambay, near the city of that name.
vol. ir.
It was built in the year 1412 by the Sultan Ahmed Shah Amedians
of Guzerat, on the site of a town still more ancient. It soon II
became a populous and splendid city ; and in the early part Ame“^/
of the seventeenth century, after the subjugation of Guzerat r
by the emperors of Delhi, was a noted emporium of eastern
commerce, to which the Dutch and other European mer¬
chants resorted for the purchase of goods. Here were
manufactories of rich gold and silver flowered silks of every
description; steel, gold, ivory, enamel, mother-of-pearl,
and lackered ware, as well as of silk and cotton piece-goods,
which were exported through Cambay. 4 his state of pros¬
perity continued until the rise of the Mahrattas, who cap¬
tured the city in the early part of the last century, and levied
a tax on every article, however trifling, and whether of
luxury or of necessity, which was either brought within
or sent out beyond its walls. Thenceforward Amedabad
declined from its ancient splendour; its various manufac¬
tories, with some trifling exceptions, rapidly fell into decay
and ruin; and its former grandeur is now marked only by
the ruins of minarets, palaces, aqueducts, and caravansaries,
which extend nearly thirty miles around. In 1780 it was
stormed and captured by the British, but shortly afterwards
restored by them to the Mahrattas. At that period, from
being one of the largest capitals in the East, Amedabad was
reduced to a circumference of five miles and three-quarters,
surrounded by high walls, with irregular towers every fifty
yards, and having twelve principal, besides many inferior
gates. On the outside of the walls the country was in a
state of desolation, the resort of wild beasts and of noxious
reptiles. . ,
In 1818, upon the overthrow of the Peishwa, Amedabad
reverted to the British. On its present condition there is
little to remark. Some additional consequence was conferred
on the city during the administration of the government of
Bombay bv Sir John Malcolm, who made it the seat of the po¬
litical residency, previously stationed at Baroda; but in 1838
this advantage was lost by the re-transfer of the lesidency to
its former location. The extent and strength of the walls
of Amedabad have been already noticed; but these having
become greatly dilapidated, the government in 1834 autho¬
rised their thorough repair at a cost of L.25,000. The city
contains 130,000 inhabitants: its principal streets are well
lighted during the night with oil, and the requisite suppl\
of water for the inhabitants is raised from the river and
distributed through the city by pipes of tile. Distance
from Bombay, 290 miles ; from Poona, 320; from Delhi,
490; and from Calcutta 1020 miles. Long. 72. 36. E.
Eat. 23. N. (E*T-)
AMEDIANS, an order of monks in Italy, so called from
their professing themselves amantes Deum, lovers of God ;
or rather amati Deo, beloved of God. They wore a gray
habit and wooden shoes, had no breeches, and girt them¬
selves with a cord. They had 28 convents, and were united
by Pope Pius V. partly with the Cistercian order, and partly
with that of the Soccolanti, or wooden-shoe wearers.
AMEDNUGGUR,or Ahmednuggur, in Hindustan, the
principal place of the British district of the same name in the
presidency of Bombay, and formerly the capital of one of the
independent kingdoms of the Deccan, It was built in 1494
by Ahmed Nizam Shah, who made it the seat of govern-,
ment of his new monarchy. The rise of the kingdom of
Ahmednuggur, and its subversion by Shall Jehan, emperor
of Delhi; the subsequent cession of its territories to the
Mahrattas; and their final transfer to the British, will be found
more fully detailed under the article Deccan. Distance of
the city of Ahmednuggur from Bombay east, 122 miles; from
Calcutta by Nagpore south-west, 930. Lat. 19. 6. Long.
74.46. , . „
AMELAND, an island in the North Sea, being a partot
4 p
x
666 A M E A M E
Amelia the province of Friesland, in Holland, from which it is sepa-
II rated by a strait called the Wat. It contains three villages,
Amelotte^ one ]larn]etj an(j 3300 inhabitants, who chiefly subsist by
fishing, as seamen, by burning lime from mussel-shells, and
by agricultural pursuits. Some corn is grown, and butter
and cheese are made.
AMELIA, a county in Virginia, situated between the
Blue-ridge and the Tide-waters, having Cumberland county
on the north, Prince George county on the east, and Lu¬
nenburg county on the south and west. In 1810 Amelia
contained 10,594 inhabitants, but in 1850 they had declined
to 9755.
Amelia Isle, on the north-east coast of Florida, lies about
twelve leagues north of St Augustin, and about nine or ten
miles from the mouth of St John’s river. It is 20 miles
long and two broad, is very fertile, and has an excellent har¬
bour. Its north end lies opposite to Cumberland Island,
between which and Amelia Isle is the entrance to St Mary’s
river, in Long 81. 36. W. Lat. 30. 35. N.
AMELOT de la Houssaye, Abraham Nicolas, was born
at Orleans in 1634. He was much esteemed at the court
of France, and was appointed secretary of an embassy which
that court sent to the commonwealth of Venice, as appears
by the title of his Translation of Father Paul’s History of
the Council of Trent; but he afterwards published writings
which gave such offence that he was imprisoned in the Bas-
tile. The first works he printed were the History of the
Government of Venice, and that of the Uscoks, a people of
Croatia. In 1683 he published his translations into French
of Machiavel’s Prince, and Father Paul’s History of the
Council of Trent, with political Discourses of his own upon
Tacitus. These performances were well received by the
public. He did not prefix his own name to the two last-men¬
tioned works, but concealed himself under that of La Mothe
Josseval. His translation of Father Paul was attacked by
the partisans of the pope’s unbounded power and authority.
In France, however, it met with great success ; all the advo¬
cates for the liberty of the Gallican church promoting the suc¬
cess of it to the utmost of their powder, though at the same
time there were three memorials presented to have it sup¬
pressed. In 1684 he printed, at Paris, a French Translation
of Balthasar Gracian’s Courtier, with the title of IJHomme
de Cour. In 1686 he published La Morale de Tacite de
la Flatterie, in which work he collected several particular
facts and maxims, which represent in a strong light the arti¬
fices of court-flatterers, and the mischievous effects of their
poisonous discourses. He wrote several other works ; and
died at Paris in 1706, at the age of 73.
AMELOTTE, Denis, a celebrated French writer, was
born at Saintonge in 1606. He maintained a close corre-
spondence with the fathers of the Oratory, a congregation
of priests founded by Philip of Neri. He wrote the life of
Charles of Gondren, second superior of this congregation,
and published it at Paris in 1643. In this work he said
something of the famous abbot of St Cyran which greatly
^Pleased the Port Royalists, who, out of revenge, published
a libel against him, entitled Idee General de VEsprit et de
Livre de P. Amelotte. He was so much provoked bv this
satire, that he did all in his power to injure them. They
had finished a translation of the New Testament, and were
desirous to have it published; for which purpose thev en¬
deavoured to procure an approbation from the doctors of the
Sorbonne, and a privilege from the king. Amelotte, how- Amen
ever, by his influence with the chancellor, defeated their in- II
tention. In this he had also a view to his own interest, being Ameria.
about to publish a translation of his own. Amelotte’s trans- V'—“v'**'
lation, with annotations, in four volumes octavo, was printed
in the years 1666, 1667, and 1668, and, according to F.
Simon, contains some very gross blunders. He entered
into the congregation of the Oratory in 1650, and continued
amongst them till his death, which happened in 1678.
AMEN, 'IpX, signifies true, faithful, certain. It is made
use of likewise to affirm anything, and was a sort of affir¬
mation used often by our Saviour: ’A/x^j/, 'kpfv, Aeyw vfiv,
i. e., Verily, verily, I say unto ijou. Lastly, it is understood
as expressing a wish: as, amen, so he it, (Numb. v. 22) ; or
an affirmation, amen ; yes, I believe it, (1 Cor. xiv. 16.) The
Hebrews end the five books of Psalms, according to their
way of distributing them, with the words amen, amen; which
the Septuagint have translated yAotro, yeVoiro ; and the La¬
tins fiat, fiat. The Greek and Latin churches have pre¬
served this word in their prayers, as well as alleluiah and
hosannah ; because they observe more energy in them than
in any terms which they could use in their own languages.
At the conclusion of the public prayers, the people answered
with a loud voice, Amen; and St Jerome says, that at Rome,
when the people answered amen, the sound of their voices
was like a clap of thunder: In similitudine ccelestis tonitrui
amen reboat.
AMEND, or Amende, in French legislation, a pecu¬
niary punishment imposed by a judge for any crime, false
prosecution, or groundless appeal.
Amende Honorable, a species of punishment formerly
inflicted in France upon traitors, parricides, or sacrilegious
persons, in the following manner: The offender being de¬
livered into the hands of the hangman, his shirt was stripped
off, a rope put about his neck, and a taper placed in his hand ;
he was then led into court, where he implored pardon of God.
the king, the court, and his country.
Amende Honorable is a term also used for making re¬
cantation in open court, or in presence of the person in¬
jured.
AMENDMENT, in Parliamentary Language, is used
to signify a word, clause, or paragraph, proposed as an altera¬
tion in, or addition to, a bill under consideration. See Par¬
liament.
AMENTUM. See Botany.
Amentum, in Homan Antiquity, a thong tied about the
middle of a javelin or dart, either to give it rotation, or in
order to recover the weapon as soon as it was discharged.
The ancients made much use of the amentum, thinking it
helped to enforce the blow. It was called ayKvXr/ by the
Greeks, and the expression Hastce ansatce probably refers
to the same. Amentum sometimes denoted a latchet that
bound the sandals.
AMERCEMENT, or Amerciament, in Laic, a pecu¬
niary punishment imposed on offenders at the mercy of the
court. It differs from a fine, in being imposed arbitrarily,
in proportion to the fault; whereas a fine is a certain punish¬
ment settled expressly by some statute.
AMERIA, an ancient city of Umbria, situated on a hill
between the rivers Tiber and Nar, a few miles above their
junction. Its site is occupied by a small modern town of
the same name.
667
AMERICA.
America. object in this article is to take a comprehensive
,  > V7 survey of the American continent in its physical,
moral, and general relations. In attempting this, we do not
intend to go much into detail upon those subjects which will
be more fully and appropriately discussed in the distinct
articles assigned in this work to the several states included
in the western world; but we shall dwell at some length upon
those great features, peculiarities, and classes of facts, which
either belong to it as a whole, or can be most advantageously
considered or described when all its parts are viewed in con¬
nection with one another. Such are the climate and physi¬
cal structure of the country, the geographical distribution of
its cultivated plants, its indigenous population, its animal
tribes, its commercial and political capabilities, and its means
of progressive improvement. The new continent may be
styled emphatically “ a land of promise.” The present there
sinks into nothing in itself, and derives all its importance
from the germs it contains of a mighty future. The change
must not only be great, but rapid, beyond all which the past
history of mankind would lead us to expect. Even after we
have familiarised our minds with the principles upon which its
progress depends, we find it difficult to reconcile ourselves
to the consequences that inevitably result from them. But
time will do its work; and the great-grandsons of those now
in existence may live to see the new world contain a greater
mass of civilised men than the old. It is this greatness in
prospect which lends an interest to the Western continent
similar to that which the Eastern derives from its historical
recollections. The same circumstance requires that we
should dwell at some length on the physical structure of
America, and on those indigenous tribes which, in the
course of three centuries, will only live in poetry and tra¬
dition. The future history of the new world must be read
by us in the configuration of its surface, the distribution of
its mountains and rivers, the productions of its soil, its natu¬
ral and political capabilities, and in the character rather than
the numbers of its civilised inhabitants.
The continental part of America extends from the 54th
degree of south to the 71st of north latitude, its extreme
length, from the Straits of Magellan to those of Behring,
being 10,500 English miles. The islands of Tierra del
Fuego reach one degree beyond its southern extremity into
the Antarctic Ocean; and Greenland, which is connected
by geographers with America, has been traced to the 78th
degree of north latitude, and probably is prolonged much
farther into the polar circle. The late discoveries of Cap¬
tains Parry, Ross, and Franklin, have given us much more
exact ideas than we formerly possessed of the northern re¬
gions of America. The coast of the mainland has been
traced almost completely from Behring’s Straits to Fox’s
Channel on Hudsons’ Bay, and is found to run in a direction
east and west, in an uneven line near the parallel of 70°.
The bounds of continental America may therefore be con¬
sidered as nearly determined on every side. The additional
lights furnished by Captain Parry’s and other recent voyages
render it extremely probable that a great archipelago of
islands occupies all the space between the northern coast of
the continent and the 80th parallel; and there is even some
reason for believing that the country known by the name of
Greenland is traversed from east to west by arms of the sea,
like the regions on the west side of Baffin’s Bay.
The new continent, when compared with the old, enjoys
three important advantages. First, it is free from such vast
deserts as cover a large part of the surface of Asia and America.
Africa, and which not only withdraw a great proportion of
the soil from the use of man, but are obstacles to communi¬
cation between the settled districts, and generate that ex¬
cessive heat which is often injurious to health, and always
destructive to industry. Secondly, no part of its soil is so
far from the ocean as the central regions of Asia and Africa.
Thirdly, the interior of America is penetrated by majestic
rivers, the Mississippi, Amazon, and Plata, greatly surpassing
those of the old continent in magnitude, and still more in
the facilities they present for enabling the remotest inland
districts to communicate with the sea.
According to the geographical system adopted in the old
world, America ought to be considered as two distinct con¬
tinents, connected by the isthmus of Darien. Its two great
divisions have evidently more of a defined and separate
character than Africa and Asia, or than Asia and Europe;
but though this arrangement may be very properly adopted
for the purpose of description, it is too late now to think of
assigning separate names to regions which have so long been
known by a common appellation. In the physical arrange¬
ment of the parts of South and North America there is a
remarkable resemblance. Both are very broad in the north,
and gradually contract as they proceed southward, till they
end, the one in a narrow isthmus, and the other in a narrow
promontory. Each has a lofty chain of mountains near its
western coast, abounding in volcanoes, with a lower ridge
on the opposite side, destitute of any trace of internal fire;
and each has one great central plain declining to the south
and the north, and watered by two gigantic streams, the
Mississippi, corresponding to the Plata, and the St Lawrence
to the Amazon. In their climate*, vegetable productions,
and animal tribes, the two regions arq very dissimilar.
The extent of the America® continent and the islands
connected with it is as follows:—
Square Eng. miles.
North America      7,400,000
South America ,... 6,500,000
Islands    150,000
Greenland, and the islands connected with it)
lying north of Hudson’s Straits, may be esti- >- 900,000
mated at )  
14,950,000
The American continent, therefore, with its dependent
islands, is fully four times as large as Europe, about one-
third larger than Africa, and almost one-half less than Asia,
if we include with the latter Australia and Polynesia. It
constitutes about three-tenths of the dry land on the surface
of the globe. Of the continental part of North America, a
considerable portion is condemned to perpetual sterility by
the rigour of the climate, as we shall explain more fully by
and by. At present it is sufficient to state, that if we draw
a line from the head of Cook’s Inlet, in latitude 61°, on the
west side, to the straits of Bellisle on the east, so as to pass
through Fort Churchill, on Hudson’s Bay, we shall cut off
a space rather exceeding one million and a half of square
miles, which may be considered as incapable of cultivation.
At the south extremity of America, a small tract, extending
200 miles north of the straits of Magellan, though far within
the limits of the temperate zone, is nearly in the same con¬
dition. These and the summits of the Andes are the only
parts of the American continent which are rendered incap¬
able of cultivation by the severity of the climate.
x
A M E R I C A.
668
America. The vast chain of the Andes is distinguished by several
peculiar features from all other mountairrs in the world. It
has its principal direction nearly north and south, while all
the great ridges of the old continent run from east to west;
it is unparalleled in its prodigious length, in the richness of
its mineral treasures, and in the number and magnitude of
its volcanoes. The Andes, if we connect with them the
Mexican Cordillera and the Rocky Mountains, extend from
the Straits of Magellan in a line which may be considered
as unbroken, to Point Brownlow on the shores of the Arctic
Ocean, in the latitude of 70°, over a space equal to 10,000
miles in length, or two-fifths of the circumference of the
globe. Their height, which attains its maximum within the
tropics, declines towards both poles, but in such a manner
that, with a few exceptions, its higher summits ascend to
the line of perpetual snow from one extremity to the other.
It may thus be said to carry the temperature of the pole
over the whole length of the American continent. The
chain of the Andes is common to the two parts of America,
and is in fact the link which connects them and makes them
one continent. As we propose, however, to describe North
and South America separately, we shall reserve the details
for another part of this article.
South America is a peninsula of a triangular form. Its
greatest length from north to south is 4550 miles; its greatest
breadth 3200; and it covers an area, as already mentioned,
of 6,500,000 square English miles, about three fourths of
which lie between the tropics, and the other fourth in the
temperate zone. From the configuration of its surface, this
peninsula may be divided into five distinct physical regions,
1. The low country skirting the shores of the Pacific Ocean,
from 50 to 150 miles in breadth, and 4000 in length. The
two extremities of this territory are fertile, the middle a
sandy desert. 2. The basin of the Orinoco, a country con¬
sisting of extensive plains or steppes, called Llanos, either
destitute of wood or merely dotted with trees, but covered
with a very high herbage during a part of the year. Dur¬
ing the dry season the heat is intense here, and the parched
soil opens into long fissures, in which lizards and serpents
lie in a state of torpor. 3. The basin of the Amazon, a vast
plain, embracing a surface of more than two millions of
square miles, possessing a rich soil and a humid climate. It
is covered almost everywhere with dense forests, which har¬
bour innumerable tribes of wild animals, and are thinly in¬
habited by savages, who live by hunting and fishing. 4. The
great southern plain, watered by the Plata and the nume¬
rous streams descending from the eastern summits of the
Cordilleras. Open steppes, which are here called Pampas,
occupy the greater proportion of this region, which is dry,
and in some parts barren, but in general is covered with a
strong growth of weeds and tall grass, which feeds prodigious
herds of horses and cattle, and affords shelter to a few wild
animals. 5. The country of Brazil, eastward of the Parana
and Araguay, presenting alternate ridges and valleys, thickly
covered with wood on the side next the Atlantic, and open¬
ing into steppes or pastures in the interior.
The Andes skirt the shores of the Pacific Ocean, like a
Mountains. vast rampart opposed to its encroachments, along the whole
1 e Andes- line of the western coast, from 12° of north to 53° of south
latitude. They derive their name from anti, a Peruvian word
signifying copper. Except at some points where they have
been examined by scientific men, their structure is yet but
imperfectly known; and hence they are often incorrectly
exhibited in our maps. Though often described as a single
chain, they generally consist of a succession of ridges, di¬
vided by high and narrow valleys ; but these ridges, instead
of running in parallel lines, generally ramify from central
points in all directions, and thus present the appearance of
a confused assemblage of small chains. Between the lati¬
tude of 33° and 6° south, they spread out their base to an South
extent of 300 miles, and even much farther, if we take in America,
the smaller subordinate chains. In the intervals between ^
the ridges are situated many lakes, of which the most con¬
siderable are Ondalgola, Pataipo, Hages, and the great lake
of Titicaca, 200 miles in length. This lake, and the lake
Parime, in Guiana, are the only sheets of fresh water in
South America which vie in magnitude with those singular
reservoirs placed on the course of the St Lawrence. From
the latitude of 6° south to 2° north, the Andes contract their
breadth, and form an elevated plateau. One part of this
constitutes the Paramo, or desert of Assuay, a plain at the
height of 13,000 feet above the sea, and embracing a surface
of 50 square miles, where snow-storms are frequent, and only
a few alpine plants grow. Farther north lies another range
of table-land, from 9000 to 9440 feet in height, near the north
extremity of which the town of Quito is situated. On this
elevated plain are placed two lines of lofty summits, standing
detached from each other, and crowned with diadems of per¬
petual snow. Their symmetrical disposition led Bouguer to
consider the space between the eastern and western lines as
a valley; but Plumboldt remarks that it is really the crest
of the Cordillera, upon which, as a base, the cones or masses
of Pinchincha, Antisana, Atacazo, Chimborazo, and others,
rest. When we have lived in this elevated spot for some
time, “ we forget that every thing which surrounds the ob¬
server, those villages which proclaim the industry of a moun¬
tainous people, those pastures covered with herds of lamas
and flocks of European sheep, those orchards, those fields
cultivated with care, and promising the richest harvests, hang
as it were suspended in the lofty regions of the atmosphere,
at a height exceeding that of the Pyrenees.” From Quito,
a single chain extends to Popayan, where it parts into three
parallel chains. The westmost of these ridges, which scarcely
rises to an elevation of 5000 feet, divides the valley of the
river Cauca from the Pacific Ocean ; and a branch pro¬
ceeding from it passes through the isthmus of Panama, where
it sinks to the small elevation of 600 or 800 feet above the
sea. The second, or central ridge, maintains nearly the
general height of the main trunk, and has summits which
rise into the regions of perpetual snow. It separates the
valley of the Cauca from that of the Magdalena. The pass of
Quindiu, described by Humboldt, is one of the Quebradas, or
transverse ravines, which open a passage through this moun¬
tain. It is so narrow in some places as to have the appear¬
ance of a gallery cut artificially and open to day. It is steep
and uneven, and is kept almost perpetually wet by the rains.
Travellers are carried through this ravine in chairs strapped
on the backs of porters, who follow this mode of life volun¬
tarily for the sake of gain, and think themselves sufficiently
paid with twelve or fourteen piasters for a toilsome journey
of fifteen or twenty days. Even the bottom of this ravine,
at its highest point, is 11,400 feet above the sea, and of course
exceeds the highest summit of the Pyrenees in altitude. The
third or eastern ridge separates the valley of the Magdalena
from the plains of the Rio Meta, and has its northern termi¬
nation at ('ape Vela, in longitude 72°. This chain, though
lower than the centre one, has summits which reach to the
height of 14,000 feet. Between the eastern and central
chains is situated the city of Santa Fe de Begota, in a large
and beautiful plain 8700 feet above the sea, and which, from
the perfect level of its surface, and the barrier of rocks that
incloses it, appears to have been an ancient lake. The waters
of this plain escape by a narrow outlet, and rushing down a
cleft, leap at two bounds to a depth of 573 feet, forming the
celebrated fall of Tequendama, which, in the attributes of
beauty and sublimity, is said not to be surpassed in the world.
These three parallel ridges are properly component parts of
the main trunk, like the two ridges of Upper Peru.
AMERICA.
669
South The mean height of the Andes in Peru, or that of the
America, continuous ridge, independent of projecting cones, is esti-
mated by Humboldt at 11,000 or 12,000 feet (1850toises) :
in Chili, according to Mr Miers, the most elevated summits,
at the latitude 33°, only reach the height of 15,000 feet, and
the mean height of the chain is in some places as low as
8000 ; in Patagonia its height is unknown. Till lately, the
loftiest summits were supposed to be in Quito, where Chim¬
borazo attains the prodigious altitude of21,440 English feet,
and the volcanic cones of Antisana and Cotopaxi have the
elevations of 19,150 and 18,890 feet respectively; but Mr
Pentland, an English gentleman attached to the Peruvian
embassy, has ascertained, by measurements performed with
care, that the mountains of Quito are greatly surpassed in
altitude by some of those of Upper Peru. The Andes here
form two chains, which are separated by a large district of
table-land, the northern extremity of which is occupied by
the lake Titicaca. The eastern chain presents, between the
14th and 17th parallels, a range of snow-covered peaks, of
which several have an elevation exceeding 20,000 feet.
Among these, towards the north, in the latitude of 15° 30',
is Sorate, 25,250, and farther south Illimani, 24,450 feet in
height. The former, therefore, is nearly 4000 feet higher
than Chimborazo, but still 3000 feet lower than the loftiest
summits of the Himalaya. The western chain is lower than
the eastern, but one of its summits has an altitude of 18,800
feet. Mr Pentland concludes from astronomical observa¬
tions, that the eastern chain is 310 geographical or 360 Eng¬
lish miles from the coast. The mineral wealth of the district
has attracted a large population to this table-land, which,
with the single exception of Thibet, is probably the highest
inhabited soil on the face of the globe. Here are flocks, gar¬
dens, cultivated fields, and populous cities, suspended above
the region of the clouds. La Paz, with 20,000 inhabitants,
and Potosi, which had once 150,000, are situated in this plain,
at the height of 12,190 and 13,500 feet above the level of
the sea; and there are cottages near the mines at 15,700 feet,
an elevation exceeding that of Mont Blanc.1 This table¬
land, from Cusco to Potosi, was the primitive seat of the
empire of the Incas, and the centre of Peruvian civilisation.
Though nothing appears more capricious than the distri¬
bution and elevation of mountains, they yet afford, on the
great scale, striking proofs of beneficent design, and of adap¬
tation to the wants of civilised man. Many chains of moun¬
tains, for instance, enter within the regions of eternal frost with
one or more of their summits ; but there is not a single great
chain in any of the fruitful and habitable parts of the woild
which so far transcends this limit as to present an unbroken
line of snow along its whole length. The height of the
curve of congelation diminishes as we approach the pole,
and if there were not a corresponding diminution in the ele¬
vation of the mountains, or if the principal chains in the dif¬
ferent habitable zones were raised a little higher, they would
sever the nations living on their opposite sides as effectually as
a wall of brass reaching above the clouds. I he Andes, if we
disregard their projecting summits, form an unbroken dike
about 2^ miles high, and 4500 miles long. Were three or
four thousand feet added to their height, all access across,
from one side of the chain to the other, would be denied to
the foot of man. If great perils attend the short journey to
the summit of Mont Blanc, what human skill or power could
encounter the terrors of a snowy desert a hundred miles in
breadth, beset with avalanches, and visited with storms? In
these circumstances, such towns as Arica and La Paz, or
Mendoza and Santiago, which are separated only by a jour¬
ney of three days, would be as far asunder, for the purposes
of traffic or intercourse, as England and Jamaica. But the South
line which bounds the means of communication varies from America,
clime to clime. Were the Alps as elevated as the Andes,
all the passes across the former would be closed ; and were
the Scandinavian chain as high as the Alps, Sweden and
Norway could only communicate by sea. I hough the alti¬
tude of the Andes in Patagonia has never been measured,
various circumstances show that the chain descends as it
advances from the torrid zone to its southern termination.
In Quito and Peru, the back or crest of the ridge is free
from snow, which only rests upon isolated summits ; and
with the aid of such arrangements as would be created by a
dense population, the means of passing from one side to the
other might perhaps be found wherever they were deemed
necessary. In Chili, beyond the latitude of 30°, the highest
point of the most frequented pass was found by Mr Miers
to be 11,920 feet above the sea; and the courier travels
through it even in winter. In Peru and Quito the passes
in many cases consist of deep fissures, called quebradas, ap¬
parently produced by earthquakes, extremely narrow, and
often descending to the depth of nearly a mile.2 In Pata¬
gonia, where the snow descends much lower, the passes
must be few ; but there are some—and this circumstance
authorises the conclusion that the height of the chain is
smaller here than in Chili.
Three branches or transverse chains proceed from the Transverse
Andes, nearly at right angles to the direction of the prin- chains,
cipal chain, and pass eastward across the continent, about
the parallels of 18° of south, and 4° and 9° of north latitude.
The most northern of these is “ the Cordillera of the coast,”
which parts from the main trunk near the south extremity
of the lake Maracaybo, reaches the sea at Porto Cabello,
and then passes eastward through Caraccas to the Gulf of
Paria. Its length is about 700 miles, aud its medium height
from 4000 to 5000 feet; but the Silla de Caraccas, one of
its summits, has an elevation of 8400 feet; and its western
part, which is at some distance from the sea, contains the
Sierra of Merida, 15,000 feet in height. The second trans¬
verse chain is connected with the Andes at the parallels of
3° and 4° north, and passing eastward, terminates in French
Guiana, at no great distance from the mouth of the Ama¬
zon. It consists properly of a succession of chains nearly
parallel to the coast, and is sometimes called the Cordillera
of Parime, but is named by Humboldt the “ Cordillera of
the Cataracts of the Orinoco,” because this river, which
flows amidst its ridges in the upper part of its course, forms
the cataracts of Maypure at the point where it descends
into the plains. Its mean height is estimated at 4000
feet above the level of the sea; but about 70° and 75° west
longitude, it sinks to less than 1000 feet, and at other points
rises to 10,000. This chain divides the waters of the Ori¬
noco and the rivers of Guiana from the basin of the Ama¬
zon, and is covered with magnificent forests. Its breadth
is supposed to be from 200 to 400 miles, and it incloses
amidst its ridges the great lake Parime, in longitude 60°,
and several of smaller size. On a table-land forming part
of it, about the 67th degree of longitude, the Cassiquiari
forms an intermediate channel which connects the rivers
Orinoco and Amazon, so that, during the annual floods, a
part of the waters of the former flow into the latter. This
singular phenomenon was made known long ago by the
Spanish missionaries, but was thought to be a fable till the
truth was ascertained by Humboldt. The length of this
chain is about 1500 miles. The third transverse chain,
which bears various names, and is little known, crosses the
continent between the parallels of 12° and 18 , connect-
1 Bulletin des Sciences Geographiques, Mars 1829; Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, April 1830, p. 353.
2 Humboldt’s Researches, vol. i. p. 53; Miers’ Travels in Chili and La Plata, vol. i. p. 319.
%
670
AMERICA.
South jng the Andes with the mountains of Brazil, and divid-
America. jng ^}ie waters of the Amazon from those of the Plata. It
is a broad plateau of elevated land rather than a distinct
mountainous ridge, and consists of low hills or uneven plains,
with very little wood, presenting in some places extensive
pastures, and in others tracts of a poor sandy soil. Its ave¬
rage height probably does not exceed 2000 or 3000 feet
above the level of the sea.1
The mountains of Brazil, which are of moderate height,
and occupy a great breadth of country, form an irregular
plateau, bristled with sharp ridges running in a direction
approximately parallel to the eastern coast. They extend
from 5° to 25° of south latitude, and their extreme breadth
may be about 1000 miles. Itacolumi, about 250 miles north¬
west of Rio Janeiro, which is celebrated for its auriferous
sands and gravel, and gives birth to three great rivers, the Pa¬
rana, the St Francisco, and the Tocantin, is considered the
most elevated summit, and the stem of the whole group. Ac¬
cording to the German miner Eschwege, it rises to the height
of 5710 English feet2 above the level of the sea; and the
ordinary elevation of the numerous ridges which branch off
from it is supposed to be 3000 or 4000 feet. The western
parts of this chain, which are near the centre of the conti¬
nent, are supposed to be lower than those on the coast; but
they are probably as high, if Dr Spix is correct in stating
that the mean heat of the year is below 65° of Fahrenheit
(15° or 16° of Reaumur).
Geology. The geology of the South American mountains, parti¬
cularly the Andes, is distinguished, like their physical form
and arrangement, by some remarkable peculiarities. The
chain of the Andes, as we have already stated, may be con¬
sidered as an immense dike, from two to three miles in
height, and from one to three hundred in breadth. The
first and most peculiar feature of this chain is, that it con¬
tains within its limits thirty active volcanoes,3 or nearly one-
fifth of all that are known in the world. They are irregu¬
larly distributed in linear groups from Patagonia to New
Granada. The most southerly or Chilian group extends
from 43j°to 30° south latitude. After an interval of 8° with¬
out volcanoes, we have a second group, that of Bolivia in
Peru, extending from the 21st to the 15th deg. of south lati¬
tude. About 14° beyond this, the third group, that of Quito
appears, extending about 2° on each side of the equator.
A fourth line or group, 500 miles in length, occurs in the
isthmus, chiefly in the state of Guatemala; and a fifth, con¬
sisting of five vents, crosses Mexico in an east and west
direction. Some of these throw out smoke merely, some
mud and water, and only a few produce eruptions of lava.
They are of various elevations, up to 18,800 feet. Over
nearly the whole chain earthquakes are extremely frequent,
and at times fearfully destructive. The fundamental rock
of the Andes is granite, or a rock of kindred nature, which,
fiom being almost peculiar to the chain, has been termed
Andesite. It is a combination of albite and hornblende, often
united with mica, and sometimes, though rarely, with quartz,
passing on the one hand into granite, and on the other into
felspar porphyry. 1 rachyte and syenite occur in analogous
positions, that is, generally at the base, and occasionally at
the summits of the chain. The fundamental rock is covered
by vast masses of felspar or claystone porphyry, which had
issued from below at numerous points, “ studded over a
breadth of 50 or 100 miles;” and being tilted, fractured, and
long exposed to denudation in the sea, produced thick beds
of porphyry conglomerate, which are seen in every variety
of position and inclination. Incumbent on these, or mingled South
with them are mica slates, probably metamorphic, and clay America,
slates, with silurians, and above these carboniferous sand-
stones, gypsum, and rocks of the oolite and chalk series.
Tertiary deposits cover the plains at the eastern foot of the
chain, forming in Patagonia a succession of terraces, one be¬
low another, extending to the Atlantic. Mr Darwin thinks
that the Andes of Chili, after being raised above the sea,
had subsided at least twice to the extent of six or eight thou¬
sand feet, and this conclusion applies to the whole chain.
The Andes are rich in metals, abounding in mines of cop¬
per, silver, gold, &c. Crystalline schists occupy the greater
part of Brazil and of Venezuela, and Guiana. A deposit
of fine mud, from 20 to 100 feet thick, is found on the banks
of the Parana, and covers the plains called Pampas, from
Buenos Ayres, nearly as far south as the river Colorado. It
is an estuary deposit, of post-tertiary or quarternary age,
formed, as Mr Darwin thinks, by the Parana and its tribu¬
taries, when the land was lower “ by a few fathoms” than it
is now. It contains fossil remains of large mammalia in vast
numbers, all of extinct species, and many of them even of
extinct genera, including the Megatherium, Megalonix, Sceli-
dotherium, Mylodon, Holofractus, Toxodon, Macrouchenia,
Glyptodon, Mastodon, a great Dasypus, with a Ctenomys,
Hydrochcerus, and other rodents. The horse and the ele¬
phant have been found in the fossil state from Spain to
eastern Siberia, and from Russian America to Patagonia,
affording a presumption, as Mr Darwin observes, that when
these quadrupeds lived the two continents were connected
at or near Behring’s Straits.4
The transverse chain of the coast of Caraccas consists
partly of primitive and partly of secondary formations. The
Cordillera of Parime, so far as it has been examined, is en¬
tirely composed of primitive rocks, viz., granite, gneiss, mica
slate, and hornblende; the Cordillera of Chiquito, which
divides the Plata from the Amazon, is only known at its
eastern extremity, where it joins the mountains of Brazil.
These last consist of a great number of ridges, running in
general south and north. Granite abounds in those nearest
the Atlantic, but the prevailing rock everywhere else, as far
westward as the mountains of Cujaba, in longitude 55°, is a
quartzy mica slate, intermixed however with granite, gneiss,
and quartz rock, and having portions of secondary sandstone
resting on its sides or in its low valleys. This quartzy mica
slate, in Brazil, is the matrix of the gold and diamonds; and
the former is generally accompanied with platinum and iron.
The direction of the strata approaches to north-east and
south-west, and the dip, where observed, is from 50° to 70°
to the south-east. These mountains, like the Andes, are in
many parts covered with a stratum of clay.6 The rocks of
the plains have been but partially examined. Humboldt
thinks that the northern Llanos of Caraccas are of old red
sandstone.
The latitude and elevation of the land in each country, Climate,
its position in reference to the sea, with the direction of the
prevailing winds, are the chief circumstances which deter¬
mine the nature of the climate. We have already men¬
tioned that three-fourths of South America lie within the
tropics, and the remaining fourth in the temperate zone;
but, in both divisions, it might be naturally inferred that a
huge wall like the Andes, rising into the atmosphere to the
height of two or three miles, and running across the course of
the tropical and extra-tropical winds, would exert a power¬
ful influence on the temperature, humidity, and the distri-
1 Travels of Spix and Von Martins, in Brazil, vol. ii. p. 144. Eng. edit. 2 Spix>s Travels vol. ii. p. 269.
I On some nmps 40 are marked, but erroneously. See Memoir on Active Volcanoes, in the French Annuaire for 1824.
I 2' Oarwin s Geological Observations on South America, p. 106, 237, 248. Journal, p. 150. Humboldt’s Personal Narrative, vol. iv. p. 308.
6 Spix and Von Martius, vol. ii. p. 142, &c.
AMERICA.
South bution of the seasons. This is actually the case; and it is
America, this vast chain of mountains, with its prolongation in North
America, which affords a key to the most remarkable pecu¬
liarities in the climate of the whole continent. The sub¬
ject, we think, has not been hitherto well understood, but
admits of being explained in a very simple manner.
The trade-winds blowing from the east occupy a zone 60
degrees in breadth, extending from 30° of south to 30° of
north latitude. Beyond these limits are variable winds ;
but the prevailing direction in the open sea, where no acci¬
dental causes operate, is well known by navigators to be
from the west. Now these winds are the agents which
transport the equable temperature of the ocean, and the
moisture exhaled from its surface, to the interior of the
great continents, where it is precipitated in the shape of rain,
dew, or snow. Mountains attract the moisture which floats
in the atmosphere; they obstruct also the aerial currents,
and presenting great inequalities of temperature, favour
precipitation. Rain, accordingly, in all countries falls most
abundantly on the elevated land. Let us consider, then,
what will be the effect of a mural ridge like the Andes in
the situation which it occupies. In the region within the
30th parallel, the moisture swept up by the trade-wind from
the Atlantic will be precipitated in part upon the moun¬
tains of Brazil, which are but low, and so distributed as to
extend far into the interior. The portion which remains
will be borne westward, and, losing a little as it proceeds,
will be arrested by the Andes, and fall down in showers on
their summits. The aerial current will now be deprived of
all the humidity which it can part with, and arrive in a state
of complete exsiccation at Peru, where no rain will conse¬
quently fall. That even a much lower ridge than the
Andes may intercept the whole moisture of the atmosphere,
is proved by a well-known phenomenon in India, where the
Ghauts, a chain only 3000 or 4000 feet high, divide sum¬
mer from winter, as it is called ; that is, they have copious
rains on their windward side, while on the other the weather
remains clear and dry ; and the rains regularly change from
the west side to the east, and vice versa, with the monsoons.
In the region beyond the 30th parallel, this effect will be
reversed. The Andes will in this case serve as a screen to
intercept the moisture brought by the prevailing west winds
from the Pacific Ocean ; rains will be copious on their
summits, and^itf Chili on their western declivities, but none
will fall onJne plains to the eastward, except occasionally,
when the winds blow from the Atlantic. The phenomena
of the weather correspond in a remarkable manner with this
hypothesis. On the shore of the Pacific, from Coquimbo,
at the 30th parallel, to Amotape, at the 5th of south lati¬
tude, no rain falls; and the whole of this tract is a sandy
desert, except the narrow strips of land skirting the streams
that descend from the Andes, where the soil is rendered
productive by irrigation. From the 30th parallel southward
the scene changes. Rains are frequent; vegetation appears
on the surface, and grows more vigorous as we advance
southward. “ At Conception,” says Captain Hall, “ the eye
was delighted with the richest and most luxuriant foliage ;
at Valparaiso the hills were poorly clad with a stunted
brushwood and a poor attempt at grass, the ground looking
starved and naked ; at Coquimbo the brushwood was gone,
with nothing in its place but a vile sort of prickly pear bush,
and a thin sprinkling of gray wiry grass ; at Guasca (lati¬
tude 28^°) there was not a trace of vegetation, and the hills
were covered with bare sand.”1 It follows from the princi¬
ple we have laid down, that in this southern part of the con-
671
tinent the dry tract should be found on the east side of the South
mountains, and such is the fact. At Mendoza, in latitude •America-
30°, rain scarcely ever falls, and the district along the east
foot of the Andes is known to consist chiefly of parched
sands, on which a few stunted shrubs grow, and in which
many of the streams that descend from the mountains are
absorbed before they reach the sea. The whole country,
indeed, south of th§ Plata, suffers from drought; but on
the eastern side this is remedied to some extent by winds
from the east or south-east, which bring occasional rains to
refresh the soil. From Amotape northward, on the other
hand, the west coast is well watered and fruitful; and this
is easily accounted for. The line of the coast here changes
its direction, and trends to the north-east as far as the Isth¬
mus of Panama, where the mountains sink to a few hundred
feet in height, and leave a free passage to the trade-wind,
which here often assumes a direction from the north-east,
or even the north. The exhalations of the Atlantic are thus
brought in abundance to the coast of Quito, which is in con¬
sequence well watered ; while the neighbouring district of
Peru suffers from perpetual aridity.
Our principle applies equally to the explanation of some
peculiar facts connected with the climate of North Ame¬
rica. The western coast of Mexico, as far as St Bias or
Mazatlan, in latitude 23°, is well watered, because, first,
the continent here is narrow; secondly, the table-land of
Mexico, which is much lower than the Andes of Chili, is
not so effectual a screen to intercept the moisture ; and,
thirdly, there is reason to believe that a branch of the trade-
wind, which crosses the low part of the continent at Panama
and Nicaragua, sweeps along the west coast during part of
the year, and transports humidity with it. But beyond the
point we have mentioned drought prevails. Sonora, though
visited occasionally by rains, consists of sandy plains with¬
out herbage, where the streams lose themselves in the
parched soil without reaching the sea ; and even Old Cali¬
fornia, which has the ocean on one side, and a broad gulf
on the other, and ought apparently to be excessively humid,
is covered with sterile rocks and sandy hills, where the
vegetation is scanty, and no timber is seen except brush¬
wood.2 This dry region extends as far as 33° or 34° ; but
immediately beyond this we have another change of scene.
New California is described as in all respects a contrast to
the Old. It is rich, fertile, and humid, abounding in luxu¬
riant forests and fine pastures; and the American posses¬
sions to the northward preserve the same character. How
can we account for this singular diversity of climate, except
upon the principle which has been explained, namely, that
in all regions where ranges of mountains intersect the course
of the constant or predominant winds the country on the
windward side of the mountains will be moist, and that on
the leeward dry ; and hence parched deserts will generally
be found on the west side of countries within the tropics,
and on the east side of those beyond him ? Our hypo¬
thesis applies equally to the country east of the Rocky
Mountains. For the space of about 3000 miles from the
foot of this chain the surface consists of dry sands or gravel,
sometimes covered with saline incrustations, almost desti¬
tute of trees and herbage, and watered by streams flowing
from the mountains, which are sometimes entirely absorbed
by the arid soil.3 The central and eastern part of the basin
of the Mississippi would in all probability have been equally
barren had the configuration of the land been a little differ¬
ent in the south. A tract of country extremely low and
level extends along both sides of this river ; and a portion
1 Hall’s Extracts from a Journal, vol. ii. p. 12.
2 Shelvock’s Voyages, in Harris’s Collection, vol. i. p. 232; Hardy’s Travels in Mexico, pp. 128, 163, 300.
3 James’s Expedition from Pittsburg to the Rocky Mountains; Supplement by Major Long, in vol. iii.
X
672
AMERICA.
South of the trade-wind blowing from the Mexican Gulf, finding
America, its motion westward obstructed by the high table-land of
the Cordillera, is deflected to the right, and ascends the
valley of the Mississippi and Ohio. This wind, whose
course was first traced by Volney, bears with it the humi¬
dity of the torrid zone, and scatters fertility over a wide
region that would otherwise be the abode of barrenness.
The views on the subject of climate we have been un¬
folding will enable us to throw some light on an interesting
point—the distribution of forests. We are induced to think,
that in all countries having a summer heat exceeding 70°,
the presence or absence of natural woods, and their greater
or less luxuriance, may be taken as a measure of the amount
of humidity, and of the fertility of the soil. Short and heavy
rains in a warm country will produce grass, which, having
its roots near the surface, springs up in a few days, and
withers when the moisture is exhausted; but transitory
rains, however heavy, will not nourish trees, because after
the surface is saturated with water, the rest runs off, and
the moisture lodged in the soil neither sinks deep enough,
nor is in sufficient quantity to furnish the giants of the forest
with the necessary sustenance. It may be assumed that 20
inches of rain falling moderately, or at intervals, will leave
a greater permanent supply in the soil than 40 inches falling,
as it sometimes does in the torrid zone, in as many hours.
It is only necessary to qualify this conclusion by stating, that
something depends on the subsoil. If that is gravel, or a
rock full of fissures, the water imbedded will soon drain off;
if it is clay or a compact rock, the water will remain in the
soil. It must be remembered, also, that both heat and
moisture diminish as we ascend in the atmosphere, while
evaporation increases; and hence that trees will not grow South
on very high ground, though its position in reference to the America,
sea and the prevailing winds should be favourable in other
respects. In speaking of the region of forests, we neither
restrict the term to those districts where the natural woods
present an unbroken continuity, nor extend it to every place
where a few trees grow in open plains. It is not easy to
give a definition that will be always appropriate; but in
using the expression, we wish to be understood as applying
it to ground where the natural woods cover more than one-
fburth of the surface.
The small map of America prefixed will enable the reader
to follow our statements with ease. The long hatched lines
show the positions of the chains of mountains ; the shading
represents the regions of forests; the dense forests being
marked by the double shading, and the thinner ones by the
open lines. The white spaces represent the lands on which
little or no wood grows. The equator and the parallel of
30° on each side are indicated by the horizontal lines
marked 0 and 30. The arrows show the direction of the
prevailing winds; but it must be remembered that, though
the intertropical wind is assumed to have its course right
from the east, this is only true at the equator, its direction
inclining to north-east as we approach the northern tropic,
and to the south-east as we approach the southern. In
North America A is the woody region on the west coast,
extending from latitude 35° to about 58°, and of unknown
breadth. B the region on the east side of the Rocky Moun¬
tains, partly a bare desert, partly covered with grass and
dotted with trees. C the forests of the Allegany chain,
thick on the east and south, and thin on the west; bounded
by a curved line passing from St Luis, in Mexico, through
Lake Huron, to the mouth of the St Lawrence, in latitude
50°. The arrow at M points out the direction of the wind,
which ascends the valley of the Mississippi, and nourishes
the western part of these forests; and the arrow at R that
which blows across the isthmus of Panama. D is the table¬
land of Mexico, graduating on the north-west into the dry
plains of Sonora and California, all bare, or nearly bare, of
wood. E is the Llanos or bare plains of Caraccas, nearly
fenced round with mountains. F G is the long strip of
bare dry sands on the west side of the Andes which consti¬
tutes Lower Peru and the north part of Chili; and N is
Amotape, its northern boundary. H is the great region of
forests which constitutes the basin of the Amazon, and oc¬
cupies all the rest of Brazil. Near the equator the moisture
is so excessive, that after 150 or 200 inches of rain1 have
fallen on the east coast, there is still sufficient humidity in
the atmosphere to afford copious showers to all the country
up to the Andes. Here, therefore, the woods reach from
side to side of the continent. But as we recede from the
equator the humidity diminishes rapidly ; and though the
continent becomes narrower towards the south, the supply
of rain falls off in a still greater proportion, and the forests
extend over a much smaller space. At the foot of the
Andes, the forests extend to 16° or 18° of south latitude ; on
the east coast to 25° or probably 30°. K L are the Pampas
or open lands of Buenos Ayres, extending on the east side
of the Andes, from Cape Horn to the latitudes just men¬
tioned. If we divide this region into three parts, the east-
most, refreshed by occasional rains from the Atlantic, is
covered with a strong nutritive herbage ; the second, which
is drier, displays a thin coarse wiry grass ; and the third
portion, which extends to the Andes, receiving little or no
rain, is nearly a desert: all the three are destitute of timber,
but the surface of the third is dotted with dwarfish shrubs.2
1 Humboldt’s Personal Narrative, vol. vi. p. 277.
2 See Mr Miers Journey to Chili, in the first volume of his Travels, chap. i. and ii.; and Captain Head’s Rough Notes, p. 2.
AMERICA. 673
South I is the southern part of Chili. Here the prevailing winds,
America, which are from the west, coming loaded with the moisture
of the Pacific Ocean, produce copious rains to nourish the
herbage and the forests. This applies, however, chiefly to
the country south of the 35th parallel. From that to Co-
quimbo, in latitude 30°, the wood is scanty. Beyond 50°
on the east coast of North America, and 55° or 58° on the
west, very little wood grows, in consequence of the rigour
of the climate.
Climate. Great misapprehensions have arisen with regard to the
climate of America, from comparisons being drawn between
the east side of the new continent and the west side of the
old. We have already pointed out the influence of winds
blowing from the sea, in modifying the state of the atmo¬
sphere over the land, both as to heat and humidity. When
this circumstance is attended to, and when the east and west
sides of the old and the new continents are respectively com¬
pared with one another, the difference is found to be small,
and easily accounted for. In the torrid zone, and on the
sea-shore, the temperature of both continents is found to be
the same, viz., 82°; but in the interior the difference is
rather in favour of America. There is no counterpart in
the new world to the burning heats felt in the plains of Ara¬
bia and Gedrosia. Even in the western and warmest part
of the parched steppes of Caraccas, the hottest known region
in America, the temperature of the air during the day is only
98° in the shade, which rises to 112° in the sandy deserts
which surround the Red Sea. At Calabozzo, farther east
in the Llanos, the common temperature of the day is only
from 88° to 90°; and at sunrise the thermometer sinks to
800.1 The basin of the Amazon is shaded with lofty woods;
and a cool breeze from the east, a minute branch of the trade-
wind, ascends the channel of the stream, following all its
windings, almost to the foot of the Andes. Hence this re¬
gion, though under the equator, and visited with almost con¬
stant rains, is neither excessively hot nor unhealthful. Bra¬
zil, and the vast country extending westward from it between
the Plata and the Amazon, is an uneven table-land, blest
with an equable climate. At Rio Janeiro, which stands low,
and is exposed to a heat comparatively great, the tempera¬
ture in summer varies from 16° to 22° ot Reaumur, and the
mean is only about 19° (74° Fahr.) Farther north, and in
the interior, the Indians find it necessary to keep fires in their
huts; and in the country near the sources of the Paraguay,
hoar-frost is seen on the hills during the colder months, and
the mean temperature of the year falls below 65° or 67°.2
On the declivities of the Andes, and on the high plains of
Upper Peru, the heats are so moderate that the plants of
Italy, France, and Germany, come to maturity. Lower
Peru, though a sandy desert, enjoys a wonderful degree of
coolness, owing to the fogs which intercept the solar rays.
At Lima, which is 540 feet above the sea, the temperature
varies from 53° to 82°, but the mean for the whole year is
only 72°. In the plains of La Plata, the mean temperature
of the year is very nearly the same as at the corresponding
north latitudes on the east side of the Atlantic. At Buenos
Ayres, for instance, the mean annual heat is 19° 7' of the
centigrade thermometer (68° Fahr.), while that of places on
the same parallel in the old world is 19° 8'. The range of
temperature is probably greater in the basin of the Plata ;
but as we advance southwards, the diminishing breadth of
the continent makes the climate approximate to that of an
island, and the extremes of course approach each other. In
the Straits of Magellan the temperature of the warmest
month does not exceed 43° or 46° ; and snow falls almost
daily in the middle of summer, though the latitude corre- North
sponds with that of England. But the inference drawn from ^America-
this, that the climate is unmatched for severity, is by no '
means just, for the winter at Staten Island is milder than in
London. In point of fact, the climate of Patagonia is ab¬
solutely colder than that of places in the same latitude in
Europe ; but the difference lies chiefly in the very low tem¬
perature of the summer. This peculiarity no doubt results
chiefly from the greater coolness of the sea in the southern
hemisphere ; far beyond the parallel of 48°, the difference of
temperature in the North and South Atlantic amounts, ac¬
cording to Humboldt, to 10° or 12° of Fahrenheit’s* scale.3
If we push our researches a step farther, and inquire what
is the cause of the great warmth of the Northern Sea, we shall
be forced to admit that a very satisfactory answer cannot be
given. Something may be due to the influence of the Gulf
Stream, a minute branch of which is supposed to carry the
waters of the torrid zone to the shores of Shetland and Nor¬
way ; but such an agent seems too trifling to account for
the phenomenon. The sum, then, of the peculiar qualities
which distinguish the climate of South America may be
briefly stated. Near the equator the new continent is per¬
haps more humid than the old; and within the tropics gene¬
rally, owing to its vast forests, the absence of sandy deserts,
and the elevation of the soil, it is cooler. Beyond the tropics
the heat is nearly the same in the southern temperate zone
of Amercia and the northern one of the old continent, till
we ascend to the neighbourhood of Cape Horn, where we
have cold summers, and a very limited range of the ther¬
mometer in the western hemisphere.
Nine-tenths of North America lying under the tempe¬
rate zone, the climate follows a different law from what is
observed in the southern peninsula, and presents more strik¬
ing contrasts with that of the best known parts of the old
world. The long narrow region now denominated Central
America, which connects the two great divisions of the con¬
tinent, stretching from Panama to Tehuantepec, has in ge¬
neral a very humid atmosphere ; but, for a tropical country,
it must be only moderately hot, as every part of it is within
a small distance of the sea. At Vera Paz the rains fall
during nine months of the year. Mexico is hot, moist, and
unhealthy on the low coasts ; but two-thirds of its area, com¬
prising all the populous districts, consist of table-land, from
5000 to 9000 feet in height. In consequence of this sin¬
gular configuration of its surface, Mexico, though chiefly
within the torrid zone, enjoys a temperate and equable cli¬
mate. The mean heat at the capital, which is 7400 feet
above the sea, is 62£°, and the difference between the warm¬
est and coldest months, which exceeds 30°at London, is here
only about 12°; but the atmosphere is deficient in moisture,
and the country suffers from drought. Beyond the parallel
of 24° the western shores are hot and arid.
In the extensive region lying between the parallels of 30°
and 50°, which comprehends three-fourths of the useful soil
of North America, we have three well-marked varieties of
climate, that of the east coast, the west coast, and the basin
of the Mississippi. On the east coast, from Georgia to Lower
Canada, the mean temperature of the year is lower than in
Europe by 9° at the latitude of 40°, and by 12^° at the lati¬
tude of 50°, according to Humboldt’s calculation. In the
next place, the range of the thermometer is much greater
than in Europe, the summer being much hotter and the
winter much colder. At Quebec the temperature of the
warmest month exceeds that of the coldest by no less than
60^° of Fahr.; while at Paris, which is nearly under the
1 Humboldt’s Personal Narrative, vol. iv. pp. 315—325.
3 De Listributione Geographica Plantarum, p. 82; Pers. Nar. vol. ii. p. 85
VOL. H.
Spix’s Travels, vol. ii. p- 145.
4 Q
674
AMERICA.
North same latitude, the difference is only 31°. In the third place,
America. c]jmate undergoes a more rapid change in America as
we proceed from south to north, a degree of latitude in the
middle of the temperate zone producing a decrease of annual
temperature of 1'13° in Europe, and of 1*5 7° in America.
The comparison is greatly to the disadvantage of America
when made in this form; but when the east coasts of the
two continents are compared, the case is altered: the old
world is found to have no superiority over the new, for Pekin
has still colder winters and warmer summers than Philadel¬
phia, which is under the same latitude. It is the west coast
of the new continent which ought to exhibit the climate of
Europe ; and from the few facts known, we have reason to
believe that it is quite as mild and equable. At the mouth
of Columbia River, in latitude 46^°, Captain Lewis and
Clarke found the rains to be copious and frequent; but they
had very little frost, and saw no ice even in the depth of
winter. From observations made in 1822-3-4, it appears
that the mean heat of the warmest month was about 62°, of
the coldest about 36°, and of the whole year 510.1 Now,
the place is under the same latitude with Quebec, where
the snow lies five months, and the mean temperature during
the three winter months is 18° below the freezing point.
This single circumstance marks emphatically the contrast
in the climate of the east and west coasts of North America.
But the mouth of Columbia River is also under the same
parallel with Nantes at the mouth of the Loire, where snow
and ice are no strangers in the cold season of the year. We
have therefore, good grounds to conclude that the west
coast of America, in the middle latitudes, has nearly as mild
and equable a climate as the west coast of Europe. The
climate of the great central valley, or basin of the Mississippi,
has a considerable affinity to that of the east coast. It was
long a matter of dispute in what the difference between the
two consists; but this seems at last to have been clearly
settled, by the meteorological registers kept at the military
posts of the United States. From a comparison of four of
these registers, from posts near the centre of this great val¬
ley, with others kept on the Atlantic coast in the same lati¬
tudes, it appears that in the hottest month the temperature
is from 5° to 6° higher, and in the coldest month as much
lower, in the basin of the Mississippi, than on the coasts of
New England. The proportion of fair weather to cloudy
is as 5 to 1 in favour of the east coast.2 * The climate of the
interior, therefore, exhibits in still greater excess those ex¬
tremes of temperature which distinguish the eastern coast
of this continent from the western, and from the shores of
Europe. The fourth region of extra-tropical America in¬
cludes the parts beyond Mount St Elias on the west coast,
and, in the interior, the plains extending from the 50th
parallel to the Polar Seas. The intensity of the cold in this
tract of country is scarcely equalled by any thing that is
known under the same parallels in Northern Asia. The
northernmost spot in America where grain is raised is at Lord
Selkirk’s colony, on Red River, in "latitude 50°. Wheat,
and also maize, which requires a high summer heat, are cul¬
tivated here.8 Barley would certainly grow as far north as
Fort Chippewyan, in latitude 58|°, where the heat of the
four summer months was found by Captain Franklin to be
4° higher than at Edinburgh. There is even reason to be¬
lieve, that both this species of grain and potatoes might
thrive as far north as Slave Lake, since the spruce fir attains
the height of 50 feet three degrees farther north, at Fort
Franklin, in latitude 65°. These, however, were low and
sheltered spots; but in this dreary waste generally, it will
not be found practicable, we suspect, to carry the arts of North
civilized life beyond the 60th parallel; and the desirable America,
country, capable of supporting a dense population, and
meriting the name of temperate, can scarcely be said to ex¬
tend beyond the 50th parallel. At 65° the snow covers the
ground in winter to the depth of only two feet, but small
lakes continue frozen for eight months. The sea is open
only for a few weeks, fogs darken the surface, and the ther¬
mometer in February descended, in one instance to minus
58°, or 90° below the freezing point. At Melville Island,
under the 75th parallel, such is the frightful rigour of the
climate, that the temperature of the year falls 1° or 2° below
the zero of Fahrenheit’s scale. It is a peculiarity in the
climate of America, that beyond the parallel of 50° or 52°,
it seems to become suddenly severe at both extremities.
At the one, summer disappears from the circle of the seasons;
at the other, winter is armed with double terrors.
The mountains of North America will not detain us long.
The branch of the Andes which divides the seas at the
isthmus of Panama is very low, the highest point of the rail¬
road now in progress (1852) is only 300 feet above the sea.
At the isthmus of Tehuantepec, a route has been traced
whose most elevated point is 702 feet. The most consider¬
able elevations are on the south-west side of the isthmus ;
and twenty-one volcanoes, scattered over this limited space,
afford proof that the sources of internal fire exist here in
unexampled abundance. From Puebla to Durango the
Mexican mountains no longer present the appearance of a
chain, but spread out to a table-land or elevated plain, from
5000 to 9000 feet in height, and from 100 to 300 miles in
breadth. Across this plain, exactly at the 19th parallel, five
volcanoes are distributed in a line running east and west, as
if a vast rent, extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific,
had opened a passage for the internal fires of the globe at
this spot. Two of these on the east side of the continent,
with a group of four or five other cones lying between Ja-
lapa and Cordoba, have an elevation exceeding 17,000 feet,
and are the only mountains in New Spain that rise to the
region of perpetual snow, which commences here at 15,000
feet above the level of the sea. Jorullo, the lowest of the
five volcanoes, rose suddenly in the middle of a plain, in
September 1759, after fearful concussions of the ground,
continued for fifty or sixty days. It is 1600 feet high, and
is surrounded by a number of smaller cones or burning
masses, all resting on a portion of the plain four square miles
in extent, which was heaved up in the form of a tumefied
dome. Near the tropic the Mexican Cordillera divides into
three parts. One runs parallel to the eastern coast at the
distance of thirty or forty leagues, and terminates in New
Leon. Another proceeds in a north-western direction, and
sinks gradually as it approaches the Californian Gulf in So¬
nora. The third or central Cordillera traverses Durango
and New Mexico, divides the sources of the Rio Gila from
the Rio Brava del Norte, and forms the eastern ridge or
main trunk of the Rocky Mountains, which terminates at
the Arctic Ocean about 140? of west longitude. From the
southern point of California, a lower chain skirts the coast
as far as the volcano of Mount St Elias, in latitude 60°; and
between this chain and the eastern several intermediate ones
occur, the whole forming apparently an elevated plateau from
200 to 800 miles in breadth. Many of the summits of the
Rocky Mountains are within the regions of perpetual snow;
and several of their peaks have been found to measure
11,000, 11,320,13,538, and 16,000 feet.4 In one of the val¬
leys included in the plateau of the Rocky Mountains, is situ-
1 Edinburgh Journal of Science, April 1827.
2 Keating’s Account of Major Long's Second Expedition, 1824, vol. ii. p. 417 3 voi. H. chap. ii.
4 See Major Long’s Memoirs, and the sections in James’s Account of an Expedition to the Rocky Mountains.
AMERICA.
675
North ated the great salt lake Utab, in west longitude 112° and north
America, latitude 41°. The lake, whose waters are intensely saline,
is nearly 300 miles in circumference, and its shores, for a
breadth of several miles, are covered with an incrustation of
very pure salt. In this valley or basin, which measures
about 500 miles each way, and contains much fertile soil,
the Mormons, a new religious sect of very peculiar tenets,
established themselves in 1847. It is a convenient halting
station for the American emigrants who pass by land to
California.
If we run a line westward across the continent of North
America at the latitude of Delaware Bay (38°), the geolo¬
gical formations present themselves in the following order:
—1. Tertiary and cretaceous strata on the shores of the At¬
lantic ; 2. Gneiss underlying these strata, and presenting
itself on the eastern slope of the Allegany or Appalachian
mountains, but covered at parts by New Red Sandstone; 3.
Palaeozoic rocks, consisting of Silurian, Devonian, and car¬
boniferous strata, curiously bent into parallel foldings, with
synclinal and anticlinal axes, the crests of the latter forming
the ridges of the Allegany Mountains, which in this region
rise to the height of 2500 feet. Upon these palaeozoic rocks
rest three great coal-fields—the Appalachian, that of Illinois,
and that of Michigan, covering a large portion of the space
between the Alleganies and the Mississippi, and embracing
collectively an area equal to the surface of Great Britain.
From the Mississippi westward the country has not been
thoroughly explored, but the Silurian, carboniferous, and
secondary rocks, are said to extend to the base of the Rocky
Mountains. Here the crystalline schists again present them¬
selves, and not only form the crests of the two chains, but
extend to the shores of the Pacific. Both in Oregon and
California they have been greatly disturbed by eruptive
rocks of many varieties. Among these Mr Dana names
traps, porphyries, serpentines, hypersthenes, trachytes, and
cellular lavas. Sandstones of the Silurian or carboniferous
age are mingled with these, and along with the mica and
chlorite schists (perhaps metamorphic), were no doubt the
matrix of the gold found in the gravel. It is generally in
such situations—that is, among the crystalline and palaeo¬
zoic strata, where they have been penetrated by intrusive
masses of igneous rock, that the precious metals have been
found.1
The Ozark mountains resemble the Alleganies in their
mineral structure, containing the same rocks from the granite
to the carboniferous, and probably upwards to the chalk.
In British America, and the desolate country northward to
the Arctic Ocean, there is no considerable chain east of the
Rocky Mountains, and the rocks, so far as known, consist
chiefly of crystalline and palaeozoic schists.
Rivers. In no single circumstance is the superiority of America
over the old world so conspicuous, as in the number and
magnitude of its navigable rivers. The Amazon alone dis¬
charges a greater quantity of water than the eight principal
rivers of Asia, the Euphrates, Indus, Ganges, Oby, Lena,
Amour, and the Yellow River and Kang-tse of China.2 The
Mississippi, with its branches, affords a greater amount of
inland navigation than all the streams, great and small, which
irrigate Europe; and the Plata, in this respect, may pro-
bablv claim a superiority over the collective water of Africa.
But the American rivers not only surpass those of the old
world in length and volume of fluid, but they are so placed
as to penetrate everywhere to the heart of the continent.
By the Amazon, a person living at the eastern foot of the
Andes, 2000 miles of direct distance from the Atlantic, may Rivers,
convey himself or his property to the shores of that sea in
forty-five days, almost without effort, by confiding his bark
to the gliding current. If he wishes to return, he has but
to spread his sails to the eastern breeze, which blows peren¬
nially against the stream. The navigation is not interrupted
by a single cataract or rapid, from the Atlantic to Jaen, in
west longitude 78°, where the surface of the stream is only
1240 feet above the level of its estuary at Para. The re¬
motest and least accessible part of North America is the
great interior plain extending from the Rocky Mountains to
the Alleganies and the lakes, between the parallels of 40°
and 50°; but the Mississippi, Missouri, and St Lawrence,
with their branches, are so wonderfully ramified over this
region, that when it is filled with civilised inhabitants, two
centuries hence, those who dwell in its inmost recesses, at
the falls of the Missouri, for instance, 1700 miles from the
Atlantic, will have a more easy communication with the
ocean than the population of the interior of Spain and Hun¬
gary. It is only necessary to cast the eye over a map of
South America, to see that all the most sequestered parts
of the interior are visited by branches of the Plata and the
Amazon. These streams, having their courses in general
remarkably level, and seldom interrupted by cataracts, may
be considered without a figure, as a vast system of natural
canals, terminating in two main trunks, which communicate
with the ocean at the equator and the 35th degree of south
latitude. Since the invention of steam navigation, rivers
are, in the truest sense of the term, Nature’s highways,
especially for infant communities, where the people are too
poor, and live too widely dispersed, to bear the expense of
constructing roads. There is little risk in predicting, that
in two or three centuries the Mississippi, the Amazon, and
the Plata, will be the scenes of an active inland commerce,
far surpassing in magnitude anything at present known on
the surface of the globe. The Mississippi is navigable for
boats from the sea to the falls of its principal branch the
Missouri, 1700 miles from the Mexican Gulf in a direct line,
or 3900 by the stream ; and the whole amount of boat navi¬
gation afforded by the system of rivers, of which the Missis¬
sippi is the main trunk, has been estimated as equal to
40,000 miles in length, spread over a surface of 1,350,000
square miles. Perhaps this is rather beyond the truth ; but
let us call the navigation 35,000 miles, and the following
table will exhibit the lengths, size of the basins, and pro¬
bable extent of the navigable waters of the greater rivers of
America.
Mississippi to source of
Missouri 
St Lawrence through the
lakes 
Orinoco 
Amazon, not including
Araguay 
Plata, including Uruguay
Area of Navigable
Length, basin, waters,
miles. sq. miles. miles.
4300 1,350,000 35,000
2200 600,000 4,000
1800 400,000 8,000
4000 2,100,000 50,000
2400 1,200,000 20,000
The Amazon contains many islands, is broad, and in the
upper part so deep, that on one occasion Condamine found
no bottom with a line 103 toises long. At its mouth, two
days before and after the full moon, the phenomenon called
a Bore occurs in a very formidable shape. It is a wave of
water rushing from the sea, with its front as steep as a wall
1 Memoirs of W. B. Rogers and H. D. Rogers On the Coal Rocks of Eastern Virginia, and on the Origin of the Appalachian Coal Strata,
1840. Lyell’s Travels in North America, 1845, and Wilkin’s Account of Western America, 1849.
2 See article Physical Geography.
x
676
Rivers.
Physical
regions of
North
America.
Numbers.
Indigen¬
ous popu¬
lation.
AMERICA.
and as high as a house. No small vessel can encounter it
without certain destruction.
The estuaries of all these great American rivers open to
the eastward; and thus Providence seems to have plainly
indicated that the most intimate commercial relations of the
inhabitants of America should be with the western shores of
the old world. It should at the same time be observed, that
this position of the great rivers of America is but one ex¬
ample of a physical arrangement which is common to the
whole globe; for it is remarkable that, in the old world as
well as in the new, no river of the first class flows to the
westward. Some, as the Nile, the Lena, and the Oby,
flow to the north ; others, as the Indus and the rivers of Ava,
to the south; but the largest, as the Wolga, Ganges, Great
River and Yellow River of China, the Euphrates, and the
Amour, have their courses to the east or south-east. This
arrangement is not accidental, but depends most probably
on the inclination of the primary rocks, which, in all cases
where their direction approaches to the south and north,
seem to have their steepest sides to the west and the longest
declivities to the east. We have examples in the Scandi¬
navian Alps, the mountains of Britain, the Ghauts of India,
the Andes, and the Rocky Mountains.
North America, like the Southern peninsula, naturally
divides itself into five physical regions: 1. The table-land
of Mexico, with the strip of low country on its eastern and
western shores; 2. The plateau lying between the Rocky
Mountains and the Pacific Ocean, a country with a mild and
humid atmosphere as far north as the 55th parallel, but in¬
hospitable and barren beyond this boundary; 3. The great
central valley of the Mississippi, rich and well wooded on the
east side, bare but not unfertile in the middle, dry, sandy, and
almost a desert on the west; 4. The eastern declivities of
the Allegany Mountains, a region of natural forests, and of
mixed but rather poor soil; 5. The great northern plain be¬
yond the 50th parallel, four-fifths of which is a bleak and bare
waste, overspread with innumerable lakes, and resembling
Siberia both in the physical character of its surface and the
rigour of its climate.
The origin, history, languages, and condition of the
American nations present ample materials for speculation;
but before touching on these subjects, the question presents
itself, What is the amount of the indigenous population ?
Humboldt, in a later edition of his work on Mexico, pub¬
lished in 1823, estimates the whole number of Indians in
the New World as follows :—
Civilised or settled Indians of Spanish America 7,530,000
Ditto in Brazil   260,000
Independent Indians to the east and west of the
Rocky Mountains, on the frontiers of Mexico,
and in Central America  400,000
Independent Indians of South America  420,000
Total Indian population of America  8,610,000
1 he indigenous population of America presents man un¬
der many aspects, and society in various stages, from the
regular but limited civilisation of Mexico and Peru, to savage
life in its most brutal state of abasement. At one extremity
of the country we find the pigmy Esquimaux of four feet and
a half in height, and at the other the Patagonian giants of
seven feet. In complexion the variety is great, and may
be said to embrace almost every hue known elsewhere on
the face of the earth, except the pitchy black of the neo-ro.
About one-half of all the known languages belong to Ame¬
rica ; and if we consider every little wandering horde a dis¬
tinct community, we have a greater number of nations here Aborigines
than in all the rest of the world. Amidst all this diversity,
philosophers have thought they were able to discover cer¬
tain general characters, sufficiently marked to distinguish
the American nations from those of the old continent. It
is foreign to our purpose to inquire whether the varieties of
form, stature, and complexion, in the human species, are
modifications produced by external causes operating differ¬
ently on distinct portions of the progeny of one primitive
pair, or whether several races were originally created, and
have given birth, by their mixture, to the amazing varieties
we witness. We assume the former opinion as true, because
the probabilites seem to be in its favour; but the pheno¬
mena present themselves to us in the same light in which¬
ever way they originated.
Physiologists are not at one in their accounts of the cha¬
racteristics of the aborigines of the new world, nor are they
agreed as to whether they should be considered one race or
several. Blumenbach places them all under one class, ex¬
cept the Esquimaux. Bory St Vincent, an ingenious but
fanciful writer, in a recent work,1 divides them into four
races, or into five if we include the Esquimaux, under the
following designations :—1. The Colombian, which compre¬
hends the tribes formerly inhabiting the Allegany Moun¬
tains, Canada, Florida, the eastern coasts of Mexico, and
Central America; and the Caribs, who occupied the West
India Islands and Guiana. 2. The American, embracing
the tribes which occupy all the other parts of South Ame¬
rica east of the Andes, except Patagonia. 3. the Patagon¬
ian race, inhabiting the south extremity of the continent.
4. The Neptunian, inhabiting the western coasts of both
divisions of the continent, from California to Cape Horn,
and which he considers as essentially the same with the race
spread over the Malay Peninsula and the Indian Archipelago.
With this race he classes the Mexicans and Peruvians. By
another writer2 the species are reduced to two, the Colom¬
bian and the American ; the former including all the North
American tribes, with the Caribs, the Mexicans, and Peru¬
vians, and other inhabitants of the Cordillera; and the lat¬
ter the Brazilian Indians and Patagonians. None of these
systems, when compared with facts, is very satisfactory. Dr
Prichard thinks that the mutual resemblance among the
American nations has been exaggerated by some writers;
yet it is certain that there is more of a common family cha¬
racter in their organisation than in that of the indigenous
population of Asia or Africa. “ The Indians of New Spain,”
says Humboldt, “ bear a general resemblance to those who
inhabit Canada, Florida, Peru, and Brazil. We have the
same swarthy and copper colour, straight and smooth hair,
small beard, squat body, long eye, with the corner directed
upwards towards the temples, prominent cheek-bones, thick
lips, and expression of gentleness in the mouth, strongly con¬
trasted with a gloomy and severe look. Over a million and
a half of square leagues, from Cape Horn to the river St
Lawrence and Behring’s Straits, we are struck at the first
glance with the general resemblance in the features of the
inhabitants. We think we perceive them all to be descended
from the same stock, notwithstanding the prodigious diver¬
sity of their languages. In the portrait drawn by Volney
of the Canadian Indians, we recognise the tribes scattered
over the Savannahs of the Apure and the Carony. The
same style of features exist in both Americas.”
The American race is distinguished by the form of the Form of
skull, which strongly resembles the Mongol type. 1 he skull,
forehead recedes more than in any other variety of the
1 L'Homme, Essai Zoologique, vol. ii. Paris, 1827.
2 Histoire Naturelle des Races Humaines, par A. Desmoulins. Paris, 1826.
AMERICA. 677
Aborigines human species; the cheek-bones are prominent, but not so
angular, as in the Mongol head ; the occiput is rather flat,
the cavity for lodging the cerebellum small, the orbits large
and deep. The nose is generally aquiline, but in some
tribes flat; and the nasal cavities are large. Compared with
the head of the Negro, that of the American is much
broader, and the teeth are less prominent: when placed by
the side of the Caucasian head, it is seen to be smaller in
size, less rounded and symmetrical, and less developed in the
part before the ear. The skull is generally thin and light.
There are, however, many deviations from this central form.
The Carib skull, and the Araucanian, are large; the Peru¬
vian small, and singularly flattened behind, so as to present
a short line from the forehead to the occiput.
Com_ The colour of the Americans, though it includes a con-
plexion. siderable diversity of shade, is more uniform than that of
the inhabitants of Asia or Africa; and, what is more re-1
markable, its varieties do not bear any visible relation to the
temperature of the climate. A brownish yellow, or copper
colour, as it has been called, pervades nearly all the nume¬
rous tribes from the Arctic Ocean to Cape Horn, but still
with many different degrees of intensity. The eastern na¬
tions of Chili have but a slight tinge of the brown colour,
and the Boroanes are said to be as white as the northern
Europeans. On the north-west coast, from latitude 43° to
60°, there are tribes who, though embrowned with soot and
mud, were found, when their skins were washed, to have the
brilliant white and red which is the characteristic of the
Caucasian race. But within the tropics, the Malapoques in
Brazil, the Guayanis in Paraguay, the Guiacas of Guiana,
the Scheries of La Plata, have tolerably fair complexions,
sometimes united with blue eyes and auburn hair; and, in
the hot country watered by the Orinoco, Humboldt found
tribes of a dark, and others of a light hue, living almost in
juxtaposition. It is remarkable, too, that the nations whose
colour approaches nearest to black are found in the tempe¬
rate zone, namely, the Charruas of the Banda Oriental, in
latitude 33° south, and the Cochimies, Pericus, and Guay-
curus, spread over the peninsula of California. These people
have skins of a very deep hue, but are not absolutely black;
and they have neither the woolly hair of the negroes, nor
their social and good-humoured disposition. The Charruas
especially are distinguished by a high degree of that auste¬
rity and stern fortitude which are common to the American
nations.1 The Caribs and some Brazilian tribes have the
yellowish hue of the Chinese, and the same cast of features.
Among the nations dwelling on the west side of the Alle-
ganies, and near the northern lakes, there is also a consi¬
derable variety of complexion; but the brown or copper
shade is found more or less in them all. It may be said,
then, of the American nations, that, with the exception of
two or three tribes on the north-west coast, who probably
arrived from Asia at a later period than the others, the two
extremes of complexion, the white of Northern Europe and
the black of Ethiopia, are unknown amongst them; and
that, when compared with the Moors, Abyssinians, and other
swarthy nations of the Old World, their colour inclines less
to the yellow, and more to the reddish brown. In stature
the variety is great. The North American tribes are gene¬
rally above the middle size, and of a slender shape. The
Brazilian nations and the Peruvians are short and squat. The
Caribs of the Orinoco, and the Abipones, Mocoby, and other
tribes which rove over the Pampas west of the Plata, are tall
and strong; and the Patagonians, a Chilian tribe, exceed in
strength and stature all the other races in the known world.
Dr Morton, a recent authority, says that the most natural Aborigines
division of the Americans is into two families, the Toltecan v--
and the American ; the former of which bears evidence of
centuries of half-civilisation, while the latter embraces all the
barbarous nations of the new world, with the exception of the
Polar tribes, which are evidently of Mongolian origin. In
each of these, however, there are several subordinate groups,
which may be distinguished as the Appalachian, the Bra¬
zilian, the Patagonian, and the Fuegian. The Appala¬
chian branch includes all the nations of North America, ex¬
cept the Mexicans, together with the tribes of South Ame¬
rica north of the River Amazon and east of the Andes. In
this race the head is rounded, the nose large, salient, and
aquiline : the eyes dark brown, with little or no obliquity of
position; the mouth large and straight; the teeth nearly
vertical; and the whole face triangular. The neck is long,
the chest broad, but rarely deep, the body and limbs mus¬
cular, and seldom disposed to fatness. In character these
nations are warlike, cruel, and unforgiving; they turn with
aversion from the restraints of civilised life, and have made
but little progress in mental culture or the useful arts. The
Brazilian branch is spread over a great part of South Ame¬
rica, east of the Andes, including the whole of Brazil and
Paraguay,between the River Amazon and 35° south latitude.
Their physical characteristics differ but little from those of
the Appalachian branch; they possess, perhaps, a larger and
more expanded nose, with larger mouths and lips. The
eyes are small, more or less oblique, and far asunder; the
neck short and thick; the body and limbs stout and full,
even to clumsiness. In character also, they differ little.
None of the Americans are less susceptible of cultivation;
and what they are taught by compulsion seldom exceeds the
humblest elements of knowledge. The Patagonian branch
includes the nations to the south of the Plata, as far as the
Straits of Magellan; including also the mountain tribes of
Chili. They are chiefly distinguished by their tall stature,
handsome forms, and indomitable courage. The Fuegians,
who call themselves Yacannacunnee, rove over the sterile
wastes of Tierra del Fuego, which is computed to be half
the size of Ireland, and yet their whole number has been
computed by Forster at only 2000. The physical aspect
of the Fuegians is altogether repulsive. They are of low
stature, with large heads, broad faces, and small eyes.
Their chests are large, their bodies clumsy, with large knees,
and ill-shaped legs. Their hair is lank, black, and coarse,
and their complexion a decided brown, like that of the more
northern tribes. Their expression of face is vacant, and
their mental operations are to the last degree slow and stu¬
pid ; they are almost destitute of the usual curiosity of sa¬
vages, caring little for anything that does not minister to
their present wants.
Long, black, lank hair is common to all the American
tribes, among which no traces of the frizzled locks of the
Polynesian, or the woolly texture of the African negro has
ever been observed. The beard is very deficient, and the
little that nature gives them assiduously root out. A cop¬
per-coloured skin has been also assumed by most writers as
a characteristic distinction of the Americans; but their real
colour is in general brown, of the hue most nearly resem¬
bling that of cinnamon ; and Dr Morton coincides in opinion
with Dr M‘Culloch that no epithet derivable from the colour
of the skin so correctly designates the Americans as that of
the brown race. There are, however, among them occa¬
sional and very remarkable deviations, including all the va¬
rieties of tint from a decided white to an unequivocally black
1 Mithridates Eirdeitung Amerikanischen Sprachen, p. 313; Prichard’s Researches, vol. ii. pp. 396, 492.
678
AMERICA.
Aborigines skin. That climate has a very subordinate influence in
producing these different hues must be inferred from the
fact that the tribes which wander in the equinoctial regions
are not darker than the mountaineers of the temperate zone.
The Puelches, and other tribes of the Magellanic regions,
beyond 55° south latitude, are darker than the Abipones,
Mocobies, and Tobos, who are many degrees nearer the
equator; and the Botecudos are of a clear brown colour,
sometimes approaching nearly to white, at no great distance
from the tropic; while the Guyacas under the line are cha¬
racterised by a fair complexion; the Charruas, who are al¬
most black, live at the 50° south latitude; and the still
blacker Californians are 25° north of the equator. Every¬
where, indeed, it is found that the colour of the American
depends very little on the local situation which he actually
occupies ; and never, in the same individual, are those parts
of the body which are constantly covered of a fairer colour
than those which are exposed to a hot and moist atmosphere.
Children are never white when they are born, as is the case
among even the darkest of the Caucasian races; and the
Indian caqiques, who enjoy a considerable degree of luxury,
and keep themselves constantly dressed, have all parts of
their body, except the palms of the hands and the soles of
the feet, of the same brownish-red or copper colour. These
differences of complexion are, however, extremely partial,
forming mere exceptions to the general tint which charac¬
terises all the Americans, from Cape Horn to Canada. The
cause of such anomalies is not easily ascertained; that it is
not climate is sufficiently obvious; but whether or not it
arises from partial immigrations from other countries re¬
mains yet to be decided. The Americans might also be
divided into three great classes distinguished by the pur¬
suits on which they depend for subsistence, namely, hunt¬
ing, fishing, and agriculture. The greater number of them
are devoted to hunting; the fishing tribes are not numerous,
and are wholly destitute of the spirit of maritime adven¬
ture, and even of fondness for the sea. A few tribes were
strictly agricultural before the arrival of Europeans, but
a much greater number have become so since. Many
tribes regularly resort to all these modes of subsistence,
according to the seasons; employing the spring in fishing,
the summer in agriculture, and the autumn and winter in
hunting.
The intellectual faculties of this great family appear to be
decidedly inferior, when compared with those of the Cauca¬
sian or Mongolian race. The Americans are not only averse
to the restraints of education, but are for the most part in¬
capable of a continued process of reasoning on abstract sub¬
jects. Their minds seize with avidity on simple truths, but
reject whatever requires investigation and analysis. Their
proximity for more than two centuries to European in¬
stitutions has made scarcely any perceptible change in
their mode of thinking or their manner of life; and, as to
their own social condition, they are probably in most respects
exactly as they were at the earliest period of their national
existence. They have made few or no improvements in
constructing their houses or their boats ; their inventive and
imitative faculties appear to be of very humble capacity,
noi have they the smallest taste fox' the arts and sciences.
One of the most remarkable of their intellectual defects is
the great difficulty they find in comprehending the relations
of numbers; and Mr Schoolcraft, the United States Indian
agent, assured Dr Morton that this deficiency was one cause
of most of the misunderstanding in respect to treaties en¬
tered into between the United States Government and the
native tribes. The natives sell their lands for a sum of
money, without having any conception of the amount; and Aborigines
it is only when the proceeds come to be divided, that each v—
man becomes acquainted with his own interest in the
transaction. Then disappointment and murmurs invariably
ensue.
The Toltecan family embraces the civilised nations of
Mexico, Peru, and Bogota extending from the Rio Gila in
in 33° north latitude along the western shore of the conti¬
nent to the frontiers of Chili; and on the eastern coast, along
the Gulf of Mexico, in North America. In South America,
on the contrary, this family chiefly occupied a narrow strip
of land between the Andes and the Pacific Ocean, bounded
on the south by the great desert of Atacama. Farther
north, however, in New Granada, were the Bogotese, a peo¬
ple whose civilisation, like their geographical position, was
intermediate between that of the Peruvians and the Mexi¬
cans. But, even before the Spanish conquest, the Toltecan
family were not the exclusive possessors of the regions which
we have assigned to them; they were only the dominant
x'ace or caste, while other tribes of the American race always
constituted a large mass of the population. The arrival of
the Spaniards reduced both classes alike to vassalage ; and
three centuries of slavery and oppression have left few traces
of Mexican and Peruvian civilisation, except what may
be gleaned from their history and antiquities. These nations
can no longer be identified in existing communities; and
the mixed and motley races which now respectively bear the
name, are as unlike their predecessors in moral and intellec¬
tual character, as the degraded Copts are unlike the ancient
Egyptians. It is in the intellectual faculties that the great
difference between the Toltecan and the American families
consists. In the arts and sciences of the former we see the
evidences of an advanced civilisation; their architectural
remains everywhere surprise the traveller and confound the
antiquary. Among these are pyramids, temples, grottoes,
bas-reliefs, and arabesques; while their roads, aqueducts,
and fortifications, and the traces of their mining operations,
sufficiently attest their attainments in the practical arts of
life.1
It is the absence of civilisation which has broken human Languages,
speech into such a countless variety of dialects; and the
lower any race of people have sunk in the abasement of
savage life, the more languages multiply amongst them.
Every unwritten tongue is subject to continual fluctuations,
which will be numerous and rapid in proportion as the tribe
using it is exposed to frequent vicissitudes of fortune, and
the individuals composing it have little intercourse with one
another. When the population of one of these societies in¬
creases, it splits into several branches; and if these have
little intercourse, the oi'iginal language divides by degrees
into as many dialects. These smaller societies subdivide in
their turn with the same effects ; and, in such continual sub¬
divisions, the dialects of the extreme branches deviate farther
and farther from one another, and from the parent tongue,
till time, aided by migrations and wars, producing mixtures
of different hordes, obliterates all distinct traces of a com¬
mon origin. The cause of these changes becomes more ob¬
vious when we reflect on the principles which give stability
to a language. These are, 1. the abundant use of writing ;
2. the teaching of a language as a branch of education; 3.
frequency of intercourse among all the people speaking
it; 4. the existence of an order of men, such as priests
or lawyers, who employ it for professional purposes; 5.
stability of condition in the people, or exemption from
vicissitudes and revolutions; 6. a large stock of popular
poetry, which if universally diffused, may almost become
1 Crania Americana, &c., by Samuel George Morton, M.D., 1 vol. 4to, published at Philadelphia in 1839, pp. 62 to 86.
AMERICA. 679
Aborigines, a substitute for writing. All these conditions were wanting
(with some trifling exceptions) in the whole of the wan¬
dering tribes of America. The great multiplication of lan¬
guages, therefore, proves two things ; first, that the people
are in the lowest state of savage life ; and, secondly, that
they have been for many ages in this condition; for time
is a necessary element in the process of splitting human
speech into so many varieties. Now, it is a remarkable
fact, that there were as many languages spoken among a
population of two or three millions of American savages, as
among the six hundred millions of human beings scatter¬
ed over the old continent! We call them two or three
millions, because we exclude the civilized inhabitants of
Mexico and Peru, and because a considerable number of
the facts collected by Hervas and Vater relate to a period
from 50 to 100 years back, since which, some of the tribes
they allude to have become extinct. Balbi, in his Ethno¬
graphical Atlas, has enumerated 423 languages, which are,
or at no distant period were, spoken in America by the
indigenous population. Of these, 211 belong to North, 44
to Central, and 168 to South America; but as the list
includes only those tongues of wdiose structure something
is known, it does not embrace more than one or two of
the 116 dialects noticed by the missionaries in Quito,
some of which have ceased to exist; and many others, un¬
known, or known imperfectly, are also left out. There
cannot be a doubt that the greater multiplicity of tribes in
South America is accompanied with a corresponding multi¬
plicity of languages, and that we may add at least 100 for
omissions in this section of the continent. Vater says ex¬
pressly that the number of languages in America “exceeds
five hundred.” As a general result, then, we may state, that
there are (or were within a century past) from 500 to 600
distinct dialects in the new wmrld, without including in
our enumeration any which do not differ from one another
as widely as the Spanish from the Italian, or the German
from the Dutch.1
Under this prodigious diversity of dialects, a remark¬
able analogy of structure has been detected in all those
which are well known, and is believed to pervade the
whole. The American languages are extremely compli¬
cated and artificial, and have extraordinary powers of
combination. The verb, besides inflections applicable to
the varieties of time, has numerous moods, which maybe
described as reflected, transitive, compulsive, applicative,
meditative, communicative, reverential, frequentative ;
and forms which indicate by suffixes and affixes whether
the object be animate or inanimate, male or female, &c.2
“ From the country of the Esquimaux to the straits of Ma¬
gellan,” says Humboldt, “ mother tongues entirely differ¬
ent in their roots have, if we may use the expression, the
same physiognomy. Striking analogies of grammatical
construction are discovered, not only in the more perfect
languages, as that of the Incas, the Ayemara, the Gua¬
rani, the Mexican, and the Cora, but also in languages
extremely rude. It is in consequence of this similarity
of structure that the Indians of the missions could learn
the tongue of a different tribe much more easily than the
Spanish; and the monks had hence adopted the practice
of communicating with a great number of hordes through
the medium of one of the native languages.” The compli¬
cation of grammatical forms which these dialects display
has induced Mr Duponceau of Philadelphia to give them
the name of Polysynthic. Now the remarkable facts are,
first, that this characteristic should not be found in any
of the known languages of the old world, except in a
faint degree in the Basque, and the dialect of Congo;Aborigines,
and, next, that it should belong, not to one or two, butv~*'‘v~>*~'
with slight exceptions, so far as is known, to all the lan¬
guages of America, so extremely numerous, and many of
which have nothing else in common. How is this diffu¬
sion of a peculiar and common character over materials so
dissimilar to be accounted for? To us it seems to imply
a community of origin in the tribes, whether few or
many, which peopled the continent. As no person has
the full command of all the vocables in his native lan¬
guage, individual terms must be continually dropping out
of dialects preserved by oral communication ; and new
ones will be introduced as new wants and new objects
solicit attention. But during the gradual change which
thus takes place, the new words Mull be combined and
modified according to the rules which belong to the
genius of the spoken dialect with which they are incorpo¬
rated ; and thus it may happen that the grammatical forms
of an ancient language may live, while its materials
perish. The changes of structure which present them¬
selves in the history of European languages, it must be
remembered, took place in progressive communities.
Among nations like the American Indians, whose bar¬
barism, we may suppose, remained almost stationary, the
forms of speech might be more permanent, though its sub¬
stance was in a state of slow but constant mutation. We
do not mean, however, that the community of origin alluded
to was entire and absolute among the American nations.
Since weak tribes are often incorporated with strong ones
in the present times, it might happen that small parties of
separate and dissimilar races might be blended by conquest
or treaty with the larger nations of the American stock,
and in a generation or two lose their distinctive character,
by adopting the language and manners of their new con¬
federates or masters. Neither must it be imagined that
there is an entire absence of mutual affinities among the
423 tongues enumerated by Balbi. On the contrary, six,
eight, or more, are sometimes united in one family by
analogies, in their roots and grammatical forms., as strong
as those which obtain among the languages of the Teu¬
tonic stem in Europe, the Icelandic, Swedish, Danish,
German, Dutch, and English. If philologists had complete
vocabularies of them all, it might probably be found that
the 500 or 600 American languages could be arranged
into eight or ten “ reigns,” to use Balbi’s term, or into
forty or fifty families, each characterized by affinities suf¬
ficiently clear to prove that its component members had
sprung from a common parent. On the other hand, the
complete absence, in so many instances, of common roots
in the dialects of contiguous tribes,—the fading and almost
obliterated traces of resemblance in languages which had
once been identical,—are very remarkable phenomena, and
prepare us for a result which could not have been antici¬
pated otherwise—that none of all the American tongues
has any distinct marks of a common origin with any one
of those of Asia, Africa, Europe, or Polynesia. The sole
exception is the Esquimaux idiom, which belongs to the
same family with that of the Tschutskoi, apeople having
the same physical aspect, who inhabit the extreme north¬
eastern parts of Asia. Upon a painful comparison of the
known languages of the new world with those of the
old, only 170 words have been found in the former which
have a distinct resemblance to words of the same signi¬
fication in the latter. These are derived from 83 Ameri¬
can tongues; three fifths of them have a resemblance to
words in the Mantchou, Tonguse, Mongol, and Samoiede
1 MUhridates Einleitung Amerikanischen Sprachen, p. 373. Balbi, Atlas Ethnographique du Globe. Paris, 182G.
2 See Prichard’s Researches, vol ii. p. 341 ; and Tables 2G, 27, and 29 of Balbi’s Atlas.
X
AMERICA.
680
Aborigines, dialects, and two fifths to words in the Celtic, Tschoud,
Biscayan, Coptic, and Congoese. This number is too
small to prove any thing by itself; but it is not entirely to
be disregarded when taken in connection with the analo¬
gies which have been traced in the physical character,
customs, superstitions, and monuments, of the people of
the two continents. And if we admit, on the ground of
their similarity of organization, that the greater number
of the American languages have had a common origin,
even in those cases where coincident terms are no longer
to be discovered, perhaps it ought to be acknowledged
that the affinity between the languages of the two conti¬
nents is as great as could be expected. In this, as in
many questions connected with geology, time is the ele¬
ment which solves the difficulty; and when a longer
course of observation has enabled us to detect the laws
which govern the changes of oral language among bar¬
barous and savage nations, the facts will probably speak
to us in clearer terms.1
Though any attempt to reduce the American popula¬
tion under a few general classes, either on physical or
ethnographical grounds, would be idle, a brief survey of
the most remarkable nations, or families of nations, will
enable us to form a more distinct idea of the whole.
Esqui- All the northern coast of the new continent is tenanted
maux. by the Esquimaux, a dwarfish race, rarely exceeding five
feet in height, and of the same stock with the Greenland¬
ers, the Tschutskoi, the Samoiedes, and the Laplanders.
Near Mackenzie’s River their territories commence at
the 68th parallel, and extend to the Arctic Ocean. They
occupy all the northern Archipelago, the shores of Hud¬
son’s and Baffin’s Bays, of Labrador, and of Russian Ame¬
rica, round by Behring’s Straits, to the peninsula of Aly-
aska. They live entirely by fishing, the whale and the seal
being their most common food; they inhabit skin tents
during their short summer, and in winter caves or houses
built with snow in the shape of domes, within which a
single rude lamp is kept perpetually burning. They are
crafty and dirty, but appeared to Captain Franklin more
intelligent and provident than the northern Indians. There
is a wide diversity in their dialects, which still display
decided marks of identity in their roots. They are the
only American race whose Asiatic origin is indisputable.
The north-west coast of Russian America, from Cook’s
Inlet to the 48th parallel, is inhabited by four tribes,
of whom the Kaluschi are the most remarkable. These Aborigines,
people are distinguished from all the native races of Ame-
rica by having as fair a complexion when their skins are
washed as the inhabitants of Europe; and this distinction,
accompanied sometimes with auburn hair, has been con¬
sidered as indicating an origin different from that of the
copper-coloured tribes who people all the rest of the con¬
tinent.
The Indians of the east coast belong almost entirely to Allegany
three stems; and, before the arrival of the English colo- Indians,
nists, occupied both sides of the Allegany Mountains,
from the Gulf of Mexico to Canada and New Brunswick.
1. The Delaware or Algonquin Indians, comprehending
the Ottogamies, Shawanese, Naragansets, Chippeways,
Knisteneaux, Delawares, and other nations, to the number
of thirty or forty, were spread over the space between the
Mississippi and the Atlantic, as far north as Hudson’s
Bay; and all spoke dialects of one language. They pre¬
served a tradition, to which some credit has been given,
that they had migrated from the west many centuries be¬
fore the white men crossed the Atlantic, and gained pos¬
session of their country by expelling the Allegewis (or
Alleganies), its former occupants. The latter nation, it
is said, lived in towns; and it has been conjectured that
they were the race who had constructed the long mounds
and walls, and the circular and polygonal inclosures, like
fortresses, which are scattered in great numbers over the
region between the Ohio and the lakes. 2. The Iroquois,
often called the “ Five Nations,” and the “ Six Nations,”
but comprehending 15 tribes or more, among whom were
the Mohawks, Oneidas, Hurons, and Senecas, all spoke
dialects of one language. They lived on the south side of
the great lakes, and finally obtained a complete ascend¬
ency over the Algonquin race. 3. The Florida Indians,
including the Creeks, Seminoles, Choctaws, Chickasaws,
Natches, and Mobiles. The Cherokees and Creeks, two
of these nations, who dwell in Alabama and Georgia, have
made greater advances in agriculture and the useful arts
than any of the other tribes within the territories of the
United States. They not only cultivate maize, potatoes,
and cotton, but raise cattle and hogs for the market. The
former, who have some hundreds of negro slaves, have es¬
tablished schools, set up a newspaper, and even adopted
a political constitution, modelled on those of the Anglo-
Americans. It has been recently discovered that the
Vater remarks, in.the introduction to his account of the American languages, that they have, comparatively speaking, a consider-
a e number of words in common with the Finnish. He finds, however, only 51 similar words where the affinity should be most dis-
inc , namely, in all the languages of North America and Northern Asia. We subjoin a tabular view of the number of words he has
i e feted in the American languages agreeing in sound and sense with words in some of the principal tongues of the old continent and
8 words picked from 7 American languages, resemble the same number of words in the Coptic.
8 words in 8 American languages   do Japanese.
do   do... Malay.
do ; (Quichua)            do Sanscrit.
do. (chiefly from eastern and tropical parts of America)....do  in 13 languages of Western Africa.
do. (chiefly from the east side)   do..... Basque.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
in 8
in 1
in 16
in 6
in 10
do.
.do Celtic.
must at tlip samp Jf v ° llese.resen)l)larices may be accidental; and some of them are evidently too faint to be of any value. We
general thev are fiirnished^ttV^T’ P^l!olo£i.sts *}ave rarely the means of making a complete and satisfactory comparison. In
dialect of a^tribe or nennle • 4f °r 6° S18nificant of the most common objects, out of some thousands constituting the
> ~ - P-? ’ these few words ure taken down hastily by travellers, mariners, or missionaries, of different nations,
disri m ilar ^y sterns^ of Orthography! ^Cen abTe t T’ an? “USt inTheir turn. mislead _the P^ologist by their
parison of six Irish words with six
S.^*'°r 1 ^^^1 0 en.able the reader to judge of the sort of resemblances collected by Vater, we give his com-
gonquin, remarking, however, that this is decidedly the most favourable specimen in his tables:—
I sland
Falsehood
Water
Irish.
inis
gai
uisce
Algonquin.
inis
f?a
isca
decidedly tne most ravourable specimen i
Irish. Algonquin.
Soft bog boge
All cac-uile kak-eli
Each thing cac-eini kak-ina
(Einleilung Amerikanischen Sprachen, p. 332-351.)
A M E H 1 C A. 681
Aborigines. Osages, Missouris, Kanses, and some other tribes inhabit-
ing the country beyond the Mississippi, as far as the Rocky
Mountains, speak dialects which are allied to those of the
Iroquois; a fact which tends strongly to confirm the opi¬
nion entertained by the latter, that their original resi¬
dence was far in the west. The Natches, near the Mis¬
sissippi, had a monarchical government, and a class of
nobles like the Mexicans. They had temples in which
the sun was worshipped, and a perpetual fire kept up.
Traces of this superstition existed also among the Gaspes,
in New Brunswick. Tribes belonging to these three fa¬
milies, with the Wocons and Katawbas, now almost ex¬
tinct, occupied nearly all the region east of the Mississip¬
pi, from the Gulf of Mexico to Hudson’s Bay, comprising
more than a million of square miles. The Katawbas alone,
however, are said to have included 20 tribes, and nearly
as many dialects. The Powhattans were a confederacy of
33 tribes, comprehending 10,000 persons. It is probable
that when the English settlers landed in the country,
the region mentioned was inhabited by a quarter of a
million of Indians, divided into many tribes, and speak¬
ing dialects belonging to half a dozen of radically distinct
languages. These nations have furnished brilliant models
of the most shining qualities of savage life—a high sense
of honour, according to their perceptions of duty, mutual
fidelity among individuals, a fortitude that mocks at the
most cruel torments, and a devotion to their tribe which
makes self-immolation in its defence easy. On the other
hand, they treat their wives cruelly, and their children
with indifference. The apathy under the good and ill of
life which the Stoic affected, is the grand element of the
Indian’s character. Gloomy, stern, and severe, he is a
stranger to mirth and laughter. All outward expression
of pleasure or pain he regards as a weakness; and the
only feeling to which he ever yields, is the boisterous joy
which he manifests in the moment of victory, or under
the excitement of intoxication. He is capable of great
exertions in war or the chase, but has an unconquerable
aversion to regular labour. He is extremely improvident;
eats enormously while he has abundance of food, without
thinking of the famine which may follow; and, when li¬
quors are supplied to him, wallows in the most beastly in¬
toxication day after day. Most of the Indians believe in
the existence of a supreme being, whom they call the
Great Spirit; and of a subordinate one, whose nature is
evil and hostile to man. To the latter their worship is
principally addressed, the Good Spirit, in their opinion,
needing no prayers to induce him to aid and protect his
creatures. In some cases, however, as when influenced
by a dream, they offer sacrifices to the Good Spirit. These
consist generally of part of an animal taken in the chase,
which is stuck upon the head of a high pole set vertically
in the ground, and left in this situation to decay by the
action of the elements. The remainder of the carcass is
boiled and eaten; and the feast is accompanied with
prayers, dancing, and singing. Human sacrifices are not
unknown amongst them, but are rare. In their fasts,
which are long and severe, they smear the face and other
visible parts of the body with charcoal, and abstain from
food till the sun has gone down ; and this is practised day
after day for one or two weeks. Some of them believe in
tutelar spirits; and in most of the tribes there are jug¬
glers or soothsayers, who pretend to discover lost property,
and foretell the issue of hunting or warlike expeditions.
By some tribes, deities are supposed to reside in the sun
and moon. They generally believe in a future state, in
which the souls of brave warriors and chaste wives enjoy
a tranquil and happy existence with their ancestors and
friends, spending their time in those exercises in which
VOL. II.
they delighted when on the earth. The Dacotas believe Aborigines,
that the road to these “ villages of the dead” leads over^^v^y
a rock with an edge as sharp as a knife, on which only the
good are able to keep their footing. The wicked fall off,
and descend to the region of the Evil Spirit, where they
are hard worked, and severely flogged by their relentless
master. Suicide is common among the women of this
tribe, in consequence of the cruel treatment they are ex¬
posed to; but the practice is viewed as immoral. It is
commonly effected by the woman hanging herself upon a
tree; and as the popular belief is, that she is doomed to
drag this tree after her for ever in the land of spirits, it
is said to be usual for a female in committing the act to
select as small a tree as will bear her weight.
Polygamy is allowed; and a number of wives is consi- Customs,
dered as adding to a man’s consequence. When a young
man has formed an attachment to a girl, he throws a deer,
a gun, or some valuable article, into her father’s hut.
This is repeated for several days, till the father asks the
young man what his object is, and whether he wishes to
obtain his daughter. The young man having answered
in the affirmative, the relations of the girl, if they approve
of his suit, signify their consent by preparing a dress for
the youth, which they carry to his house, and put upon his
person. The young man’s friends then prepare presents
for the girl’s family, into which he goes to reside, serving
his father-in-law for a year, during which he gives him
all the produce of his hunting. At the end of this period
the youth takes his wife home to his own house, and
treats her as he pleases, his power over her being unli¬
mited. This is the custom of the Potowatomies. Other
tribes have modes of courting and marrying which are
very different; but among all the Indians, the presenting
of gifts to the girl’s father is an essential feature of the
transaction, and shows that the wife is considered as pro¬
cured by purchase. Deformed children, and lame or de¬
crepit old persons, are sometimes destroyed; but the
practice is uncommon. Incest and unnatural vices are
practised in some tribes, but they are always viewed as
matters of reproach. The Indian funerals are conducted
with much decorum. The deceased is dressed in his
best clothes, and laid in a grave, in a vertical, horizontal,
or inclined position, according to his own previous direc¬
tions, with his mocassins, knife, money, and silver orna¬
ments beside him, and a small quantity of food near his
head. Some prefer having their bodies sewed up in a
blanket, and suspended from the branches of a tree. In
this position the corpse is frequently visited by the friends
of the deceased, until they observe that it is in a state of
decay. They then shake hands with it and bid it fare¬
well ; but this does not prevent them from paying a yearly
visit to the spot, and leaving some food at the place. It
is usual to mark the graves with a post, on which figures
are carved expressive of the nature of the pursuits and
achievements of the deceased.
Some nations of Indians wear little or no clothing; but Clothes,
the general dress of the men in the temperate and cold
parts of the country, previous to the arrival of the Euro¬
peans, consisted of three articles: a cloak of buffalo-skin
hanging from the shoulders, a piece of skin used as an
apron, and a pair of mocassins or loose boots, made of un¬
dressed skin also. The women wore a long robe of the
same material, which was fastened round the waist; but
among the tribes living near the whites, coarse woollens
are now frequently substituted for the hides of wild ani¬
mals, except for the mocassins. The habitations of the In- Houses,
dians are huts or cabins, generally of a circular form and
small size, but sometimes of 30 or 40 feet in diameter,
formed by stakes fixed in the ground, and covered with
4 R
x
682 A M E R I C A.
Aborigines, the bark of trees. Sometimes the spaces between the
v-stakes are filled up with twigs, grass, and mud, and the
roof is covered nearly in the same way. A hole in the
top serves for the escape of the smoke, and the skins
of wild beasts form the beds and seats. When they go
to a distance to hunt, they erect for temporary use large
tents, which are covered with skins. On the west side
of the Mississippi, where the ground is open, many of
the tribes make use of horses, which are seldom em¬
ployed amidst the woods covering the territories east
of that river. The custom of painting their bodies is
nearly universal. They introduce the colours by making
punctures on their skin; and the extent of surface which
this ornament covers is proportioned to the exploits they
have performed. Some paint only their arms, others
both their arms and legs, others again their thighs;
while those who have attained the summit of warlike re¬
nown have their bodies painted from the waist upwards.
This is the heraldry of the Indians, the devices of which
are probably more exactly adjusted to the merits of the
persons who bear them than those of more civilized coun¬
tries. Besides these ornaments, the warriors also carry
plumes of feathers on their heads, their arms, or ancles.
Their arms are the tomahawk, the war-club, knife, the
bow and arrow ; and, since they had intercourse with Eu¬
ropeans, many of them have muskets. Each tribe or
community is governed by a chief and council, who are
elective; but in matters of importance the whole warriors
are consulted; and Mr Keating informs us that questions
are not decided by the votes of a majority, but the reso¬
lution adopted must have the consent of every individual
warrior. Their assemblies are conducted with much for¬
mality and decorum. The eldest chief commences the
debate, which is often carried on by set speeches, abound¬
ing in bold figures and metaphors, and bursts of a rude but
impassioned eloquence. The young are permitted to be
present, and to express their approbation by cries, but
not to speak. In their wars the object commonly is, to
secure the right of hunting within particular limits, to
maintain the liberty of passing through their accustomed
tracts, and to guard from infringement those lands which
they consider as their own tenure. War is declared by
sending a slave with a hatchet, the handle of which is
painted red, to the nation they intend to break with.
They generally take the field in small numbers. Each
warrior, besides his weapons, carries a mat, and supports
himself till he is near the enemy by killing game. From
the time they enter the enemy’s country, no game is
killed, no fires lighted, or shouting heard, and their vigi¬
lance and caution are extreme. They are not even per¬
mitted to speak, but must communicate by signs and mo¬
tions. Having discovered the objects of their hostility,
they first reconnoitre them, then hold a council; and the}^
generally make their attack just before day-break, that
they may surprise their enemies while asleep. They will
lie the whole night flat on their faces without stirring,
and, at the fit moment for action, will creep on their hands
and feet till they have got within a bow-shot of those
they have doomed, to destruction. On a signal given by
the chief warrior, which is answered by the yells of the
whole party, they start up, and, after discharging their
arrows, they rush upon their adversaries, without giving
them time to recover from their confusion, with their
war-clubs and tomahawks. If they succeed, the scene of
horror which follows baffles description. The savage fury
of the conquerors, the desperation of the conquered, the
horrid yells of both, and their grim figures besmeared Aborigines,
with paint and blood, form an assemblage of objects
worthy of pandemonium. When the victory is secured,
they select a certain number of their prisoners to carry
home: they kill the rest in cold blood, take their scalps,
and then march off with the spoil. The prisoners des¬
tined to death are soon led to the place of execution,
where they are stripped, have their bodies blackened, and
are bound to a stake. In this situation, while the burn¬
ing faggots embrace his limbs, and the knives of his
revengeful enemies are inflicting a thousand tortures, it
is common for the warrior to recount his exploits, boast
of the cruelties he has committed upon his enemies, and
to irritate and insult his tormentors in every way. Some¬
times it happens that this has the effect of provoking one
of the spectators to dispatch him with a club or toma¬
hawk. Sometimes the male adult prisoners are given as
slaves to women who have lost their husbands in the war,
and by whom they are often married. The women taken
are distributed among the warriors; the boys and girls
are considered as slaves.
Nearly all the Indian tribes raise maize, beans, and ^u])f,jsN
pumpkins, by the labour of their women, but only to a ?nce.
small extent, and as a resource against famine, their chief
reliance being upon the chase. The buffaloes which wan¬
der over the prairies of the west, in herds of tens of thou¬
sands, are their great support; but deer, bears, and in
time of need otters, beavers, foxes, squirrels, and even
the most disgusting reptiles, are devoured. And last and
worst, there is the horrid banquet of human flesh, which
is still in use among some tribes, and to which, at one
period of their history or another, perhaps few or none of
them have been strangers. The fact has been doubt¬
ed ; but the decided testimony given by Major Long and
his party, who all started on their journey with a disin¬
clination to admit it, must be considered as setting the
question at rest. After alluding to the incredulity which
many felt on the subject, the narrator says,—“ With
such feelings the gentlemen of the expedition first heard
the reports of the anthi’opophagy of the Potowatomies,
and yielded but an unwilling ear to every thing that
could induce a belief in the existence of this disgusting
trait in the character of the North-West Indians. Truth
compels them, however, to assert, that the reports which
they have received on this subject were so frequent, so
circumstantial, and derived from such respectable sources,
that any concealment of it, or any apparent incredulity on
their part, would be a dereliction of duty. Even the most
incredulous of the party, or those disposed to entertain
the most favourable opinion of the Indians, wrere at last
compelled to acknowledge that all doubt on the subject
had been removed from their minds.”1 The practice
seems to have its origin sometimes in famine, which drives
the Indians to this resource, and sometimes in hatred or
revenge towards a hostile tribe; for it is only enemies
that are thus devoured; and the Indians have a super¬
stitious idea, that the flesh of a brave man, when eaten,
especially the heart, imparts a portion of his courage to
the individual who consumes it. We have described the
manners and dispositions of these nations at some length,
because the lights and shadows of savage life, its grand
features and marked peculiarities, in that state in which
a brutal ferocity has not obliterated every generous qua*
lity, are more strongly depicted in their character than
in that of any other American race. For the sake of dis¬
tinction, they may be denominated the Allegany Indians*
Narrative of Major Long's Expedition to St Peter's River, vol. i. p. 101. Philadelphia, 1824.
f
AMERICA.
683
Aborigines. The Caribs, wrho have been compared to them, had the
same courage and fierceness, but were more gross and
brutal; and the Araucanians, who surpassed all the inde¬
pendent tribes of America in intrepidity, intelligence,
and generosity, had a slight tincture of civilisation. In
speaking of those other nations which make the most
considerable figure in the new continent, our limited
space will not permit us to do more than to describe very
briefly the leading traits of their character.
American It has been generally admitted by physiologists, that
uvilisa- the temperate regions of the globe are best fitted to de-
tion. velope all the powers of our nature; and it is a fact in
accordance with this opinion, that among the aborigines
of America, civilisation followed very closely the chain of
the Andes, and was found either upon their sides or the
table-land of their summits, where the elevation of the
ground moderates the heat of the tropical sun, and pro¬
duces a climate analogous to that of Central and Southern
Europe. This civilisation did not exist merely at the two
distant and isolated points of Mexico and Peru, but pre¬
sented itself at intermediate places, and may be said to have
formed a continuous line from lat. 35. N. to lat. 35. S., with
few interruptions, except at those parts where the moun¬
tainous chain disappears, or sinks down to a trifling eleva¬
tion. Some large buildings near the Rio Gila, in lat. 33. N.,
with fragments of porcelain, indicate the existence of a
people here who had some knowledge of the arts. These
were most probably a branch of the Aztecks or Toltecks,
who afterwards occupied Mexico, as the annals of this
country tell. Though some pursued their march south¬
ward, it may be reasonably supposed that a part remained
in the district; and the Indians living here, who culti¬
vate corn, weave cloth, and live in villages consisting of
houses built of solid materials, sometimes two stories in
height, may either be their descendants, or have bor¬
rowed from them the improvements they possess. Next
in order as we proceed southward, are the various nations
of Mexico, of whose condition we shall speak by and by.
In Chiapa were the Zapotecks, in Yucatan the Mayas, in
Guatemala the Quiches and Kachiquels, all nearly as
much advanced in civilisation as the Mexicans, and pro¬
bably of the same primitive stock. From this point, where
the Andes lose their elevation, or break into isolated cones,
no distinct traces of civilisation appear till we enter the
southern continent. Here were found the Muyscas or
Moscas, on the table-land of Bogota, a nation consisting
of several tribes, who worshipped the sun and practised
some of the useful arts. To these succeeded the nations of
Peru, living under the Incas, whose dominion extended
from the equator to the 35th degree of south latitude.
Beyond this boundary were the Chilian tribes, who, though
inferior to the Peruvians, had made some advances beyond
the rudeness of the savage state. It is proper to mention
that some of the nations named were extinct before the
arrival of the Spaniards; but the degree of civilisation they
had attained is attested by the monuments they have left
behind them. There were no other tribes in the new
continent which had made any progress in social improve¬
ment. We would not except the Guaranis of Brazil, and a
few others, who derived their subsistence chiefly from
agriculture, but were in other respects savages. We place
among the exceptions, however, the extinct race of the
Allegewis, or whatever was the name of the people, who
erected the military works existing between the Ohio and
the northern lakes ; but they also, it must be remembered,
inhabited a temperate climate, though not a mountainous
country. It may be affirmed, then, as a general proposi¬
tion, that from 35° of north to 35° of south latitude, the
sides and summits of the Andes were the exclusive seats
of American civilisation. We admit that some of the tribes Aborigines,
in Chiapa, Oaxaca, and Yucatan, inhabited low districts
but they were still near the Cordillera, and may be fairly
considered as offsets from the nations dwelling upon it.
The fact is important, as marking the effect of climate on
the active energies of our species. There is no doubt
that, with the improved arts of modern times, civilisation
can subsist under the burning sky of the torrid zone, but not
in such vigour as in countries which enjoy a more moderate
temperature. Perhaps it will be found that the moral
and physical powders of man attain their highest perfection
in those regions where he is accompanied by wheat and
the vine. The zone occupied by the former extends
from the 30th to the 57th or 58th parallel; and within the
tropics the corresponding climate is found on the flanks
or summits of mountains, from 4500 to 10,000 feet above
the level of the sea.
It is remarkable that the Mexican annals reach to a Mexico,
more remote date than those of any of the nations of
northern Europe, though they were preserved merely by
an imperfect species of hieroglyphics, or picture-writing.
We do not pretend to enter into the question which may
be raised, both as to the authenticity of the records them¬
selves, and their susceptibility of a correct interpretation.
It is enough that they have received credit from Hum¬
boldt, Vater, and other men of learning and judgment
who have examined into their nature and origin. From
the annals thus preserved, we learn that several nations
belonging to one race migrated in succession from the
north-west, and settled in Anahuac or Mexico. The
Toltecks, the first of these, left their original seat, far to
the west, in 544 of our era, and after a long journey invad¬
ed Mexico, then occupied by wandering hordes, in 648.
This people, who penetrated to Nicaragua, if not to South
America, were nearly destroyed after the lapse of some
centuries; but were followed by the Chichimeks, a half¬
savage tribe, about 1170, and these a few years afterwards
by the Anahuatlels, or seven tribes, including the Acol-
huans, Tlascalteks, and the Aztecks or proper Mexicans.
All these people spoke dialects of one language, and had
similar arts, customs, and institutions. The town of
Mexico or Tenochtitlan was founded in 1325, and the
series of Mexican kings which commenced in 1352 was
continued through eight monarchs to Montezuma. The
monarchy was small at first, and passed through many
vicissitudes ; but it was gradually enlarged, especially by
the policy and enterprise of the later princes of the line.
When Cortes arrived, it embraced what are now the pro¬
vinces of Vera Cruz, Oaxaca, Puebla, Mexico, and part
of Valladolid, a surface of 130,000 square miles; but
within this were comprehended three small independent
states, Tlascala, Cholullan, and Zapeaca. The pastoral
state, which forms the intermediate stage between savage
and civilized life, had never existed in Mexico ; for the
native wild ox had not been tamed, and the use of milk as
food was unknown. The Mexican nations derived their
subsistence from agriculture, which, however, was conduct¬
ed in the rudest manner, with very imperfect instruments.
Ihey cultivated maize, potatoes, plantains, and various
other esculent vegetables. They raised cotton, and under¬
stood the art of spinning and weaving it into cloth, of a
texture which excited the admiration of the Spaniards.
I hey had no iron, but showed considerable skill in fashion¬
ing the gold, silver, and copper found in a native state,
into domestic utensils and ornamental articles. In some
of their buildings the stones were hewn into regular forms,
and accurately joined; and from the ruins of the palace of
Mitla, in Oaxaca, still existing, it appears that they had
the art of designing ornaments like arabesques, in paste,
%
AMERICA.
684
Aborigines, with great neatness, and attaching them to the walls ; but
solid structures of masonry evincing any considerable skill
are extremely rare in the country. Their carvings in
wood were tolerably well executed, but the figures were
disproportioned and uncouth. The same remark applies
to their hieroglyphical drawings, which were far inferior
in taste and design to those of the Hindoos, Japanese,
and Thibetians. For paper they employed sometimes
the large leaves of the aloe, sometimes cotton cloth, or the
skins of deer dressed. Their books consisted of strips or
webs of such materials, composed of pieces neatly joined,
one or two feet broad and twenty or thirty long, which
were divided into pages by folding them in a zig-zag
manner; and two pieces of thin deal attached to the outer¬
most folds served as boards, and gave these manuscripts,
when closed, an appearance very much like our old folios
in wooden binding. The written language of Mexico con¬
tained a few real hieroglyphics or symbols, purely conven¬
tional, to designate such objects as water, earth, air, day,
night, speech, and also for numbers ; but it was essentially
a system oipicture-writing, in which objects were represent¬
ed by coloured figures having a resemblance more or less
exact to themselves. With all its necessary imperfections,
this instrument was familiarly employed to a prodigious ex¬
tent in deeds and instruments for effecting the transmission
and sale of property. The government kept couriers for
conveying intelligence from all parts of the empire; and the
capital was watched and cleaned by a sort of police esta¬
blishment. This is the bright side of Mexican civilisation.
On the other hand, it must be kept in view, that the Mexi¬
cans had no tame animals, no made roads, no money to
serve as a universal medium of exchange in commercial
transactions. The government was originally a perfect
feudal monarchy, in which all power was monopolized by
a numerous nobility and the priesthood. The great mass
of the people were serfs, attached to the soil, and trans¬
ferred with it from owner to owner by descent or purchase.
The peasants or slaves of a nobleman were allowed a cer¬
tain portion of land, which they cultivated in common
for their subsistence: the rest of their labour belonged
to their lord. The country swarmed with beggars, and
thousands were swept off every few years by famine. As
among the ancient Egyptians and the Chinese, immutable
custom, regulating every act of civil and common life,
chained up the course of improvement, and spread a
languid monotony over society. The crown was elective,
and the powers of the monarch small, till the privileges of
the nobles were destroyed by the policy and ambition of
Montezuma. The religion of the Mexicans breathed
a savage spirit, which sinks them, in a moral point of
view, far below the hordes of wandering Indians. Their
deities, represented by mis-shapen images of serpents
and other hideous animals, were the creation of the
darkest passions of the human breast, of terror, hatred,
cruelty, revenge. ’Ihey delighted in blood, and thou¬
sands of human sacrifices were annually offered at their
shrines. The places of worship, called Teocallis, were pyra-
nnds composed of terraces placed one above another,
like the temple of Belus at Babylon. They were built of
clay, or of alternate layers of clay and unburnt bricks,
but in some cases faced with slabs of polished stone, on
which figures of animals are sculptured in relief.1 One or
two small chapels stood upon the summit, inclosing
images of the deity. The largest known, which is com¬
posed of four stories or terraces, has a breadth of 480
yards at the base, and a height of 55. These structures Aborigines,
served as temples, tombs, and observatories; and it is re-
markable that their sides are always placed exactly in the
direction of the meridian. This leads us to the most in¬
teresting fact connected with Mexican civilisation, we
mean the perfection of their calendar. The civil year
was composed of 365 days, divided into 18 months of 20
days, and 5 supplementary days. The Mexicans had be¬
sides a ritual or religious year for the regulation of their
festivals ; and, by means of a cycle of 52 years, and a very
complicated method of computation, the religious and ci¬
vil periods were connected with one another, and the civil
year made to correspond with the natural by the inter¬
calation of 13 days at the end of the cycle. The month
was divided into four weeks of five days, but each day of
the month had a distinct name ; and Humboldt has given
strong reasons for believing that these names were bor¬
rowed from an ancient zodiac formed of 27 or 28 lunar
Houses, which was made use of from the remotest anti¬
quity in Tartary, Thibet, and India. The calendar of the
Mexicans bespeaks a degree of scientific skill, and an ac¬
curacy of observation, which are not easily reconciled with
their semi-barbarous habits, their general ignorance in
other things, and the recent date of their civilisation ac¬
cording to their own accounts. It is here, indeed, and
not in their language, that we find distinct traces of their
connection with Asiatic nations. The character of the
Mexicans is probably the same at this day as before the
conquest, which, we are disposed to think, made less
change in the situation of the people than is often sup¬
posed, though it annihilated the rank and privileges of
the nobles. The Mexican Indian is grave, suspicious,
and taciturn ; quiet and placid in his external deportment,
but rancorous in his spirit; submissive to his superiors,
harsh and cruel to those beneath him. His intellect is
limited, and chiefly developes itself in imitative labours
and mechanical arts. Slow, cautious, and persevering, he
loves, both in his acts and thoughts, to travel in a beaten
track. The people, though speaking many different lan¬
guages, have nearly the same physical character. The
Mexicans have olive complexions, narrow foreheads, black
eyes, coarse glossy black hair, and thin beards. They
are of the middle size, and well-proportioned in their
limbs. A person with any defect or deformity is rarely
seen amongst them. They are healthy, and live to an
advanced age, when life is not shortened by drunkenness.
The Tolteck and Azteck races, when they established
themselves in the country, diffused their own language
partially from the lake of Nicaragua to the 37th parallel.
They reclaimed, by degrees, many of the neighbouring
savage tribes to a settled mode of life, and spread a feeble
degree of civilisation over a mixed mass of nations, speak,
ing, according to Clavigero, 35 languages, of which Hum¬
boldt tells us that 20 still exist. The Azteck language is one
of the most copious and polished of the American tongues,
and abounds in words of the immoderate length of 12 or 15
syllables. It is uncertain what was the number of sub¬
jects over whom Montezuma ruled. The ruins in the
valley of Tenochtitlan, on which the capital stands, show
that it must have been more populous before the conquest
than now; but the population at present is diffused over
an incomparably wider space; and, upon the whole, ther?
are no good grounds for believing that the number of ci¬
vilized Indians was much greater when Cortes landed,
than in 1803, when it amounted to 2,000,000.
* Robertson was mistaken in believing that the Teocallis
Researches, vol. i. p. Ill, English translation.
were in all cases mere masses of earth, without masonry.
See Humboldt’s
AMERICA.
685
Aborigines. The civilisation of Mexico, as well as Peru, owed its
existence to one single cause,—the patient, submissive,
and superstitious character of the people, which fitted
them to be beasts of burden, under an aristocracy of
priests and nobles, who were led, perhaps, partly by lights
derived from abroad, partly by the instinct of self-interest,
to devise means for holding the mass of the commu¬
nity in subjection. Many of the nations which conti¬
nued savage, such as the Algonquins and Iroquois, were
probably equal to the Mexicans in intellect; but their
propensity to superstition was less, and their energy of
character was too great to permit of their being enslaved
by their chiefs. It is chiefly in the variety of their pri¬
mitive character that we must seek for the cause of the
diversity of manners and institutions we find among the
American nations.
Peru. The ancient empire of Peru, more extensive than that
of Mexico, embraced the whole sea-coast from Pastes to
the river Maule, a line of 2500 miles in length. Its
breadth is uncertain; but as it included both declivities
of the Andes, it must have extended in some cases to
500 miles, and the entire surface of the empire probably
exceeded 500,000 square miles. It is plain, however,
from the imperfect history of the Incas which has been
preserved, that within this space there were many dis¬
tricts where their authority was feeble, and others inhabit¬
ed by tribes which were entirely independent. One part
of the country, besides, consisted of a sandy desert, while
the most elevated tracts were uninhabitable from cold.
It must not therefore be supposed that the capacity of
the country to support population was commensurate
with the extent of its surface. Still the magnitude of the
Peruvian empire, in the midst of an immense multitude
of independent savage communities, so extremely minute,
that a hundred of them might have been planted with¬
out crowding, in one of its provinces, is an extraordinary
phenomenon. The creating and maintaining of such an
empire is a proof that the Peruvians had made no trifling
progress in the useful arts and in the science of government.
To keep in subjection so many remote provinces, there must
have been an efficient military force, rapid means of com¬
munication, considerable revenues, an organized magis¬
tracy capable of understanding and executing the plans
of rulers, who had sufficient political skill and knowledge
of human nature to adapt their institutions and arrange¬
ments to the wants, habits, and character of a great va¬
riety of dissimilar nations, spread over a territory reach¬
ing as far as from Lisbon to the banks of the Wolga. It
is clear that the ruling tribe, which was able to extend
its dominion, and to a considerable extent its language,
over a space of 2500 miles, must have possessed a marked
superiority of some kind over the hordes that surrounded
it. We must remember, besides, that the Peruvians lay
under the disadvantage of being destitute of even such an
imperfect instrument of communication as the hieroglyphi-
cal language of the Mexicans, and that they were extreme¬
ly deficient in military spirit. Indeed it is one of the most
singular facts connected with the history of America, that
by far the largest empire it contained was formed by the
most unwarlike people in it. The dominion of the Incas
was founded entirely on policy, superstition, and the arts.
It could only be by the intelligence and skill which civi¬
lisation developes, that the Peruvians conquered tribes
superior to themselves in courage; and it was by policy
and superstition that the Incas tamed the rudeness of sa¬
vage tribes, and held distant countries in subjection.
Robertson justly observes, that the Peruvians “ had ad-Aborigines,
vanced far beyond the Mexicans, both in the necessary arts '
of life, and in such as had some title to the name of ele¬
gant.” In two points only were they inferior; in their
calendar or mode of computing time, and in their want
of such a substitute for writing as the Aztecks possessed
in their hieroglyphics.
Agriculture was conducted with greater care and sue-Arts in
cess in Peru than in Mexico. The lands capable of cul-Peru.
tivation were divided into three shares. One was conse¬
crated to the service of religion, the erection of temples,
and the maintenance of priests ; the second was set apart
as a provision for the support of the government; and
the third and largest share, which was reserved ffi-r the
people, was parcelled out, not among individuals, but
among the hamlets and villages, according to the number
and rank of the inhabitants; and a new division was made
every year to meet any change that might arise in the
circumstances of the parties. The members of each
little community went to the fields under overseers, and
cultivated the land by their joint labour. The produce
was distributed among the families and individuals accord¬
ing to their wants, while the evils of famine were pro¬
vided against by storing up the corn in granaries. The
Peruvians having no draught animals, and no ploughs,
turned up the earth with wooden mattocks; but their
skill and care were exemplified in irrigation, which they
practised extensively, and in their employing the dung
of sea birds as manure, of which great stores exist on
the islands near the coast. Their masonry was supe¬
rior to that of the Mexicans. Like the ancient Egyp¬
tians, they understood mechanics sufficiently to move
stones of vast size, even of 30 feet in length, of which
specimens are still existing in the walls of the fortress of
Cusco. They had the art of squaring and cutting blocks
for building with great accuracy; and they did not effect
their purpose, as Dr Robertson** supposes, merely by
chipping the stones, or rubbing them together so as to
fit the surface of the one to that of the other, without re¬
gard to symmetry of form. It is now known that they
had hard chissels, made of copper, with a mixture of 6
per cent, of tin ; a proof of considerable skill in the work¬
ing of metals. With these they hewed the stones
into parallelepipeds, which were disposed in “ courses as
regular,” says Humboldt, “ as those of Roman workman¬
ship.” They are joined with such nicety, that the line
which divides the blocks can scarcely be perceived ; and
the outer surface is in some cases covered with carving.
The palaces or lodges of the Incas, of which there are
many remains, had doors with slanting sides like the
Egyptian; sloping roofs, which, it is supposed, were cover¬
ed with rushes or stone slabs; no windows, but niches
symmetrically distributed.1 Ancient stone structures,
which are so rare in Mexico, are pretty abundant in
Peru; a fact for which we can only account by the dif¬
ficulty with which the Mexicans erected buildings, in
consequence of their inferiority in the art of masonry.
The architecture of the Peruvians, like every thing else
connected with their social state, displays a remarkable
uniformity, not only of style, but of plan. “ It is impos¬
sible,” says Humboldt, “ to examine a single edifice of
the time of the Incas* without recognising the same type
in all the others which cover the ridge of the Andes,
along an extent of 450 leagues.”
The ancient public roads of Peru are justly considered Roads,
as striking monuments of the political genius of the go-
See Humboldt’s account of the ancient buildings' of Callo and Cunnar, vol. i. and ii. of his Researchci.
■N
686
AMERICA.
Aborigines, vernment. One of these extended along the sides of the
Andes from Quito to Cusco, a distance of 1500 miles. It
is about forty feet broad, and paved with the earth and
stones which were turned up from the soil; but in some
marshy places it is formed, like the old Roman roads, of a
compact body of solid masonry. A tolerably level line is
preserved, by filling up hollows, cutting down small emi¬
nences, and winding round the sides of large ones. At
proper distances zambos or storehouses were erected, for
the accommodation of the Inca and his messengers. A si¬
milar road was made along the coast in the low country.
Bridges. Fissures a few yards in breadth were passed by bridges
formed of beams laid horizontally; and an invention, at
once bold and ingenious, afforded the means of crossing
deep ravines, or the channels of rivers, which hap¬
pened to intersect the route. This consisted of a suspen¬
sion bridge, perfectly analogous in its principle to those
recently introduced in Britain. It was formed of half a
dozen of cables of twisted osiers, passed over wooden
supports, and stretched from bank to bank; then bound
together with smaller ropes, and covered with bamboos.
Humboldt passed over one of these pendulous bridges, of
120 feet span ; and Mr Miers crossed one of 225 feet span,
over which loaded animals might travel.1 In low grounds
the rivers were crossed on rafts with a mast and sail, which,
by a particular contrivance, could be made to tack and
veer. In this respect the Peruvians were a stage in ad¬
vance of all the other American races, who had nothing
superior to the canoe with paddles. The Peruvians ma¬
nufactured a rude species of pottery : they understood the
art of spinning, and, in an imperfect degree, that of weav¬
ing. They procured native gold by washing the gravel of
rivers, and silver, and perhaps copper, by working veins
downward from the outcrop. They knew how to smelt
and refine the silver ore; and they possessed the secret
of giving great hardness and durability to copper by mix¬
ing it with tin. Their utensils and trinkets of gold and
silver are said to be fashioned with neatness and even
taste. On the other hand, they had no money, no know¬
ledge of iron or glass; and they were ignorant of the
mode of mortising or joining beams, and of casting arches.
They had no animals fitted for draught; but the llama, a
small species of camel, which they had tamed, was em¬
ployed to some extent as a beast of burden,
laws and The political organization of Peru, which was artificial
customs in in a high degree, reminds one, in some of its features, of
Peru. the old system of the Saxons in England, but bears a
more general resemblance to that of the ancient Egyp¬
tians. The mass of the people were in a state of servi¬
tude, except a small number, who were free ; above these
in rank were the Curacas, or chiefs of districts, who form¬
ed a sort of nobility; and above the whole, the family
of the Incas, the members of which, by intermarrying
only with themselves, formed a numerous and distinct
caste. For the purposes of police and civil jurisdiction,
the people were divided into parties of ten families, like
the tythings of Alfred, over each of which was an officer.
A second class of officers had control over five or ten
tythings, a third class over fifty or a hundred. These
last rendered account to the Incas, who exercised a vigi¬
lant superintendence over the whole, and employed in¬
spectors to visit the provinces, as a check upon mal¬
administration. Each of these officers, down to the low¬
est, judged, without appeal, in all differences that arose
within his division, and enforced the laws of the em¬
pire, among which were some for punishing idleness, and
compelling every one to labour. It is probable that the Aborigines.
tythings and hundreds, as in England, would lose their
numerical signification in course of time, and become
mere local allotments. In the hamlets and villages, a
person mounted a tower every evening, and announced
where and how the inhabitants were to be employed next
day. The taxes were paid in the produce of the fields;
and magazines for receiving them were established in
every district. Such is the account given by Acosta and
Garcilasso of the civil institutions of Peru, which may be
correct with regard to the oldest possessions of the Incas
near Cusco, where their power had been long established;
but it is not probable that such a complicated system was
ever fully in operation in the more distant parts of the
empire.
The government of Peru was a theocracy. The Inca Govern-
was at once the temporal sovereign and the supreme ment.
pontiff. He was regarded as the descendant and repre¬
sentative of the great deity the sun, who was supposed to
inspire his counsels, and speak through his orders and de¬
crees. Hence even slight offences were punished with
death, because they were regarded as insults offered to
the divinity. The race of the Incas was held sacred.
To support its pretensions, it was very desirable that it
should be kept pure and distinct from the people; but
human passions are often too strong for the dictates of
policy; and though the marriages of the family were con¬
fined to their own race, the emperor, as well as the other
males of the blood royal, kept large harems stocked with
beauties drawn from all parts of the empire, and multi¬
plied a spurious progeny, in whom the blood of the
“ children of the sun” was blended with that of the “ chil¬
dren of the earth.” Among a simple-minded and credulous
people, the claims of the Incas to a celestial oi*igin seem
to have been implicitly believed. They were blindly
obeyed, and treated with a respect bordering on adora¬
tion, by the nobles as well as the common people. The
Peruvians worshipped the sun, the moon, the evening
star, the spirit of thunder, and the rainbow; and had
erected temples in Cusco to all these deities. That of
the sun, which was the most magnificent, had its walls
covered with plates of gold. The sacrifices consisted of
the objects most prized by the people, of grain and fruits,
of a few animals, and of the productions of their own in¬
dustry. Sabeism, as it is the most rational of all the
forms of idolatry, so it is generally the most mild; and
doubtless this results from the tendency which it has to
fix the thoughts on the marks of beneficence and wisdom
which are displayed in the works of nature. The Peru¬
vian temples were accordingly never polluted, like those
of Mexico, with the blood of human victims ; and the
Incas even went farther, and signalized their zeal against
such horrid rites, by suppressing them in all the countries
they conquered. Though their history exhibits some
bloody deeds, the general character of their government
was the reverse of cruel. The severe punishments pre¬
scribed by their laws were rarely inflicted, and rebellion
was scarcely known in their dominions. The Inca not
only assumed the title of the father of his people, but the
vices as well as the merits of his government sprung
partly from the attempt made to construct the govern¬
ment on the model of paternal authority, and partly from
the blending of moral and religious injunctions with civil
duties. Hence the idle pretension of the state to reward
virtuous conduct, as well as to punish crimes; hence
too the plan of labouring in common, the extinction of
1 Humboldt’s Researches, vol. ii. p. 72. Miers’ Travels, vol. i. p. 334.
AMERICA.
687
Aborigines, individual property, the absurdities of eating, drinking,
sleeping, tilling, building, according to fixed universal
rules; in fine, that minute and vexatious regulation of all
the acts of ordinary life, which converted the people into
mere machines in the hands of an immense corps of civil
and religious officers. Such a system may have served
to reclaim some tribes from the savage state; but it must
have stifled the seeds of improvement, and left the mass
of the people more stupid and imbecile than it found
them. The government was as pure a despotism, pro¬
bably, as ever existed ; but its theocratical character, no
doubt, helped to mitigate the ferocity of its spirit. Su¬
perstition and force are the two bases on which tyranny
rests in all countries; and in proportion as it is firmly
seated on the one, it stands less in need of the support of
the other. The Inca had so completely enslaved the
minds of his subjects, and the apparatus he wielded for
directing and controlling their acts was so perfect, that
he was able in a great measure to dispense with those ter¬
rific examples of cruelty and bloodshed, by which the pure
military despot operates on the fears of those who live
under his authority.
Origin of This system of the Peruvian monarchs, by which the
Peruvian people were kept in a state of perpetual tutelage, merits
laws. the greater attention, because it is precisely that which
the Jesuits employed, in Paraguay and other districts, to
reduce the natives to a settled mode of life ; and it seems
in fact to be the only method by which a semblance of
civilisation can be introduced amongst the American na¬
tions. Two things must be supposed to account for its
prevalence: first, a certain amount of timidity, passive¬
ness, and superstition, in the body of the people, implying
weak passions, but not necessarily smallness of intellect;
and, secondly, a few minds of a higher class, to give an
impulse to the rest, and to control and regulate their
acts. In the case of Peru did these ruling intellects
spring from the body of the people, and, after striking out
new lights in morals and legislation for themselves, devise
a complex and artificial system for establishing their power
over the minds of the rest, by the help of superstition and
force ? Or were they strangers from another country, and
imbued with the principles of a higher civilisation ? If
we may believe the Peruvian annals, the latter was the
case. About the year 1100 of our era, or perhaps a cen¬
tury later, Manco Capac, with his wife and sister Mama
Ocello, appeared as strangers on the banks of the lake
Titiaca. They were persons of majestic appearance, and
announced themselves as “ children of the sun,” sent by
their beneficent parent to reclaim the tribes living there
from the miseries of savage life. Their injunctions, ad¬
dressed to a people who probably worshipped the god of
day, were listened to by a few, who settled around them,
and founded Cusco. By degrees, other tribes were in¬
duced to renounce their wandering habits. Manco Capac
instructed the men in agriculture and the arts, and Mama
Ocello taught the women to spin and to weave. Laws,
institutions, and religious rites, were added. The form of
a civilized society arose, which was gradually extended
by persuasion or conquest; the Incas having always plant¬
ed their arts and religion wherever they established their
authority. Huana Capac, the twelfth in succession from
the founder of the dynasty, occupied the throne when the
first party of Spaniards visited Peru in 1527; and the em¬
pire was then still in a state of progress; for this prince
had conquered Quito at no distant date, and nearly doubled
the extent of his dominions.
Such is the account which the Peruvians give of the
origin of their civilisation, which we should be disposed to
reject as a fable, if there were not peculiar circumstances
which give it some credibility. First, their institutions, Aborigines,
taken in the mass, do not present what may be called the ''^*y~***>
American type. The mild and paternal character which
they display, the injunction to “ love one another” raised
to the rank of a positive precept, the preference of the
useful arts to war, all breathe a spirit, not only foreign to
the genius of the American tribes, but exactly opposed in
character to any thing which a native self-taught legisla¬
tor was likely to produce. Secondly, the artificial and
systematic form of the Peruvian institutions renders it
improbable that they were developed by the natural ac¬
tion of political causes, but strongly favours the idea, that
they were framed by a few designing heads, as an instru¬
ment to tame and govern a patient, feeble, and credulous
people, of rude or savage habits. A small number of Je¬
suits were led, by a sagacious study of the savage charac¬
ter, to devise a system extremely similar in its nature,
which worked admirably. These missionaries were the
Manco Capacs of Paraguay; and, like the Incas, might,
in the course of two or three centuries, have extended
their theocracy over as large a space as Peru, if their si¬
tuation had permitted them to employ force. Thirdly, a
million of native Peruvians yet survive, the living descen¬
dants of those who built the temples of Cusco; and their
extreme stolidity, apathy, and feebleness of character,
sufficiently testify that the chances were nearly as great
against a legislator like Manco Capac arising amongst
them, as against the Jews in the time of Augustus pro¬
ducing a being like Jesus Christ. They have the weak¬
ness and passiveness which fit them to receive an im¬
pression from superior directing minds; but they discover
no trace of the intelligence, energy, and originality which
must have been united in the persons who planned and
carried into effect the political system of the Incas. We
admit that oppression may have degraded their character;
but it cannot have entirely changed it. Look at the
Greeks of this day, who have been enslaved for a much
longer period.
If, then, the civilisation of Peru was exotic, whence was
it derived ? To us it appears most probable, that the le¬
gislators of Peru were either Chinese, or persons who had
received at second-hand a knowledge of the arts and in¬
stitutions of China; and our opinion is grounded on traits
of resemblance in the manners, laws, arts, and institutions
of the two nations, which, in our opinion, are too nume¬
rous, striking, and peculiar, to be the effect of chance.
We shall mention some of the most prominent.
1. The first and most obvious resemblance is in the Peruvians
singularly artificial frame of society in both countries. In and Chi-
China, as in Peru, the legislation is directive as well as pu-nese com*
nitive, and is distinguished by that minute and elaborate ^‘uet'
system of regulation, inspection, and control, which inter¬
feres with the most trifling actions of ordinary life, and re¬
duces the mass of the people to the condition of automa¬
ta, moved and guided in every thing by the rulers. China,
says Mr Barrow, is a great school, in which the magis¬
trates are the masters, and the people the scholars. It
might be more correctly compared to a large monastic es¬
tablishment, in which each person has his place and his
duty assigned to him, and all his acts directed by supe¬
riors, whose wisdom and authority he is not permitted to
question. The Chinese have the same immense multitude
of civil officers which the Peruvians had, and the same
chain of subordination from the emperor down to the
petty constable. In China this system was undoubtedly
the growth of many centuries; but it was too artificial to
occur to the thoughts of a cazique, educated amongst a
tribe of savages on the sides of the Andes. 2. In China,
as in Peru, the emperor assumes the title of the “ father
■v
AMERICA.
688
Aborigines.cf his people;” and his government is modelled upon
this figure of speech. He affects to be sprung from pro¬
genitors who descended from heaven, like the children of
the sun; and he unites the character of supreme pontiff
with that of temporal prince. There are vestiges, too,
of the worship of the heavenly bodies in China.1 3. Ihe
Chinese emperor extends an ostentatious patronage to
agriculture, by celebrating an annual festival in its ho¬
nour ; on which occasion he proceeds to the field in
great pomp, and takes a part in the labour of cultivating
the ground with his own hands. This singular custom
existed in Peru, where the Incas went through an annual
ceremony perfectly similar. How foreign was such an
institution to the spirit of the American tribes! 4. In
China agriculture is in a rude state, and exhibits proofs
of intelligence and skill only in two things—the use
of manures, and a laborious system of irrigation. Pre¬
cisely the same circumstances characterized the agricul¬
ture of Peru. 5. The internal taxes of China, like
those of Peru, are paid in kind (maize, rice, silk, cotton,
&c.), and stored in public magazines or granaries. 6. The
Chinese government maintained public roads, even in
those provinces where neither carriages nor beasts of
burden were used, of course for the use of pedestrians;
and storehouses or places of refreshment were built upon
them at proper distances.2 The Peruvians constructed
roads on precisely the same plan, and for the same pur¬
poses ; and this was done by no other people in America.
7. The Chinese do not inter the bodies of the dead,
but lay them on the ground, and raise a tumulus or coni¬
cal heap of earth over them. Such was also the practice
in Peru. The only barbarously cruel rite practised in
Peru, that of immolating the Inca’s domestics at the ob¬
sequies of their master, was brought into China by the
Tartars.3 Its existence is an anomaly in each case; for
the genius of both nations was peaceful and mild. 8. The
architecture of the Chinese displays little taste, but is
distinguished by two peculiarities—the power shown of
cutting and moving immense masses of stone,4 and the
uniformity of style which pervades their structures, of
every size and description. “ All the buildings,” says
Mr Barrow, “ from the meanest hut to the viceroy’s pa¬
lace, are upon one plan.” Humboldt remarks the same
adherence to a single model among the Peruvians; and
the walls of Cusco show that they were acquainted with
the method of moving stones of prodigious size. The
Chinese were fond of covering their walls with carving ;
and examples of the same practice occur in Peru. If
any of the Peruvian buildings had remained entire with
their roofs on, it would perhaps have been found, that
the type or primary architectural form employed in
the two countries was not very dissimilar; and some
allowance should be made for the circumstance, that
Peru must have borrowed her models from China 700
or perhaps 1000 years ago. 9. The Peruvians made
coarse pottery; and all the world knows that this is an
ait in which the Chinese excel. The Peruvians were
the only American nation who had made any progress in
the art of fusing and alloying metals, in which the Chinese Aborigines,
have long been distinguished by their skill. 10. The
Peruvians had dramas and dramatic spectacles. Where
could a people so uninventive have caught the idea of such
entertainments, if not from China, where they have been
long familiar to the people ? There were mimics and buf¬
foons in Mexico, but nothing, we believe, to which the
term drama could be applied. 11. But perhaps the most
remarkable coincidence is found in an invention entirely
confined to the two countries. We have described the sus¬
pension bridges made of ropes, employed by the Peruvians
in crossing deep ravines. Now it is singular that bridges
of the very same description, some of chains, and some of
ropes, are found in the south of China, and nowhere else
except in Thibet, which has interchanged arts and cus¬
toms with China from time immemorial. This single fact
we would consider as a proof of communication between
the two countries. The Peruvians made their ropes of
twisted osiers, and the Chinese had ropes also of this de¬
scription.5 12. From what people nearer than the Chinese
could the Peruvians borrow the idea of rafts with a mast
and sail ? These rafts, supporting covered huts, may be
considered as literal copies of some that are used in China ;
and the peculiar mechanism employed in lieu of a rudder
is no doubt borrowed from the paddles attached to the
Chinese boats, fore and aft.6 13. The Chinese in ancient
times made use of quippus or knotted cords to facilitate
calculation. Is it not probable that this invention had
passed from them to the Peruvians, the Mexicans, the
Kaluschi, and other American nations who employed it?
It would be easy to trace similar analogies in many other
customs, laws, and institutions of the two nations. Both
had nunneries or religious societies of women, who lived
under a vow of celibacy; both had a class of literary men
(the Havaracs and Amantas, or poets and philosophers, in
Peru), patronised by the government; both divided the
year into twelve months, and placed the beginning of it in
January (a coincidence the more remarkable, as the year
of the Mexicans and other northern nations consisted
of 18 months) ; both were strangers to the use of milk,
cheese, and butter.7 These facts may suffice, for we have
not room for lengthened inquiries; neither are we anxious
to press our argument beyond its proper limits. Our po¬
sition is, not that the Peruvians are descended from the
Chinese, but simply that Peru had been inoculated with
civilisation by persons who derived their ideas from China.
If it is asked why these persons did not import from China
the use of letters, the method of casting arches, and many
other arts practised there, our answer is, that no individual,
and still less any casual assemblage of individuals such as
the purposes of trade or navigation might bring together,
possesses a knowledge of every art and science which
exists in his country. How many men are there in Eng¬
land at this day, who could not even carry the knowledge
of the alphabet to another country? We must remember,
too, that all the arts existing in China do not exist in every
province of it, and have not always existed in those pro¬
vinces where we now find them.8 As to the means of
bee account of the temples at Pekin dedicated to the heavens, the north star, the moon, the earth, &c., and of the festival kept at
the summer solstice like the grand solar festival in Peru. {Hut. Qm. des Voyages, tom. vi. p. 32-34.)
- Histoire Generate des Voyages, tom. vi. p 170 ^ ^ ^ r /
3 Ibid. p. 391.
See the account of the bridges formed of huge blocks of stone, without arching, in Prevost’s Hist. Gen. des Voyages, tom. vi. p. 179.
6 Prevost, Hist. Gin. des Voyages, tom. vi. p. 179, and tom. vii. p. 339 * > v
e Ibid. tom. vi. p. 211, and tom. xiii. p. 583. 1
iVir. ^arr0W’ t*IC artlc^e f°r this work, is our authority for this fact, which is the more remarkable, as the Mongols,
the neighbours and conquerors of the Chinese, had the use of all the three articles immemorially.
e uni ormi y an unc angeableness of customs in China have evidently been much exaggerated. The empire is formed of
AMERICA. 689
Aborigines, communication, it is evident that the trade-wind renders
Peru almost unapproachable from Eastern Asia, be¬
tween the parallels of 30° north and 30° south latitude.
But beyond these limits the west winds prevail, and hence
China, in point of facility of access, is nearer to Peru than
the Society or Marquesas Islands. The Chinese have
long exposed themselves to the casualties of a maritime
life, in vessels of large size, provisioned for many months;
and at this day they perform voyages of 3000 or 4000
miles, to Ceylon and Polynesia.
The Quichua language, or that of Peru, was spread, by
the care of the Incas, over all the countries which they
conquered, so far at least as to be understood, if not
spoken, by the great variety of tribes subject to their
sway. It is understood at present as far as Santiago del
Estero, 1200 miles of direct distance south-east from
Cusco. This single fact proves both the long duration of
their power, and the efficiency of their internal adminis¬
tration. It is said to be the most rich, polished, and har¬
monious of the South American languages, abounding in
vowel sounds, but wanting those corresponding to the
Spanish consonants b, d, f, g, 1, x, v. Like all the other
American tongues, it wants terms for abstract and uni¬
versal ideas, such as time, space, being, substance, matter,
body, and even such as virtue, justice, liberty, gratitude.
There are five dialects of the Quichua, which are spoken
in Peru proper, and in Quito, New Granada, and a con¬
siderable part of La Plata, and not only by the Aborigines,
but by many Spaniards of the higher classes. The Peru¬
vians had no alphabetic writing. They possessed a very
rude species of hieroglyphics, of which little use was
made, and the quippus or knotted cords of various colours;
but whether these last were employed to record events,
or were merely instruments of calculation, is a question
which we must confess our inability to solve. Ihe his¬
tory of Peru, as it has reached us, seems to have been pre¬
served entirely by tradition, aided perhaps by popular
songs.
The Peruvians, according to Mr Stevenson, are of a
copper colour, with a small forehead, the hair growing on
each side from the extremities of the eye-brows; they
have small black eyes, a small nose, a moderately sized
mouth, with beautiful teeth ; beardless chin (except in old
age), and a round face. Their hair is black, coarse, and
sleek, the body well proportioned, the feet small, the
stature rather diminutive. Their intellectual qualities,
according to M. Ulloa, are of the lowest order. The most
prominent trait in their character is an imperturbable and
incurable apathy. Though half-naked, they are as con¬
tented as the Spaniard in his most splendid raiment.
Gold and silver have so little influence over them, that the
greatest recompense will not induce them to perform the
slightest service voluntarily. Neither power nor dignity
moves them; and they receive with the same indift'erence
the office of alcalde and that of executioner. They are
habitually slow in their motions, and extremely indolent.
When employed at any piece of labour, if the master with¬
draw his eye for a moment, they cease to work. They
are timid, shy, secretive, and always grave, even in the
dances, which are their favourite pastime. The love of
intoxicating liquors is deeply rooted in their nature. They
prepare a fermented beverage called chicha, from maize,
by a process known to them before the conquest, and at Aborigines,
their festivals drink till their senses fail them, day after
day. This bestial habit, however, is common to all the
American nations, and is confined to the men, for the
women are in general strictly sober. The Peruvians are
a gentle and mild people ; they are fond of their dogs, and
breed up hogs, geese, and chickens, for which they have
so tender a regard, that they will often neither kill nor
sell them. Their huts, says Mr Stevenson, consist of
stones laid upon one another without any cement or mor¬
tar, thatched over with long grass or straw, affording no
defence either from the wind or the rain. One small
room contains the whole family; their bed a sheep-skin
or two; their furniture one or two earthen pots. The
principal food of the Peruvians is maize; but they raise also
potatoes, wheat, beans, camates, yucas, pumpkins, and
other vegetables. Christianity, imposed upon them in
dogmas, by priests who take no pains to enlighten them,
has scarcely gained admission to their understandings,
and has no hold on their affections. They attend divine
service from the dread of chastisement, and give an out¬
ward assent to whatever they are taught, but without any
real religious impression being made upon their minds.
They meet death with the same stupid indifference as
the ordinary accidents of life, and rather decline than seek
the assistance of a priest in their last hours. It ought not
to be forgotten, however, that the intellectual torpor which
the Peruvians display may be attributed in part to the
deadening and debasing effects of three centuries of brutal
oppression. They still cherish in secret a strong venera¬
tion for their ancient faith and their native government,
which displays itself even in the large towns. The story
of Manco Capac (whom, since numbers of our countrymen
appeared in Peru, they affect to call an Englishman) and
Mama Ocello, the wealth, power, and beneficence of the
Incas, are still fresh in their memories, and are handed
down from father to son with a degree of fond admiration
which three centuries of humiliation and misfortune seem
only to have rendered more intense. The barbarous murder
of the Inca Atahualpa by Pizarro is annually represented
in the form of a tragedy. “ In this performance,” says
Mr Stevenson, “ the grief of the Indians is so natural,
though excessive, their songs so plaintive, and the whole is
such a scene of distress, that I never witnessed it without
mingling my tears with theirs. The Spanish authorities
have endeavoured to prevent this exhibition, but without
effect. The Indians in the territory of Quito wear black
clothes, and affirm that it is mourning for their Incas, of
whom they never speak but in a doleful tone.”
The oppression of the mita, or forced labour in the
mines, with the introduction of the small-pox and the use
of spiritous liquors, has destroyed prodigious multitudes
of the Indians since the conquest. What their number
was before that event it is impossible to tell; but, judging
from the extent of the Inca’s dominions, he probably had
not less than three or four millions of subjects. A pre¬
tended Spanish account, assigning a population of eight
millions to Peru shortly after the conquest, is known to
be fictitious. According to General Miller, there were
998,000 Indians in Peru about 1826; but he does not in¬
clude those in Quito or Bolivia.1
In Chili there were several tribes who possessed near- chili.
an assemblage of small states, conquered one after another, each of which must have had its peculiar laws, manners, and superstitions;
and common"sense tells us, that to blend these into one perfectly homogeneous mass, must have required a much longer period than has
elapsed since the empire attained its present magnitude. It would be easy, too, to find instances of the Chinese having changed their
customs, both in matters of business and matters of domestic economy.
1 In this account of the Peruvians we have chiefly followed Garcilasso, Acosta, Frezier, and Ulloa, of whose statements a copious
digest is given by Prevost, in the 13th volume of his Histoire GLnirale des Voyages. We have also taken some facts from Humboldt s
X
690
AMERICA.
Aborigines-ly all the arts known to the Peruvians, but were dis-
tinguished from them by a finer physical constitution, and
an unconquerable spirit. When the Spaniards arrived,
Chili, according to Molina, was inhabited by fifteen tribes
independent of each other, who were spread over the
country on both sides of the Andes, from latitude 30° to
the Straits of Magellan. They all spoke dialects of one
language, which is described as rich, harmonious, abound¬
ing in compound words, and having, like the other Ameri¬
can tongues, very complicated grammatical forms. It has
no affinity to the Quichua or Peruvian. The inhabitants
of the plains are a stout people, of middle stature ; those
of the mountains are tall; and one tribe, the Tehuels or
Patagonians, surpass in size every other nation in the
world. All the tribes inhabiting the plains, except those
of the extreme south, now make use of horses. The com¬
plexion of the Chilian tribes is, like that of the other
American nations, a reddish brown ; but one tribe is said to
be of a clear red and white. They do not paint their
bodies. The Chilians lived partly by hunting, but chiefly
by agriculture, before they had any intercourse with
Europeans. They cultivated maize, magu, guegen, tuca,
quinoa, the potato, pumpkins, and some species of pulse;
and to these they added, as food, the flesh of a small rab¬
bit, and of the Chilihueque or Araucanian camel, of whose
wool they are said to have manufactured cloth. Like
the Peruvians, they understood the use of manure, prac¬
tised irrigation with considerable skill, and turned up the
ground with a wooden spade or mattock. They boiled
their grain in earthen pots, or brayed it into meal after
roasting it in hot sand; of the meal they made puddings
or bread, which they knew how to leaven, and various
species of fermented drink. They had gold, silver, cop¬
per, tin, and lead, procured probably by washing; but
they had few or no edge-tools of metal, as those found
are almost always of basalt. They made baskets and
mats, extracted salt from sea-water, and were able to give
various dyes to their cloths. They used quippus or knot¬
ted cords for calculation, and, according to Mr Steven¬
son, for the transmission of intelligence and for recording
events. They lived in villages formed of houses standing
at a distance from one another, under hereditary chiefs,
but whose power was limited. It is remarkable that
the Chinese mode of catching wild ducks on the rivers, by
covering the fisher’s head with a gourd, was practised in
Chili.
I he Araucanians, the most intelligent, improved, and
warlike of the Chilian tribes, occupy about 200 miles of
the sea-coast, between the 37th and 39th parallels. They
are of ordinary stature, but vigorously formed; bold,
hardy, hospitable, faithful to their engagements, generous
en e^m^’ ardent’ iMrepid, and enthusiastic lovers
ot liberty. Their vices are drunkenness, and a contempt
ot other nations, springing from pride. Their govern¬
ment, m the regularity of its form, and its sub-division of
authority, has an outward resemblance to the Peruvian •
but the spirit of the two systems differs as widely as the’
genius of the two nations. Araucania contains four
tetrarchies, under four toquis or princes, who are inde¬
pendent of one another, but confederated for their mint
security against foreign enemies. Each tetrarchy is
divided into five provinces, ruled by five chiefs called Apo-
Ulmen ; and each province into nine districts, governed by
as many Ulmen, who are subject to the Apo-Ulmen, as
the latter are to the toquis. These various chiefs (who all
Arauca¬
nians.
bear the title of ulmen, as our nobility of all orders are Aborigines,
barons) compose the aristocracy of the country. They
hold their dignities by hereditary descent in the male
line, and in the order of primogeniture. The supreme
power of each tetrarchy resides in a diet or great coun¬
cil of the ulmen, who assemble annually in a large plain,
like the Poles and Germans in old times; but as the peo¬
ple are all armed, and have a high love of liberty, no re¬
solution of the diet is of any avail if it has not their hearty
concurrence. The chiefs, indeed, are little more than
leaders in war; for the right of private revenge, which is
fully admitted, limits their authority in judicial matters ;
and they receive no taxes. Their laws are merely pri¬
mordial usages. The Araucanians can raise altogether
6000 or 7000 men, besides a body of reserve. When war
is declared by the great council, messengers bearing “ ar¬
rows dipt in blood” are sent to all parts of the country, to
summon the men to arms. Unlike many barbarous na¬
tions, which are immovably attached to their ancient cus¬
toms, the Araucanians were not slow in copying the mili¬
tary arts and tactics of the Spaniards. Their troops now
consist of infantry and cavalry; the former armed with
pikes or clubs, the latter with swords and lances. The
infantry are formed into regiments of ten companies, each
company containing a hundred men. When they take the
field, they carry parched meal with them for provisions;
they station sentinels, send out scouts, and have advanced
guards preceding their main body. When necessary for
their security, they dig ditches, and plant stakes along
their sides, and throw up mounds of earth. They advance
to battle in lines well formed, and fight with intrepidity.
Their history affords a brilliant example of what a brave
nation, animated by an enthusiastic love of liberty, can
accomplish under the greatest disadvantages. After re¬
sisting the best troops and the best generals of Spain for
two hundred years, they at last compelled their proud
enemies to acknowledge their independence. The Arau¬
canians were indebted for their success to a deliberate
species of courage, to which even the bravest of the North
American tribesare strangers; and they combined with it a
degree of sagacity and intelligence, which led them to adapt
their mode of fighting to the new circumstances in which
they were placed. Experience having taught them the
inefficiency of their old missiles when opposed to musket
balls, they soon laid aside their bows, and armed them¬
selves with spears, swords, or other weapons fitted for
close combat. Their practice was to advance rapidly
within such a distance of the Spaniards as would not leave
them time to reload after firing. Here they received
without shrinking a volley, which was certain to destroy
a number of them, and then rushing forward in a close
column, fought their enemies hand to hand. In this way
they gained many victories, and impressed the Spaniards
with such a respect for their courage, that an individual
of this nation made their achievements the subject of an
epic poem. Combining the moral, intellectual, and physi¬
cal qualities of the Araucanians, they were certainly the
finest native race in the new world. They had nearly
all the germs of civilisation which belonged to the Mexi¬
cans and Peruvians ; without the ferocity of the former, the
apathy of the latter, or the slavish habits common to both ;
and without having their minds stupified by that grovel¬
ling superstition which the rulers of these two nations
seem to have considered as the only secure foundation of
their authority. In true courage, in manliness and energy
Researches, Balbi’s Ethnographical Atlas, and W. B Stpvpnemi’c at- ^ ™
but in which the author has shown rather too great an anxiety tlexalTthfchSer of^ ^ * USCful WOrk’
AMERICA. 691
Aborigines, of character, they take precedence of all the American
nations.
The Araucanians believe in a supreme being, and in
many subordinate spirits, good and bad. They believe
also in omens and divination, but they have neither
temples nor idols, nor religious rites; and discover upon
the whole so little aptitude for the reception of religious
ideas, that the Catholic missionaries who are settled
among them have had very little success in imbuing their
minds with a knowledge of Christianity. They believe in
a future state, and have a confused tradition respecting a
deluge, from which some persons were saved on a high
mountain. They divide the year into twelve months of
30 days, which have significant names, and add five days
by intercalation. They esteem poetry and eloquence, but
can scarcely be induced to learn reading or writing.
Chess, a game of Chinese origin, is said to have been
known among them from time immemorial and it may
be further observed, that the numbers 5 and 9, employed
in their geographical and civil divisions, are favourite num¬
bers in China.
The other Chilian tribes are all much behind the Arau¬
canians in civilisation; but some, as the Puelches and
the Tehuels, surpass them in strength and stature. Part
of them live on horse flesh, part by keeping sheep and
cattle, and part by hunting. Some of these tribes paint
Patago- their faces.1 2 With regard to the height of the Patago¬
nians, M. Lesson, an eminent French naturalist, has col¬
lected the authorities on the subject, in a note published
by Balbi in his Ethnographical Atlas; and they appear to
us to remove every rational doubt as to the fact of a race
of men existing there, whose average stature is about six
feet, and among whom men seven feet high are perhaps
as common as men of six feet two or three inches in Eng¬
land. We cannot help regarding the scepticism in which
many writers have indulged upon this question, as unphi-
losophical. The diversities of size in the human race are
innumerable, and stature, like other physical qualities, is
hereditary. We form in our minds, indeed, an idea of a
standard size for man; but this is merely the mean of all
the varieties which come under our notice; and till we
know all these, our estimate cannot have any exactness.
There are scarcely two nations perhaps whose average
height is the same, and who can pretend to such a know¬
ledge of the causes producing these varieties as to fix their
precise limits ? That individuals seven feet high, free of
weakness or defect, have existed among ourselves, is a
proof that there is nothing in such stature inconsistent with
the physical laws on which human life depends. And
since nobody denies that the dwarfish size which we wit¬
ness occasionally in our own country, as a deviation from
the common type, becomes generic and universal among
the Laplanders and Esquimaux, why should the natural
causes which produce tall men at intervals among our¬
selves not be rendered equally fixed and permanent in
other cases ? But the chief source of the incredulity of
many persons is obvious. Only one of the fifteen tribes
who inhabit the south extremity of the American con¬
tinent is distinguished by the very tall stature which is
ascribed to the Patagonians; and as these tribes probably
migrate from place to place, from the coast, for instance,
to the interior, and vice versa, a navigator touching at a
bay where some of his precursors profess to have met
with the giants, may find no inhabitants at all, or only
men of ordinary size, and in either case may attribute
to false reports what is really the consequence of a change Aborigines,
of habitation.
Of the numerous nations which inhabited Brazil, there Guaranis,
is only one to whom we can afford any special notice in
this article. The Guaranis had at one time formed a nu¬
merous people, which seems to have been spread over a
larger surface than any other now existing in America.
Tribes, or remnants of tribes, whose relationship to the
Guaranis is attested by the strong evidence of their lan¬
guage, are found diffused over the wide space between the
Orinoco and the embouchure of the Plata, over more than
the half of South America. They are met with among
the Andes of Peru, in the province of Chiquitos, in Mat-
togrosso, in Paraguay, in Minas Geraes; and the Omaguas,
in theprovinceof Quito,who, from theirnautical habits, and
the influence they obtained on the upper part of the Ama¬
zon, have been called the Phoenicians of the new world, are
believed to be of the same race. They constituted the bulk
of the native population of Brazil when the Portuguese
gained possession of it, but were divided into many dis¬
tinct tribes, quite independent of one another, and living,
not in contiguity, but mixed with other nations. They
are of low stature, two inches shorter than the Spaniards,
according to Azara, of a square form, fleshy, and ugly.
Their colour has a strong shade of the copper red, while
that of the other Brazilian tribes inclines generally to the
tawny or black. Their character, like their physical form,
resembles that of the Peruvians. They are patient, tor¬
pid, silent, downcast in their mien, mild, and passionless.
Nearly all the Indians whom the Portuguese have civi¬
lized or converted belong to this race. It is difficult to
account for their dissemination through the southern con¬
tinent, amidst nations much more brave and powerful than
themselves. May we suppose that, like the subjects of
the Incas, they had been at one time the dominant tribe
of an extensive empire, which derived its force from
union and civilisation ? But if such a state did exist, its
date cannot be very ancient; for the identity or close re¬
semblance of the dialects spoken by the scattered portions
of the Guaranis, shows that their dispersion from a com¬
mon point did not happen at a very remote period.3 Yet
no memorial of its existence survives, either in traditions
or monuments. The supposition, therefore, that the
Guarani tribes are the remnants of a once powerful and
united people, is scarcely admissible; and Azara thinks
it more probable that they have crept gradually from
north to south. Their dispersion is the more remarkable,
as they are not a wandering but an agricultural people.
They live in the woods, or in small open spaces in the
forests; cultivate maize, beans, gourds, yams, mandioc;
and eat also wild honey, and the flesh of monkeys and
various small quadrupeds.
The Indians whom the Jesuits civilized and collected Paraguay
into communities in the celebrated settlements of Para- Indians,
guay belonged chiefly to the nation of the Guaranis.
These missionaries are said to have borrowed the plan
of the theocracy which they established here from that
which the Incas had introduced into Peru. There is
no doubt that the spirit of their system was the same;
and, considering that they were precluded from any other
means of extending and supporting their authority than
persuasion, their success was remarkable. The settle¬
ments were commenced about 1610, and were gradually
extended over the country watered by the Parana and
Uruguay, between the 27th and 30th degrees of south
1 Molina’s History of Chili, vol. ii. p. 125. 4 Ibid. vol. ii. book i. and ii. Stevenson’s South America, vol. i. chap. iiL
3 Dr Prichard’s Researches, vol. ii. p. 487.
X
G92 AMERICA.
Aborigines, latitude, till the order of the Jesuits was suppressed in
1767. The plan of the government may be called paro¬
chial, for it was administered entirely by the parochial
clergy. The Indians were collected into villages. Each
village had its church, and its curate, who was assisted by
one, two, or more priests, according to the number of In¬
dians under his charge. The curate and assistant priests
were nominated, not by the Spanish authorities, but by
the father superior, also a Jesuit, who exercised a vigilant
superintendence over the whole. Indians were appoint¬
ed in each village with the titles of regidors and alcaldes ;
but they were merely instruments in the hands of the
curate and his assistants, in whom all power was lodged.
The curate gave his whole attention to religious offices,
saying mass in the church, and visiting the sick; while
the assistant priests managed all secular matters, direct¬
ing the labour of the Indians who cultivated the ground,
and training others to the crafts of the weaver, mason,
carpenter, goldsmith, painter, and sculptor; for the fine
arts were by no means neglected. Private property did
not exist. The produce of the labour of the community
was stored in magazines, from which each family was sup¬
plied according to its wants, special provision being made
for aged persons, widows, and orphans. The surplus was
sold by agents at Buenos Ayres, and the proceeds em¬
ployed in paying the taxes to the king, in procuring or¬
naments for the churches, and various articles which
the colonists could not manufacture for themselves. The
religious instruction was of the most simple kind ; but the
service of the church was conducted with a well-trained
choir, a pompous ceremonial, and every accessory calculat¬
ed to strike the senses. The punishments were mild, and
they were always accompanied with such admonitions as
a parent would address to a child whom he was chastising.
Crimes, in truth, were rare. The Indians, who regarded
their spiritual chiefs with the veneration due to beneficent
beings of a superior order, scarcely felt humbled in confess¬
ing their misdeeds; and offenders may have solicited correc¬
tion, as Raynal says, for the quieting of their consciences.
The incursions of the Portuguese compelled the Jesuits
to take means for repelling force by force. All the male
Indians of the proper age were accordingly armed with
muskets, and disciplined as a militia. In 1732, according
to Dobrizhoffer, the thirty villages or parishes under the
care of the missionaries contained a population of 141,000
souls. The Jesuits had another establishment of the
same kind among the Chiriguas, a branch of the Guara¬
nis, in the province of Chiquitos, containing 30,000 or
40,000 Indians ; a third, of smaller size, in the province
of Moxos; a fourth in California; and probably others.
After the suppression of the order, all these were com¬
mitted to the care of friars of other descriptions; and we
believe they have universally fallen into a state of decay.
The social system established in Paraguay was the most
effectual ever contrived for reclaiming the Indians from
their savage mode of life ; but even its success shows how
hopeless the attempt is to raise the American tribes to
the rank of thoroughly civilized nations. The Jesuits
were able to introduce settled habits and a slight know¬
ledge of religion and the arts among the Indians only by
means of the personal ascendency they acquired over
them. It was a few superior minds gaining the respect
and confidence of a horde of savages, then employing the
influence they acquired to lead them as children; giving
them such portions of instruction as taught them to trust
implicitly in their guides, working alternately on their
fears, their pride, their kind affections, but never fully Aborigines,
unveiling to them the springs of the machinery by which
they were governed. The incurable indolence of the
savages rendered it necessary to prescribe the labour
as task-work, and to carry it on under the constant in¬
spection of the missionaries. The plan of cultivating the
ground in common, and of storing the produce in maga¬
zines, out of which the wants of each family were supplied,
was resorted to as a check upon their improvident habits.
In short, the eye and the hand of the missionaries were
everywhere; and the social system was held together en¬
tirely by their knowledge and address. When these were
withdrawn, the fabric soon fell into ruins, and the Indians
relapsed into their idolatry and savage habits, just as boys
drop their tasks the moment they are liberated from school.
We have dwelt a little upon this topic, because we Conversion
think the experiment made by the Jesuits in Paraguay and and civib-
Chiquitos is almost an instantia crucis with regard to the
capacity of the American tribes for receiving Christianity e n< ians'
and civilisation. From the moment that the Europeans
landed in the new world, benevolence has been at work
to instruct some portions of these tribes in religion and
the arts; and flattering accounts have been published
from time to time of the success of those humane persons
who dedicated their lives to the task. But, after three
centuries of incessant exertion, what is the result? Is
there one tribe that exhibits the steady industry, the
provident habits, the spirit of improvement, and the ra¬
tional views of religion, which are to be found in any
parish of England ? We cannot find that there is. Many
tribes, living near the whites, have adopted their habits
and ideas to a certain extent, but merely under the influ¬
ence of imitation. While missionaries and teachers are
among them, every thing wears a favourable aspect; but
their civilisation is never self-sustained. It is created by
the agency of men of higher natural endowments; and
when this is removed it moulders away, because it has no
foundation in their character. Many parties of Indians,
remnants of tribes once powerful, have lived peaceably on
reserves of land, inclosed amidst the population of the
United States, for more than a century. No situation can
be imagined better fitted to promote their improvement;
but in no one instance, so far as we know, have they
melted into the mass of the white population, or risen to
any thing near their level in knowledge and the useful
arts. They live in huts in no material degree better than
the wigwams of their wandering brethren. They are ge¬
nerally honest, but drunken, indolent, and ignorant,
though teachers and missionaries are employed by the
government to instruct them. Basket-making is almost
the only trade they ply, and in their habits and character
they may be aptly compared to the gypsies of Europe,
who exist in the midst of civilisation, without partaking
of its spirit or its benefits. It should be observed that
there is not the same reluctance in the whites to mingle
their blood with the red men, as with the blacks.1 Much
has been recently said of the progress made by the Che-
rokees; but we suspect that what is witnessed there is
but a flimsy veil of improvement, spread over habits which
are essentially savage. We are convinced, in short, that
the Indian is truly the man of the woods; and that, like
the wild animals he lives upon, he is destined to disap¬
pear before the advancing tide of civilisation, which falls
upon him like a blight, because it supplies new food to
nourish his vices, while it demands intellectual and moral
faculties in which he is deficient, and renders useless
‘ See, on the habits and character of the Indians, Cooper’s Notions of the Americans, vol. ii. letter 17*
AMERICA.
693
Aborigines, those qualities which predominate in his character. We
would not discourage the attempt to meliorate the lot of
the Indians ; but this will succeed best when it is ground¬
ed on a true knowledge of their natural capacities. Some
of them are much more susceptible of moral and religious
improvement than others; but, to instruct and reclaim
them effectually, our belief is, that the system of the Jesuits
is the only one that holds out a chance of success. They
must not merely be taught and preached to, but they must
be retained in a state of pupilage, trained to their duties,
controlled and directed in all their proceedings by intel¬
lects superior to their own ; and there are many tribes too
ferocious and intractable for even this method of tuition.
AVe do not maintain that the character of the Indian na¬
tions is indelible; but to effect any considerable change
in it, the lapse of a longer period would be required than
the existence of these tribes is likely to extend to. Nei¬
ther do we think that there is any thing in the extinction
of these people by natural means which humanity should
mourn over. In every state of life man has but a brief
span of existence allotted to him. Successive generations
fall like the leaves of the forest; and it should be remem¬
bered that the extinction of a race of men by natural
causes, means merely its non-renewal, or the suspension
of those circumstances which enabled it to continue its
existence.
To complete our general view of the aboriginal races, a
few particulars remain to be mentioned. Many of the
tribes who inhabit the Pampas of South America make
use of horses. Dobrizhoffer enumerates eight equestrian
tribes in the province of Chaco, on the west side of the
river Paraguay, who are generally distinguished by tall
and vigorous forms, and a bold and active character.
The Abipones and Mbayas are the most celebrated of
these. The woods of Brazil are too dense for eques¬
trians ; but horses are used by a few hordes in the great
plain of the Mississippi and in the north of Mexico.
The American tribes in general either kill their prisoners
or adopt them; but a few retain them as slaves, and
compel them to work. The Guaycurus of Brazil are an
example. The food of different tribes is extremely va¬
rious. Maize, beans, pumpkins, and mandioc, are raised
in small quantities by some; natural fruits, berries, bulb¬
ous roots, and bananas, are gathered by others. Those
who dwell on the sides of rivers live greatly on fish; in
the plains, buffaloes, horses, and sheep, are killed. In the
forests of Brazil, monkeys, pigs, armadillos, pacas, agoutis,
and tapirs, are the favourite food; but birds, tuitles,
deer, and the coati, are also taken; and in an emergency
the Indians do not scruple to feed on serpents, toads, and
lizards, the larvse of insects, and other disgusting sub¬
stances.1 Salt is used where it can be easily obtained,
and some season their food with capsicum. Some roast
their meat, others boil it; and not only several savage
tribes, but even the civilized Peruvians, ate their flesh
raw. The Ottomaques, a tribe near the Orinoco, eat a
species of unctuous clay; and this strange diet, which no
doubt owed its introduction to the stern monitor, famine,
is probably not extremely rare; for Drs Spix and Martius
noticed a similar practice in Brazil, and Captain Franklin
found the same food in use among an Indian tribe near
the Frozen Ocean. The clay is stated by this traveller
to have a milky and not disagreeable taste.2 A great
proportion of the tribes in Brazil and the basin of the
Orinoco, and some in all parts of America, indulge in the
horrid banquet of human flesh. Shame, in our sense of
the term, is nearly a stranger to the breasts of these sa-Aborigines,
vages. In the warm regions of Brazil, men and women
go entirely naked, except in the neighbourhood of the
Portuguese settlements, where some wear a band of cloth
round the loins.3 In such situations, where the want of
shelter is little felt, their dwellings are often nothing
more than a sort of arbour formed by interlacing the open
space between two or three trees with twigs, and cover¬
ing it with leaves so as to form a screen on the windward
side, while it is left entirely open on the other. The
manufacture of bows and arrows, war-clubs, baskets,
mats (which, swung from a tree, serve them both as
seats and hammocks), and in some cases a coarse pottery,
comprises the sum of their practical skill in the arts. It
has long been the practice of bands of Portuguese, con¬
sisting chiefly of outlaws and vagabonds, to make maraud¬
ing expeditions among the Indians living near the great
rivers, and to carry them off and sell them clandestinely
for slaves. This infamous trade is carried on in despite
of the orders of the government, which has issued many
decrees for the protection of the Indians, and, besides
employing missionaries to convert them, enjoined the
governors of provinces to furnish them with hoes and
other agricultural implements. Wherever the negroes
are introduced in great numbers, as in the Capitanias
of Santa Paulo and Rio Janeiro, and in the whole of
the West India islands, the red men rapidly disappear, the
former being more intelligent, more tractable in their ha¬
bits, and more active and industrious. The negroes are in¬
deed a superior race to the Indians; and the existence of
one or two hundred blacks, as slaves, among some thousands
of the Cherokees, does not detract from the accuracy of
this opinion. Missions for the conversion of the Indians
have been supported for more than two centuries by the
governments of Spain and Portugal. They are thinly spread
over those parts of Mexico, La Plata, Peru, Brazil, and Co¬
lombia, which are still occupied by the savages; but there
are extensive districts in all these provinces in which they
have never been established, owing to the fierce character
of the tribes, or the remote and inaccessible nature of the
country. A mission consists in general of one or two
friars or priests, who settle among the savages, learn their
language, and, besides teaching them the elements of
Christianity, always endeavour to instruct them in the
more simple and useful arts, and to train them to settled
habits. W’e have seen many scattered notices of these
establishments, but we have not met with any work that
gives a distinct account of them collectively to a recent
period. We believe, however, that many of them have
been abandoned, owing to the failure of the funds with
which they were supported; and that the success of the
others has been extremely trifling. The late revolutions
in these countries, by liberating the Indians from their
ancient state of tutelage under the whites, has in many
cases broken up the little settlements which the mission¬
aries had formed. This has been the result even in Brazil,
where the political changes have been least felt.4
The problem as to the source whence America derived Origin of
its population presents no difficulty now, when the conti-American
guity of the old and the new continent at Behring’s Straits P°Pula"
is known. The breadth of the sea here (latitude 66°) istlon‘
only forty-five English miles ; the transit across is facili¬
tated by two islands placed almost exactly midway be¬
tween Asia and America; and in severe winters a firm
body of ice joins the two continents. The climate, though
rigorous, does not prevent the country on each side from
Spix’s Travels, vol. ii. p. 220.
Ibid. vol. i. p. 302, vol. ii. p. 261.
X
1 Spix’s Travels, vol. ii. p- 260.
s Franklin’s Second Journey, p. 24.
694
AMERICA.
being inhabited. The Aleutian Isles, besides, at the lati¬
tude of 53°, which run in a line like the piers of an im¬
mense bridge, from one continent to the other, present
such easy means of communication, that few savage tribes
a little familiar with sea-life could be long in Kamtschatka
without threading their way across the Pacific to the
peninsula of Alyaska. Indeed, if a doubt could exist,
we have positive proof that America received part of its
population from the north-east extremity of Asia; for the
Esquimaux, living on the east side of Behring’s Straits,
speak a language which is radically the same with that of
theTschutskoiontheopposite shores. Two other questions
however present themselves. Did all the tribes which
inhabit America pass into it through this one channel ?
And from what nation or nations of the old world are
these tribes descended ? Now, it appears to us probable,
that inhabitants may have been conveyed to America by
other routes besides that of Behring’s Straits and the
Aleutian Isles. We may form some idea of the chances
of human beings from other climes being cast on the
shores of America, from the countless accidents which
must have scattered inhabitants over the thousands of
islands on the Pacific Ocean. Take the case, for instance,
of Easter Island, which is within the zone of variable
tvinds for half of the year, and is 1500 miles from the
nearest known land whence it could receive inhabitants.
This island is a mere speck in the ocean, 10 miles in dia¬
meter ; and supposing that it could be seen by an Indian
in his canoe from a distance of 25 miles on each side, a
space of 60 miles in the circumference of a circle of 1500
miles radius would thus represent the probability of a
canoe carried away by a storm coming within sight of it.
If then we suppose the wind to blow from any westerly
point between north and south, we shall find that the pro¬
bability of a drifted canoe reaching the island is only as
1 to 75. If we add the chances of the isle being passed
in the night-time, when it could not be seen, the proba¬
bility will be only as 1 to 150. But, further, to plant a
breeding population on the isle, the canoe must have car¬
ried women in it; and as the savages have not women
with them in their canoes perhaps more than once in three
or four of their voyages, the probability is thus diminished
to 1 in 500. In other words, the peopling of an island in
such a situation as Easter Island may be considered as
representing the result of 500 accidents, in which canoes
were drilled to sea and wrecked. Phis single example
may give us an idea of the myriads of casualties which
must have been instrumental in dispersing the human
species over the isles of Polynesia,—casualties so numerous
and so various, that they may be compared to the chance
sowing of the volatile seeds of plants by the winds. If we
neglect distance, it will be seen at once that the probabi¬
lity of a canoe reaching any land in such circumstances, is
in proportion to the angle the land subtends on the horizon,
in the extra-tropical regions the prevailing winds are from
rp«!hl wVi? sou1th'wef • The Part Of South America ac¬
cessible with such winds from Gambier’s Islands subtends
fpn^ngl l°f ab°Ut 4(Vo°r te? times as Sreat as the angle sub¬
tended by a space of 2o miles on each side of Easter Island
rom the same station. If we throw distance out of view
therefore, the chances of a boat drifted with any wind be-
tween north-west and south-west reaching the coast of
Peru or Chili, would be ten times as great as of its reachino-
Easter Island. But from this latter well peopled island the Aborigines,
accessible coast of Peru subtends an angle of 60°, and the
chances are so much higher in proportion. Easter Island
is about 2800, and Gambier’s Island 3600 miles from the
American coast; and the question is, whether, of many
hundred canoes drifted off in this direction in the lapse
of ages, it is improbable that one or two carrying persons
of both sexes might reach America. We may allow an
unrigged boat to make 100 miles a day with a strong
wind. From 28 to 36 days, then, would suffice for the
voyage; and though savages often go to sea with little
provisions, we must remember that they have a horrid re¬
source in their cannibal habits. There are besides, we
think, well-attested cases of the South Sea Islanders sur¬
viving a storm which has kept them a month at sea.
Many of these islanders have boats capable of carrying
20 or 30 persons; and their ferocious wars are continu
ally creating emergencies which compel crowds of males
and females to take suddenly to the water to save their
lives.
We have referred to Easter Island merely as an example,
to illustrate causes which have been in operation in all
parts of the maritime world. Setting aside Behring’s
Straits and Greenland, there are four points from which,
according to the principles we have explained, there is a
possibility that inhabitants might be transported to Ame¬
rica. These are, first, Gambier’s Isles and Easter Island,
of which we have already spoken. Secondly, Southern
Africa : from Congo, Benguela, and the Cape, to the coast
of Brazil, the distance is from 3700 to 4100 miles ; and a
boat abandoned to itself, favoured at once by the tropical
current, which sets north-westward, and by the trade-wind,
might perform the voyage in 30 or 40 days. Thirdly, the
north-west coast of Africa, and the Canary and Cape Verd
Islands, from the latter (which were inhabited when
discovered by the Portuguese) the distance to Brazil is
only about 2000 miles, and the motion of a boat would be
aided both by the trade-wind and the returning great
current of the North Atlantic. The voyage might occupy
from 20 to ^0 days. The possibility of men being carried
to America is shown by the stern of a vessel, such as
the American nations could not build, which Columbus
found on one of the Caribbean Islands on his second
voyage.1 It is true that both Madeira and the Azores,
though nearer the old world, were uninhabited when
discovered in the 15th century; but we must remember
that these isles are but specks in the wide ocean, compar¬
ed with America; and, further, that the mariners acci¬
dentally cast upon them might have no females with them,
and would find none there. The Azores had been the
residence of some luckless shipwrecked Europeans, as the
figures found carved on the rocks proved. The fourth
channel through which inhabitants might reach America
is the Sandwich Islands. The distance is 3000 miles;
and when the sun is at the southern tropic, it is probable
that the western winds may blow for a time in their vi¬
cinity.
In a comprehensive view of all the causes which, in the
lapse of ages, have contributed to spread the human race
over the new world, the conjectures we have hazarded
are not without value. There are, for instance, two parts
of the new continent in which nations almost black are
found, namely, California and Paraguay. In the latter
1 Washington Irving’s abridged Life of Coluvilus n ISO VQ* u j , •
Bevolkcrwig aus dem alien Continent: Leipsic 1810. 5 Wp h ' aT.ef aas < lscusseci this subject in his Untersuchnngen tiler Amcrikat
introduction to the section on the American’languages in tiuAJw •!e,n Procuye ,a sight of the work; but we find, from the
the probability, of the western coasts of Europe antf Africa contHW^’ that,^e sPeaks in decided terms of the possibility, or rather
u ope ana Alnca contributing, as well as the east coast of Asia, to people the new continent.
AMERICA. 695
Aborigines, the Charruas, Minuanes, Bohanes, and Yaros, are of this from an extinct zodiac of 27 or 28 houses anciently fa- ••
complexion,1 and seated amidst tribes of a much lighter miliar to the same nations. The cosmogony of the Mexi-
hue. Is it unreasonable to suppose, that a few persons cans has too many analogies with that of the Jews to ad-
belonging to a South African tribe had been cast ashore mit of the coincidence being accidental. Their traditions
at an early period on the north banks of the Plata, the speak of the serpent woman or the mother of mankind
district to which the natural motion of the winds and falling from a state of innocence, of a great inundation
waves would most readily waft them, and had grown up from which a single family escaped, of a pyramid raised
into a tribe before they mixed with any other race ? The by the pride of man, and destroyed by the anger of the
Californians may be descended from the Papuas or black gods; they practised the ceremony of ablution upon
race inhabiting New Guinea, and who are supposed to children at their birth; they had the rite of confession
constitute the swarthy people of the Sandwich Isles.2 At for penitents; and religious societies like those of monks
any rate it is remarkable that the only race of a very dark existed among them. Now, we know that the Nestorians
complexion in North America should be found exactly at about the seventh century carried the rites and doctrines
the part of the coast nearest to these isles, and to which of Christianity into China and Tartary, where they were
the agency of the extra-tropical wind would conduct any found by Carpini, Rubruquis, and Marco Polo, in the
object left to its guidance. We admit, however, that they thirteenth, mixed with many strange corruptions. There
might come from the Kurile Isles, where the same black is little doubt that the traditions and customs alluded to
race is found. By the mixture of persons belonging to tribes reached Mexico through this channel. Further, a species
of this hue with others of the copper colour, the varieties of picture-writing like the Mexican was practised in
of complexion found among the American nations may be China about the year 1325. Vestiges of the same art are
accounted for. It affords a slight corroboration of this idea, found among the Kaluschi or Yucuatl, tribes inhabiting
that among the scanty affinities traced between the lan- the north-west coast between the latitudes of 50° and 60°,
guages of the old and new world, there are some few which and whose languages bear a resemblance to that of the
connect certain American dialects with that of Congo. Mexicans. Finally, the records of this people speak dis-
The superior intelligence, great stature, light complexion, tinctly of their ancestors migrating from a distant country
and personal beauty of some of the Chilian tribes, on the in the north-west; and the traditions of the Muskogees,
other hand, favour the supposition that they are of the Chickasas, Mohicans, Iroquois, and the tribes of Cinaloa,
same race with the tall, fair, handsome people of the point to the same region as their original seat.5 The
Society and Marquesas Isles, who have displayed so great facts, taken collectively, leave no doubt that more than
an aptitude for civilisation.3 That individuals of Euro- one of the American nations were somehow connected
pean birth also had been carried to America by the acci- with the people of eastern Asia; but they scarcely
dents of maritime life, is rendered probable by physical authorize the conclusion, that the one were a colony
causes; and it is singular that traditions, describing the directly sent off from the other. The Chinese, Mon¬
arrival of a white or bearded man from an unknown gols, Tartars, and Mantchous, have cultivated the ce-
country, and his teaching them to build houses and cul- realia, employed horses, and tamed cattle, from very re-
tivate the ground, are preserved in three other parts of mote times. It was scarcely possible that such neces-
America besides Peru. Such is the Quetzalcoatl of the sary arts should be entirely lost by a colony sprung
Mexicans, the Bochica of the Muyscas in New Granada, from any of these people; yet the Mexicans were un-
the Camararu of the Brazilians, who were all said to come acquainted with wheat, oats, and barley; they had no
from the east.4 Manco Capac alone, the Peruvian le- horses (which a migrating Tartar tribe might probably
gislator, made his appearance on the west coast of the have carried across Behring’s Straits); and they had
continent. The story of a sword with a legible Greek never attempted to tame the native ox of America, nor to
inscription being found under the soil at Monte Video use the milk of its female. There is perhaps only one
in 1826, is, we fear, a fiction. {Bulletin Historique, Aout hypothesis by which these diverging facts can be recon-
1828.) ciled. Tribes belonging to the races of eastern Asia had
Affinity of Attempts to trace the descent of the American tribes separated from them while they were still living in the
an?A^nS fr0m any Particular PeoPle of tlie old world have not state of hunters, and, crossing Behring’s Straits, had
tics/ S a* succee(led. We except the Esquimaux, who are distinct spread themselves by degrees over America. Among
from all the other nations of the new continent, and some of these tribes, dwelling probably north of Colum-
clearly of the same race with the Tschutsko, of north-east- bia River, a few emigrants from China, Japan, or Chinese
ern Asia. Many analogies, however, in the physical Tartary, at a comparatively late period, had been thrown
character of the people, their rites, monuments, and su- by some of the accidents to which a seafaring life is liable,
perstitions, establish a connection between the Mexicans and bringing with them picture-writing, the art of build-
and some Asiatic nations. A general resemblance has ing and weaving, a few mystical rites and traditions, and
been observed between the American nations and some the calendar which was in useJn their native country, had
tribes of Mongols and Mantchous, in the form of the established their influence among the savages by address
skull, the brown colour of the skin, the thinness of the or force, and sown the seeds of civilisation. After so-
beai d, and the oblique position of the eye. Humboldt cial life had made a few advances, the increasing numbers
has shown that the Mexican calendar is identical in its and power of the people would enable them to send off
principles, which are very artificial and complicated, with several swarms in succession to the eastward, and dis-
that which was in use among the Chinese, Japanese, possess the earlier and ruder inhabitants of Anahuac and
Thibetians, Hindoos, and Tartars; and he has rendered the plains of the Mississippi. The Toltecks were perhaps
it probable that the names of their days are borrowed the first of these colonists; the Hurons, Iroquois, Chichi-
1 Prichard’s Researches, vol. ii. p 495. 5 Ibid. p. 424. •» Ibid. vol. i. p. 418, 422; vol ii. 471, 473.
* Humboldt’s Researches, vol. i. p. 29-74. Stevenson’s Narrative, vol. i. p. 396.
* Humboldt’s Researches, vol. i. p. 27G, &c. Prichard’s Researches, vol. i. p. 167-169, vol. ii. p. 378. Travelsof Ibn Batuta, Travels
of Marco Polo and Rubruquis, in tom. vii. Hist. Gen. des Voyages. Mithridates, Einlcit. Amer. Sgrach. p. 357.
X
696
AMERICA.
America.
Indian An
tiquities.
mecks, and Aztecks (all of whom had hieroglyphics), must
have been separated from the parent stock at a later-period,
probably two or three centuries after the Nestonans had
spread some knowledge of the Christian rites and the He¬
brew cosmogony among the people of eastern Asia. o a
appearance there was no race in America anterior o e
Toltecks who possessed any germs of civilisation ; for the
military works in Ohio can scarcely be referred to a period
farther back than 800 or fOOO years from the present day.
But for 2000 or 3000 years anterior to this the new conti¬
nent had been overrun by tribes of hunters. This, we think,
is clear; for while the analogies of physical character ob¬
served in the American nations, and in the structure of their
dialects, show, on the one hand, that nine-tenths of them
had sprung from one tribe, or a few tribes of one stock ; the
existence of 500 of these varieties of speech proves, on the
other hand, that a very long period must have elapsed to
admit of the subdivision of one, two, or even half-a-dozen
of mother tongues into such a prodigious number of dialects.
That the original seat of folteck and Azteck civilisation was
not in Asia, but in the north-west parts of America, results,
we think, from the non-existence of the cerealia and of
tame cattle in the new w7orld; and that the glimmering of
knowledge which these people possessed had been kindled
by the arrival of a few chance emigrants, perhaps at different
periods, from China, Japan, or Chinese Taitary, seems
equally certain, from the resemblances formerly noticed in
the calendars, the superstitions, and the cosmogonical tradi¬
tions of the Asiatic and American races.
In the great valley of the Mississippi and its mighty tri¬
butaries, the Ohio and Missouri, are the remains of the
works of an extinct race of men, who seem to have made
advances in civilisation far beyond the races of red men then
discovered by the first European adventurers. These re¬
mains consist chiefly of tumuli and ramparts of earth, in¬
closing areas of great extent, and much regularity of form.
Some of them recal the barrows of Europe and of Asia, or
the huge mounds and ramparts of Mesopotamia, as displayed
at Babylon and Nineveh; while others remind us of the
ruined hippodromes and amphitheatres of the Greeks and
Romans. In that part of North America, the barrows are
usually truncated cones; but in advancing farther south,
they often assume the figure of four-sided pyramids in suc¬
cessive stages, writh flattened tops, like the Teocalhs, or
temples of Mexico and Yucatan. The earliest accurate
notice of them, published in England, is contained in the
Letters from America of Adam Hodgson, in 1820 and
1821, published in 1829. Since that time they have been
admirably described, and many of them delineated in the
splendid work, The Smithsonian Contributions to Know¬
ledge, vol. i.; from the researches of Messrs Squier and
Davis, which appeared in 1848, at New York.
The barrows and ramparts are constructed of mingled
earth and stones; and from their solidity and extent, must
have required the labour of a numerous population, with
leisure and skill sufficient to undertake combined and vast
operations. The barrows often contain human bones, and
the smaller tumuli appear to have been tombs; but the
larger, especially the quadrangular mounds, would seem to
have served as temples to the early inhabitants. These
barrows vary in size, from a few feet in circumference and
elevation, to structures with a basal circumference of 1000
or 2000 feet, and an altitude of from 60 to 90 feet, resem¬
bling, in dimensions, the vast tumulus of Alyattes near
Sardis. One in Mississippi is said to cover a base of six
acres. The ramparts also vary in thickness, and in height
from 6 to 30 feet, and usually inclose areas varying from
100 to 200 acres. Some contain 400; and one on the Mis¬
souri has an area of 600 acres. The inclosures generally
are very exact circles or squares, sometimes a union of both; America,
occasionally they form parallelograms, or follow the sinuo-
sities of a hill; and in one district, that of Wisconsin, they
assume the fanciful shape of men, quadrupeds, birds, or ser¬
pents, delineated with some ingenuity, on the surface of un¬
dulating plains or wide savannahs.
These ramparts are usually placed on elevations or hills,
or on the banks of streams, so as to show that they were
erected for defensive purposes, and their sites are judiciously
chosen for this end. The area inclosed, therefore, bears no
proportion to the relative labour bestowed on such ramparts:
thus, in Ohio, an area of not more than 40 acres is inclosed
by mounds of a mile and a half in circumference; and on the
little Miami, in the same state, is found an inclosure fully
four miles round, that contains an area of about 100 acres.
These remains are not solitary and few, for in the state
of Ohio they amount to at least 10,000.
The inclosures in the form ot animals are more rare than
those now noticed, and seem nearly confined to Wisconsin.
One of those represents a gigantic man with two heads, the
size of which may be estimated, by the body being 50 feet
long, and 25 feet aci’oss the breast. Another on a slope near
Bush Creek, represents a tolerably designed snake, with an
oval ball in its mouth ; the undulating folds of its body and
spiral of its tail extending to a length of 700 feet. The
forms of quadrupeds and birds are also characteristically re¬
presented in these works. Those that have been exploi ed
contain human bones; and though the Indians deposit their
dead within them occasionally, they have no tradition of
their having belonged to their ancestors. Ihe most pro¬
bable supposition respecting them is that of Mr R. C. Taylor,
that each was the sepulchral monument of a different ti ibe,
who have all disappeared from America.
The question immediately suggests itself, to what people
must we ascribe those vast works ? They can scarcely be
the works of the ancestors of the red men discovered by
Europeans in North America. Neither can we ascribe
them to the early Greenland and Iceland colonists, who
never seem to have passed westward of the Alleganies.
We can scarcely attribute them to the somewhat apocryphal
followers of the Whlsh Madoe. Can their authors be the
people obscurely mentioned in the Icelandic sagas, as the
inhabitants of New Iceland ?
A curious tradition of the present Iriquois records, that
when the Lenni Lenapi, the common ancestors of the Iri¬
quois and other tribes, whose language is still widely spread
among the Indians, advanced from the north-west to the
Mississippi, they found on its eastern side a great nation
more civilised than themselves, who lived in fortified towns
and cultivated the ground. This people at first granted the
Lenni Lenapi leave to pass through their territories to see
an eastward settlement; but treacherously attacked them
while crossing the river. This conduct gave rise to inve¬
terate hostilities, that terminated in the extermination or
subjugation of their opponents, and the establishment ot the
red men in those regions. This not improbable, though
imperfect account of such rude communities, where neither
letters nor hieroglyphics existed, is probably all that we
shall ever learn of the people who executed those works
that now excite our surprise.
As we advance southward, we find proofs of still greater
refinement on the table-land of Anahuac or Mexico; and
on descending into the humid valleys of Central Amenca,
the peninsula of Yucatan, and the shores of Honduras, we
find striking remains of the semi-civilisation of the races
that inhabited those countries before the Spanish invasion.
The barbarous policy of Cortez and other invaders, was to
eradicate every trace of the former grandeur of the native
races, thereby to inure them to a degrading servitude. ie
AMERICA.
697
America, systematic destruction of the native works of art and gor-
geous buildings in Mexico was relentlessly carried on for
ages, to the infinite regret of the modern ethnographical
inquirer. Little positive information on these subjects can
be gleaned from the early Spanish historians of the con¬
quest ; and it was not until the publication of Humboldt’s
Researches, that Europe knew anything of the state of the
Great Mexican pyramid, or of the wonderful remains of
Palenque and Papantla.
In the middle of the last century, however, some Spanish
adventurers penetrated with difficulty the dense forests of
the Mexican province of Chiapas, in which they discovered
the remains of an ancient city, of which all memory had
been lost, and to which they gave the name of Palenque,
from a poor adjacent village. Stimulated by their report,
the Spanish government some years afterwards despatched
two intelligent travellers to explore those wilds; but the
report of Del Rio and Du Paix, from the commotions that
agitated Europe and convulsed Spain, remained unpublished
until a few years ago. It has since appeared with very in¬
teresting designs of the ruins they explored. Our know¬
ledge of such remains, however, has been greatly enlarged
by the labours of an enterprising North American traveller,
Mr Stephens, given to the world in four volumes, entitled
Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas, and
Yucatan, 1838, and Incidents of Travel in Yucatan, 1842.
This gentleman has discovered, in the almost impenetrable
forests of those regions, the remains of no less than 44
towns, some of them with extensive and highly decorated
structures. These exhibit walls of hewn stone, admirably
put together with mortar, often enriched by sculptures in
bold relief, and hieroglyphical inscriptions, exactly resem¬
bling the Azteck MSS. in the museums of Europe, and in
the publications of Humboldt; well-executed vaulted roofs,
and obelisks covered with mythic figures, and pictorial or
hieroglyphical inscriptions. These curious remains have
been concealed for ages by a luxuriant tropical vegetation,
so dense that they seem to have been unknown to people
living within half a mile of their site.
The most conspicuous ruins seem to have been temples
or palaces, and almost invariably have a pyramidal form, in
several stages, with wide intervening terraces, the ascent to
which is by grand flights of steps. The chambers in those
buildings have generally a length disproportioned to their
width ; they have no windows, but receive their light from
the doors ; just as the rooms do at this day in Barbary and
some other eastern countries. The apartments are in two
parallel rows, a narrow corridor or series of chambers runs
along the front, and the apartments behind this receive their
light only from the front rooms into which they open. Yet
these interior apartments are often richly decorated with
sculptures, ornamented with stuccos, and gaily painted red,
vellow, white, and black.
The ruins of Palenque, as may be seen in the researches
of Humboldt, have the characters just mentioned. They
are covered with hieroglyphics, and sculptures in relief, with
ornamental cornices. The largest building stands on a
terrace, faced with stone, measuring 310 by 260 feet; the
building itself is 200 by 180 feet; its walls are 25 feet
high. The stone has been originally covered with painted
stucco ; fronts the east, and contains 14 doors, separated
by piers ornamented with stucco figures. In this building
some of the figures are erect, while others sit cross-legged,
in what we term the oriental fashion ; one statue, 10| feet
high, was found at Palenque; and two fragments of two
torsos and a head were also discovered that exhibited a
severe but fair style of sculpture, that recals somewhat of
the early style of Greek art.
The ruins at Copan, in Honduras, are of vast extent.
VOL. u.
Here a pyramidal structure remains, with an elevation of America.
150 feet measured along its slope, and this appears to be a
principal temple, included with several smaller structures
within a sacred inclosure, in the manner of the temples of
ancient Egypt. On its walls are many skulls of a quadru-
manous animal, well executed in high relief; a large figure
of a baboon was discovered among the ruins, bearing no in¬
considerable resemblance to the cynocephalus of the Egyp¬
tians. Here also several sculptured obelisks occur, from
11 to 13 feet in height, and from 3 to 4 feet wide, which,
as well as the walls of the temple, were highly ornamented
with sculptures in bold relief.
The similarity between the ruins at Copan and Palenque,
and the identity of the hieroglyphic tablets in both show
that the former inhabitants ot Chiapas and Honduras had
the same written language, though the present Indians of
those provinces do not understand each other.
At Labphak, but more especially at Uxmal, both in
Yucatan, are very magnificent ruins of the same kind.
Several sculptured obelisks are here, also bearing on their
principal face a figure of some deity probably, with a be¬
nignant countenance represented in full, and the hands ap¬
plied to the breast. The other sides of the obelisks are
covered with hieroglyphical tablets, proving that the same
race once inhabited the plains ot Honduras, and the table¬
land of Anahuac. The principal building at Uxmal seems
to have been a very magnificent pyramid in three stages or
terraces, faced with hewn stone, and neatiy rounded at the
angles. The first terrace is 575 feet long, 15 feet broad,
and 3 feet high, serving as a sort of plinth to the whole ;
the second terrace is 545 feet long, 250 feet wide, and 20
feet high; the third terrace is 360 feet long, by 30 feet
wide, and 19 feet in height. From the centre of the second
terrace, the upper part is gained by a vast flight of well-
constructed steps 130 feet wide. This leads to the temple,
the facade of which is no less than 322 feet long, but has
not had a greater elevation than 25 feet; yet its grandeur
is enhanced by the rich sculpture that covers the upper part
above a fillet, or cornice, that surrounds the whole building
at about half its elevation. The interior consists of two
parallel ranges of chambers, 11 in each row. The front
apartments are entered by 11 doorways, enriched with
sculpture, this gave sufficient light to those rooms ; but the
posterior row receives no light except what enters by their
doors from the exterior rooms. The roofs here, unlike those
of Palenque and Copan, are not stone arches, but are sup¬
ported on bearers of a very hard wood that must have been
brought from a distance of some hundred miles ; and these
beams too are covered with hieroglyphics. The flat roof of
this building has been externally covered with a hard ce¬
ment. In a building placed on a lower level, is a rectan¬
gular court, which has been once wholly paved with well-
carved figures of tortoises in dembrelief. These are ar¬
ranged in groups of four, with their heads placed together;
and from the dimensions of the court, this sola de las For-
tugas must have required 43,660 of such carved stones for
its pavement.
The ruins of Chichen, also in Yucatan, extend over an
area of two miles in circumference. One of the best pre¬
served buildings with an ambit of 638 feet, is constructed in
three terraces, which give it an apparent altitude of 65 feet.
The buildings here, on the second terrace, have the facades
highly sculptured, both above and below the horizontal fil¬
let; and the doorways are enriched with mouldings, and
^mss-like ornaments supporting a drip-stone. The staircase
here is 56 feet wide. The front apartments are 47 feet
and only 9 wide. There are three doors in the front, and
in the central apartment are nine niches. The roofs are
stone arches; and all has been once painted ot various
4 T
x
A M E R I C A.
698
America, colours. A curious adjoining structure consists of two pa-
rallel stone walls, 274 feet long, and 30 feet apart. The
walls are 30 feet thick. It has been conjectured to have
been connected with the celebration of some public games,
like the palcestrce of the Greeks.
In several of the ruins now noticed are found buildings
to which there is no access. They have doorways, but these
seem to have been walled up when the buildingswere erected.
Their use is unknown; they are named casas cerradas, or
“ shut up houses.” Their interior does not differ from the
other apartments above described.
It is worthy of notice, that the builders of those cities took
great pains to supply them with one of the prime essentials
of human comfort—abundance of good water, by means of
wells and cisterns of excellent construction.
The remains, in all the 44 ancient towns visited by Ste¬
phens, have a similar character; so that we can have no
hesitation to ascribe them to the same nation, or to kindred
races of men, who had certainly attained no inconsiderable
civilisation, although unacquainted with the use of iron, or
even of bronze. They seem to have been farther advanced
in the arts than even the inhabitants of the table-land of
Mexico at the period of the Spanish conquest. Can we
assign these ruins to the Toltecks, a people whom the
Mexican annals represent as inhabiting the table-land before
the Azteck invasion.
America The discovery of a continent so large that it may be said
discovered to have doubled the habitable world, is an event so much
by Norwe- the more grand and interesting, that nothing parallel to it
gians. can ever occur again in the history of mankind. America
had of course been known to the barbarous tribes of eastern
Asia for thousands of years ; but it is singular that it should
have been visited by one of the most enterprising nations of
Europe five centuries before the time of Columbus, without
awakening the attention of either statesmen or philosophers.
Iceland was discovered about 860, and colonized by the Nor¬
wegians in 874. About 50, or, according to other accounts,
100 years later, the same people planted colonies in Green¬
land. Into the disputes respecting the situation of these
colonies we have not room to enter. Sir Charles Gieseke,
a good authority, states that their ruins exist near the south¬
ern point of the peninsula. It is obvious that the same ad¬
venturous spirit which enabled these northern mariners to
discover the southern extremity of the country, would not
permit them to stop short without visiting what is now known
to be the most habitable part of it—the western coast; and
the fact has been established by an inscription in Runic cha¬
racters, found on a stone four miles beyond Upernavik, at
the 73d parallel, intimating that “ Erling, the son of Sigvat,
and Enride Oddsoen, had cleared that place and raised a
hillock on the Friday after Rogation day.” The marking of
the date is indistinct, but it is supposed by Professor Rask,
the translator, to be either 1135 or 1170; and the Runic
characters show at any rate that it was anterior to the Re¬
formation, when this mode of writing was prohibited.1 Who¬
ever looks at the map of Greenland, and reflects on the fact
that the Norwegians must have been ascending through
Davis’ Straits as high as the latitude mentioned, annually,
perhaps for two or three centuries, will admit that, with half America,
the spirit of enterprise which had carried them so far, the '
discovery of some portion of the west coast of these straits
was almost unavoidable. Now, the position and direction
of this coast once known, it required no great effort to trace
it southwards to Labrador and Newfoundland. We mention
these particulars, because Mr Murray, one of the few who
now deny the discovery of America by the Norwegians,
grounds his disbelief chiefly on the hypothesis that the colo¬
nies and the navigation of this people at the period alluded
to were confined to the east coast of Greenland.
In 1001 an Icelander sailing to Greenland, was driven
away by a tempest far to the south-west, where he saw a
level country covered with wood. The wind abating, he
turned his course homeward, and on his arrival gave such a
flattering account of the country he had seen, as induced
Lief, the son of the founder of the Greenland colony, to
undertake a voyage thither. Lief and Biorn, who sailed
together, first reached a rocky island, to which they gave
the name of Helluland; then a low country, thickly wooded,
which they called Markland; and some days afterwards they
found trees loaded with fruits on the banks of a river. They
spent the winter in the country ; and one of them, who was
a German, having found wild vines growing, they called it
Vinland. They had some intercourse, and traded for furs,
with a people who came in leathern boats, and were called
Skrcelings, from their dwarfish size. A colony was planted
and remained for many years in the country, the situation
of which is indicated by a fact casually mentioned, that the
sun remained nine hours above the horizon at the shortest
day. It should of course have been under the 41st parallel;
and this is the actual latitude of Rhode Island, the country
which every collateral circumstance would lead us to fix upon
as the seat of the colony. The Skraelings were of course
the Esquimaux.2 The vine appears to be the fox grape
(Vitis vulpina),'which grows wild in that part of America.
Only a few unimportant particulars respecting the settle¬
ment are preserved; but it was probably abandoned or
destroyed, like the Greenland colonies, of which it was an
offset. The account, though meagre, is distinct and consis¬
tent. Its authenticity can scarcely be disputed; and it is
almost equally obvious that the country it refers to under
the name of Vinland is in the vicinity of Rhode Island. A
conclusion resting on such strong grounds scarcely requires
to be supported by the high authority of Humboldt and
Malte-Brun. That the colony disappeared, and that the
discoveries made were not prosecuted farther, are not cir¬
cumstances which will shake the credit of the narrative in
the minds of those who know the numerous reverses which
befell the early colonies in New England and other parts of
America. The hostilities of the Skrgelings was no doubt
the principal cause of the abandonment of the colony. The
Norsemen describe Vinland as a rich country, with a de¬
lightful climate. Helluland, Markland, and Vinland, were
no doubt regarded as countries either connected with or
similar to Greenland, the flattering descriptions of which
given by the first discoverers were sadly belied by later ex¬
perience.3 The interest excited by the obscure accounts
1 Ferussac, Bulletin des Sciences Historiques, Juillet 1828.
See the curious works of Torfaeus called Vinlandia Antiqua, Hafn, 1705; and the valuable Antiquites Americancv, published at
Copenhagen in 1827. Also Humboldt’s Cosmos, vol. ii. p. 233 ; Sabine’s Transl 1848
M Rafn, a Dane, who has been engaged in researches respecting these early voyages, announces that he has ascertained, from ori¬
ginal documents, various facts previously unknown; among others, that America (first discovered in 985) was repeatedly visited by the
Icelanders m the 11th 12th, and 13th centuries ; that the embouchure of the St Lawrence, and in particular the bay of Gaspe, was their
principal station; that they had penetrated along the coast as far south as Carolina ; and that they introduced a knowledge of Chris¬
tianity aiming the natives. The announcement is contained in a letter addressed to a person in Washington, and published in Nile’s
Register (Baltimore), in November 1828. But M. Rafn has since found reason to change his opinion as to the site of the Icelandic co-
!ony; and he now considers that it was at the mou^i of the River Taunton, which falls into the sea in Narragansit Bay, at the north end
of Rhode Island. fa
A M E B I C A. 699
America, of these countries was probably such as the announcement
of a new island eastward of Spitzbergen would produce at
the present day. No reasonable doubt can exist, however,
that the north-eastern portions of America (considering
Greenland as a distinct country) were familiarly known to
the Norwegians in the eleventh century.
The obscure allusions of Aristotle, Plato, and Seneca, to
a country hid in the Western Ocean, must have derived fresh
importance from the discovery of the Canary Isles, Madeira,
and the Azores, in the early part of the fifteenth century.
The love of maritime adventure was excited by these events ;
and among the active spirits who were attracted to nautical
life by the career of distinction which was then opened up,
was Christopher Columbus. Our limits do not permit us to
enter into details respecting this great man, an outline of
whose life will be found under the proper head. Having
received a learned education, the study of the geographical
systems then in vogue impressed him with a strong convic¬
tion that a voyage to India by a course directly westward
was quite practicable, with the degree of nautical science
which his contemporaries possessed. From the old and im¬
perfect maps of Ptolemy, he was led to believe that the parts
of the globe known to the ancients embraced 15 hours, or
225 degrees of longitude, which exceeds the truth by more
than one third. The discovery of the Azores on the west
side had lengthened the space by one hour; and the accounts
gleaned by Marco Polo in Asia, induced him to think that
the isles connected with this continent stretched out so far
to the eastward that their distance from Europe could not be
great. Columbus was, however, without the fortune neces¬
sary to fit out ships ; and when he attempted to interest some
of the princes of those times in his project, he encountered
neglects and difficulties which would have exhausted the
patience of any mind less ardent than his own. At length,
after many delays and discouragements, Ferdinand and Isa¬
bella of Spain supplied him with three small vessels, two oi
them only half-decked ; and in this little armament, accom¬
panied by 120 men, he set sail from the port of Palos on the
3d of August 1492. He proceeded first to the Canary Isles,
where he was detained three weeks in repairing ^ne of his
vessels. On leaving these isles he entered on an unknown
sea, where all was chaos and mystery. The trade-wind,
however, bore him steadily along, and the labour of the ships
proceeded cheerfully, till the increasing length of the voy¬
age, the failure of prognostics which had from time to time
kept alive the hopes of the crew, and various circumstances
interpreted by their superstition as evil omens, produced a
mutinous spirit, which all the address and authority of Co¬
lumbus would not have been able to quell, had the discovery
of land happened one day later than it did. Columbus,
says Humboldt, on sailing westward of the merdian of the
Azores, through an unexplored sea, sought the east of Asia by
the western route, not as an adventurer, but according to
a preconceived and stedfastly pursued plan. He had on
board the sea chart which the Florentine astronomer, Tos-
canelli, had sent him in 1477. If he had followed the
chart, he would have held a more northern course, along a
parallel of latitude from Lisbon. Instead of this, in the hope
of reaching Zipangu (Japan), he sailed for half the distance
in the latitude of Gomera, one of the Canary Islands. Un¬
easy at not having discovered Zipangu, which, according to
his reckoning, he should have met with 216 nautical miles
more to the east, he after a long debate yielded to the
opinion of Martin Alonzo Pinzon, and steered to the south¬
west. The effect of this change in his course curiously ex¬
emplifies the influence of small and apparently trivial events
on the world’s history. If Columbus, resisting the counsel
of Pinzon, had kept his original route, he would have en¬
tered the warm current of the Gulf Stream, have reached
Florida, and thence perhaps been carried to Cape Hatteras America,
and Virginia. The result would probably have been, to give
the present United States a Roman Catholic Spanish popula¬
tion, instead of a Protestant English one, a circumstance of
immeasurable importance. Ponzen was guided in forming
his opinion by a flight of parrots towards the south-west.
Never, says the Prussian philosopher, had the flight of birds
more important consequences. It may be said to have de¬
termined the first settlements on the new continent, and its
distribution between the Latin and Germanic races. It was
on the 12th of October that the western world revealed it¬
self to the wondering eyes of Columbus and his companions.
What a triumph for this extraordinary man, who had trea¬
sured in his breast for twenty years, amidst neglect, dis¬
couragement, and ridicule, the grand truth, which his own
incomparable skill, wisdom, and firmness, had now demon¬
strated in the eyes of an incredulous world! The spot which
he first touched was Guanahani, or San Salvador, one of
the Bahama Islands, 3650 English miles from Teneriffe.
After spending nearly three months in visiting Cuba, His¬
paniola, and other isles, he returned to Spain. He made
three other voyages, and in the second coasted along a part
of South America, which he rightly judged to be a continent,
from the volume of water poured into the sea by the Orinoco ;
but he died ignorant of the real extent and grandeur of his
discoveries, still believing that the countries he had made
known to Europe belonged to that part of Eastern Asia which
the ancients called India. Hence the name of West Indies,
which the tropical islands and part of the continent have
ever since received.
We should extend this article to an unreasonable length Discover-
were we to describe in detail the discoveries and settlementsies and
made by the several nations of Europe in America. We colonies,
shall therefore confine ourselves to a very brief chronologi¬
cal notice of the more important events.
1495. The first place in which the Spaniards established
their power was the large island of Llayti or Hispaniola,
which was inhabited by a numerous race of Indians, of a
mild and gentle character, a third part of whom are said to
have perished within two or three years after the Spaniards
conquered them.
1497. John Cabot, in the service of Henry VII. of Eng¬
land, discovered Newfoundland, and coasted along the shores
of North America to Florida.
1500. Cabral, a Portuguese, visited the coast of Brazil,
and discovered the mouth of the Amazon. It was probably
colonised before 1515, as the first cargo of wood was sent
from it to Portugal in that year.
1508. Vincent Pinzon is said to have entered the Rio de
la Plata. It was in the same year that the Spaniards, find¬
ing the aborigines too weak for the labour of the mines in
Hayti, first imported negroes from Guinea, and thus laid
the foundation of a traffic which continues to this day to
disgrace the civilisation of Europe.
1511. Diego Columbus conquered the island of Cuba,
with 300 soldiers, of whom he did not lose one.
1513. Balboa crossed the isthmus of Darien with 290
men, and discovered the South Sea.
1519. Hernando Cortes sailed from Cuba with 11 ships
and 550 men, and landed on the coast of Mexico, which had
been discovered in the previous year. The conquest of the
empire was finished in 1521 by 950 Spaniards, assisted by
a vast number of the Indians of Tlascala.
1531. Peru invaded by Pizarro, and conquered in little
more than one year, with a force of 1000 men.
1534. James Cartier, a Frenchman, discovers the Gulf
of St Lawrence.
1535. Mendoza, a Spaniard, with 2000 followers, founds
Buenos Ayres, and conquers all the country as far as
x
AMERICA.
700
Colonies Potosi, at which silver mines were discovered nine years
after.
1537. Cortes discovers California.
1541. Chili conquered; Santiago founded; Orellana
sails down the Amazon to the Atlantic from the sources
of the Rio Napo.
1578. New Albion on the north-west coast of Ame¬
rica discovered by Sir Francis Drake.
1586. The Spaniards found St Thomas’s Island, in
Guiana.
1587. Davis’ Straits and Cumberland Islands discover¬
ed by John Davis.
1604. De Monts, a Frenchman, founded the first set¬
tlement in Nova Scotia, then called Acadie.
1607. After many ineffectual attempts during more
than twenty years, the first permanent settlement of the
English in North America was made this year, on the
banks of James’ River, in Virginia.
1608. Quebec founded by the French, who had had a
small neglected colony in Canada since 1542.
1611. Newfoundland colonized by the English; a Dutch
colony established at Hudson’s River. New York was
founded in 1614.
1618. Baffin penetrates to the 78th degree of latitude,
in the bay which bears his name.
1620. The first English colony established in New
England at Plymouth. It was in this year that the first
negroes were imported into Virginia. They were brought
by a Dutch vessel.
1635. A French colony established in Guiana.
1655. Jamaica conquered by the English.
1664. The Dutch colonies on Hudson’s River capitu¬
late to the English.
1666. The Buccaneers begin their depredations on the
Spanish colonies.
1682. William Penn establishes a colony in Pennsyl¬
vania. La Salle takes possession of Louisiana, in the
name of the French king.
1698. A colony of 1200 Scots planted at Darien, and
ruined in the following year, in consequence of the mi¬
serable jealousy of the English.
1733. Georgia colonized by the English.
1760. Canada, and all the other French settlements in
North America, conquered by the English.
We must pause at this point to give a very short ac¬
count of the colonial system introduced by the principal
European nations who occupied extensive tracts of the
British new world. The English settlements extended from
colonies, ^e 31st to the 50th degree on the east coast, and were
divided into 15 or 16 provinces. The colonists had car¬
ried the love of liberty characteristic of their country¬
men with them; and after many struggles with their Bri¬
tish rulers, all the provinces, with one or two exceptions,
were permitted to enjoy a form of government extremely
popular. The executive power was vested in a gover¬
nor appointed by the king. He was assisted by a council,
which sometimes conjoined the functions of a privy coun¬
cil and a house of peers. The people were represented by
a house of assembly, consisting of persons chosen by the
freeholders in the country parts, and the householders or
corporations of towns. The governor could levy no mo¬
ney without the consent of the house of assembly: the
British parliament, however, claimed, but scarcely ever ex¬
ercised, the privilege of imposing taxes upon the colonists,
without consulting them. Against this assumption of
power the local legislatures always protested as an in¬
fringement of their rights. The vessels of foreign states
were not permitted to trade with the colonies; but the
colonists were allowed to trade in their own ships with
one another, with the mother country, and, to a limited Colonies,
extent, with foreign states. Their taxes, which were'^~v^v-'
always small, were all consumed in defraying internal ex¬
penses ; and, compared with any other people in the new
world, they enjoyed an unexampled degree of commer¬
cial and political liberty. It was the growing prosperity of
the colonies, and the increasing debt of the mother country,
which induced the British ministers, for the first time, in
1764, to attempt raising a revenue in America, for purposes
not colonial. The experiment was made by imposing a
stamp-duty on newspapers and commercial writings. The
sum was trifling; but the Americans, long-sighted and
jealous of their rights, saw in it the introduction of a
principle which deprived them of all security for their
property. The people declared themselves against it as
one man, in local assemblies, and by petitions and publi¬
cations of all kinds. The ministers became uneasy, and
repealed the tax; but, as a salvo to the pride of the mo¬
ther country, a declaratory act was passed, asserting her
right “ to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever.”
The idea of raising a revenue in America was not re¬
nounced, but another mode was to be tried. Duties
were laid on glass, colours, paper, and tea, and were met
by an opposition in the colonies still more zealous and
determined. The British ministers, irritated, but waver¬
ing in their purpose, dropped all the taxes but that on
tea, and commenced at the same time a series of alarm¬
ing innovations. They closed the port of Boston, changed
the charter of the province, placed judges and juries on
a footing to render them more subservient to the views
of the government, and introduced a strong military force
to overawe the people. On the other side, the colonists
passed resolutions not to import or consume any British
goods, and hastened to supply themselves with powder
and arms. Blood was at length drawn in April 1775, at
the village of Lexington; and in the following year the
American congress published their celebrated declaration
of independence. We shall not enter into the details of
the war, which was closed in 1782. Suffice it to say,
that, on |he part of the Americans, it rested on high
grounds; it was a war to vindicate a principle—for the
practical grievance was admitted to be slight; and it was
conducted with a regard to humanity, of which there are
few examples in history.
The Spanish possessions in America, before the revolu-Spanish
tion, formed nine distinct governments, all constructed col°nies-
on the same plan, and independent of one another. Four
of these, of the first rank, were vice-royalties, viz. Mexi¬
co, Peru, La Plata, and New Granada; and five were
captain-generalships, viz. Yucatan, Guatemala, Chili, Ve¬
nezuela, and the island of Cuba. The government was
vested in the viceroy or captain-general, who was held to
represent the king, and to enjoy all his prerogatives
within the colony. But in these countries, as in others
where the supreme power is apparently unlimited, it was
indirectly restrained by the influence of the courts of jus¬
tice, corporations, and other public bodies. The royal
audiencias or supreme courts, consisting of Spaniards no¬
minated by the crown, had extensive judicial powers, and
were independent of the viceroys. The cabildos or mu¬
nicipalities, and the fueros or corporations (similar to our
guilds), also possessed considerable privileges, which de¬
rived security and importance from long prescription.
Lastly, the clergy, who were numerous and rich, neces¬
sarily possessed great influence among a superstitious
people. The vices inherent in the colonial system exist¬
ed in their utmost rankness in the Spanish American
dominions. There was tolerable security for all classes
except the miserable Indians, who were regarded and
AMERICA. 701
Colonies, treated precisely as beasts of burden, out of whose toil
--^N^-^and sufferings a provision as ample as possible was to be
extracted, first to supply the wants of the royal treasury,
and next to feed in idleness, and to satisfy the cupidity
of a countless shoal of public officers and priests. Edicts
were indeed issued for the protection of the Indians, and
persons appointed to enforce them ; but these were feeble
correctives to the evils rooted in the system, and not un-
frequently increased their weight. The Indians, after the
conquest, were at first slaves; they paid a capitation
tax to the crown, and their labour was entirely at the
disposal of their lord. This system was modified from
time to time ; but all the changes introduced down to the
revolution did not release them from their state of vas¬
salage. They still continued subject, in a less or greater
degree, to the performance of compulsory labour, under
the orders of persons over whom they had no control.
This was an enormous grievance; but, what was equally
bad, being held incompetent in law to buy or sell, or en¬
ter into any pecuniary engagement beyond the value of a
few shillings, without the agency of white men, the swarm
of public functionaries had an unlimited power of inter¬
fering in their concerns, of vexing, harassing, and plunder¬
ing them, under the forms of law. The memoir of Ulloa,
long buried amidst the Spanish archives, with various
other documents published since the revolution, depicts
acts of extortion, perfidy, cruelty, and oppression prac¬
tised upon the Indians which have rarely been paralleled.
Men rose to affluence in offices without salaries; and the
priests rivalled the laymen in the art of extracting money
from those whom they ought to have protected. As the
sole aim of the Spaniards in the colonies wTas to enrich
themselves, so the government at home made all its acts
and regulations subordinate to the grand object of raising
a revenue. Spain retained in her hands the whole trade
of the colonies, and guarded her monopoly with the most
severe penalties. The price of all European commodities
was enhanced three, four, or six fold, in America. The
colonists were not allowed to manufacture or raise any
article which the mother country could supply; they
were compelled to root up their vines and olives ; and for
a long period one colony was not even permitted to send
a ship to another. To support such a system it was ne¬
cessary to keep the people in profound ignorance, and to
cherish prejudices and superstition. The schools were ex¬
tremely few, and permission to establish them was often
refused, even in towns where the Spaniards and Creoles
were numerous. The importation of books, except books
of Catholic devotion, was rigorously prohibited. Even
the more grave and dry sciences, such as botany, che¬
mistry, and geometry, were objects of suspicion. And
the more effectually to crush all mental activity, natives
of America could rarely obtain leave to go abroad, to
seek in foreign countries what was denied them in their
own. On the other hand the priests, sharing in the spoil,
filled the minds of the people with childish superstitions,
as a means of confirming their own power; and employed
the terrors of religion to teach them patience under op¬
pression. To create a race of servants devoted to its
purposes, the court bestowed all offices, from the highest
to the lowest, on natives of the peninsula exclusively.
The wisdom of the plan seems questionable; but that it
was adhered to with wonderful pertinacity is certain. “ It
was the darling policy of Spain,” says Mr Ward, “ to dis¬
seminate through her American dominions a class of men
distinct from the people in feelings, habits, and interests,
taught to consider themselves as a privileged caste, and to Itevolu-
reo-ard their own existence as intimately connected with tions.
that of the system of which they were the principal sup-v-^'"v~Sw'
port.” With all those means and appliances, it is extra¬
ordinary that Spain should have been able to uphold, for
three centuries, a system in which the interests of so
many millions of human beings were so habitually and un¬
relentingly sacrificed. It was the course of events, much
more than its own inherent weakness, which ultimately
caused its subversion.1
After the seizure of Ferdinand, and the elevation ofRevolu-
Joseph Buonaparte to the throne of Spain, orders were dis-tio? in
patched to all the colonies with the view of securing their
obedience to the new dynasty. The men in office were
generally disposed to submit, but the treacherous conduct
of the French excited a universal hatred of their cause
among the people ; and when the regency established in
Spain presented the semblance of a patriot government,
the loyalty of the Americans blazed forth, and poured
large contributions of money into the hands of Ferdi¬
nand’s adherents. The weak and suspicious conduct of
the regency, however, and its subserviency to the grasp¬
ing spirit of the merchants of Cadiz, at length alienated
the colonists, and roused them to take measures for their
own security. But the diversity of views and interests
among the colonists rendered the course to be adopted a
matter of some delicacy. Ferdinand, being a prisoner,
was, politically speaking, a nonentity. Napoleon’s brother
was clearly an usurper, odious to, and rejected by, the mass
of the Spanish people. The regency, shut up in Cadiz,
without troops or revenue, was but a phantom; and the
little power it had was so employed as to raise doubts
whether its members were not secretly in league with the
enemy. In these circumstances, when the only govern¬
ment to which the colonists owed allegiance had fallen
into abeyance, the wisest course they could have pursued
was to declare themselves independent. This would at
once put a stop to the machinations of France, which they
dreaded, and prevent the regency from compromising or
sacrificing their interests by its weakness or treachery.
The Spaniards, however, who occupied all public situa¬
tions, were averse to a change which they foresaw must
lead to the downfall of their power. This was perfectly
understood by the other classes; and in the first move¬
ments which took place in the different colonies, nothing
was said derogatory to the supremacy of Spain, though
independence was clearly aimed at. By spontaneous ef¬
forts of the people “ juntas of government” w^ere form¬
ed, at Caraccas in April 1809, at La Paz in Upper Peru
in July, at Quito in August, at Santa Fe and at Bue¬
nos Ayres in May 1810, and at Santiago in Chili in
September the same year. In 1810, also, the first insur¬
rection broke out in Mexico. The colonists unluckily had
been too long the slaves of superstition and tyranny to
be fit for conducting so bold an experiment; and after a
struggle, which was generally short, but almost every¬
where bloody, the juntas were all put down except in
Colombia and Buenos Ayres. But in the stir and tumult
of the contest, old prejudices had received a shock, and
the seeds of political change had struck their roots too
deep in the soil to be eradicated. A desultory war was
carried on for six years between Buenos Ayres and Up¬
per Peru, with little advantage on either side. At length,
in 1817, the former state, which had assumed the style of
an independent republic four years before, sent an army
across the Andes to Chili, under General San Martin, and
* Mexico, by H. G. Ward, Esq. vol. i. chap. L 2d edition. Memoirs of General Miller, vob i. chap. i. 1828.
x
AMERICA.
702
Revolu- defeated the Spaniards at Chacabuco. A second victory,
tions. gained at Maipo in April 1818, led to the entire subver-
sion of the Spanish power in this colony. The war was
now transferred to Peru, where the Spaniards continued
to lose ground, till the decisive battle of Ayacucho put
an end to their power in December 1824. Rodil and
Olaveta, with the obstinacy of their nation, held out for
some months longer, when every chance of success was
gone; but after the surrender of Callao in January 1826,
the Spanish flag no longer waved on any spot in the land
of the Incas.
Colombia. In New Granada and Venezuela the struggle was more
bloody, variable, and protracted than in any other part
of South America. As this portion of the dominions of
Spain was comparatively easy of access, and from its cen¬
tral position was in some measure the key to the whole,
she made immense efforts for its preservation. No less
than ten thousand troops were sent out to it within the
course of one year. The patriots, on the other hand, pos¬
sessed advantages here, in the greater intelligence of the
population, and the easy intercourse with the West In¬
dies. From 1809, when juntas were established in Ca-
raccas and Quito, to the surrender of Porto Cabello in
1823, the vicissitudes of the war were numerous and ex¬
traordinary. The patriots were repeatedly on the eve of
a complete triumph, and as often the state of their affairs
seemed nearly hopeless. But the spirit of resistance never
was entirely subdued. The cause was rooted in the hearts
of the people, and was insensibly gaining ground even
during its reverses. To attempt the faintest outline of
the military operations would lead us beyond our proper
limits. It is enough to state, that the decisive victory of
Carabobo, gained by the patriots in 1819, gave them an
ascendency which they never afterwards lost; but the
Spaniards, according to their custom, continued to main¬
tain the contest as long as they had a foot of land in the
country, and were only finally expelled in 1823.
Mexico. In Mexico the revolutionary movement began at Do¬
lores in 1810, and soon wore a very prosperous appear¬
ance ; but the weakness or false pride of the Creoles, who
were cajoled into the ranks of their oppressors the old
Spaniards, armed against the patriots those who should
have been their firmest supporters; and by one or two
mischances, the force of the independent party was ruin¬
ed in November 1815, when Morelos, their able leader,
was taken prisoner and executed. For six years after
this period many guerilla bands maintained themselves in
the provinces, and greatly annoyed the Spaniards ; but
they did not act in concert, and no congress or junta
professing to represent the Mexican people existed.
Even during this interval the desire for independence was
making great progress among the population ; but the
establishment of a constitutional government in Spain in
1820, and its extension to the colonies, gave a new aspect
to the affairs of Mexico. The viceroy Apodaca, while
outwardly yielding obedience to the new system, was
silently taking measures to effect its overthrow; but mis¬
taking the character of the agent he employed, this per¬
son, the celebrated Iturbide, turned his own arms against
him, proclaimed a constitution, under the name of “ the
three guarantees,” and put an end to the dominion of
Spain in 1821, almost without bloodshed. Iturbide, who
had nothing in view but his own aggrandizement, called a
congress, which he soon dissolved, after getting himself
proclaimed emperor. His usurpation kindled a spirit of Itevoiu-
resistance. He was exiled in 1823, made a new at- tions.
tempt on the liberties of his country in 1824, was taken
prisoner, and expiated his crimes by a military death
within a few weeks after he landed.1
Guatemala was the last portion of the American con-Guate-
tinent which threw off the Spanish yoke. In 1821 the mala,
persons in office assembled and formed a junta. Divi¬
sions arose, which were fomented by the intrusion of a
Mexican army sent by Iturbide. This force, however,
was beaten, and an elective assembly called, which de¬
clared the country independent, and established a consti¬
tution in July 1823. Spain now retains none of her pos¬
sessions in the new world but Cuba and Porto Rico.
It is impossible for any one to read the narrative of the Cruelty of
wars produced by these revolutions, without having a the Span-
conviction forced upon him, that the Spaniards rank fariari^s-
below all the Christian nations of Europe, not except¬
ing the Russians, in those moral qualities which are the
surest tests of civilisation, a respect for human life, and
a strict regard to engagements, whether binding on the
honour or the conscience. The executions in cold blood,
the countless massacres, the treachery, perfidy, and con¬
tempt of the most solemn oaths and engagements, of
which they were guilty, in every colony, and almost in
every district, are, we believe, without a parallel in the
modern civilized world, and strongly remind one of the
barbarous and exterminating hostilities of the Jenghis
Khans and Tamerlanes of Asia. The Indians were de¬
stroyed by thousands on the slightest provocation; and
even the officers of European birth who fell into the
hands of the Spaniards, were either shot or brutally
treated, long after the period when any pretext existed
for disregarding the rules of civilized war. More blood,
we are satisfied, was shed by Morillo alone in one year,
in the single state of Venezuela, than in the thirteen
North American states during the seven years of their
revolutionary struggle. The patriots, bred in the same
school, were too often equally culpable. General Miller
estimates the number of human beings destroyed by the
sword in Spanish America between 1810 and 1825 at one
million ! This is probably an exaggeration ; but it merits
attention, as showing the opinion formed by an observer,
who, though a partisan, is both candid and well inform¬
ed.2
The government of Brazil was conducted by the For- Brazil,
tuguese on a system extremely similar to that of the
Spanish colonies. The monopoly which the mother coun ¬
try retained of the commerce of the colony was equally
rigorous; the restrictions on its internal industry as se¬
vere ; and the same means were employed to keep the
people in a state of pupilage and ignorance. Down to
1806 a single printing press had never existed in Brazil.
In 1807, when the emperor Napoleon had resolved to
possess himself of Portugal, and if possible to get the
royal family into his power, the king, seeing no other
means of escaping from the clutches of his enemy, em¬
barked with his suite in several ships, and sailed for Bra¬
zil, where he arrived in January 1808. He was received
with joy by the colonists, who anticipated great benefits
from his residence, of which they were not disappointed.
One by one the fetters of colonial dependence fell off.
Within a few months printing presses and newspapers
were established, the ports were open to the trade of all
1 Ward’s Mexico, vol. i. p. 93-210.
* Memoirs of General Miller 2 vols. 1828. Geographical, Statistical, Agricultural, Ac. Account of Colombia, 2 vols. London, 1822.
Miers Travels in Chili and La Plata, 2 vols. 1826'.
AMERICA. 703
New nations, and the people were invited and encouraged to
States, prosecute all those branches of internal industry from
which they had till now been interdicted. To crown and
secure these advantages, Brazil was declared an inde¬
pendent kingdom in 1815, subject to the crown of Portu¬
gal, but entitled to its separate administration and its own
laws. The revolutionary spirit pervading the Spanish
colonies now found its way into Brazil, and produced an
insurrection at Pernambuco in 1817. It was soon sub¬
dued, but received a new impulse from the constitutional
systems suddenly introduced into Spain and Portugal in
1820. To quiet the popular feeling, it was announced
that the Portuguese constitution would be extended to
Brazil. Before this had been done, however, the old king
had sailed for Europe, leaving his son Don Pedro to rule
in his absence. The people now discovered, or believed,
that the object of the king was to degrade Brazil again to
the rank of a colony, and to restore the old system in all
its rigour. Meetings were held and resolutions adopted,
to maintain the independence of the country at all ha¬
zards; and the patriots, gaining confidence by degrees,
called loudly for the establishment of a legislature, and
besought Don Pedro to put himself at the head of the
independent government. Ambition or policy induced
Pedro to listen to the solicitation: in 1822 he was pro¬
claimed emperor, and had his own title and the indepen¬
dence of Brazil acknowledged by his father three years
afterwards. A representative system was at the same
time introduced. An unlucky war now arose with Buenos
Ayres, which weakened both countries; but it was at
length terminated in 1828, by the recognition of the dis¬
puted territory as an independent state, under the title of
the Banda Oriental.
Having finished this brief notice of the series of revo¬
lutions which broke the fetters of America, we shall now
give a very short sketch of the new political order of
things which has arisen out of these changes, referring for
a detailed account of the several states to the articles ap¬
propriated to them in the different volumes of the present
work.
America, with its isles, embraces at present (1853)
twenty-two independent states, and various colonies belong¬
ing to seven European powers. The states are, 1. Brazil;
2. Venezuela; 3. New Granada; 4. Ecuador or Quito; 5.
Peru; 6. Bolivia or Upper Peru; 7. Chili; 8. La Plata,
or the Argentine Republic ; 9. Uruguay ; 10. Entre Rios ;
II. Paraguay; 12. Patagonia; 13. Costa Rica; 14. Mos-
quitia; 15. Guatemala; 16. Honduras; 17. Nicaragua ; 18.
San Salvador ; 19. Mexico ; 20. United States; 21. Hayti;
22. Dominica. The colonies belong to Russia, Britain,
Denmark, Sweden, Holland, France, and Spain. Patagonia
is merely the geographical name of a district occupied by
independent tribes of Indians ; Mosquitia, or the Mosquito
coast, is a small Indian state ruled by a native king; and
Hayti is a Negro state ruled by a black emperor. For de¬
tailed accounts of these various states and colonies, we refer
to the articles under the proper heads. At present, we must
confine ourselves to a brief notice of the more important ones.
Brazil is the largest state in South America, and enjoys
the greatest combination of natural advantages. It is
bounded on the south, west, and north, by La Plata, Para¬
guay, Uruguay, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, New Granada,
Venezuela, and Guiana. Embracing an area of 3,000,000
English miles, it is nearly as large as Europe, and is capable
of supporting a much greater population. Its climate is
probably cooler and more salubrious than that of any other
extensive tropical country; and every part of its soil is rich
and fruitful, as its magnificent forests and the exuberance
and boundless variety of its vegetable productions attest.
Its commercial advantages are admirable. No country in New
the new world has the same facilities for carrying on in- States,
tercourse with Europe, and with all its neighbours. The ‘v'—
Amazon, with its numerous branches, the Parana, the To-
cantin, the St Francisco, and other streams, supply the most
remote parts of the interior with easy means of communi¬
cation with the sea. Brazil possesses iron, copper, and pro¬
bably all the other metals; but her mines of gold and dia¬
monds are remarkably rich. Her most valuable productions
for exportation are, cotton, sugar, coffee, hides, tobacco,
vanilla, dyewoods, aromatic plants, timber, &c. Her com¬
merce is much greater than that of all the Spanish colonies
put together. The Brazilians are lively, irritable, hospitable,
but ignorant, superstitious, and rather inclined to indolence.
Their recent acquisition of independence, however, has
worked like a charm, and produced an extraordinary change
in their industry, opinions, and modes of thinking. Lancas-
terian and other schools are spreading in all directions; the
press brings forth new publications ; and 25 journals existed
in 1828, in a country where the art of printing was unknown
in 1807. According to the constitution introduced by Don
Pedro, the legislature consists of a senate of 52 members,
who hold their places for life, and a house of representatives
of 107, elected by the people for three years ; upon the acts
of both of which bodies the emperor has a negative. The
members of the lower house are chosen by elections of two
stages. The householders of a parish meet and appoint one
elector for every hundred of their number, and the electors
thus chosen meet in districts and choose the deputies. The
debates are conducted with open doors, and with much bold¬
ness and freedom, according to Mr Vv alsh.
The population of Brazil amounted to 3,671,558, accord¬
ing to returns published in 1818, and procured probably for
the purpose of taxation. This was exclusive of the wander¬
ing Indians. In 1823 it was estimated at 4,000,000 by
Humboldt. M. Schceffer, a German, carries it to 5,700,000,
but a more recent estimate (1848) reduces it to 5,000,000,
including 3,500,000 slaves, and 500,000 free persons of
colour, but excluding the savage tribes.
Brazil, unlike the Spanish American provinces, has re¬
mained subject to its ancient sovereign; and its govern¬
ment, from being colonial, has become imperial and inde¬
pendent, without any violent revolution. The result has
been greatly in favour of the peace and prosperity of the
country. See Brazil.
The portion of South America next to the isthmus in¬
cludes the states of Venezuela, New Granada, and Ecuador.
From 1820 it formed one state under the name of Colombia,
till 1831, when a separation took place ; but for the sake of
brevity, we shall here speak of the three together. The
territories of these three states are bounded on the south by
Peru, on the south-east and east by Brazil and Guiana, on
the other sides by the sea, and embrace an area of 1,020,000
square English miles. The soil is fruitful, and the climate
salubrious, except along the coast and in a few other lowr
situations. The eastern part consists chiefly of the llanos
or steppes of the Orinoco, which are very hot; the western,
of the mountain ridges of the Andes, which support tracts
of table-land where the blessings of a temperate climate are
enjoyed, and the cerealiami' Europe can be successfully cul¬
tivated. The tropical vegetation extends to the height of
4000 feet; from 4000 to 9000 is the region where wheat,
barley, and leguminous plants thrive. Above the level of
9000 feet the climate becomes severe ; and at 15,700 feet
vegetation ceases. The situation of New Granada is highly
favourable for commerce. It has excellent ports on both
seas; and being mistress of the isthmus of Panama, it has
superior facilities for establishing a communication from the
one to the other. The Orinoco and the Amazon afford the
\x
AMERICA.
704
New inmost districts of Venezuela and Ecuador the advantages
States. 0f water-carriage to the ocean. The Cassiquiari, an inter-
mediate channel, by which the Orinoco anastomoses or con¬
nects with the Amazon (a remarkable hydrographical pheno¬
menon), is within the limits of Venezuela. The territory
contains much gold and silver ; the former in alluvial depo¬
sits : it has mines of copper and mercury also, with platinum,
iron, and coal. Its tropical productions are similar to those
of Brazil; but it has as yet cultivated few articles for foreign
markets, and its exports are inconsiderable. The civilised
population of this country is chiefly located in the districts
near the coast, and in the high valleys or table-land of the
Andes. Its amount, according to the Almanac de Gotha, is,
Venezuela   986,000
New Granada 2,138,000
Ecuador   665,000
3,789,000
It is always of importance to know in what proportions the
different races are blended; but on this subject we have data
only for New Granada, whose inhabitants are thus classified :
Whites   13 per cent.
Mestizoes (from whites and Indians) 23
Indians (civilised)    26
Mulattoes 32
Negroes, free or slaves   5
The governments of all the three states are republican.
See Venezuela, New Granada, and Quito (or Ecua¬
dor).
La Plata. La Plata, or the Argentine Republic, is, in point of natu¬
ral advantages, the second state of importance in South
America. It is bounded on the west by Chili; on the north
by Bolivia, Paraguay, Entre Rios, and Uruguay; on the
east and south by the sea. It embraces an area of 950,000
square miles, if we include in its territories Tucuman, Salta,
Santiago del Estero, and Jujuy, which scarcely acknowledge
its authority. Nearly the whole territory of this republic
consists of open plains destitute of timber, called pampas,
extending from the Atlantic and the river Paraguay to the
Andes. The eastern part of these plains exhibits a vigorous
growth of herbage, intermixed with a forest of gigantic plants
9 or 10 feet high, which have been called thistles, but are
now known to be artichokes : in the middle they are covered
with grass; and the western division, which extends to the
foot of the Andes, consists of barren sandy plains, thinly
sprinkled with shrubs and thorny trees. The openness
and dryness of the country, however, render it healthy;
and by the Parana, the Paraguay, and their branches, it
possesses a great extent of natural inland navigation. It
has mines of gold, silver, copper, lead, and probably iron;
but its mineral riches have been greatly diminished by the
separation of Potosi, Cochabamba, La Paz, and other pro¬
vinces, now forming part of Bolivia. The force of this re¬
public lies almost entirely in the wealth, intelligence, and
commercial spirit of its capital, Buenos Ayres, which con¬
tains 80,000 souls, including a large proportion of foreigners.
A small number of estancias, or grazing farms, are sparingly
diffused over its boundless plains, the proprietors of which
keep multitudes of horses and mules, flocks of sheep, and
vast herds of cattle ; the latter being chiefly valued for their
skins. These people are a bold, frank, hardy, half-civilised
race, who live isolated in the wilderness, and scarcely ac¬
knowledge any government. Since the separation of Bo¬
livia, the population probably does not exceed 750,000.
See Plata, La ; and for the three small states formed out
of the north-eastern portion of its territory, see Paraquat,
Entre Rios, and Uruguay.
Chili extends along the coast of the Pacific, from 25° to
44° of south latitude: its length is 1300 miles; its breadth
varies from 30 to 120; and its surface, exclusive of Arau- New
cania and the district beyond the 44th parallel, is 66,960 States,
square miles, according to Mr Miers. The country consists
properly of the western slope or declivity of the Andes ; for
the branches of the mountains, running out in tortuous di¬
rections from the main trunk, reach to the sea-shore. It
enjoys an excellent and healthful climate ; severe cold is un¬
known in the inhabited parts, and the heat is seldom exces¬
sive. The useful soil bears a small proportion to the entire
surface of the country, consisting merely of the bottom of
the valleys. It has rich mines of gold, silver, and copper in
the northern provinces; but very few of them can be worked,
in consequence of the absolute sterility of the adjacent
country. Its two northern provinces, occupying 450 miles
of the coast, are nearly perfect deserts. The soil continues
extremely dry, and yields nothing without irrigation, till we
reach the latitude of 35°; and it is believed that not one-
fiftieth part of the country is fit for cultivation. But south
of the river Maule the land is covered with fine timber, and
bears crops of wheat and other grain, without the aid of any
other moisture than what is supplied by the atmosphere.
This is in truth the fine and fruitful part of Chili; and the
project was once entertained of selecting its chief town, Con¬
ception, for the seat of the government. Chili has no manu¬
factures, and is unfavourably situated for commerce. It has
no navigable rivers, while its mountainous surface is an ob¬
stacle to the formation of roads; and its communications
with all other parts of the world are circuitous and diffi¬
cult. A representative constitution was established in Chili
in 1823. An enumeration dated 1844 makes the popula¬
tion 1,080,000. See Chili.
Peru is a continuation of the country which forms Chili, Peru,
consisting of the western declivities of the Andes, from the
4th to the 22d degree of south latitude, with the addition of
a considerable tract on the east side of the mountains, be¬
tween the 4th and 15th parallels. There are few countries
in the world which have a more singular physical character
than the western part of Peru. It is a belt or zone of sands,
1700 miles in length, and from 7 to 50 in breadth, with in¬
equalities of surface which might be called mountains, if they
were not seen in connection with the stupendous back ground
of the Andes. This long line of desert is intersected by
rivers and streams, which are seldom less than 20 or more
than 80 miles apart, and on the sides of which narrow strips
of productive soil are created by means of irrigation. These
isolated valleys form the whole habitable country. Some of
the large rivers reach the sea; the smaller are either con¬
sumed in irrigating the patches of cultivated land, or absorb¬
ed by the encompassing desert, where it never rains, where
neither beast nor bird lives, and a blade of vegetation never
grew. No stranger can travel from one of these valleys to
another without a guide, for the desert is trackless ; and the
only indications of a route are an occasional cluster of bones,
the remains of beasts of burden that have perished. Even
experienced guides, who regulate their course by the stars,
the sun, or the direction of the wind, sometimes lose their
path, and they almost inevitably perish. Of a party of 300
soldiers thrown ashore by a shipwreck in 1823 on one of
these desert spaces, nearly a hundred expired before they
reached the nearest valley. Ignorance and wonder have
been busy with this singular region: legends are current,
which tell that descendants of the ancient Peruvians have
lived in some of these mysterious valleys, hid from the know¬
ledge of their merciless invaders, since the days ot the In¬
cas. We have no reason to believe that more than one
acre in a hundred of maritime Peru will ever be available
for the sustenance of mankind. The country has two ad¬
vantages—its mines of the precious metals, and a temperate
and delightful climate, in consequence of the absence ot rain,
AMERICA.
705
New and the fogs which intercept the solar heat. It can never
States, be rich in the proper sense of the term, or make much pro-
—gress in the improvements which depend upon a dense popu¬
lation. Like Chili, it has no navigable rivers—and nature
has deprived it of the means of forming good roads. There
are indeed few countries in the world whose natural advan¬
tages have been so much overrated as Peru ; and it requires
little sagacity to discover that its future career cannot cor¬
respond with its past celebrity. The districts east of the
Andes, which have a hot climate, accompanied with a rich
soil, will ultimately be the most valuable part of the country ;
but their secluded situation, and want of communication with
other countries, must keep them long in a backward state.
The government is republican. Peru comprehends a surface
of 350,000 square miles ; the capital, Lima, contains 70,000
inhabitants; and the entire population of the state is given
as under by General Miller:—
Whites   240,819
Indians   998,846
Mestizoes   383,782
Free Mulattoes   69,848
Slaves   43,628
1,736,923
A more recent account makes it 1,374,000. See Peru.
Bolivia. Bolivia, or Upper Peru, lies eastward of Lower Peru, and
is bounded on the south by the Argentine Republic, and on
north and east by Brazil. It is of an irregular form, and
comprehends a space of 480,000 square miles. The climate
is pleasant and healthful, the soil is generally dry, and in the
eastern parts, as well as the elevated table-land, its aridity
produces barrenness. Nature, however, as a compensation
for its other disadvantages, has bestowed upon it some of
the richest mines in the world. The country was erected
into an independent state only in 1825, and named Bolivia
in honour of its liberator Bolivar. It has a small strip of
barren territory on the shores of the Pacific Ocean, between
the 22d and 25th parallel; but it is, properly speaking, en¬
tirely an inland country, and more deficient in the means of
communicating with foreign nations than any other state in
America. See Bolivia.
Guate- Guatemala or “ Central America” originally occupied all
mala. the narrow part of the continent, from the 83d to the 94th
degree of west longitude, extending 800 miles in length, and
covering a space of 130,000 square miles. The surface of
the country is hilly, and in most parts mountainous; the
climate warm and very moist. The mineral wealth of the
country is not great; but this is compensated by the rich¬
ness of its soil, and its excellent commercial position. It
was a federal republic, but its five provinces have now be¬
come independent states. Humboldt estimated the popula¬
tion of the five states at 1,600,000. According to a state¬
ment furnished to Mr Thomson, a former British envoy, by
the government, it was 2,000,000; while Mr John Baily,
whose work on “ Central America” was published in 1850,
reduces it to 1,437,000, viz.:—
Guatemala   600,000
St Salvador   280,000
Honduras   236,000
Nicaragua   226,000
Costa Rica   95,000
The proportions
ed as follows :—
1,437,000
of the different races have been estimat-
Humboldt. Thomson.
Whites and Creoles   20 20
Mixed classes   28 40
Indians   52 40
VOL. II.
Mexico is the most populous and powerful of all the new New
states erected in America since the commencement of the States,
present century. Previous to the late war with the United
States it embraced an area of 1,600,000 square miles, which Mexico,
was reduced to 1,000,000 by the cession of the northern
provinces in 1848. About three-fourths of the surface con¬
sists either of mountains or table-land, raised from 5000 to
10,000 feet above the sea. Owing to this extraordinary
elevation, even those parts of the country which lie within
the torrid zone (the low ground on the coast excepted) en¬
joy a dry, cool, and salubrious atmosphere ; but this advan¬
tage is counterbalanced by the insufficient supply of moisture,
and the rapid evaporation resulting from the same cause,
which render the soil generally rather arid, and in many
parts absolutely barren ; by the smallness of the rivers, and
the almost entire absence of inland navigation; and by the
obstacles which the steep and rugged ascents from the coast
present to land-carriage. The republic is besides almost
destitute of ports on the Atlantic side. Mexico is extremely
rich in the precious metals ; and there are few regions upon
which nature has lavished so great a variety of vegetable
productions, or where plants fitted to the coldest and the
hottest climates may be seen so nearly in juxtaposition.
The low ground on the east coast is admirably calculated
for raising sugar ; and no country is more favourably situ¬
ated for growing the other great articles of West India pro¬
duce : coffee, cotton, cocoa, indigo, and tobacco. The rais¬
ing of bread-stuffs, as they are termed by the Anglo-Ame¬
ricans, wheat, maize, and barley, with potatoes, the cassava
root, beans, pumpkins, fruit, &c., for domestic consumption,
will necessarily be the chief branch of industry on the table¬
lands. The mines have never employed above 30,000 la¬
bourers ; and their superior productiveness depends chiefly
on two circumstances—the great abundance of the ore, which
is only of poor quality, and the comparative facility with
which they can be worked, owing to their being generally
situated in fertile districts, where, provisions, wood, and all
materials can be easily procured.
Mexico has her full share of the ignorance and supersti¬
tion which belonged to Old Spain ; and these evils, with her
internal dissensions, and her rapacious, immoral, and intole¬
rant clergy, are great obstacles to her improvement. That
excessive inequality of fortune which corrupts both extremes
of society was nowhere in the world more prevalent than
in Mexico. Individual proprietors possessed immense tracts
of land and boundless wealth, while all the great towns
swarmed with beggars, and thousands fell a sacrifice to fa¬
mine from time to time. The Mexican constitution, which
is federal, and almost a literal copy of that of the United
States, was established in 1824. The distinction of castes,
which was maintained in the greatest rigour under the colo¬
nial system, has now disappeared, and power and office are
open, not only legally but practically, to men of all colours.
The African blacks formed an extremely small proportion
of the Mexican population at all times; and since the revo¬
lution slavery has ceased. The number of inhabitants was
estimated at 6,800,000 by Humboldt in 1823, and classed
as follows:—
Numbers. Proportions.
Whites  1,230,000 29 per cent.
Mixed races  1,860,000 27
Indians  3,710,000 54
Mr Ward states that very few of the whites, so called, are
free of a mixture of Indian blood ; and now when the odious
distinctions founded on complexion are abolished, they
readily acknowledge it. Mr Ward estimated the population
at 8,000,000 in 1827, and, since the loss of the northern
provinces, we find it put down at 7,200,000. See Mexico.
We have said nothing respecting the produce of the gold Mines.
4 u
x
706
AMERICA.
New and silver mines in the different parts of America, because
States. our object was to bring the information on this subject into
*one short general statement. The following table, given
by Humboldt, exhibits the average produce of all the gold
and silver mines in the new world about 1803.
Mexico  
Peru  
Chili  
La Plata  
Colombia (New Granada)
Brazil 
Pure
gold
marks.
7,000
3,400
12,212
2,200
20,505
29,900
Pure
silver
marks.
2,338,220
611,090
29,700
481,830
Value of
both in
dollars.
23,000,000
6,240,000
2,060,000
4,850,000
2,990,000
4,360,000
75,217 3,460,840 43,500,000
In English money ,....L.8,700,000
The Spanish mark, in which the quantity is expressed in
the first two columns, is valued at 145,82 dollars in gold,
and at 9*4 dollars in silver. This branch of industry has
been injured more deeply than any other during the late
wars. The great exertions required to maintain the mines
free of water, the amount of capital necessary to keep them
working, and the facility with which violent hands could be
laid upon their produce, all rendered these establishments
extremely liable to suffer from domestic convulsions. Mr
Ward computes, that in the 15 years between 1810 and
1825, the annual produce of the Mexican mines did not ex¬
ceed 10,000,000 of dollars, or about two-fifths of their ave¬
rage annual produce during the 15 years preceding. In
Brazil, the washings have probably experienced no interrup¬
tion. Humboldt computes the whole produce of the Ame¬
rican mines from 1492 to 1803 to be 5,706,000,000 dollars,
or L.1,255,000,000, of which only 4^ per cent, was retained
in America, and 5,445,000,000 dollars (L.l,197,900,000),
or 95£ per cent., was remitted to Europe.
A great auriferous deposit was discovered in Upper Cali¬
fornia in the end of 1847, just before its formal cession to
the United States. It is situated in the valley of the Sacra¬
mento River, and its principal branch the Joaquin, and is be¬
lieved to extend over a range of country 200 miles in length
or more. The gold is found in its virgin state in small grains,
in three different situations; firstly, in sand and gravel beds;
secondly, among decomposed or disintegrated granite; and
thirdly, intermixed with a friable talcose slate standing in
vertical strata, and containing white quartz, interlaminated or
in veins. The largest pieces of gold are found in and near
the talcose slate rocks, over which the streams flow; but
the finer particles and scales have been carried down by the
water to the lowest part of the valleys. It was known before
that gold existed in the country; but the wonderful rich¬
ness of the deposit was only discovered in 1847, in making
a mill-race on American Fork, a small branch of the Sacra¬
mento. It soon became widely known, and attracted mul¬
titudes of persons, first from the neighbouring districts, and
by and by from all parts of the world. The population,
which was estimated at 15,000 in 1848, had increased to
92,000 in 1850, and in December 1852 was found to be
305,000. As to the produce of the Californian “ diggings,”
we find that an officer of the United States Treasury de¬
partment estimated the value of the gold obtained down
to the commencement of 1852 at 150,000,000 dollars, or
L.30,000,000, and the annual produce 64,500,000 dollars,
or about L.l 3,000,000, but for 1852 it was expected to be
L.15,000,000. The annual supply of the precious metals
from the new world appears therefore to have been nearly
doubled by the Californian “ diggings.”
The estimate just mentioned forms part of a statement
prepared by an officer of the Treasury at Washington, in
answer to a demi-official inquiry as to the total produce of the
gold and silver mines of the world (except Australia) since
1492. It forms a proper supplement to Humboldt’s tables.1
Estimate of the precious metals from 1492 to 1852.
America, exclusive of the United States  $6,877,833,800
California, received at Mint $98,408,000
California, foreign exports, manu¬
factured, &c  51,592,000
Other United States gold at Mint 15,855,000
Ditto not brought to Mint  1,145,000
Total United States   167,000,000
Total America  $7,044,833,800
Europe and Asia, exclusive of Russia   1,755,000,000
Russia   213,581,000
Total production, 1492 to 1852  $9,013,414,800
In English money L.l,800,000,000
The present annual product of the precious metals, the writer
estimates as follows:—
All South America     $30,710,000
Add for any probable increase, according to the
best authorities  3,290,000
Hungary, Saxony, and Northern Asia  4,000,000
Russia, at the highest estimate of late years  20,000,000
Africa and South Asia (a rough estimate)  1,000,000
Carolina, Georgia, &c  500,000
California  64,500,000
Total  $124,000,000
In English money L.24,800,000
The United States were colonised a century later than United
Spanish America; but their brilliant and rapid progress States,
shows in a striking light how much more the prosperity
of nations depends on moral than on physical advantages.
The North Americans had no gold mines, and a territory of
only indifferent fertility, covered with impenetrable woods;
but they brought with them intelligence, industry, a love of
freedom, habits of order, and a pure and severe morality.
Armed with these gifts of the soul, they have converted the
wilderness into a land teeming with life, and smiling with
plenty; and they have built up a social system so pre-emi¬
nently calculated to promote the happiness and moral im¬
provement of mankind, that it has truly become the “ envy
of nations.” The republic is bounded on the north by
Canada, on the south-west by Mexico, and on the other
sides by the sea or the Indian lands. It now consists of
thirty-two sovereign states, and of three territories, which
will be converted into states as soon as each acquires a po¬
pulation of 60,000 souls. The extent of the country, if we
include the Indian lands stretching wrest to the Pacific Ocean,
over which it claims a right of pre-emption, embraces an area
of 3,260,000 square miles. The agriculture of the United
States partakes to some extent of a tropical character. I he
sugar-cane is cultivated in Louisiana, Florida, and other
states, as high as the latitude of 31^°. Cotton is raised in
all the southern states within the 37th parallel, and tobacco
2 Hunt’s Commercial Magazine (New York) for 1852, p. 91.
A M E li I C A.
707
New in those within the 41st. Wheat succeeds in the middle
States, and northern states, and maize thrives in every part of the
union. Agriculture is conducted with considerable skill; but
the “ high farming” practised in England would not pay in
America, where money is of much value, and land of little.
Scarcely any portion of the soil is rented in the United
States : the farmers are almost universally proprietors ; and
when their property is extensive, which rarely happens, it is
soon broken into small occupancies, under the law of equal
division. The Americans are making considerable progress
in manufactures, particularly in those of cotton. The me¬
chanical skill which has been developed in England, by cen¬
turies of progressive industry, is rapidly transplanted to the
United States by crowds of emigrants ; while the increas¬
ing use of machinery is depriving England of the superiority
derived from her cheap labour. In the useful arts generally
America is on a level with France and England; in the fine
arts and the sciences she is much behind. The internal
commerce of the United States is conducted with extraor¬
dinary spirit. The capital expended on roads, canals, har¬
bours, bridges, and other public works, appears scarcely
credible to those who reflect on the short term of the re¬
public’s existence. The extent of her foreign trade and the
amount of her shipping, place her next to Great Britain on
the list of commercial nations.
The population of the United States ini 23 191000
1850 was by census j ’ ’
In 1800 it was  5,306,000
Increase in 50 years  17,885,000
If the rate had been uniform for the half century, the
annual increase must have been 2’996 per cent.; but at pre¬
sent (1852) the immigrants from foreign countries amount
to fully 300,000, or three-sevenths of the annual increase,
only the other four-sevenths being due to the natural growth
of the population. The whites numbered 19,557,271 in
the census ; the free coloured population 429,710 ; and the
slaves 3,204,093.
In Florida and South Carolina the slaves are rather more
numerous than the whites, but they are less numerous in
the other states. Slavery does not exist in the states of
Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Vermont, Rhode
Island, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, New Jer¬
sey, Indiana, Illinois, Ohio, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Cali¬
fornia ; and it is verging towards extinction in Delaware
and Maryland. The slaves multiply as fast as the whites,
a proof that their treatment is incomparably more mild
than in the West Indies, where their numbers constantly
diminish.
The American government is a pure representative de¬
mocracy, in which the people are recognised as the fountain
of all power; and the sole object of all its mechanism is
to give effect to their deliberate opinions. The federal and
state governments are constituted on the same plan. The
legislature consists in every case of two bodies, a house of
representatives chosen for one or two years, and a senate
for a period varying from two years to six ; but both always
by popular election, except in the case of the federal senate,
which is chosen by the legislatures of the twenty-four states.
The president holds his office for four years, but is occasion¬
ally re-elected for four years more. While the politicians
of Europe, bred in the schools of monarchy and aristocracy,
have been predicting anarchy and confusion as the result of
these republican institutions, their solid excellence has been
quietly developing itself, in the cheering spectacle which the
United States present of perfect order, security, and con¬
tentment, combined with growing intelligence, prosperity,
and unrivalled liberty.
There is no national church in America, and yet religion
is in a flourishing condition in all the populous parts of the
country. The most numerous denominations are, the Pres¬
byterians, Independents, Baptists, and Methodists.
The characteristic facts in the condition of America are,
the non-existence of titles, of privileged classes, of corpora¬
tions in our sense of the term, of a landed aristocracy, of
mendicity except to a very limited extent, and of an en¬
dowed church ; the cheapness and efficiency of its govern¬
ment, the universality of education, the omnipresence of its
periodical press, the high feeling of self-respect which exists
in the very humblest classes, and the boundless spirit of en¬
terprise which pervades society from top to bottom. The
higher classes are less polished than in England, the middle
are perhaps less carefully instructed; but the American
people, taken collectively, are better educated, and have
more intelligence and manliness of character, than any other
nation in the world. The master evils of the republic are
its insecure and ever fluctuating paper currency, and the
negro slavery, which blackens and benumbs all the southern
states.
The portion of the American continent claimed by the British
British is bounded on the south by the territories of the America.
United States, on the north by the Polar Sea, on the west
by the Russian territories, from which it is divided by the
meridian of 141° west. It contains an area of 2,600,000
square miles, of which about one-half may be habitable, and
one-seventh part tolerably fertile ; but the districts which
have been marked out into counties or townships, and in
which settlements are begun, form a very small portion of
this immense region. Of these the latest return (1851) is
as follows:—
New
States.
Area, square
miles.
Lower Canada  250,000
Upper Canada  105,000
New Brunswick   
Nova Scotia 1
Cape Britain)
Prince Edward’s Island.
Newfoundland  35,913
Vancouver    16,000
27,700
18,742
2,134
Population.
904,000
952,000
211,473
276,117
62,348
100,000
11,463
455,493 2,517,401
See Canada, &c.
Russian America comprises the north-west angle of the Russian
continent, as far as the 141st meridian west from London, America,
with a narrow strip of coast reaching as far south as 55^° of
north latitude. It occupies a surface of about 500,000
square miles, of which the useful soil probably does not con¬
stitute a tenth part. The Russians have merely a number
of posts or factories stationed along the coast for conducting
the trade in furs, which gives these possessions their only
value. New Archangel, in latitude 57’3° and longitude
ISS^O0 west, is the head establishment. It is a fortress,
with a small garrison and 40 pieces of cannon. Owing to
the rigour of the climate, this portion of America can never
support more than a very limited population.
Hayti, called formerly Hispaniola and St Domingo, wasHayti.
a colony belonging partly to France and partly to Spain,
till 1791, when the blacks rose in arms, killed a number of
whites and expelled the rest. The attempt of England in
1793, and of France in 1801, to conquer the island, both
failed, and Hayti has at length been acknowledged as an
independent state by all the great powers, including France.
The island, which contains about 26,000 square miles, is
remarkably fertile; but its climate, like that of the West
Indies generally, is rather unhealthful. The population,
>
708
AMERICA.
Wost
Iiidies.
Colonies, which before the revolution was estimated at 600,000, is
now said to amount to 900,000 or 1,000,000, and it is almost
entirely composed of blacks and mulattoes. The island
formed one state till 1843, when the eastern or Spanish
portion revolted, and established its independence. It is
now (1852) the republic of “Dominica,” ruled by a presi¬
dent, while the western portion, retaining the name of
Hayti, constitutes an empire under Faustin I. After long
negotiations, the French government agreed in 1838 to ac¬
knowledge the independence of Hayti, on condition of the
latter paying 60,000,000 of francs, by small annual instal¬
ments continued for 30 years. The money was destined
chiefly to indemnify the French proprietors who were chased
from the island in 1791.
The multifarious nature of the subject prevents us from
attempting any description of the West India colonies, in¬
sular and continental. The islands have been variously
denominated, but the most convenient division seems to us
the following:—1. The Great Antilles, comprehending Cuba,
Hayti, Jamaica, and Porto Rico; 2. The Small Antilles,
extending in a semicircle from Porto Rico to the coast of
Guiana; 3. The Bahama Isles, about 500 in number, but
only a small number of which are inhabited.
The British colonies are 18 in number, viz., 15 insular,
Jamaica, Antigua, Barbadoes, Dominica, Grenada, Mont¬
serrat, Nevis, St Kitts, St Lucia, St Vincents, Tobago,
Tortola, Trinidad, Bahamas, Bermuda; and 3 continental,
Demerara, Berbice, Honduras. The colonies contained a
population of 972,000 in 1851, of whom probably four-fifths
were persons of colour.
The Almanac de Gotha assigns to Cuba a population of
898,752 in 1851 and to Porto Rico 288,000. Other autho¬
rities make it considerably greater. According to a recent
Spanish writer, the different classes stand thus in Cuba :—
Whites and Creols 42 per cent., slaves 43, free persons of
colour 15 per cent.
The French colonies in the West Indies include Marti¬
nique, Guadaloupe, and some smaller isles, and on the con¬
tinent Guiana. According to a recent authority, the popu¬
lation of these colonies in 1841 was 277,000, of whom 183,780
were slaves.
The Dutch have Surinam on the continent, with the
islands of Curaqoa, St Eustatius, and St Martin. The collec¬
tive population of these possessions, according to the Alma¬
nac de Gotha for 1853, was 90,581, of whom probably three-
fourths are slaves.
The Daneshave the small islandsof Santa Cruz, St Thomas,
and St Martin, containing a population of 39,614 in 1850, of
whom five-sixths are slaves. St Bartholomew, another of
the lesser Antilles, belongs to Sweden.
Humboldt gave the following estimate of the entire popu¬
lation of America in 1823:—
Number.
Whites 13,471,000
Indians  8,610,000
{“SZ} 6.433,000
Mixed races  6,428,000
Proportion.
38 per cent.
25
19
18
34,942,000
Putting together the populations assigned to the several
states in the preceding pages, the total amount for 1850
is 52,800,000, and the increase since 1823 is almost entirely
confined to the United States.
The black population of America, including negroes and
mulattoes, forms three groups, the centres of which are in
the southern parts of the United States in the West India
islands, and in the eastern parts of Brazil:—
In the United States (slaves and free) 3,624,000 Popula-
In West Indies 2,400,000 tion-
In Brazil 2,800,000
8,824,000
The number of blacks in all the other parts of America
probably does not amount to 100,000. Slavery brings two
evils with it, which strike at the roots of national prosperity ;
it produces an aversion to labour in the free population, and
it renders person and property insecure. We may there¬
fore safely predict, that the countries where the African race
most abound will be the most unimproved and backward
part of the American continent a century hence.
One of the most interesting questions connected with Increase of
America relates to the increase and probable amount, at aP°l)ula‘
future period, of its inhabitants. It was the astonishing pro- 1 n'
gress of the United States that first clearly unfolded the
principles on which the multiplication of human beings de¬
pends. We now know with certainty that a prosperous com¬
munity, possessing abundance of unoccupied land, will double
its numbers in 25 years, without any aid from emigration ;
and as the scale ascends in a geometrical ratio, a short time
necessarily produces a wonderful change. It is to be ob¬
served, however, that the civilised white population of the
United States, possessing the advantages of superior industry,
order, and forethought, naturally increases faster than the
other classes. It increases at the rate of 3 per cent, per an¬
num. The inhabitants of Spanish and Portuguese America,
composed of men in whom Indian and European blood are
mingled, possess a far lower degree of civilisation, and the
principle of growth operates among them much more feebly.
In the thirty years which have elapsed since they achieved
independence, the addition to their numbers has been ex¬
tremely small, probably not exceeding one-fifth. Even if
their governments were becoming less anarchical, their low
intellectual and moral character is a formidable obstacle to
their progress, and we doubt whether under the most favour¬
able circumstances they will double their numbers in less than
a century. Let us assume, however, that they multiply at
the rate of one per cent, per annum, and in this case they
will double their numbers in 75 years. Experience shows
that the independent indigenous tribes moulder away where-
ever they come into juxtaposition with the civilised races.
As for the black population, it does not maintain its num¬
bers in the West Indies, nor probably in Brazil, while in the
United States it grows rapidly. At present we shall throw it
out of our estimate, as it forms only one-sixth of the whole ;
and taking the other portions of the civilised or settled popu¬
lation as given above, let us count forward, and take a conjec¬
tural peep into the future of the New World.
The problem is, what will be the number of the inhabitants
of the new continent two or three centuries hence, and of
what races will it consist ? Setting aside the negroes to
simplify the question, and the savages, who will gradually
disappear, it is evident that the soil of America is destined
to be occupied by two races, who may be designated as the
Anglo-Saxon and the Spanish-Indian. In the latter the
Indian blood greatly predominates, for the Creoles or pure
progeny of the Spaniards probably do not constitute more
than 20 per cent, of the population, while the civilised In¬
dians may amount to 50, and the Mestizoes to 30.
The whites in the United States were in 1850 19,500,000
The population of British America,   2,500,000
22,000,000
The population of Spanish and Portuguese
America, exclusive of slaves, was in round
numbers,   20,000,000
AMERICA.
Popala- The Anglo-Saxon population in America increases at 3
tion. per cent, annually, and doubles its numbers in 25 years.
Its amount in 1850 was   22,000,000
In 1875 it will be  44,000,000
In 1900,   88,000,000
In 1925,  176,000,000
A population of 176,000,000 spread over the territories
of the United States and Canada, would only afford an
average of 40 persons to each square mile, about l-7th part
of the density which England now exhibits, and could occa¬
sion no pressure. But let us suppose the rate of increase
after 1925 to fall to 2 per cent., the period of doubling will
then be 35 years.
In 1960 the number will be  352,000,000
In 1995 do. do 704,000,000
Suppose the rate again to decline to 14 per cent., which
scarcely exceeds that of England and Prussia, the period of
' doubling will then be 50 years.
In 2045 the number will be 1,408,000,000
In 2095 do. do 2,816,000,000
Let us now compare with this the growth of the Spanish-
Indian population, doubling its numbers in 75 years.
Its present amount is   20,000,000
In 1925 it will be  40,000,000
In 2000 do  80,000,000
In 2075 do 160,000,000
In 2095 (interval of 20 years) 200,000,000
It hence appears that, supposing both races to have free
space for expansion, the Anglo-Saxon population in 240
years from the present time will amout to 2816 millions,
while the Spanish-Indian population will only have multi¬
plied to 200 millions, or one-fourteenth part of the other.
It will be shewn by and by on probable grounds, that the
new continent if fully peopled could support 3600 millions,
and there would consequently be room enough for both ; but
long before this density is attained, the two races will inevi¬
tably come into collision. In new settlements, where the
best lands are invariably first occupied, and the inferior ne¬
glected, the population is always thinly diffused. The Anglo-
Saxons will therefore crowd to the richer fields of the south,
while millions of acres of their own poorer lands are still un-
tenanted. For we may rest assured that before cultivation
is extended to the third-rate soils on the north side of the
boundary, means will be found to appropriate the first-rate
soils on the south side. These may be acquired by purchase
like the lands of Louisiana, or by conquest like those of New
Mexico and California, but in one way or another they will
be acquired. Nearly twenty years ago M. de Tocqueville
calculated that along the great space from the Gulf of Mexico
to the Canadian Lakes the whites were advancing over the
wilderness at an average rate of 17 miles per annum, and
that enlightened observer was powerfully impressed by the
grandeur and solemnity of this deluge of men, for ever swell¬
ing and flowing onward, to the west, the south, and the north,
as “driven by the hand of God.” Since he wrote the rate
of progress has perhaps doubled, and every year will quicken
its pace. If, then, we take a glance at the state of America
at any future period, say 240 years hence (a.t>. 2095), we
must take the ratio of increase of the two civilised races as
the prime element of our calculation. We may assume that
the whole continent from Behring’s Straits and Hudson’s Bay,
to Cape Horn, will be divided between the two races in
some such proportion as their rate of growth indicates,—it
maybe 10, 15, or 20 to 1. Supposing them to maintain a
separate existence, the weaker race will probably be driven,
like the Welsh before the English, into the mountainous and
inhospitable regions. On the other hand, it is possible, and
not improbable, that the smaller population may be absorbed
into the mass of the greater, be incorporated with it, and
709
adopt its language. The result, like other things in the America,
womb of time, may be modified by causes yet unseen ; but
in whatever shape it may present itself, there is little risk in
predicting that the Anglo-Saxon race is destined by its su¬
perior intelligence and energy, to rule the new world from
end to end. American statesmen now speak of the whole
continent as the heritage of their people. Even thirty years
ago the government of the United States formally announced
that it would resist by force any attempt of a European
power to plant a neiv colony on the Western continent.
The problem as to the future fate of the negroes in the
United States is one of difficult solution, and the difficulty
arises mainly from the fact that they multiply as fast as the
whites. If, like the blacks of Brazil or Cuba, their num¬
bers constantly fell off, or even continued stationary, while
the whites increase as they now do, the result would be,
that in a century the negroes would form only a 50th or a
100th part of the population, a proportion quite insigni¬
ficant. That they do increase at three per cent, per annum,
in spite of hard labour, poor fare, and exposure to the ele¬
ments in a subtropical climate, while among the working-
classes of Britain the rate is little more than one per cent.,
and among those of France only the half of one per
cent., is a result which could not have been anticipated.
An explanation of the anomaly is not easily found; but
there are two circumstances to which a certain influence
may be attributed : 1^, The disgraceful practice of breed¬
ing slaves for sale (as horses are raised for the market) is
now established in the Southern States, and prevails exten¬
sively ; 2dly, The strict discipline maintained on slave-
estates, with its attendant regular habits and enforced so¬
briety, will prevent, or greatly lessen, the mortality arising
from intemperance, which operates so fatally on the Indian
tribes, and to a great extent also on the free negroes. De
Tocqueville informs us that the mortality is greater among
the free negroes than among the slaves, and that, in the ten
years ending 1831, the proportion of deaths in Philadelphia,
was twice as great among the blacks as among the whites.
It thus appears that a part of the increase among the
negroes is not natural but factitious, and that slavery as it
exists in the United States, both multiplies the number,
and lengthens (comparatively) the lives of those who are
subject to it. It follows that the emancipation of the blacks,
which Jefferson declared to be “as certain as any thing in
the book of fate,” will, when it takes place, check their in¬
crease, and may even positively reduce their number, as
freedom in juxtaposition with the Europeans is daily thin¬
ning the number of the Indians. The proprietors of the
Southern States are as sensible of the evils of slavery as
those of the northern ; and emancipation would come much
sooner if a dread were not felt of filling the country with a
demoralised population, such as the liberated negroes are
found to be. To meet the difficulty the colony of Liberia
was established on the west coast of Africa in 1820, and two
or three thousands of the free blacks have since then been
sent thither. Its affairs have been conducted with good
order, and it has even been found instrumental in checking
the slave trade on the shores of Africa. But the free ne¬
groes have shewn little desire to return to the land of their
ancestors, and the expense of conveying them across 5000
miles of ocean is a serious objection. Cuba seems destined
to fall into the hands of the Americans at no distant day,
and from its great extent could afford room for all the blacks,
bond and free, in the United States. Perhaps a new Li¬
beria might be planted there with better hopes of success.
As for the amalgamation of the two races, to which some ugeful goil
look forward, the most enlightened observers deem it all but .n New an(3
impossible. Old Conti-
Paradoxical as the fact may appear, we are satisfied thatnents.
x
710
AMERICA.
America, the new continent, though less than half the size of the old,
v—contains at least an equal quantity of useful soil, and much
more than an equal amount of productive power. America
is indebted for this advantage to its comparatively small
breadth, which brings nearly all its interior within reach o
the fertilizing exhalations of the ocean. In the old conti¬
nent, owing to its great extent from east to west, the cen¬
tral parts, deprived of moisture, are almost everywheie de¬
serts; and a belt round the western, southern, and eastern
shores, comprises nearly all that contributes to the support
of man. How much fruitful land, for instance, is there in
Continental Asia? If we draw a line from the Gulf of
Cutch (near the Indus) to the head of the Yellow Sea, we
cut off India and China, with the intervening Birman em¬
pire, and the southern valleys of Thibet; and this space,
which comprises only about one-fifth of the surface of Asia,
embraces five-sixths of its productive power. Arabia,
Persia, Central Thibet, Western India, Chinese and Inde¬
pendent Tartary, are deserts, with scattered patches of use¬
ful soil not amounting to the twentieth part of their extent.
Siberia, or northern Asia, is little better, owing to aridity
and cold together. Anatolia, Armenia, the Punjab, and a
narrow strip along the western shores of the Pacific Ocean,
north as far as the 60th parallel, compose the only valuable
agricultural territory beyond India and China. Europe,
which is merely the western margin of Asia, is all fruitful in
the south ; but on the north its fruitfulness terminates at the
60th or 62d parallel. Africa has simply a border of useful
soil round three-fourths of its sea-coast, with some detached
portions of tolerably good land in its interior. Of the
31,000,000 of square miles which these three continents
occupy, we cannot find, after some calculation, that the pro¬
ductive soil constitutes so much as one-third, and of that
third a part is but poor.
Now, in estimating the useful soil in America, we reject,
1. all the region northward of the latitude of 53°, amounting
to 2,600,000 square miles ; 2. a belt of barren land about
300 miles broad by 1000 in length, or 300,000 square miles,
lying on the east side of the Rocky Mountains ; 3. a belt of
arid land of similar extent situated on the east side of the
Andes, between 24° and 40° of south latitude ; 4. the desert
shore of Peru, equal to 100,000 square miles; 5. an extent
of 100,000 square miles for the arid country of Lower Cali¬
fornia and Sonora; and, 6. an extent of 500,000 square
miles for the summits of the Andes and the south extremity
of Patagonia. These make an aggregate of 3,900,000,
square miles; and this, deducted from 13,900,000, leaves
10,000,000 square miles as the quantity of useful soil in the
new world.
Ratio of Now, what relation does the fruitfulness of the ground
latitude t0 ^)ear t0 t^e Gthude of the place ? The productive powers
of the soil depend on two circumstances, heat and moisture ;
and these increase as we approach the equator. First, the
warm regions of the globe yield larger returns of those plants
which they have in common with the temperate zones ; and,
next, they have peculiar plants which afford a much greater
portion of nourishment from the same extent of surface.
Thus, maize, which produces 40 or 50 for one in France,
produces 150 for one on an average in Mexico; and Hum¬
boldt computes that an arpent (five-sixths of an acre), which
will scarcely support two men when sown in wheat, will
support fifty when planted with bananas. From a consider¬
ation of these and other facts, we infer that the productive
or rather nutritive powers of the soil, will be pretty correctly
indicated by combining the ratios of the heat and the mois¬
ture, expressing the former of these in degrees of the centi¬
grade scale. Something, we know, depends on the distri¬
bution of the heat through the different seasons ; but as we
do not aim at minute accuracy, this may be overlooked.
Latitude.
60
45
0
Annual rain,
inches.
16
29
96
Mean an¬
nual heat.
7
14
28
Product.
112
406
2688
Ratio.
4
15
100
America.
Thus, if the description of food were a matter of indiffer¬
ence, the same extent of ground which supports four persons
at the latitude of 60°, would support 15 at the latitude of
45°, and 100 at the equator. But the food preferred will
not always be that which the land yields in greatest abund¬
ance : and another most important qualifying circumstance
must be considered,—it is labour which renders the ground
fruitful; and the power of the human frame to sustain labour
is greatly diminished in hot climates. In the torrid zone,
in low situations, we doubt if it is possible for men to work
regularly in the fields for more than five hours a day, or half
the daily period of labour in England. On these grounds,
and to avoid all exaggeration, we shall consider the capacity
of the land to support population as proportional to the third
power of the cosine (or radius of gyration) for the latitude.
It will therefore stand thus in round numbers:—
Latitude, 0° 15° 30° 45° 60°
Productiveness, 100 90 65 35 12^
In England the density of population is above 300 per¬
sons per square mile ; but England is in some measure the
workshop of the world, and supports, by her foreign trade,
a greater population than her soil can nourish. In France
the density of population is about 160; in Germany it varies
from 100 to 200. Assuming, on these grounds, that the
number of persons whom a square mile can properly sustain,
without generating the pressure of a redundant population,
is 150 at the latitude of 50°, we have 26 as the sum which
expresses the productiveness of this parallel. Then taking,
for the sake of simplicity, 35 as the index of the productive¬
ness of the useful soil beyond 30° in America, and 85 as that
of the country within the parallel of 30° on each side of the
equator, we have about 4,000,000 square miles, each capable
of supporting 200 persons, and 5,700,000 square miles, each
capable of supporting 490 persons. It follows, that if the
natural resources of America were fully developed, it would
afford sustenance to 3,600,000,000 of inhabitants, a number
nearly five times as great as the entire mass of human beings
now existing upon the globe! The novelty of this result
may create perplexity and doubt on a first view; but we are
satisfied that those who investigate the subject for themselves
will be satisfied that our estimate is moderate. But, what
is even more surprising,—there is every probability that
this prodigious population will be in existence within three
or at most four centuries. We are quite aware of the ob¬
jections which may be raised to this conclusion, but they
all seem to us to admit of an answer. In particular, we would
observe, that the expense and difficulty of transporting men
from situations where they are redundant, to others where
vacant space exists, which is so much felt in the Old World,
will be incredibly facilitated by the employment of steam-
navigation upon the innumerable rivers which are ramified
over four-fifths of the New Continent.
The imagination is lost in contemplating a state of things
which will make so great and rapid a change in the condi¬
tion of the world. We almost fancy that it is a dream; and
yet the result is based on principles quite as certain as those
which govern the conduct of men in their ordinary pursuits.
Nearly all social improvements spring from the reciprocal
influence of condensed numbers and diffused intelligence.
What, then, will be the state of society in America two
centuries hence, when two thousand millions of civilised
men are crowded into a space comparatively so narrow, and
when this immense mass of human beings speak only two
languages, perhaps only one! Such a state of things may
AMERICA. 711
America, be said to undo the curse of Babel, and restore the great
mass of mankind to their pristine facility of intercourse ; for
the languages spoken by the communities of Europe and
Asia will be as unimportant then, in the general scale of the
globe, as the dialects of Hungary, Finland, and Bohemia,
are in Europe at this day. History shows that wealth, power,
science, literature, all follow in the train of numbers, gene¬
ral intelligence, and freedom. The same causes which
transferred the sceptre of civilisation from the banks of the
Euphrates and the Nile to Western Europe, must, in the
course of no long period, carry it from the latter to the plains
of the Mississippi and the Amazon. When we reflect on
these changes, which are not more extraordinary than they
are near and certain, the conviction is forced upon us, that
society, after all its advances, is yet but in its infancy; that
the habitable world, when its productive powers are regarded,
may be said hitherto to have been an untenanted waste;
and that we have at present only an imperfect glimpse of
the state of things under which the true destiny of man,
and the grand scheme of providence in this lower world, is
to receive its full development. We are quite aware that
some will smile at these speculations; but if any one sus¬
pects us of drawing on our fancy, we would just request him
to examine thoroughly the condition and past progress of the
North American republic. Let him look at its amazing
strides in wealth, intelligence, and social improvement; at
its habits of order, combined with an indomitable love of
liberty ; at its marvellous instinct of self-government, which
has made the founding of a new state in the wilderness as
easy and peaceful an undertaking as the building of a house
or the planting of a vineyard ; let him look at the prodigious
growth of its population ; and let him answer the question,
“ what power can stop the tide of civilisation which is pour¬
ing from this single source over an unoccupied world ? ”
Let him trace the laws on which this progress depends, and
let him then apply them to unfold the future history of so¬
ciety in the new continent.
Proposed The project of joining the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
canal at by a canal carried across the narrow part of the American
Isthmus, continent, has often excited the attention of statesmen and
commercial men. This canal, if executed upon a scale suf¬
ficient to admit vessels of 300 or 400 tons, would have a
powerful influence upon the fate of America. For all the
purposes of commercial intercourse it would bring the east
and west sides of the continent within one-third part of their
present distance from one another; and would be of even
more advantage to the New World than the discovery of the
passage to India by the Cape has been to the Old. It has
also been proposed to accomplish the same object by a boat
canal, or by a railroad, and four different routes have been
recommended. A digest of the surveys and explorations
connected with these, and an estimate of their comparative
merits, has been published in the Journal of the Geogra¬
phical Society (vol. xx. 1851), by Captain Fitzroy, R.N.
From this our materials are derived.
1. The Isthmus of Tehuantepec, at 941° west longitude.
The distance from sea to sea in a straight line is 140 Eng¬
lish miles, the surface has few great inequalities, and the
lowest summit level is about 700 feet above the sea. The
climate is said to be rather better than at the parts of the
isthmus farther eastward, and there is a settled population,
though not very numerous, from whom labour might be ob¬
tained. On the other hand, there is no port at either end
of the line, the rivers are small, and barred at their mouths
by sand-banks, and the length of the route, as well as the
elevation of its summit level would render the execution of
a railroad or a canal too expensive to permit the hope of
even a moderate remuneration for the outlay. The project
however, has found warm support in the United States, as it
would render available by far the shortest maritime route to America.
California. A survey has been made, and a cession of the
necessary quantity of land has, we believe, been obtained.
2. The Nicaragua route, at 11° of north latitude. The
first portion of this is the river San Juan, which flows from
the Lake of Nicaragua, and after a course of 80 miles falls
into the Caribbean Sea. It is of considerable depth, but is
obstructed by rapids, and the port at its mouth, now called
Greytown, is only capable of receiving small vessels. The
lake is 90 or 100 miles long, 30 or 40 broad, and 125 feet
above mean tide level at Greytown. Its depth varies from
2 fathoms to 40, but much of it has never been sounded, and
recent surveys show shallows at both ends. From this lake
to the Pacific six different routes have been traced, and
some of them surveyed. One through the Lake Managua
(which is 28 feet higher than Nicaragua Lake), westward
to the Bay of Fonseca, would require 90 or 100 miles
of canal, and the whole length of inland navigation from
Greytown would exceed 300 miles ; another route from the
same lake to Realejo is 40 miles shorter; and a third to
Tamarinda a good deal shorter still, but both the latter
want good ports at their termini on the Pacific. A fourth
route goes direct from the south-west side of Nicaragua
Lake to San Juan del Sur; it is only 10 to 12 miles in
length, but requires a tunnel (for ships) 1 or 2 miles long,
and the port at its mouth is very small. A fifth runs from
the same lake a little farther east to the Bay of Salinas, a
distance of 15 miles, half of which is by the River Sapoa,
and now navigable for boats ; and the summit level is only
130 feet above the lake, and twice as much above the Paci¬
fic. It is believed there would be a sufficient supply of wa¬
ter from the stream, and the canal would further have the
advantage of a good port. Captain Fitzroy seems to think this
one of the most promising lines, but it has not yet been care¬
fully surveyed. Of the sixth proposed route, running from the
east end of the lake to the Gulf of Nicoya, neither the precise
length nor the nature of the intervening country is known.
Of the whole district Captain Fitzroy says, that though insuf¬
ficiently explored, “ enough is known to discourage any at¬
tempt to construct either canal or railway, unless the Sapoa
track (the fifth) should prove to be as eligible as Dr Oersted
believes. Even then there will be the disadvantages of so in¬
ferior a harbour as that of Greytown, and the difficulties of
the river, which must be cleansed from its numerous obstruc¬
tions, though renewed annually by floods.” He considers
the climate pestilential, particularly in the low grounds on
both sides of the river, which holds its course amidst forests,
swamps, and mud banks. Mr Squier, however, an intelligent
American, in his work on Nicaragua (New York 1852)
thinks the climate comparatively good. In reference to a
canal there is a physical evil not to be overlooked, namely,
the volcanic eruptions which shake the soil, and might de-
sturb the levels ; and there is a moral one still more serious,
arising from the frequent insurrections and political revolu¬
tions, which makes property insecure, and may render en¬
gagements with the government mere waste paper. The
latter evil applies to the whole isthmus, but more especially
to this district, touching as it does the territories of three
states (Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Mosquito) which are often
at war with one another.
3. The Panama line, at 79° and 80° of west longitude.
The extreme narrowness of the isthmus here, called atten¬
tion to it as an eligible point for establishing a communica¬
tion between the two seas, before any other locality was
thought of. Numerous explorations have been made ; four
routes have been pretty carefully surveyed, those of Loyd,
Morel, Garella, and Hughes; and along the last of these a
railway is now in course of construction. It commences on
the Atlantic at Limon or Navy Bay, from which the direct
12
AMERICA.
America, distance to Panama, according to Captain Fitzroy, is (33
v—geographical) 38^- English miles. It passes by Gorgona,
and is to be carried 42 miles over elevations ot nearly 300
feet, through a tunnel, and over large viaducts and bridges,
terminating a little westward of Panama. The port ot
Chagres is unfit for large ships. Limon Bay, which is large,
and has a good depth of water, is exposed to strong north
winds. A breakwater, to protect it from these, has been
proposed, but is impracticable on account of the vast sum it
would cost. But Captain Fitzroy thinks that a large wet dock
or basin might be excavated between Manzanilla Island and
the mainland, at the terminus of the railroad, and might
serve as the first step towards an artificial harbour, to which
Limon Bay would be accessory as a useful roadstead. “ On
the opposite coast, near Panama, a spacious and tolerably
sheltered anchorage, with access to works carried out into
the sea, may be found in the bay, but not very near the
city.” A ship canal here, whether at the elevation of the
railroad (300 feet), or at the lower level proposed by Ga-
rella, of 150 feet, would require works on a gigantic scale ;
for his plan includes a tunnel for ships, 125 feet in interior
height, 97 feet wide, and nearly three miles long, with about
33 locks. Without some better security than can now be
obtained, it is not probable that any private company will
risk the capital necessary for the execution of such works.
Morel, in his survey, professes to have found a valley or
tract of low ground between the Trinidad, a branch of the
Chagres, and the Caymito, which falls into the Pacific 10
miles west of Panama, of which low ground the summit level
is only 40 feet above the sea. This, unluckily, is contra¬
dicted by other authorities ; but if such a low summit level
exist, a channel navigable by the largest ships might pos¬
sibly be made from sea to sea without a lock. The portion
of the railroad now in progress is the southern half, extend¬
ing from Panama to Gorgona, and was expected to be fin¬
ished in 1853. On the north side, the river Chagres is made
use of as far as navigable.
4. The Atrato and Cupica line commences on the At¬
lantic side in the Gulf of Darien, at 77° of west longitude.
It has not been surveyed, but the nature and form of the
ground are well known, and its suitableness for a canal was
pointed out by Humboldt 40 years ago. The route extends
from the inner part of the Gulf of Darien up the river
Atrato, thence westward along its branch, the Naipi, and
through a low tract of ground to the river Cupica, which
falls into the Pacific. The whole length of the proposed
line is estimated at 114 miles. For two-thirds of this dis¬
tance, or 76 miles, the rivers are said to be navigable by
ships, for 19 miles more by loaded boats, and it is supposed
that a canal might be cut through the remaining 19 miles
without any extraordinary difficulty. The proprietor of an
estate on the Naipi told Mr Watts, the British vice-consul
at Carthagena, that he was in the habit of crossing to the
Bay of Cupica, and the rise between the bay and the river
was gradual, and only about 150 feet in the whole. That
the ground is really low, is proved by the fact that the launch
ot a Chilian frigate, carrying 15 men, was drawn over it in
10 hours, the men having to cut the bush as they advanced.
The canal and river communication along this line would
have the benefit of a good port at each extremity. Dr
Cullen, an intelligent Scotsman who has travelled over it,
recommends it strongly ; and Captain Fitzroy is inclined
to think that it will be found preferable to every other for
a great ship canal.
Animals. The opinion entertained in the infancy of natural history,
that all the larger animals had spread from one common
centre to the different countries where we find them, is, we
believe, now abandoned by all scientific writers. It is found
that every region of the globe, separated from others by
well-marked boundaries, or by contrasted climates, has plants America,
and animals peculiar to itself. The vast multitude of facts
now ascertained respecting the distribution of animals can
be explained on no hypothesis but one. We are forced to
infer, that after the last catastrophe which destroyed the liv¬
ing beings inhabiting the earth, a great variety of new ani¬
mal tribes were created; that each was placed on the spot
to which its powers and functions were best adapted ; and
that from this as a centre it was left to spread by such means
of locomotion as nature had provided it with. Some birds,
for instance, strong of wing, and some few quadrupeds of
migratory habits, are diffused from the west coast of Europe
to the east coast of Asia; while many others, which, from
their mode of life or their small size, were ill fitted for tra¬
velling, are confined within a very narrow space. Where
wild animals resembling each other, exist in regions distinct
and entirely separated, it is found that they are not of the
same species, but are corresponding species belonging to
the same genus. The horse, the ox, the antelope, the ele¬
phant, and the rhinoceros of Asia, are distinct species from
those of Southern Africa, where the same genera exist.
This hypothesis, as Dr Prichard remarks, does not contra¬
dict the testimony of the Scriptures ; it merely assumes that
there were animals created subsequent to the deluge in va¬
rious parts of the earth, of which it was not necessary for
the sacred historian to speak.
The American animals belonging to the Cuvierian Divi¬
sion of Vertebrata are very numerous. It is true that some
of the larger quadrupeds have no living types in the New
World. There are none to compare in size with the ele¬
phant, the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, the giraffe, or the
camel; but fossil remains of the mastodon, megatherium,
and megalonyx will vie in size with the largest quadrupeds
of the Old World.
In the class of Mammifera, America is very rich, as the
following synopsis of the species in each order will show:—
Quadrumana,  59
Carnivora,   89
Marsupialia,  21
Rodentia,  71
Edentata,  16
Pachydermata,   6
Ruminantia,   22
Cetacea,  18
302
Some of these are common to the Old and the New Worlds,
and a few have been introduced by Europeans ; but several,
which were at one period considered as identically the
same in both continents, have by more recent investiga¬
tions been found to be only allied species. Some of the
larger animals of Eastern Asia and North-Western America,
as the reindeer, make annual migrations over the Arctic
Seas from one continent to the other; and many of the
mammals inhabiting the sea no doubt may be considered as
identical. We shall here note the more important Ameri¬
can vertebrate animals under the orders to which they be¬
long, attaching to each genus the number of American
species, and of the more important mention the specific
names.
Quadrumana.—Apes. Species.
Mysetes, Howler,  7
Pithecia, Saki,  10
Ateles, Sapajou,  10
Cebus, Capuchin,  12
Nocthorus,  8
Callithrix,   17
59
AMERICA.
713
America. CARNIVORA.
^ Cheiroptera, Bat,  
Erinaceus, American hedgehog. ...
Sorex, Shrew,  
Scalops, Shrew-mole,  
Talpa, Mole,   
Ursus, Bear, 
Grizzly bear.
White bear.
Barren ground bear.
Procyon, Racoon, 
Nasua, Coati, 
Meles, Badger, 
Gulo, Wolverine, 
Viverra, )
Putorius, \
Mephites, Skunk,..
Lutra, Otter, 
Canis, Dog, 
Common dog.
Gray wolf.
Vulpes, Fox, 
Arctic fox.
Black fox.
Virginian fox.
Silvery fox.
Felis, Cat, 
Puma.
Jaguar.
Ocelot.
Black jaguar.
Jaguarondi.
Margay.
Phoca, Seal, 
Trichecus, Walrus,
Black bear.
Cordillera bear.
12
1
3
5
1
Dasypus, Armadillo,  10 America.
Myrmecophaga, Ant-eater,  3
16
Besides the living Edentata, America affords the vast
fossil skeletons of the Megatherium and Megalonyx.
Pachydermata.
Sus, Boar (imported),  1
Dicoteles, Peccari,  2
.............................. 2
Weasel,  13
Maned wolf.
Mexican wolf.
Gray fox.
Bald fox.
Chile fox.
11
Guigna.
Colorolo.
Bay lynx.
Canadian lynx.
American serval.
Marsupiaxia.
Didelphis, Opossum,      
Of which the chief are Virginian, Palmated, Crab-eat¬
ing, Mexican, Short-tailed, Merian, and Murine.
Rodentia.
Sciurus, Squirrel,   
Arctomys, Marmot,    
Mus, Mouse,   
Viz.:—Echymys,  5
Mouse,   S
Merion,  J
Lemming,  1
Economic rat,   2
Muskrat,   1
Castor, Beaver,        
Hystrix, Porcupine,   
Lepus, Hare,   
Hydrochcerus, Water hog,  
Cavia, Cavy,   
Ccelogenus, Paca, 
Lagostomus, Viscacha,.. 
Lagotis, Chincha, 
Callomys, Chinchilla,  
Atrocoma, 
Auromys,  
Pcephagomys,  
Octodon, 
8
1
89
21
10
4
20
Tapirus, Tapir,
Equus, Horse (imported),.
2
3
17
1
6
1
1
2
]
2
1
1
1
73
Edentata.
Eradypus, Sloth,,
VOL. II.
Besides these living Pachydermata, America abounds
with the fossil bones of animals rivalling the ele¬
phant of the Old World in size, viz., the Mastodon
giganteum, and Mastodon Andium. The skeletons
of the former occur in vast quantity in the frozen
mud of the islands of Escholtz Bay, within Beh¬
ring’s Straits.
Ruminantia.
Auchenia, Llama,    3
Guanaco. Vicuna.
Alpaca. ^
Cermcs, Deer,  10
Wapiti deer. Rufous deer.
Virginian deer. Guiana deer.
Marsh deer. Wandering deer.
Prairie deer. Simple-horned deer.
Forest deer. Rein deer.
Aloes, Elk,  1
Moose deer or Carabou.
Antilope, Antelope,  2
Prong-horned antelope. Palmated antelope.
Ovis, Sheep,  2
Mountain sheep. Common sheep (imported).
Capra, Goat,     1
Bos, Ox,  3
Bison. Common ox (imported).
Musk ox. —
22
Cetacea.
Manatus, Manati,       3
Northern manati. Broad-nosed manati.
Southern manati.
Delphinus,     7
Common dolphin. Beaked dolphin.
Porpesse. Deductor.
Grampus. Fitzroy’s dolphin.
Beluga.
Monodon, Narwal,   1
Physeter, Cachalot,  2
Sperm cachalot. Blunt-headed cachalot.
Whale,       5
Greenland whale. Broad-nosed whale.
Razor-back or physalis. Beaked whale.
Finner or boops. —
18
The birds of America are very numerous in almost every Birds,
great family. The researches of Wilson, Charles Buona¬
parte, Audubon, Richardson, and Dekay, have beautifully
illustrated the ornithology of North America; while those
of Azara, Humboldt, Swainson, Waterton, Edmondstone,
and Darwin, have thrown great light on that of South Ame¬
rica. The North American species of birds already de¬
scribed amount to between 560 and 600; the species of
South America are at least as numerous; so that we may fairly
4 x
x
AMERICA.
7U
America estimate the ornithology of America to include 1100, or per-
a ^ f .haps 1300 species ; and some genera are wholly peculiar to
^mersoor New World,—as the genera of humming birds, toucans,
aracaris, pauxis, crax, penelope, tinamous, and the wild
turkey.
Reptiles. The serpents of America are very numerous, amounting
to 80 innocuous A, and to 12 or 13 venomous snakes B. In
the work of Schlegel we find the following genera of both
kinds.
A. Tortrix 1; calamaria 7; coronella 6; xenodon o; he-
terodon 3; lycodon 4; coluber 8; herpetodryas 12; psam-
mophis 2; dendrophis 3; dryiophis 3; dipsas 11; tropido-
notus 3; homalopsis 6; boa 5.
B. Elaps 3; trigonocephalus 5; crotalus 4.
Of these the genera heterodon, and crotalus or rattle¬
snake are entirely peculiar to America, and the latter are
by far the most deadly of serpents. The reptilia of North
America have been well described by Dekay and Hol¬
brooke. These authors mention the following, Testudinata,
or tortoises; chelonia, or turtle, 3; sphargis, or leather¬
back turtle, 1; trionyx, or soft tortoise, 4; chelydra, or half-
defended tortoise, 3; emys, or fresh water tortoise, 19;
chelys 2; terrapin 3,—in all 35.
They give the North American saurians as, crocodile 2;
alligator 1; anolis J; scinks 4; agama 4; tropidolepis 2;
ophisaurus 1; leptophis 1,—in all 16. Of the Ranidce there
are of rana, frog, 13; bufo, toad, 5; hyla, tree frog, 8,—in
all 26.
The fishes of America are most numerous, The fresh
waters abound with Siluridce; the seas with chaetodons,
diodons, all of the strangest forms. We shall only mention
one other American fish, the amblyopsis spelceus of Dekay,
a small fish absolutely destitute of eyes. It is found in the
vast mammoth cave of Kentucky. It belongs to Agassiz’s
family of cyprinodotes, but was at first considered as allied to
the Siluridce. It is worthy of remark, that the same cavern
is inhabited by several minute animals also without eyes; as
if nature had in an especial manner adapted them for a sub¬
terranean life, in which eyes would have been useless.
It is remarked by Azara, that single species of wild ani¬
mals are diffused over a much wider surface in the New World
than in the Old. The jaguar and tapir, for instance, are found
from the banks of the Plata to those of the Rio del Norte
in Mexico. This circumstance strengthens the conclusion,
that America derived its human inhabitants from the old
continent, and remained, of course for a much longer period,
entirely in possession of the animal tribes ; and further, that
the former civilisation (such as it was) arose only at a late
period.1
The European animals which have been naturalised in Amers-
America are the cow, horse, ass, hog, sheep, goat, dog; and ham.
these have multiplied to such a degree as to exceed the na-
tive quadrupeds greatly in numbers. The warm climate of Changes in
the tropical parts of America has produced considerable Eur0Pean
changes in the habits and physical qualities of most of these animals-
species. The hog, which generally wanders in the woods,
and lives on the wild fruits and roots found there, has lost
in a great measure its domestic habits, and assumed the cha¬
racter of the wild boar. The black cattle also, roaming at
large in a country entirely uninclosed, are found to fall off
unless they receive a certain quantity of salt in their food,
which in some cases they procure from plants, in others from
brackish water, By distributing salt to them at a certain
regular hour, they are taught to assemble at the owner’s re¬
sidence, and are thus kept from becoming wild. In Europe
the constant practice of milking cows has enlarged the udder
greatly beyond its natural size, and so changed the secre¬
tions, that the supply does not cease when the calf is re¬
moved. In Colombia, where circumstances are entirely dif¬
ferent, nature shows a strong tendency to resume its original
type. A cow gives milk there only while the calf is with her.
It must be allowed to suck during the day, and the fluid is
procured only by separating them during the night, and
milking the cow in the morning before the calf visits her.
The ass has undergone little alteration in America, and it
has nowhere become wild. It is otherwise with the horse.
Numbers of these animals in a wild state exist in Colombia,
and many other parts of America, both South and North,
where they wander over the plains and savannahs in troops.
It is observed that the colour of the animals living in this state
returns to that bay chesnut which is considered as charac¬
teristic of the natural wild horse. It is worthy of notice,
that the amble, the pace to which the domestic horse in
Spanish America is exclusively trained, becomes in the course
of some generations hereditary, and is assumed by the young
ones without teaching. The sheep thrives and multiplies in
the temperate parts of the New World, and shows no tendency
to withdraw from the protection of man; but in the warm
regions it undergoes a remarkable change. If the lamb be
shorn at the usual time, its wool is of the same description
as in Europe, and it will grow again in the same way; but
if it be suffered to remain on the animal’s body after the pro¬
per season for cutting, it thickens, felts together, and de¬
taches itself, and then is succeeded by a short close shining
hair, very like that of the goat in the same climate. The
goat in Colombia has the size of its udder contracted, and un¬
dergoes a change similar to that which is experienced by the
cow.2 (c.m.)
AMERICA, United States of. See United States.
AMERIGO VESPUCCI. See Vespucci.
AMERSFOORT, a town of Holland, in the province of
Utrecht, 12 miles E.N.E. of the city of that name, and situ¬
ated on the river Eem, which here is navigable. In 1850
it contained 12,360 inhabitants. The chief buildings are
the town-house, and the great church dedicated to St George.
It has a court of primary jurisdiction, a college, and an in¬
dustrial school. Woollen, cotton, silk, glass, and tobacco
are manufactured here ; and the transit trade is very consi¬
derable.
AMERSHAM, or Agmondesham, an ancient market and
borough town of Buckinghamshire, in the hundred of Burn¬
ham, pleasantly situated in a valley between richly-wooded
hills, through which the river Colnes flows. It consists
chiefly of two streets, crossing each other ; and at the point
of intersection stands the church, a very handsome building,
containing several beautiful monuments. The town has
1
2
Azara, French translation. Preface o 50
S»r k, Changemens Sc, pai M. EoaUa, c iMtefa Nam.elu,t Avrii !829.
A M E
Ames some manufactories of cotton goods and black lace. It for-
II merly returned two members to parliament. The popula-
Amethyst. (.jon ;n is5i amounted to 2093. It has a free grammar
school, with three exhibitions at Oxford.
AMES, Fisher, an eminent American statesman and
writer, son of Nathaniel Ames, a physician, was born at
Dedham, in Massachusetts, on 9th April 1785. After
practising the law for some little time, he abandoned that
profession for the more congenial pursuit of politics, and in
1788 became a member of the Massachusetts convention
for ratifying the constitution. In this assembly he bore a
conspicuous part, and in the next year, having passed to the
house of representatives in the state legislature, he distin¬
guished himself greatly by his eloquence and forensic talents.
During the eight years of Washington’s administration he
took a prominent part in the national councils ; and on the
retirement of that eminent man from office, he returned to
his residence at Dedham to resume the practice of the law,
which the state of his health, after a few years, obliged him
to relinquish. But Ames was not idle: he continued his
literary labours, and published numerous essays, chiefly in
relation to the contest between Great Britain and revolu¬
tionary France, as it might affect the liberty and prosperity
of America. Four years before his death, he was chosen
president of Flarvard College, an honour which his broken
state of health obliged him to decline. After suffering for
two years from extreme debility, he expired on the 4th
July 1808, having acquired the admiration and respect of
his countrymen by the brilliancy of his talents and his pri¬
vate virtues. His writings were collected and published,
with a memoir of the author, in 1809, by the Rev. Dr Kirk¬
land, in one large octavo volume.
Ames, Joseph., author of a valuable work on the progress of
printing in England, called Typographical Antiquities, which
is often quoted by bibliographers. He was born in 1689,
and died in 1759. The best editions of his work are those
published with the additions of Herbert and of Dibdin.
Ames, William, D.D., a learned Independent divine, was
born in 1576, and educated at Christ’s College, Cambridge.
In the reign of King James I., he left the university, in order
to avoid expulsion for nonconformity, and retired to the
Hague, where he had not been long before he was invited
to accept of the divinity chair in the university of Franeker,
in Friesland, which he filled with great ability for above
twelve years. He removed from thence to Rotterdam on
account of his health; and there he continued during the
remainder of his life. His controversial writings, which com¬
pose the greater part of his works, are chiefly against Bel-
larmine and the Arminians. He also wrote, 1. Afresh Suit
against Human Ceremonies in God!s Worship; 2. Lec-
tiones in Psalmos Damdts; 3. Medulla Theologice; and
several pieces relative to the sciences. He died of an asth¬
ma, at Rotterdam, in November 1633.
AMESBUR Y, a market-town in the hundred of the same
name, in the county of Wilts, 77 miles from London, and
7 from Salisbury. It is situated in a narrow valley on the
river Avon, on Salisbury plain. It is an ill-built town, but
contains the beautiful house built by Inigo Jones for the
Duke of Queensberry. At Milston, in this neighbourhood,
Addison was born. Near the town stands the druidical
monument of Stonehenge. Population in 1851, 1172.
AMETHYST, a transparent gem of a purple colour,
which seems composed of a strong blue and a deep red;
and, according as either of these prevails, affording different
tinges of purple, sometimes approaching to violet, and some¬
times even fading to a pale rose colour. Though the ame¬
thyst is generally of a purple colour, it is nevertheless some¬
times found naturally colourless, and may at any time be
easily made so by putting it into the fire ; in which pellucid
A M H 715
or colourless state it so resembles the diamond, that its want Amethyst
of hardness seems the best way of distinguishing it. Some Amljgr8t
derive the name amethyst from its colour, which resembles v m r 'y
wine mixed with water ; while others, with more probability, ~~
think it got its name from its supposed virtue of preventing
drunkenness,—an opinion which, however imaginary, pre¬
vailed to that degree among the ancients, that it was usual
for great drinkers to wear it about their necks. Be this as
it may, the amethyst is scarcely inferior to any of the gems
in the beauty of its colour. The common amethyst is a
variety of quartz; the oriental amethyst is a variety of spi-
nelle. Its most common form is a six-sided prism, termi¬
nated by a flat and short pyramid of the same number of
sides. The amethyst is found in the East and West Indies,
Siberia, and in every part of Europe ; the oriental being so
hard and bright as to equal any of the coloured gems in
value. The common amethysts, however, fall infinitely short
of these; all the European ones, and not a few of those
brought from the East and West Indies, are a mere variety
of rock crystal.
Counterfeit or Factitious Amethyst. Spars and crystals
tinged red and yellow, &c., are sold for amethysts. The
false ones come from Germany, are tinged by vapours in
the mines, and contain lead and manganese.
Amethysts may be counterfeited by glass, to which the
proper colour or stain is given. There were fine ones made
in France about the year 1690, which may even impose on
connoisseurs, unless the stone be taken out of the collet.
Amethyst, in Heraldry, a term for the purple colour in
the coat of a nobleman, in use with those who blazon with
precious stones instead of metals and colours. This, in a
gentleman’s escutcheon, is called Purpure ; and in those of
sovereign princes, Mercury.
AMETHYSTINE is applied, in Antiquity, to a kind of
purple garment dyed of the hue of amethyst. In this sense
amethystine differed from Tyrian as well as from hyacin-
thine purple, being a kind of medium between them.
AMHARA, one of the great divisions of Abyssinia, in¬
cluding the whole country north of the upper basin of the
Blue River, and separated on the north-east from Tigre by
the Tacazze. The province of Amhara Proper is in the
south-east of this territory, and constitutes a state or kingdom
still nominally subject to the head of the royal family, who is
however a mere puppet in the hands of his temporary min¬
ister, with a paltry pension. The great lake of Dembea
lies in the centre, surrounded by the plain of Dembea,
which has been called the granary of the country, on ac¬
count of its fertility and the blandness of its climate. The
language is the Amharic, a branch of the Semitic stock.
AMHERST, Jeffrey, Lord, was born in 1717 in Kent.
He served in the Duke of Cumberland’s campaigns in Ger¬
many, and afterwards with distinction in the military opera¬
tions that wrested Canada from the French. He was go¬
vernor of Virginia in 1763, and of Guernsey in 1770. He
was created a baron in 1776, while he was commander-in¬
chief in England, which office he retained till the dissolution
of Lord North’s administration in 1782. He was again ap¬
pointed commander-in-chief in 1793, an office which he
resigned on account of his age in 1795. He died in 1797.
Amherstburgh in Upper Canada was named after this able
officer.
Amherst, a seaport-town of Eastern India, situate in a
district of the same name, in the province of Tenasserim, at
the mouth of the Saluen or Martaban River. It was found¬
ed by the English in 1826, on the restoration of the town
of Martaban to the Burmese, and named in compliment to
the governor-general of India, who projected its erection.
The proclamation inviting the natives to people the town
was well adapted to the character and capacities of those
716 AMI
AMI
Amherst whom it addressed. “ The inhabitants of the towns and
Amicable v^a»es w^° to come shall be free from molestation,
v ) extortion, and oppression. They shall be free to worship
v ^ as usual, temples, monasteries, priests, and holy men. The
people shall go and come, buy and sell, do and live as they
please, conforming to the laws. In regard to slavery, since
all men, common people or chiefs, are by nature equal, there
shall be under the English government no slaves. Whoever
desires to come to the new town, may come from all parts
and live happy; and those who do not wish to remain may
go where they please without hinderance.” Batteries erected
on the heights protect both town and harbour. The latter
is spacious and secure, with a depth of three fathoms at low
tides; but it is difficult of access, especially during the south¬
west monsoon. Teak forests abound in the neighbourhood,
and the timber they furnish forms a principal article of ex¬
port. Distance east from Rangoon 100 miles ; from Moul-
mein south 30 miles. Lat. 16. 4. N. Long. 97. 40. E. (e. t.)
Amherst, a small town in the county of Hampshire,
Massachusetts, U. S., North America, 90 miles west of Bos¬
ton. It is chiefly noted for its literary institutions, which
consist of a college, an academy, and a classical institution.
Its college was opened in 1821, and in 1850 had 166 stu¬
dents. Population about 2500. This is the name of several
other places in the United States.
AMHERSTBURG, in Essex county, Upper Canada,
is in Lat. 42. 5. N. Long. 83. 10. W. It is on the north
shore of Lake Erie, near the River Detroit. It has a garri¬
son and some redoubts.
AMHURST, Nicholas, an English poet and political
writer of the eighteenth century, was born at Harden in Kent,
and entered of St John’s College, Oxford; from which he
was expelled for irregularity of conduct and libertine prin¬
ciples. Retaining great resentment against the university
on this account, he abused its learning and discipline, and
some of the most respectable characters in it, in a poem
published in 1724, called Oculus Britannia, and in a book
entitled Terra Filius. He published a Miscellany of Poems,
sacred and profane; and The Convocation, a poem in five
cantos, which was a satire on the Bishop of Bangor’s anta¬
gonists. But he is best known for the share he had in the
political paper called The Craftsman ; though, after being
the drudge of his party for nearly 20 years, he was utterly
forgotten in the famous compromise of 1742. He died in
that year of a broken heart, and was indebted to the charity
of his booksellers for a grave.
AMIANTHUS, or Asbestus; Asbeste, Haiiy. The ge¬
neral composition of this substance may be stated as a sili¬
cate of magnesia, lime, and protoxide of iron. It occurs in
highly delicate fibres, often thinner than a hair, longitudi¬
nally cohering, and easily separated. The finest varieties
are of a brilliant silky white, and flexible. The Tarentaise
in Savoy, and the island of Corsica, are cited as the localities
affording the most perfectly fibrous white and silky varie¬
ties ; and it occurs so abundantly in the last, that Dolomieu
was enabled to use it in place of hay for packing his speci¬
mens. Anciently it was woven into napery and towels,
which, when foul, were thrown into the fire, from whence
they came out perfectly clean. Amianthus cloth was some¬
times employed by the ancients to preserve the bones of the
dead in the funeral pile.
AMICABLE Benches, in Roman Antiquity, were, ac¬
cording to Pitiscus, lower and less honourable seats allotted
for the judices pedanei, or inferior judges, who, upon being
admitted to the emperor’s council, were dignified by him
with the title amici.
Amicable Numbers denote pairs of numbers, of which
each is mutually equal to the sum of all the aliquot parts of
the other. So the first or least pair of amicable numbers
are 220 and 284; all the aliquot parts of which with their
sums, are as follows, viz.:
Of 220, they are 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 11, 20, 22, 44, 55, 110,
their sum being ------ 284
Of 284, they are 1, 2, 4, 71, 142, and their sum is 220
The second pair of amicable numbers are 17,296 and
18,416, which have also the same property as above.
And the third pair of amicable numbers are 9,363,584 and
9,437,056.
These three pairs of amicable numbers were found out
by F. Schooten (sect. 9 of his Exercitationes Mathematical
who, it is said, first gave the name of amicable to such num¬
bers, though such properties of numbers, it seems, had be¬
fore been treated of by Rudolphus, Descartes, and others.
To find the first pair, Schooten puts \x and fyz, or dtx
and (Tyz for the two numbers, where a = 2 ; then making
each of these equal to the sum of the aliquot parts of the
other, gives two equations, from which are found the values
of x and z, and consequently assuming a proper value for y,
the two amicable numbers themselves 4x and 4yz.
In like manner for the other pairs of such numbers; in
which he finds it necessary to assume 16a? and 16 yz or a4x
and a4yz for the second pair, and 128ar and 128yz, or d‘x
and a^yz for the third pair.
Schooten then gives this practical rule, from Descartes,
for finding amicable numbers, viz., assume the number 2,
or some power of the number 2, such that if unity or 1 be
subtracted from each of these three following quantities,
viz.—
From 3 times the assumed number,
Also from 6 times the assumed number,
And from 18 times the square of the assumed number,
the three remainders may be all prime numbers; then the
last prime number being multiplied by double the assumed
number, the product will be one of the amicable numbers
sought, and the sum of its aliquot parts will be the other.
That is, if a be put = the number 2, and n some integer
number, such that 3a" - 1, and 6a" — 1, and 18a2" - 1, be all
three prime numbers; then is 18a2"-1 x 2a" one of the
amicable numbers, and the sum of its aliquot parts is the
other. On this subject see Euleri Opuscula varii Argu¬
ment^ tom. ii. p. 23—107.
AMICTUS, among Ecclesiastical Writers, the uppermost
garment anciently worn by the clergy; the other five being
the alba, cingulum, stola, manipulus, and planeta. The
amictus was a linen garment, of a square figure, covering
the head, neck, and shoulders, and buckled or clasped be¬
fore the breast. It is still worn by the religious abroad. Its
English name is Amice.
AMICUS Curle, a law term, to denote a bystander
who informs the court of a matter in law that is doubtful or
mistaken.
AMIDA, a god worshipped by the Japanese, who has
many temples erected to him in the Island of Japan, of which
the principal is at Jeddo. The Japanese have such a con¬
fidence in their idol Amida, that they hope to attain eternal
felicity by the frequent invocation of his name. One of the
figures of this idol is preserved at Rome.—See Kampfer,
243.
AMIENS, an arrondissement in the department of the
Somme, in the north of France. Its extent is 719 square
miles, or about 460,035 English acres. It comprehends
thirteen cantons, viz., Amiens, Conti, Corbi, Hornoy, Moliens-
Bibame, Oisemont, Piquigny, Poix, Soins, and Villers-
Bocage, with 249 communes or parishes. In 1851 it con¬
tained 189,968 inhabitants.
Amiens, a city, the capital as well of the department of
the Somme as of the circle of its own name. It is a forti¬
fied place with a strong citadel, on the Somme, which re-
AML
Amilcar ceives here the waters of the Seille, and passes through the
|| town in three branches. It has access to the sea, but only
Amlwch. for small craft. It is a well-built ancient town, containing
a cathedral, fourteen churches, and two hospitals. The
population in 1851 amounted to 49,139. The cathedral is a
venerable object, both for its beauty and extent. The town-
house is a large, handsome stone building, and contains a
fine collection of pictures of the French school. Amiens is
the seat of the prefect, of a bishop, and of the departmental
courts of justice. There is a commercial board, a society
of agriculture, a botanic garden, a lyceum, a theatre, and a
library. Amiens was always a manufacturing city. Though
it suffered much during the revolution of 1789, it has since
revived; and at present produces considerable quantities of
woollen cloths, cassimeres, and worsted stuffs. There are
also some moderate establishments for making cotton goods,
the yarn of which, for all but the finer kinds, is spun in the
city. It has also trade in tanning and in soap making.
This city is distinguished as the birthplace of Peter the
Hermit, the preacher of the first crusade, and of Voiture
the poet, as well as for the treaty of peace of 1802. Long.
2. 23. E. Lat, 49. 53. N.
AMILCAR, the name of several Carthaginian captains.
The most celebrated of them is Amilcar Barcas, the father
of Hannibal. See Hamilcar.
AMILICTI, in the Chaldaic Theology, denote a kind of
intellectual powers, or persons in the divine hierarchy. The
amilicti are represented as three in number, and constitute
one of the triads in the third order of the hierarchy.
AMINTA, in Literary History, a beautiful pastoral co¬
medy composed by Tasso, the model of all dramatic pieces
wherein shepherds are actors. Guarini’s Pastor Fido and
the Fili de Sciro of Bonarelli are only copies of this excel¬
lent piece.
AMIOT, Pere, a learned Jesuit, born in 1718 at Toulon.
He was sent to Pekin in 1751, and continued to reside there
until his death in 1794. He obtained the favourable notice
of the emperor Kien Lung; which, with his profound know¬
ledge of the Chinese and Mantcheou languages, enabled him
to collect and transmit to Europe more information on China
than all his predecessors. His researches have enriched all
the memoirs on that singular people during the last century.
AMIS US, in Ancient Geography, the chief city of the
ancient kingdom of Pontus. It was built by the Milesians,
and peopled partly by them and partly by a colony from
Athens. Under the kings of Pontus it became a very
flourishing city. Mithridates Eupator made a large addition
to the town, which he called Eupatoria, and made it his
residence alternately with Sinope. It was taken by the
Roman general Lucullus in the Mithridatic war, and after¬
wards by Pharnaces son of Mithridates. Julius Caesar,
after defeating Pharnaces, restored it to its ancient liberty.
Amisus is now called Samsoon.
AMITERNUM, an ancient city of the Sabines, situated
near the sources of the Aternus. Its site is now occupied
by the modern village of Vittorino, where numerous re¬
mains are still to be seen. This was the birthplace of the
historian Sallust.
AMITTERE Legem Terras, among Latvyers, a phrase
importing the loss of liberty of swearing in any court; the
punishment of a champion overcome or yielding in battle,
—of jurors found guilty in a writ of attaint,—and of a person
outlawed.
AMLWCH, a seaport borough in the hundred of Twrce-
lyn, in the island of Anglesey, North Wales. It has a har¬
bour cut out of the rock with great labour and cost, capable
of containing 30 vessels of about 200 tons burden. It rose
rapidly after the discovery of the copper mines of Pary’s
Mountain, but since the ore there has been exhausted it has
A M M 717
declined. It is 261 miles from London, and 15 from Beau- Amma
maris. Population in 1851, 3169. II
AMMA, among Ecclesiastical Writers, a term used to de- vAmman,/
note an abbess or spiritual mother. ^
Amma, an ancient Greek land measure, equal to 60 feet.
AMMAN, Johann Conrad, a physician, and one of the
earliest writers on the instruction of the deaf and dumb, was
born at Schaffhausen, in Switzerland, in 1669. In 1687 he
graduated at Basle ; and as his religious principles did not
permit him to settle in his native country, he retired to Hol¬
land, where he appears to have devoted his time and atten¬
tion chiefly to the cure of the defects and imperfections of
speech. He first called the attention of the public to his
method, in a paper which was inserted in the Philosophical
Transactions; and which appeared in a separate form in the
year 1692, under the title, Surdus Loquens, sive Methodus
qud qui surdus natus est loqui possit; and afterwards, with
much additional matter, in 1702 and 1728, under the title,
Dissertatio de Loquela, qud non solum vox humana et lo-
quendi artificium ex originibm suis eruuntur, sed et tra-
duntur media, quibus ii qui ab incunabulis surdi et mtjti
fuerunt, loquelam adipisci, quique difficulter loquuntur, vitia
sua emendare possint. In this work, which Haller terms
“vere aureum,” he develops, with great ability, the mecha¬
nism of vocal utterance, and describes the process which
he employed in teaching its use to the unfortunate class of
persons committed to his care. This consisted principally
in exciting the attention of his pupils to the motions of his
lips and larynx while he spoke, and then inducing them by
gentle means to imitate these movements, till he brought
them to repeat distinctly letters, syllables, and words. As
his method was excellent, we may readily give him credit
for the success to which he lays claim. In a long course of
practice, he says that he never failed in his endeavours but
in two instances; one of which was that of a girl who was
an idiot, and the other that of a Jew, from whose father he
foresaw that he would not get any thanks for his trouble.
The edition of Ccelius Aurelianus, which was undertaken by
the Wetsteins in 1709, and still ranks as one of the best edi¬
tions of that author, was superintended by Amman. (t. m.)
Amman, Paul, a physician and botanist, was born at
Breslau in 1634. In 1662 he received the degree of doctor
of physic from the university of Leipsic, and in 1664 was
admitted a member of the society Naturcc Curiosorum,
under the name of Dryander. Shortly afterwards he was
chosen extraordinary professor of medicine in the above-
mentioned university ; and in 1674 he was promoted to the
botanical chair, which he again, in 1682, exchanged for the
physiological. He died in 1691. Paul Amman seems to
have been a man of an acute mind and extensive learning;
but a restless and irritable disposition led him to engage too
much in controversy, and to indulge in a degree of raillery
in his writings, which the nature of the subjects hardly war¬
ranted. By his first work, which was published in 1670,
under the title Medicina Critica, seu Genturia Casuum in
Facilitate Lipsiensi resolutorum variis discursibus aucta, he
drew down upon himself the displeasure of the faculty, who
had certainly no cause to rejoice at this exposure of their
decisions. In the Parcenesis ad docentes occupata circa
Institutionum medicarum Emendationem, which appeared
three years afterwards, and in the Irenicum Numce Pompilii
cum Hippocrate, which he published in 1689, he showed
his independent turn of thinking, by boldly attacking the
systems of Galen and Hippocrates, and the abuses to which
the implicit adoption of them had given rise. But it is chiefly
on his botanical writings that his fame ought to rest. Ihe
Supellex Botanica, et Manuductio ad Matemam Medicam,
which he committed to the press in 1675, contains a full
but somewhat prolix catalogue of the plants of the botanic
N.
718 A M M
Amman, garden of Leipsic and its environs, with their synonyms;
II . followed by a brief introduction to the study of the Ma-
anus*" teria Medica, which exhibits an accurate knowledge of the
v science he was then employed in teaching. His next pub¬
lication was entitled, Character Naturalis Plantarum; to
the second edition of which, in 1685, he prefixed a disser¬
tation on the true classification of plants. In this work he
adopted the arrangement of Morison, endeavouring to show,
as the title imports, that the genera of plants were only to
be distinguished by their parts of fructification, and illus¬
trating his method by the description of 1476 different ge¬
nera and species, in alphabetical order. An enlarged edition
of this book was published by Daniel Nebel in 1700, with
the addition of the characters of Tournefort and Hermann.
For a complete list of Paul Amman’s writings, see Haller,
Bihl. Med., and Eloy, Diet. Hist. (t. m.)
Amman, or Ammant, in the German and Belgic Polity,
a judge who has the cognizance of civil causes. It is also
used among the French for a public notary, or officer, who
draws up instruments and deeds.
AMMANATI, Bartolomeo, a celebrated Florentine
architect and sculptor, of the time of Michael Angelo, who
was much employed both at home and in Rome. The
beautiful and stable bridge over the Arno, Ponte della
Trinita, is one of his celebrated works. The three arches
are elliptic, very light, and elegant, yet have resisted the
utmost fury of the river which has swept away several other
bridges at different times. He was born in 1511, and died in
1592, at the age of 81. His wife, daughter of Giov. Antonio
Baltiferi, an elegant and accomplished woman, published a
Volume of poems that are highly esteemed in Italy.
AMMIANUS Marcellinus, a Roman historian of the
fourth century, was born in the city of Antioch, in Syria.
Having served several years in the early part of his life in
the army, he was afterwards promoted to the honourable
station of protector domesticus. In the year 350 he entered
the service of Constantius, the emperor of the East, and
under the command of Ursicinus, a general of the horse, he
served during several expeditions. According to his own
modest relation, it appears that he acquired considerable
military fame, and that he deserved well of his sovereign.
He attended the emperor Julian in his expedition into
Persia, but history is silent respecting his having obtained
any higher military promotion than that which has already
been mentioned. He was either in the city or the vicinity
of Antioch when the conspiracy of Theodorus was discovered,
in the reign of Valens, and was an eye-witness of the severe
torments to which many persons were exposed by the em¬
peror on that account.
But his lasting reputation was not to be acquired from
military exertions. He left the army and retired to Rome,
where he employed his time and talents in writing a his¬
tory of that empire, comprising a period of 282 years.
Though a Greek by birth, he wrote in the Latin language ;
but, according to the remark of Vossius, his Latin shows
that he was a Greek, and also a soldier. His history ex¬
tended from the accession of Nerva to the death of Valens ;
and the work was originally divided into thirty-one books.
Of these the first thirteen have perished, and the eighteen
which remain commence with the seventeenth year of the
reign of Constantius, and terminate at the year 378. But
there are several facts mentioned in the history which prove
that the author was alive in the year 380. Of this number
are the accession of Theodosius to the eastern empire, the
character of Gratian, and the consulate of Neothorius.
Some have reckoned the style harsh and redundant, but
this may easily be excused, from his education and military
life ; and the valuable information communicated abundantly
compensates for that defect. Candour and impartiality are
A M M
leading features in his history. Gibbon appears to have Ammirato
fairly estimated his character, when he says that he is “ an ||
accurate and faithful guide, who composed the history of his Ammon-
own times without indulging the prejudices and passions
which usually affect the mind of a contemporary.”
There is a difference of opinion as to whether he was a
Christian or a pagan. But the respectful manner in which
he speaks of pagan deities, and of the advantage of heathen
auguries to foretell future events, renders it abundantly evi¬
dent that he was a heathen. The favourable account which
he gives of the religion, manners, and fortitude of Christians,
is the result of his candour and impartiality as an historian.
The work of Ammianus has passed through several editions,
of which the best are the Leyden edition of 1693, and those
of Leipsic, published in 1773 and 1808.
AMMIRATO, Scipio, an eminent Italian historian, born
at Lecce in Naples in 1531. After travelling over great
part of Italy without settling to his satisfaction, he was en¬
gaged by the great duke of Tuscany to write the History
of Florence, for which he was presented to a canonry in
the cathedral there. He wrote other works while in this
station, and died in 1600.
AMMODYTES, a genus of Mamacopterygious fishes;
of which our sand eel, A. Tobianus, is one.
AMMON, or Ammonium, the ancient name of the cele¬
brated oasis (Siwah) on the west of Egypt, containing the
oracle of the god Ammon. Arrian calls it a place, in which
stood the temple of Jupiter Ammon, entirely surrounded by
sandy wastes. Pliny states, that the oracle of Ammon was
12 days’ journey from Memphis, and among the Nomi of
Egypt he reckons the Nomos Ammoniacus ; Diodorus Sicu¬
lus says that the district where the temple stood, though sur¬
rounded with deserts, was watered by dews which fell no¬
where else in all that country. It was agreeably adorned
with fruitful trees and springs, and full of villages. In the
middle stood the Acropolis or citadel, encompassed with a
triple wall; the first and inmost of which contained the
palace ; the others the apartments of the women, the house¬
hold, and children, as also the temple of the god, and the
sacred fountains for lustrations. Without the Acropolis
stood, at no great distance, another temple of Ammon,
shaded by a number of tall trees ; near which there was a
fountain, called that of the sun, or Solis Fons, because sub¬
ject to extraordinary changes according to the time of the
day ; morning and evening warm, at noon cold, at midnight
extremely hot. A kind of fossil salt was said to be naturally
produced here. It was dug out of the earth in large oblong
pieces, transparent as crystal. It was thought to be a pre¬
sent worthy of kings, and was used by the Egyptians in their
sacrifices. From this our sal-ammoniac has taken its name.
The observations of Brown and Hornemann prove that the
oasis of Siwah is the district in which this celebrated oracle
was situated. Pliny places it at 12 days’ journey from
Memphis, and Hornemann reached Siwah in 12 days from
Cairo. These travellers found an old building 32 feet long,
15 broad, and 18 high, formed of large stones, and with
some hieroglyphics upon it. This is most probably the
ancient sanctuary of Ammon, which was placed in an in¬
closure, and surrounded by an outer wall. Near this old
building is a spring, which still preserves, in popular opinion,
the qualities attributed by the ancients to the Fountain of
the Sun, and which, in fact, belong to all deep-seated cold
springs. Our modern travellers found also the salt incrus¬
tations, the numerous date-trees, and the sea-shells and
fossil wood in the neighbouring desert, which Strabo and
other ancient writers notice. Arrian and Diodorus describe
the district as having a breadth of 40 or 50 stadia, with which
Brown’s estimate of 4 to 6 English miles nearly agrees.
Hornemann makes the circumference 50 miles, but he in-
A M M
Ammon dudes some patches of habitable land near it, but not con-
11 tiguous to it.
Ammo- Ammon, or Hammon, in Heathen Mythology, the name
niac‘ j of the Egyptian Jupiter, worshipped under the figure of a
^ ^ ram. See Amon.
Ammon, or Ammonius, Andreas, an excellent Latin poet,
born at Lucca in 1477, was sent by Pope Leo X. to Eng¬
land, in the characters of prothonotary of the apostolic see,
and collector-general of that kingdom. He was a man of
singular genius and learning, and soon became acquainted
with the principal literati of those times; particularly with
Erasmus, Colet, and others, for the sake of whose company
he resided some time at Oxford. The advice which Eras¬
mus gives him, in regard to pushing his fortune, has a good
deal of humour in it, and was certainly intended as a satire
on the artful methods generally practised by the selfish and
ambitious part of mankind. “ In the first place,” says he,
“ throw off all sense of shame ; thrust yourself into every
one’s business, and elbow out whomsoever you can; neither
love nor hate any one ; measure everything by your own ad¬
vantage ; let this be the scope and drift of all your actions.
Give nothing but what is to be returned with usury, and be
complaisant to every body. Have always two strings to
your bow. Feign that you are solicited by many from
abroad, and get everything ready for your departure. Show
letters inviting you elsewhere, with great promises.” Am¬
mon was Latin secretary to Henry VIII., but at what time
he was appointed does not appear. In 1512 he was made
canon and prebendary of the collegiate chapel of St Stephen,
in the palace of Westminster. He was likewise prebendary
of Wells; and in 1514 was presented to the rectory of
Dychial in that diocese. About the same time, by the king’s
special recommendation, he was also made prebendary of
Salisbury. He died in the year 1517, and was buried in
St Stephen’s chapel in the palace of Westminster. He was
esteemed an elegant Latin writer, and an admirable poet.
The epistles of Erasmus to Ammon, abounds with enco¬
miums on his genius and learning. His works are, 1. Epis-
tolae ad Erasmum, lib. i.; 2. Scotici Conflictus Historia,
lib. i.; 3. Bucolicse vel Eclogae, lib. i. Basil, 1546, 8vo;
4. De Rebus Nihil, lib. i.; 5. Panegyricus quidam, lib. i.;
6. Varii Generis Epigrammata, lib. i.; 7. Poemata Diversa,
lib. i.
AMMONIA, or Volatile Alkali. See Chemistry.
Ammonia, a name of Juno in Greece. It is also used
in ancient authors for the country of Lybia.
AMMONIAC, a concrete, gummy, resinous juice brought
from the East Indies, usually in large masses, composed of
little lumps or tears, of a milky colour, but soon changing,
upon being exposed to the air, to a yellowish hue. We
now know that the plant which affords this juice is Dorema
ammoniacum. It is one of the Umbelliferae {Pent, digyn.),
and grows on an arid soil in the province of Irak in Per¬
sia, 42 miles from Ispahan. It grows also near Herat in
Khorassan, and on the north-western slopes of the Hi¬
malayas. The plant is said also to grow in Nubia, Abys¬
sinia, and the interior parts of Egypt. It is brought to the
western parts of Europe from Egypt, and to England from
the Red Sea, by ships trading to the east. Such tears as
are large, dry, free from little stones, seeds, or other impu¬
rities, should” be picked out, and preferred for internal use :
the coarser kind is purified by softening it in hot water and
colature, and then carefully inspissating it; unless this be
skilfully done, the gum will lose a considerable portion
of its more volatile parts. There is often vended in the
shops, under the name of strained gum-ammoniacum, a
composition of ingredients much inferior in virtue. Am¬
moniac has a nauseous, sweet taste, followed by a bitter one;
and a peculiar smell, somewhat like that of galbanum, but
A M M 719
more grateful; it softens in the mouth, and grows of a whiter Ammo-
colour when chewed. Thrown upon live coals, it burns ^ niac^ j
away in flame. It is partially soluble in water and in vine- ^
gar, with which it assumes the appearance of milk; but the
resinous part, amounting to about one-half, subsides on
standing. It is of considerable use in the Materia Medica
as an antispasmodic.
Ammoniac, Sal, a saline substance, formerly much used
in dyeing and some other arts. At present not much of it
is employed in this country, most of the sal-ammoniac ma¬
nufactured in Great Britain being sent to Russia.
Sal-ammoniac is usually in the form of a hard, white
cake, opaque, or only slightly translucent. Its taste is
cooling, saline, and rather disagreeable; though it has
been occasionally employed as a seasoner of food. Its spe¬
cific gravity is T441, according to the mean of the expe¬
riments of Wallerius, Watson, and Kirwan. It requires
rather more than three times its weight of cold water to
dissolve it. The primary form is considered to be the cube;
but it crystallises also in octahedrons, and in a figure bound¬
ed by 24 trapeziums, formed by replacing the angles of the
cube by three triangular faces. These, when they increase
very much, cause the faces of the cube to disappear, and thus
form a 24-sided figure, known in mineralogy by the name of
leucite crystal. A hundred parts of alcohol, of the specific
gravity 0-834, dissolve part of this salt. When exposed
to a moist atmosphere, it gradually absorbs water, and deli¬
quesces, though very slowly. When heated, it sublimes
unaltered in a white smoke, having a peculiar smell, very
characteristic of sal-ammoniac. If a cold body be presented
to this smoke, the sal-ammoniac condenses on it, and forms
a white crust. When thus sublimed, it has the property of
carrying along with it various bodies, which, when heated
by themselves, are perfectly fixed.
” If quicklime or potash be triturated with sal-ammoniac,
a strong smell of ammonia exhales. If sulphuric acid be
poured upon it, vapours of muriatic acid are separated in
abundance. If equal bulks of muriatic acid gas and ammo-
niacal gas be brought into contact, they immediately com¬
bine and condense into sal-ammoniac. These facts, which
are well known, show us that sal-ammoniac is a salt com¬
posed of muriatic acid and ammonia. The composition of
this salt seems to have been first discovered by Tournefort
in 1700. The experiments of Geofffoy junior in 1716 and
1723 were still more decisive, and those of Duhamel, in
1735, left no doubt upon the subject. Various experiments
have been made by modern chemists to determine the pro¬
portions of the constituents of this salt. Dr Thomson first
pointed out a process by synthesis, which has the advantage
of being very simple, and at the same time rigidly accurate.
He observed, that when muriatic gas and ammoniacal gas,
both as dry as possible, are brought in contact with each
other, they always combine in equal volumes ; therefore sal-
ammoniac is composed of 100 measures of muriatic acid gas,
united with 100 measures of ammoniacal gas. Now, 100
inches of muriatic acid gas weigh 40-011 grains, and 100
cubic inches of ammoniacal gasweigh 18'3837 grains. Hence
sal-ammoniac is composed of
Muriatic acid  40"011 or 4*625
Ammonia    18-3837 or 2*125
But 4-625 is the weight of an atom of muriatic acid, while
2-125 is the weight of an atom of ammonia. Hence, it is
evident that sal-ammoniac is a compound of
1 atom muriatic acid  4*625
1 atom ammonia   2-125
6-750
and that an integrant particle of it weighs 6'750.
x
720
AMMONIAC, SAL.
Ammoniac. But there is another way in which the composition of
this salt may be viewed. Muriatic acid is a compound of
chlorine and hydrogen. It has been shown, that most of
the substances hitherto called muriates are in fact chlo¬
rides, or combinations of chlorine with the metallic bases
of the alkalies, earths, or metallic oxides respectively.
Thus, common salt is a chloride of sodium, or a compound
of chlorine and sodium; horn silver is a chloride of silver,
or a compound of chlorine and silver. If a hole be dug
in a piece of sal-ammoniac ; if this hole be slightly moist¬
ened by breathing on it; if a globule of mercury be put
into it, and this globule be subjected to the action of a
tolerably powerful galvanic battery, the mercury speedily
acquires the consistence of butter, and swells up so as to
amount to nearly four times its original bulk. In short,
it is converted into an amalgam. Ammonia itself may be
substituted for sal-ammoniac ; but the experiment, in that
case, is attended with greater difficulty. In this case
the ammonia is evidently altered by the galvanic energy,
and one of its constituents has combined with the mer¬
cury, and converted it into an amalgam. If the amalgam
be put under water, it is speedily reduced to the state of
pure mercury, while in the mean time ammonia and hy¬
drogen gas are evolved. The same thing happens if the
amalgam be put into a glass tube without any water. It
would appear from this, that, by the galvanic energy, am¬
monia has been united to hydrogen, and converted into a
substance which is capable of amalgamating with mercury.
Now, no instance can be produced of any substance
uniting with mercury, and forming an amalgam which re¬
tains the metallic lustre, except a metal. Hence we are
entitled to infer, that the mercury in the preceding expe¬
riment has united with a metal, and that the compound
of ammonia and hydrogen is a metal. This supposed
compound of ammonia and hydrogen has received the
name of ammonium.
Ammonia itself has been shown to be a compound of
1 atom azote 1-75
3 atoms hydrogen 0*375
2*125
while muriatic acid is a compound of
1 atom chlorine 4*5
1 atom hydrogen 0*125
4*625
Were the atom of hydrogen in the muriatic acid to com¬
bine with the ammonia and convert it into ammonium,
then ammonium would be a compound of
1 atom azote 1*75
4 atoms hydrogen..., 0*50
2*25
The integrant particle of it would weigh 2*25. We might
conceive sal-ammoniac to be a compound of
1 atom chlorine 4-5
1 atom ammonium 2*25
6*75
According to this view, it would be a chloride of ammo¬
nium. The atomic constituents are the same accordino-
to both views; the only difference lies in the way in
which these atoms are united. If sal-ammoniac be a mu¬
riate of ammonia, then one atom of hydrogeM is united
with one atom of chlorine, constituting muriatic acid,
while three atoms of hydrogen are united with one atom
of azote, constituting ammonia. If it be a chloride of
ammonium, then four atoms of hydrogen are united to
one atom of azote, constituting ammonium, an integrant
particle of which is united to an atom of chlorine. It is Ammoniac,
impossible to determine, in the present state of chemical
knowledge, which of these views is the true one. We
have no other evidence of the existence of ammonium
than the amalgam formed with mercury by means of sal-
ammoniac and the galvanic battery, and the resolution of
this amalgam into mercury, ammonia, and hydrogen.
But this curious experiment is not easily explained upon
any other supposition.
The name ammoniacus sal occurs in Pliny, lib. xxxi.
cap. vii. He tells us that it was applied to a kind of
fossil salt found below the sand, in a district of Cyrenaica,
from which circumstance its name was derived. It was
similar in appearance to the alumen scissile, had a dis¬
agreeable taste, but was useful in medicine. The gene¬
ral opinion is, that the sal-ammoniac of the ancients was
the same as that of the moderns; but the imperfect de¬
scription of Pliny is far from being sufficient to decide
the point. The native sal-ammoniac of Bucharia, as de¬
scribed by Model and Karsten, and which was analyzed
by Klaproth, has no resemblance to the salt described by
Pliny. The same remark applies to the sal-ammoniac of
volcanoes. Dioscorides, in mentioning sal-ammoniac
(book v. chap, cxxvi.), makes use of a phrase quite irre¬
concilable with the description of Pliny, and rather appli¬
cable to rock-salt than to our sal-ammoniac. Sal-ammo¬
niac, he says, is peculiarly prized if it can be easily split
into rectangular fragments. Finally, we have no proof
whatever that sal-ammoniac occurs at present, either
near the temple of Jupiter Ammon, or in any part of Cy¬
renaica. These circumstances induce us to conclude
that the term sal-ammoniac was applied as indefinitely by
the ancients as most of their other chemical words. It may
have been given to the same salt which is known to the
moderns by that appellation, but was not confined to it.
The name sal-ammoniac is derived, according to some,
from the temple of Jupiter Ammon, in the neighbourhood
of which it was found; according to others, from a dis¬
trict of Cyrenaica called Ammonia; but according to
Pliny, from the sand in which it occurred,—the Greek
name for sand being a^fiog.
But whether our sal-ammoniac was known to the an¬
cients or not, there can be no doubt that it was well
known to the alchemists. Albertus Magnus, in his trea¬
tise De Alchymia, informs us, that there were two kinds
of sal-ammoniac, a natural and an artificial. The natu¬
ral was sometimes white, and sometimes red; the artifi¬
cial was more useful to the chemist. He does not tell us
how it was prepared, but he describes the method of su¬
bliming it, which can leave no doubt that it was real sal-
ammoniac. In the Opera Mineralia of Isaac Hollandus
the father, addressed to his son, there is likewise a de¬
scription of the mode of subliming sal-ammoniac. There
can be no doubt, then, that true sal-ammoniac was known
in the thirteenth century. Basil Valentine, in his Currus
Triumphalis Antimonii, describes some of the peculiar
properties of sal-ammoniac in a still less equivocal man¬
ner, if possible; but, after the two older writers already
quoted, his evidence is unnecessary.
Sal-ammoniac occurs native in Bucharia, and probably
in other parts of the world. It is found also in small
quantities near volcanoes, being formed during the extra¬
ordinary convulsions of these mountains. This fact seems
in corroboration of an opinion advanced by some minera¬
logists, that the principal fuel of volcanoes is pit-coal,
and that they are always moistened with sea-water; for
sal-ammoniac is sublimed in small quantities during the
burning of London bricks, the sand of which is brought
from the sea-shore, while the fuel is pit-coal.
AMMONIAC, SAL.
Ammoniac. In the Latin, English, and French chemical books
published in the seventeenth and the beginning of the
eighteenth century, the name of this salt is usually writ¬
ten sal-armoniac. This we conceive to be an old German
word; for Agricola has given us an alphabetical catalogue
of all the Latin technical terms which he uses in his
works, with a German translation of each. Now, the
German translation which he gives of sal-ammoniacus is
sal-armoniac. The present German name for this salt is
sabniak.
Egypt is the country where sal-ammoniac was first ma¬
nufactured, and from which Europe for many years was
supplied with it. This commerce was first carried on by
the Venetians, and afterwards by the Dutch. Nothing
was known about the method employed by the Egyptians
till the year 1719. In 1716 Geoffroy junior read a pa¬
per to the French academy, showing that sal-ammoniac
must be formed by sublimation ; but his opinion was op¬
posed so violently by Homberg and Lemery, that the pa¬
per was not printed. In 1719 M. Lemaire, the French
consul at Cairo, sent the academy an account of the mode
of manufacturing sal-ammoniac in Egypt. The salt, it
appeared, was obtained by simple sublimation from soot.
In the year 1760 Linnaeus communicated to the Royal
Society a correct detail of the whole process, which he
had received from Dr Hasselquist, who had travelled in
that country as a naturalist. This account is published in
the 51st volume of the Philosophical Transactions, 1760,
p. 504. Almost the only fuel used in Egypt is the dung
of cattle. This is collected during the first four months
of the year, when the cattle feed on spring grass, which
in Egypt is a kind of clover. It is dried, and sold to the
common people as fuel. The soot from this fuel is care¬
fully collected and sold to the sal-ammoniac makers, who
only work during the months of March and April; for at
other periods of the year the dung of their cattle is not
fit for their purpose. An oblong oven is built of bricks
and moist dung, as long again as broad, and of such a size
that the outside or flat part of the top of the arch may
hold fifty glass vessels, ten in length, and five in breadth,
each vessel having a cavity left for it in the brick work of
the arch. These glass vessels are globular, with a neck
an inch long and two inches wide. In general they are
about eighteen inches in diameter. Each vessel is coated
over with a fine clay found in the Nile, and afterwards
with straw. They are filled two thirds with soot, and put
into their holes at the top of the oven. At first a gentle
fire is raised, and the temperature is gradually increased
to the highest degree, at which it is kept for three days.
A smoke with a sourish smell, not unpleasant, issues first
from the glasses, then the salt sublimes, and coats the
upper part of the vessel.
It was long supposed that camels urine and camels
dung were essential for the success of the above process;
but this is a mistake. The dung of black-cattle, horses,
sheep, goats, &c. are all used promiscuously. The dung
of these animals contains the sal-ammoniac ready formed.
This depends upon the food which the animals live on,
and accordingly it is only fit for the purpose at one sea¬
son of the year. The soot contains the sal-ammoniac
likewise ready formed, and merely mixed with a quantity
of charcoal, oil, &c. from which it is freed by sublimation.
Chaptal informs us that he found sal-ammoniac in the
soot obtained by burning the dung of cattle that had fed
on the saline plants in the marshes near the Mediter¬
ranean. Thus the Egyptian method of obtaining sal-am¬
moniac is the simplest possible.
The first attempt to manufacture sal-ammoniac in Eu¬
rope was made by a Mr Goodwin, a chemist of London,
VOL. II.
721
about the beginning of the eighteenth century. We do Ammoniac,
not know his process accurately; but he appears to have
used the mother ley of common salt and putrid urine as
ingredients. Dossie, in his Institutes of Experimental
Chemistry, gives it as his opinion, that the salt ©btained
by this process was not sal-ammoniac, but sulphate of am¬
monia, and even describes a process for subliming that
salt. But he must have been mistaken; for sulphate of
ammonia, as appears from the experiments of Hatchett,
is entirely decomposed when we attempt to sublime it.
Goodwin’s process, however, whatever it was, did not
succeed, and was speedily abandoned. In the year 1740
a patent was taken out for making sal-ammoniac by a
London manufacturer. The process was nearly the same
as Goodwin’s, and was equally unsuccessful. . The first
successful manufacture of sal-ammoniac in this country
was established in Edinburgh by Dr Hutton and Mr Davy.
We do not know in what year the manufactory was be¬
gun ; but as the plan was concerted while these gentle¬
men were students at the university of Edinburgh, the
establishment of the work cannot have been far from the
year 1760. From the university of Edinburgh, Dr Hut¬
ton went to Paris. During his absence Mr Davy began
the manufactory, and on his return admitted him as a
partner. This original manufactory existed in Edinburgh
till within these few years. The low price of sal-ammo¬
niac during the war with Russia induced the proprietors
to abandon it, as was the case with almost all the sal-am¬
moniac works in Britain.
Sal-ammoniac was first manufactured in France by
Baume, who established a work about the year 1760; but
whether it was posterior or anterior to the work of Hut¬
ton and Davy, we do not know. Manufactories of it
were afterwards established in Germany, Holland, and
Flanders.
Various modes were followed in Europe to procure this
salt. But the theory (if we can apply the term here) of
most of the manufacturers was the same. They formed
a sulphate of ammonia, which they mixed with common
salt. A double decomposition took place. The sulphuric
acid of the sulphate united with the soda of the common
salt, and formed Glauber’s salt, which was obtained in
great abundance by crystallization, and sold as a medi¬
cine. The muriatic acid and ammonia, uniting together,
formed sal-ammoniac, which was sublimed. When the
British government imposed a heavy duty on Glauber
salts, the manufacture of sal-ammoniac in this country re¬
ceived so severe a blow, that it is not likely ever to recover
it. We shall give a short sketch of the processes followed
in different manufactories, in order to afford a more dis¬
tinct idea of the method of procuring this salt.
Before the French revolution, several manufactures of
sal-ammoniac existed in Flanders, which deserve to be
described; first, because they were in some measure an
imitation of the original Egyptian method. Bricks, or
rather balls, were formed of the following materials:
twenty-five parts of pounded pit-coal, five parts of soot,
two parts of clay, and as much of a saturated aqueous so¬
lution of common salt as was sufficient to convert the
whole into a paste; this paste was moulded in an iron
mould, and the balls suffered to dry. These were burnt
in a brick furnace, along with a quantity of dry bones, the
proportion of which does not appear to have been accu¬
rately determined. The furnace communicated by an
aperture, two inches wide, into a vaulted brick chamber
above. From the top of this chamber there was a com¬
munication, likewise two inches wide, with a horizontal
gallery, which terminated in a perpendicular chimney.
The fire was kept up with these materials for five or six
x
722 AMMONIAC, S A L.
Ammuniac. months, and then allowed to go out. By the combustion
of the pit-coals, soot, and bones, a quantity of carbonate
of ammonia is formed. The common salt is decomposed
by the clay, and muriatic acid disengaged. This acid
coming.in contact with the carbonate of ammonia, decom¬
poses it, and sal-ammoniac is formed. The sides and
roof of the vaulted chamber are found coated with this
impure sal-ammoniac, which is carefully removed. The
bottom of the chamber, and the horizontal gallery above,
contain likewise sal-ammoniac, but so much loaded with
bitumen, that it requires to be burnt a second time before
the sal-ammoniac can be extracted. The impure sal-am¬
moniac is put into egg-shaped clay vessels, twenty inches
long and sixteen in diameter. Each is filled to within
three inches of the top. The lower part of these vessels
is exposed to a graduated heat for forty-eight hours, while
the upper part, being left in the air, is comparatively cool.
The oily matter is first driven off, and then the sal-am¬
moniac is sublimed in a cake in the upper part of the ves¬
sel. The charcoal, and any other fixed matter present,
remains at the bottom. Finally, the clay vessels are
broken, and the cakes of sal-ammoniac taken out. There
is a small hole in the upper part of the clay vessels, and
care is taken to keep this hole open during the whole pro¬
cess, to prevent the vessels from bursting. Fifteen parts
of the sooty matter taken from the vaulted chambers
yield about five parts of sal-ammoniac. {Journal des
Mines, No. X. p. 3.)
The original process of Baume was to distil animal sub¬
stances, in order to procure from them carbonate of am¬
monia. With this salt he decomposed the muriate of
magnesia, which exists in considerable quantity in the
mother ley of common salt, when that substance is pro¬
cured from sea-water; the liquid containing the sal-am¬
moniac was evaporated, and the sal-ammoniac sublimed.
This process was speedily abandoned, and another sub¬
stituted in its place by MM. Leblanc and Dize. They
brought into contact, in a leaden chamber, vapours of
ammonia and of muriatic acid. The ammonia was pro¬
cured by distilling animal substances, and the muriatic
acid by decomposing common salt by means of sulphuric
acid. But this method, though it yielded a very pure
sal-ammoniac, was speedily abandoned on account of its
expense.
The process of Hutton and Davy was to procure am¬
monia, which they did chiefly from soot. This they con¬
verted into sulphate of ammonia. The sulphate was
mixed with common salt, and thus two salts were pro¬
cured ; Glauber s salt, which they obtained by crystalli¬
zation, and sal-ammoniac, which was sublimed.
Almost all the manufactures of sal-ammoniac, whether
in Britain, France, or Germany, were similar in principle
to that of Hutton and. Davy. The only difference con¬
sisted in the means employed to procure the sulphate of
ammonia. We shall describe a manufacture, formerly
existing in London, in which the methods employed were
both scientific and economical.
I he material from which the ammonia was extracted
was bones. These were collected in the streets and
frorn dunghills, chiefly by old women. The bones were
bruised and boiled, in order to extract the fat which they
contained, which was sold to the soap-makers. They
were then put into iron cylinders eight feet long and
three feet in diameter, placed horizontally over a fire¬
place, so that they could be made red-hot. At one end
of the cylinder was a mouth, about fourteen inches in
diameter, by which the bones were introduced. This
mouth was accurately shut by a cover, and made air-tight
by means of lute. From the other end of the cylinder
proceeded a cast-iron pipe, from six to eight inches in Ammoniac,
diameter, and twenty feet long, terminating in one or
more oblong leaden receivers, which were kept cool by
water placed in a leaden vessel, the bottom of which
formed their cover, the juncture being secured by lute.
Of these receivers there were commonly two to each still,
or three to two stills. Every receiver was about twelve
feet long, one foot deep, and fourteen inches wide; and
the refrigeratory that covered it held about four inches in
depth of water. At the end most remote from the still
was a pipe, fitted with a wooden plug, for the purpose of
drawing off the condensed liquor; and above this was a
hole through which the gas and uncondensible vapour
passed off into the open air.
A single charge ot each still yielded about 36 pounds
of impure alkaline liquor, and about 30 pounds of black
fetid oil floating on its surface. This latter being skim¬
med olf, the ammonia was saturated with sulphuric acid,
either by means of the mother liquor from the green vi¬
triol makers, or still more economically by means of cal¬
cined and pulverized gypsum. In this last case the ma¬
terials were mixed, and left in contact for some hours.
A double decomposition took place; the sulphuric acid
of the gypsum uniting with the ammonia, while the car¬
bonic acid of the carbonate combined with the lime of
the gypsum. The solution of sulphate of ammonia thus
produced was mixed with common salt, by which Glau¬
ber’s salt and sal-ammoniac were formed, and separated
from each other.
For this purpose the liquid, clarified by subsidence and
decantation, was transferred into oblong leaden boilers,
about nine feet long, three wide, and nine inches deep.
Two thirds of the length of these boilers were set upon
iron plates heated by a fire beneath; the remaining part
was supported by flat tiles, and defended from the heat
by a solid brick work. As the Avater evaporates, the
Glauber’s salt begins to crystallize. It is swept from
time to time to the cool extremity of the boiler, whence
it is shovelled into baskets placed over the end of the
boiler, that the liquid which drains off may not be lost.
The evaporation is continued till feathered crystals of
sal-ammoniac begin to appear on the surface. The liquid
is then run into coolers, and deposits little else than sal-
ammoniac till the temperature sinks to 70°. The crys¬
tals must now be removed, that they may not be mixed
with the Glauber’s salt, which begins at that temperature
to be deposited. The sal-ammoniac thus obtained is first
drained in baskets, and then exposed to heat in a kind of
oven, till the water of crystallization is driven off. It be¬
comes spongy, friable, of an ash-colour, mixed with small
white filaments.
This salt is introduced, while still hot, into globular
grey earthen jars, fitted with a cover (with a hole of about
half an inch diameter in its centre), luted on with a mix¬
ture of clay and horse-dung. These are set in earthen
pots over a strong fire, in a furnace of either a circular or
oval form, and capable of containing from six to eighteen,
surrounded with sand up to the edge of the pot, and also
having about 2^ inches of sand on the cover, confined by
an iron ring about three inches deep, and two inches less
in diameter than the cover, in order that the luting,
should it give way, may be repaired without suffering the
covers to be cooled by the removal of the sand; for,
during the sublimation, their temperature should be about
320°. These earthen vessels may be filled with the dried
salt to within two inches of the top. It may be gently
pressed in, but not rammed close. The fire, which has
been lighted some time before, is now to be raised gradu¬
ally till the iron pots are of a pretty strong red heat all
A M M
Ammon- round. They are so placed in the furnace that the upper
ites. part is first heated, the bottoms resting on solid brick
work. At first a quantity of aqueous vapour, carrying
with it a portion of the salt, escapes through the hole in
the cover. The hole must be left open as long as any
moisture exhales. This is known by bringing a cold
smooth iron plate near the hole, in order to condense the
sublimate. When the water is gone, the salt attaches
itself to this plate in the form of a dry semi-transparent
crust. The hole is now to be stopped up with lute, and
more sand put upon the cover. The heat is to be kept
up till it is judged that most of the sal-ammoniac, but not
the whole, has sublimed. The time requisite for this, de¬
pending on the furnace, can only be learned by expe¬
rience. If the heat be continued too long, the cake of
sal-ammoniac acquires a yellow colour, and a scorched,
opaque, crackled appearance, which, injuring its saleabi¬
lity, ought to be avoided. When the lute gives way, and
requires repairing during the process, the appearance of
the cake of sal-ammoniac is injured. On this account
glass vessels would be preferable to those of clay. But
in this country the expense of glass is so great, on ac¬
count of the high duty laid upon it, that manufacturers
are scarcely able to use it in those cases where the ves¬
sels must be broken at the end of every process, as is the
case in the sublimation of sal-ammoniac. (Aikin’s Diction¬
ary of Chemistry, article Sal-Ammoniac.)
One process more deserves to be mentioned, on account
of its ingenuity and simplicity. It was the invention of
Mr Astley, who secured the exclusive privilege by a pa¬
tent, and had a manufactory at Borrowstowness on the
Frith of Forth, and another at Portobello, near Edin¬
burgh. He mixed together animal matters (chiefly woollen
rags) with what in Scotland is called spirit of salt. It is
the mother ley that remains after all the crystals of com¬
mon salt that can be got have been separated from sea¬
water. It consists chiefly of muriate of magnesia. This
mixture was burnt in furnaces, and the produce received
in small chambers placed over the furnaces* This pro¬
duce contained abundance of sal-ammoniac, which was
obtained pure by sublimation. We conceive the theory
of this process to be, that carbonate of ammonia is formed
by the combustion of the animal matter. This carbonate
immediately decomposes the muriate of magnesia, and
sal-ammoniac sublimes. In principle, therefore, it does
not differ from Baum6’s original process, though in point
of economy it is probably greatly superior to it. We
have little doubt that Baumeij’s method yields a greater
return from the same quantity of materials; but this is
probably much more than counterbalanced by the much
greater expense attending his process. Nothing can de¬
monstrate this more clearly than the circumstance that
his method was abandoned in France as too expensive,
though labour be much cheaper in that country than in
this, while Mr Astley manufactured his sal-ammoniac
with profit in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, (t. t.)
AMMONITES, a fossil genus of spiral chambered shell,
containing numerous species approaching nearest to the liv¬
ing nautilus.—See Von Buch, Ann. de Sciences Nat.; Sow-
erby’s Conchology; D’Orbigny, Palceont. Franc.
Ammonites, the descendants of the younger son of Lot
(Gen. xix. 38). They originally occupied a tract of coun¬
try east of the Amorites, and separated from the Moabites
by the river Arnon. It was previously in the possession of
a gigantic race called Zamzummins (Deut. ii. 20). The
Israelites, on reaching the borders of the Promised Land,
were commanded not to molest the children of Ammon,
for the sake of their progenitor Lot. Nevertheless, frequent
wars were carried on between Israel and the Ammonites
A M M 723
up to the time of Judas Maccabaeus (b.c. 164), who fought Ammonitis
many battles with the Ammonites, and took Jazer, with the B
towns belonging to it. Justin Martyr affirms that in his ^mmoniu3~
time the Ammonites were numerous {Dial, cum Tryph.
§ 119). Origen speaks of their country under the general
denomination of Arabia. Josephus says that the Moabites
and Ammonites were inhabitants of Coele-Syria (Antiq.
i. 11, §5)..
Their national idol was Molech or Milcom, whose wor¬
ship was introduced among the Israelites by the Ammonitish
wives of Solomon (1 Kings xi. 5. 7).
AMMONITIS, in Ancient Geography, a country of
Arabia Petrsea, occupied by the children of Ammon,
whence the appellation. It was a small district, situated
among the upper branches of the river Jabbok, eastward of
the Dead Sea.
AMMONIUS, surnamed Saccas, from his having been
in his youth a porter, was born in Alexandria about the end
of the second century. He was one of the most celebrated
philosophers of his age ; and, adopting with alterations the
Eclectic philosophy, laid the foundation of that sect which
was distinguished by the name of the New Platonists.
This learned man was born of Christian parents, and
educated in their religion, the outward profession of which,
it is said, he never entirely deserted. As his genius was
vast and comprehensive, so were his projects bold and
singular: he attempted a general coalition of all sects,
whether philosophical or religious, by framing a system of
doctrines which he imagined calculated to unite them all,
the Christians not excepted, in the most perfect harmony.
In pursuance of this design, he maintained that the great
principles of all philosophical and religious truth wTere to be
found equally in all sects; that they differed from each
other only in their method of expressing them, and in some
opinions of little or no importance; and that, by a proper
interpretation of their respective sentiments, they might
easily be united into one body. Accordingly all the Gen¬
tile religions, and even the Christian, were to be illustrated
and explained by the principles of this universal philosophy ;
and the fables of the poets and priests were to be removed
from Paganism, and the comments and interpretations of
the disciples of Jesus from Christianity. In conformity to
this plan, he insisted that all the religious systems of all na¬
tions should be restored to their original purity, and reduced
to their primitive standard, viz., the ancient philosophy of
the east, preserved uncorrupted by Plato: and he affirmed
that this project was agreeable to the intentions of Jesus
Christ, whose sole view in descending upon earth was to
set bounds to the reigning superstition, to remove the
errors that had blended themselves with the religions of all
nations, but not to abolish the ancient theology from which
they were derived. He therefore adopted the doctrines
which were received in Egypt concerning the universe and
the Deity, considered as constituting one great whole ; con¬
cerning the eternity of the world, the nature of souls, the
empire of Providence, and the government of the world by
daemons. He also established a system of moral discipline,
which allowed the people in general to live according to the
laws of their country and the dictates of nature, but required
the wise to exalt their minds by contemplation, and to mor¬
tify the body, so that they might be capable of enjoying the
presence and assistance of the daemons, and of ascending
after death to the presence of the Supreme Parent. In
order to reconcile the popular religion, and particularly the
Christian, with this new system, he made the whole history
of the heathen gods an allegory; maintaining that they
were only celestial ministers, entitled to an interior kind of
worship. He acknowledged also that Jesus Christ was an
excellent man, and the friend of God ; but alleged that it
x
724 AMO
Ammuni- was not his design entirely to abolish the worship of dae-
tion mons, and that his only intention was to purify the ancient
Amon religi°n* This system, so plausible in its first rise, but so
v , m0nJ i comprehensive and complying in its progress, has been the
J ^ source of innumerable errors and corruptions in the Chris¬
tian church. At its first establishment it received some
countenance from Athenagoras, Pantaenus, and Clemens the
Alexandrian, and all who had the care of the public school
belonging to the Christians at Alexandria. It was afterwards
adopted with various degrees of assent by Longinus, the cele¬
brated author of the treatise on the Sublime, Plotinus, He-
rennius, Origen, Porphyry, lamblichus the disciple of Por¬
phyry, Sopater, Edisius, Eustathius, Maximus of Ephesus,
Priscus, Chrysanthius the master of Julian, Julian the
Apostate, Hierocles, Proclus, and many others, both Pa¬
gans and Christians. Ammonius opened his school a.d.
193, and died a.d. 243.
His opinions may be gathered from the writings and dispu¬
tations of his disciples. The only work of his now extant is
a Diatessaron, or Harmony of the Gospels, which is pre¬
served in the Latin version of Victor, bishop of Capua (who
wrongly ascribed it to Tatian), and of Luscinius.
AMMUNITION, a general name for all warlike provi¬
sions, but more particularly powder, ball, &c.
AMNESTY, in matters of policy, denotes a pardon
granted by a prince to his rebellious subjects, usually with
some exceptions: such was that granted by Charles II. at
his restoration. The word is formed from the Greek afjLvrjar-
rta, the name of an edict of this kind published by Thrasy-
bulus, on his expulsion of the tyrants out of Athens. An
amnesty marks the pre-existence of revolution or rebellion,
and those countries are happiest where it is least known.
Many amnesties have been granted in France and other
parts of Europe during the past half century, but since the
Jacobite insurrections none has been deemed necessary in
Britain. The latest act of amnesty is the 20th Geo. II. c.
52, “ An Act for the King’s most gracious general and free
pardon.” A similar act was passed after the rebellion of
1715. In both instances, however, punishments had been
extensively inflicted before the passing of the amnesty, and
acts of forfeiture were passed against those persons con¬
spicuous in the insurrections who could not be apprehended
and brought to trial. The old treason law of England con¬
tained a general principle of amnesty honourable to the
humanity of its authors, exempting from punishment those
charged with treason against a king dejure, unless he were
king de facto. This was pleaded by Sir Harry Vane when
he was brought to trial at the Restoration ; but the plea was
met by the discreditable quibble that Charles II. was king
not only de jure but de facto from the time of his father’s
death, though he was “ kept out of the exercise of his royal
authority by traitors and rebels.”
AMNIOS, or Amnion, a thin pellucid membrane, which
surrounds the foetus in the womb. See Anatomy.
AMOEBAiUM, in Ancient Poetry, a kind of poem re¬
presenting a dispute between two persons, who are made to
answer each other alternately : such are the third and
seventh of Virgil’s Eclogues.
AMOL, or Amul, a city of Persia, in the province of
Masenderan, on the Heras, about 12 miles above its entrance
into die Caspian, and over which there is a bridge of 12
arches. The population in winter is about 40,000, but a great
number of these are shepherds, who leave the city in sum¬
mer to tend their flocks. Here is a magnificent mausoleum
erected by Shah Abbas to a former sovereign; and in its
vicinity are many mounds and Persian remains.
AMOMUM, an aromatic genus of plants, natives of hot
climates, especially the East Indies. See Botany.
AMON, or Amun, or Ammon, the name of an Egyptian
A M 0
god, in whom the classical writers unanimously recognise -Amon
their own Zeus and Jupiter. The primitive seat of his wor- II
ship appears to have been at Meroe, from which it de- Amontons..
scended to Thebes, and thence, according to Herodotus
(ii. 54), was transmitted to the oasis of Siwah and to Do-
dona ; in all which places there were celebrated oracles of
this god. His chief temple and oracle in Egypt, however,
were at Thebes, a city peculiarly consecrated to him, and
which is probably meant by the No and No Amon of the
prophets. He is generally represented on Egyptian monu¬
ments by the seated figure of a man with a ram’s head, or by
that of an entire ram, and of a blue colour. In honour of
him, the inhabitants of the Thebaid abstained from the
flesh of sheep, but they annually sacrificed a ram to him
and dressed his image in the hide. A religious reason for that
ceremony is assigned by Herodotus (ii. 42) ; but Diodorus
(iii. 72) ascribes his wearing horns to a more trivial cause.
As for the power which was worshipped under the
form of Amon, Macrobius asserts (Saturnal. i. 21) that the
Libyans adored the setting sun under that of their Am¬
mon ; but he points to the connection between the ram’s
horns of the god and Aries in the zodiac.
The etymology of the name is obscure. Eustathius says
that, according to some, the word means shepherd. Jablon-
ski proposed an etymology by which it would signify pro¬
ducing light; and Champollion, in his latest interpretation,
assigned it the sense of hidden. There is little doubt that
the pointed Hebrew text correctly represents the Egyptian
name of the god, and, besides what may be gathered from
the forms of the name in the classical writers, Kosegarten
argues that the enchorial Amn was pronounced Amon, be¬
cause names in which it forms a part are so written in
Greek, as ’ApovpaaovOrjp. Moreover, ’Apwv and 'Ayovv are
found in lamblichus and Plutarch ; and the latter expressly
says that the Greeks changed the native name into ’’Appoiv.
Amon, fourteenth king of Judah, reigned two years, and
was assassinated b.c. 642.
AMONEBURG, a small town of Hesse-Cassel, on the
river Ohm, 8 miles east of Marburg. Pop. 1200.
AMO NT O NS, Guillaume, a celebrated French ex¬
perimental philosopher, was the son of an advocate who had
left his native province of Normandy, and established him¬
self at Paris, where the subject of this memoir was born in
1663. The exertions of genius frequently take a particular
direction from accidental circumstances. A severe illness
with which Amontons was afflicted in his early youth, had
the effect of rendering him almost entirely deaf, and conse¬
quently of secluding him in a great measure from the ordi¬
nary commerce and amusements of society. Being com¬
pelled by this accident to depend for his enjoyments on
the resources of his own mind, he began to take great plea¬
sure in the construction of machines of various kinds, and
in the study of the laws of mechanics; a path of inquiry
which he pursued through life with unremitting ardour and
distinguished success. One of the first objects which en¬
gaged his attention was the discovery of the perpetual mo¬
tion ; an attempt which, though necessarily unsuccessful, was
productive of greater advantage to him than it has usually
been to those who have pursued that vain chimera.
Amontons directed his views in a particular manner to the
improvement of instruments employed in physical experi¬
ments ; a subject which requires the finest applications of
mechanical principles, and which till that time had not met
with a due share of attention. In 1687, before he had
attained his 24th year, he presented to the Academy of
Sciences an hygrometer of his own invention, which was re¬
ceived with approbation by that learned body. In 1695 he
published the only work which he has given to the world.
It was dedicated to the academy, and entitled Remarques et
AMO
Amorbach Experiences Physiques sur la Construction cFun Nouvel
II Clepsydre sur les Barometres, les Thermometres, et les Hy-
Amorites. qr0metres. After Huygens’ beautiful application of the pen-
dulum to the regulation of the motion of clocks, any attempt
to revive the clepsydra, an incommodious instrument, and
not susceptible of much accuracy, might seem to subject its
author to the imputation of not sufficiently appreciating the
great importance of a discovery which has so completely
changed the face of astronomical science ; but the object of
Amontons was to produce an instrument capable of measur¬
ing time on board ship, in circumstances where the motion
of the vessel rendered such timekeepers as were then known
useless. The machine which he constructed is said to have
been extremely ingenious, and probably differed entirely
from those of the ancients, among whom the clepsydra was
in common use.
In 1689 Amontons was admitted into the Academy ol
Sciences, the memoirs of which he enriched with many im¬
portant contributions. The first paper which he presented
after his admission was one on the theory of Friction, a sub¬
ject then involved in great obscurity, and on which his in¬
quiries tended to throw considerable light. After that ap¬
peared, in succession, an account of a New Thermometer,
and of numerous Experiments made with the Barometer,
relative to the nature and properties of Air,—a detailed ac¬
count of all which is given in the history of the academy.
By his countrymen he is generally regarded as the inventor
of the telegraph; and he had the honour of exhibiting the
methods by which he proposed to accomplish the object in
view, before some members of the royal family. It appears,
however, from a paper read by Dr Hooke to the Royal So¬
ciety in 1684, that that ingenious philosopher had brought
the telegraph, in theory at least, to a state of far greater ma¬
turity than Amontons, and nearly 20 years earlier. 1 he ex¬
periments of the latter were made about the year 1702. It
may be regarded as a curious fact in the history of inven¬
tions, that although the great importance of telegraphic com¬
munication is obvious, and the method of accomplishing it
was clearly explained by Hooke, and its practicability de¬
monstrated by Amontons, it continued to be regarded as a
mere jeu c?esprit, and was not regularly applied to useful
purposes till nearly a century afterwards, at the time of the
French Revolution. Amontons died in 1705, aged 42.
AMORBACH, a city of the kingdom of Bavaria, in the
circle of Lower Franconia, 24 miles south of Aschaffenburg.
It is situated at the junction of the rivers Mudau and Bill,
and has a castle, the residence of the princes of Leimngen,
and once a very rich Benedictine abbey, two churches, a
chapel, an almshouse, and manufactures of cloth, paper, &c.
Pop. 2900. ,. T
AMORGO, an island in the Archipelago, south-east of
Naxos, in Lat. 36. 48. N. Long. 26. 0. E. It is about 36
miles in circumference, and has a small town of the same
name, with an excellent harbour, Port Anna, on its north¬
east coast. It is mountainous, and produces wine, oil, wheat,
barley, &c. Pop. 3000. The poet Simonides was born
^AMORITES, the descendants of one of the sons of
Canaan, the most powerful and distinguished of the Canaan-
itish nations. We find them first noticed in Gen. xiv. 7,
«fpg Amorites that dwelt in Hazezon-tamar, afterwards
called Engedi, a city in the wilderness of Judea not far from
the Dead Sea. In the promise to Abraham (Gen. xv. 21), the
Amorites are specified as one of the nations whose country
would be given to his posterity. When the Israelites were
about to enter the Promised Land, the Amorites occupied
a tract on both sides of the Jordan. They were under two
kings—Sihon king of Heshbon, and Og king of Bashan,
who “ dwelt at Ashtarotlr (Deut. i. 4). Before hostilities
AMO 725
commenced messengers were sent to Sihon, requesting per- Amor-
mission to pass through his land; but Sihon refused, and P1™118
came to Jahaz and fought with Israel; and Israel smote him AmJ)Ur
with the edge of the sword, &c. (Num. xxi. 24). Og also v f j
gave battle to the Israelites at Edrei, and was totally de¬
feated. Still, after repeated severe defeats, the Amorites,
by means of their war-chariots and cavalry, confined the
Danites to the hills, and would not suffer them to settle in the
plains: they even succeeded in retaining possession of some
of the mountainous parts. u The Amorites would dwell in
Mount Heres in Aijalon, and in Shaalbim, yet the hand of
the house of Joseph prevailed, so that they became tribu¬
taries. And the coast of the Amorites was from the going
up to Akrabbim {the steep of Scorpions), from the rock and
upwards ” (Judges i. 34-36).
AMORPHOUS (a, priv., and gop^rj, form), a term of
frequent use in physical science, to denote the absence of
determinate form.
AMORTIZATION, in Law, the alienation of lands or
tenements to a corporation or fraternity and their successors.
See Mortmain.
AMOS, one of the twelve minor prophets, and a contem¬
porary of Isaiah and Hosea. He was a native of i ekoah,
about six miles south of Bethlehem, inhabited chiefly by
shepherds, to which class he belonged, being also a dresser
of sycamore-trees. The period during which he filled the
prophetic office was of short duration, unless we suppose
that he uttered other predictions which are not recorded.
It is stated expressly that he prophesied in the days of Uz-
ziah, king of Judah, and in the days of Jeroboam, the son
of Joash, king of Israel, two years before the earthquake
(Amos i. 1). As Jeroboam died in the fifteenth year of
Uzziah’s reign, this earthquake, to which there is an allusion
in Zechariah (xiv. 5), could not have happened later than the
seventeenth year of Uzziah • and as Uzziah and Jeroboam
were contemporaries for about fourteen years, from b.c. <98
to 784, the latter of these dates will mark the period when
Amos prophesied.
The allusions in the writings of this prophet are numerous
and varied ; they refer to natural objects, to historical events,
to agricultural or pastoral employments and occurrences,
and to national institutions and customs.
Some peculiar expressions occur; such as “ cleanness of
teeth,” a parallelism to “ want of bread,” iv. 6.; and in the
orthography there are a few peculiarities.
The canonicity of the Book of Amos is amply supported
both by Jewish and Christian authorities. Philo, Josephus,
and the Talmud include it among the minor prophets. It
is also in the catalogues of Melito, Jerome, and the sixtieth
canon of the Council of Laodicea. Justin Martyr, in his
Dialogue with Trypho (§ 22), quotes a considerable part of
the fifth and sixth chapters. There are two quotations from
it in the New Testament: the first (v. 25, 26) by the pro¬
to-martyr Stephen, Acts vii. 42 ; the second (ix. 11) by the
apostle James, Acts xv. 16.
AMGUR, Guillaume de St, a canon of Beauvais in
the thirteenth century, who distinguished himself greatly by
his defence of the privileges of the university of Paris against
ecclesiastical encroachments.
Amour, or Amur, a great river of Chinese Tartary, which
has its rise in the central deserts of northern Asia, among
the mountains of Daouria, in about Long. 109. E. and Lat.
49. N. It has a winding course; flowing first in a northerly
direction; and afterwards making a long detour towards^
the east; then turning to the north, it falls into the sea of
Okhotsk, in about Lat. 53. N., opposite to the middle of the
island or peninsula of Saghalien. This river is called Amur
by the Russians, after the confluence of the Argun and the
Schilka; and still higher up the Schilka is formed by the
x
726
AMP
AMP
Amoy
Amphia-
raus.
union of the Onon and Ingoda. It is called Schilka by the
Tungoose ; Saghalien Oula, or Black Mountain River, by
the Tartars; and Ghelon Kiangh, or the Dragon River, by
the Chinese. It was first known to the Russians in 1639;
and they resolved to annex to their empire the territory
through which it flows, on account of the valuable furs with
which it was known to abound. Many sanguinary conflicts
accordingly took place between them and the Chinese, which
ended in a treaty in 1689, by which the Russians abandoned
their settlement on its banks, from which they were wholly
excluded until the year 1847, when the navigation of this
river was by treaty again opened to them. The river, which
pours out an immense body of water, is navigable for large
vessels as far as the Russian town of Nertschink, 1500 miles
from the sea, though its stream is rapid, and it is annually
frozen for some time. The length of its course is upwards
of 2200 miles.
AMOY, a commercial city and seaport of China, in the
province of Fokien, on a small island of the same name, in
Lat. 24. 10. N. and Long. 118. 13. E. The city is neither
clean nor well built, but it has many public buildings and
shops. It is commanded by a citadel on a height, with for¬
tifications. Amoy was captured by the British in 1841; and is
one of the five Chinese ports opened up to British commerce
by the treaty of 1842. Its harbour is deep, commodious,
and safe, so that vessels on entering do not require the as¬
sistance of pilots. The traffic of Amoy is very considerable:
in 1847, 117 vessels entered its harbour, with an aggregate
burden of 16,494 tons; and the value of its imports, by
British ships, during the same year was L.l79,758, by
foreign vessels L.75,976; of its exports in British vessels
L.7139, in foreign vessels L.8568. Its principal exports
are crockery-ware, umbrellas, tea, sugar, sugar-candy, paper,
tobacco, camphor, and grass-cloth. Population in 1847,
250,000.
AMPERE, Andre Marie, professor of mathematical
analysis in the Polytechnic School of Paris, and one of the
most distinguished philosophers of this century, was born at
Lyons in 1775. Among his numerous publications, on va¬
rious branches of knowledge, he is best known by his Electro-
Magnetico-Dynamic papers, which were afterwards embodied
in two volumes entitled Recueil des Observations Electro-
Dynamiques, Paris, 1824-26. His mechanical invention
is there exhibited in the various beautiful contrivances by
which he demonstrated the force and direction of electro¬
magnetic currents, and his sagacity by the philosophical spirit
with which he explained the phenomena. His speculations
On the Application of the Calculus of Variations to Me¬
chanical Problems, as well as his first publication in 1820,
Considerations on the Mathematical Theory of Games of
Chance, are specimens of refined and profound specula¬
tion. He also showed an early interest in the Chemical
1 heory of Definite Proportions. Ini 824 he published a re¬
markable paper On the Surface-curve of Luminous Waves;
and about 1830, a good Essay on the Philosophy of the
Sciences. Besides these larger works, he was the author
of several papers in Ee Journal de VEcole Poly technique,
and in Memoires de l Institut., on mechanical philosophy
and natural history. Ampere died at Paris in 1836, at the
age of 61. g. ,j, \
AMPHIAR AUS,in 1 agan Mythology, a celebrated pro¬
phet, who possessed part of the kingdom of Argos. He was
believed to excel in divining by dreams, and is said to have
been the first who divined by fire. Amphiaraus, knowing
by the spirit of prophecy that he should lose his life in the
war against Thebes, hid himself in order to avoid enga<nno-
in that expedition ; but his wife Eriphyle, being prevailed
upon by a present, discovered the place in which he had con¬
cealed himself, so that he was obliged to accompany the other
princes who marched against Thebes. This proved fatal to Amphibia,
him ; for the earth being split asunder by a thunderbolt, both
he and his chariot were swallowed up in the opening. Am¬
phiaraus, after his death, was ranked among the gods; tem¬
ples were dedicated to him ; and his oracle became very fa¬
mous, as well as the sports instituted in his honour.
AMPHIBIA, a term in Zoology bestowed on different
groups of animals, and with a considerable variety of signi¬
fication. When rigorously interpreted, it applies to very few
animals, as, with rare exceptions, naturalists know of no
species which are strictly amphibious; that is to say, pos¬
sessed of the power of performing the vital act of respiration
either in air or water. When intended, however, merely to
express the habit of existing alternately for a time in either
of these elements, the term amphibious applies to various
groups, which have little in common with each other. Hence
the artificial mode of arrangement adopted by Gesner and
the older naturalists, who, taking into consideration chiefly
the habitations of animals, bestowed the name of amphibia
on beavers, otters, frogs, and other incongruous genera.
Linnaeus applied the name, in his earlier works, to a class
composed of reptiles and chondropterygious fishes ; but he
afterwards restricted it to reptiles alone possessed of cold
red blood and a simple circulation. The amphibia of Baron
Cuvier, again, are such of the mammalia or mammiferous
quadrupeds as are enabled by their motive organs to dwell
in water as well as on the land; for example, seals, sea lions,
the walrus, &c. In his system they occupy an intermediate
station between the feline and marsupial or pouched animals.
They pass the greater portion of their time at sea. and sel¬
dom come ashore except to suckle their young, or dry their
moistened furs by exposure to sun and air. Their power of
sustaining without injury a long-continued submersion does
not, however, result from a continuance of the foramen ovale,
by which it was supposed that the blood of these creatures
passed from one chamber of the heart to another, without
the necessity of being propelled through the lungs. Seals
do not differ in that respect from other animals.
Buffon was of opinion that the newly born young of all
mammiferous quadrupeds might be submerged in a nourish¬
ing fluid without depriving them of life, because their cir¬
culation at that early period was supposed to resemble that
of amphibious reptiles. Experiments, however, on this sub¬
ject would no doubt have accorded perfectly with those of
Le Gallois, instituted with a view to ascertain the possibility
of dividing the spinal marrow without the production of
death. It is singular that Daubenton, his skilful and labori¬
ous coadjutor, did not remind Buffon that the foetus, while
suspended in the liquid of the amnios, receives oxygenated
blood from the mother, whilst after birth a necessity ensues
for the vital act of respiration being performed by the indi¬
vidual itself. It is also known that the foramen ovale does
not exist at the period of birth, except in such species as
are destined to enjoy a continuance of that peculiarity of
structure; from which we may infer that a primordial dis¬
position of organs is of greater importance, and less easily
alterable, than many modern physiologists are accustomed
to suppose.
The principal characteristic of reptiles in general consists
in this, that only a portion of the blood is transmitted through
the lungs, the remainder being projected by the heart di¬
rectly to the other parts of the body, without being specially
subjected to the influence of the respiratory organs ; where¬
as in the higher classes, such as man, the rest of the mam¬
malia, and birds, the whole of the blood must pass by the
lungs before it is retransmitted to the more distant parts of
the circulating system. The respiration of animals, or the
process by which the blood is oxygenated, becomes weaker
and less frequent in proportion to the diminution which takes
AMP
Amphibole place In the quantity of blood transmitted to the lungs, com¬
il pared with that which passes directly from the heart; and
Amphi- as ;t js respiration which warms the blood, and produces in
v ^°me‘ i the fibres their susceptibility of nervous irritation, it follows,
as observed by Cuvier, that the blood of reptiles is cold, and
their muscular strength much less than that of birds or
quadrupeds. The seat of their sensations is also much less
centralised than in the last-named classes ; and hence many
of them exhibit life and motion long after their heads have
been severed from their bodies. ^
A truly amphibious animal, according to the proper mean¬
ing of the term, ought to possess the power of breathing
under water like a fish, and of respiring the atmospheric air
like a land animal. According to this interpretation, neither
seals nor beavers, nor even whales, are truly amphibious ; for
they cannot sustain their existence under water except by
aid of a certain portion of air which they have inspired at
the surface. In like manner, neither the frog nor the tad¬
pole is amphibious (unless it may be for a short time at a
certain intermediate period of life) ; for the former only seeks
the water as a place of temporary resort, in which, however,
it cannot breathe; and the latter is entirely aquatic, being
unprovided with lungs, and consequently unable to respire,
except through the medium of water. A frog can there¬
fore only be said to be amphibious in as far as it possesses,
at two distinct periods of its life, the faculty of living first in
the water and then on the land; but its habit of life is by
no means optional, and the change of structure, both in the
respiratory and digestive system, as it passes from the im¬
mature to the adult state, is among the most extraordinary in
the whole range of the animal economy. Born with gills, and
destitute of external members, its form and functions are
rather those of a fish than of a reptile ; but as it advances in
growth, the four limbs become developed, the tail decreases
and finally disappears, the jaws are formed, the gills are ab¬
sorbed, and their uses are supplied by lungs. It can no
longer breathe under water.
Among the many wonderful anomalies with which the
kingdom of nature presents us, there exist, however, certain
truly amphibious animals, classed under the genera of Pro¬
teus and Siren, both of which are provided at one and the
same time with the gills of a fish and the lungs of a terres¬
trial creature ; but their habits and propensities are decidedly
aquatic. The former inhabit the subterranean waters of
Carniola; the latter (of which there are several species) oc¬
cur among the marshes and rice-fields of South Carolina.
For an account of these singular animals see the article Rep-
tilia. (j. AV.)
AMPHIBOLE and Amphibolite, augite and horn¬
blende. See Mineralogy.
AMPHIBOLOGY, in Grammar and Rhetoric, a term
used to denote a phrase susceptible of two different inter¬
pretations. Amphibology arises from the order of the
phrase, rather than from the ambiguous meaning of a word.
Of this kind was that answer which Pyrrhus received from
the oracle : Aio te, SEacida, Romanos vincereposse ; where
the amphibology consists in this, that the words te and Ro¬
manos may either of them precede, or either of them fol¬
low the words posse vincere, indifferently.
AMPHIBRACHYS, in Greek and Latin Poetry, the
name of a foot consisting of three syllables, whereof that in
the middle is long and the other two short; such are the
words ablre, amare.
AMPHICOME, in Natural History, a kind of figured
stone, of a round shape, but rugged, and beset with emi¬
nences, celebrated on account of its use in divination. The
word is originally Greek, ap^LKopy, q. d. utrinque comata,
or hairy on all sides. This stone is also called Erotylus,
Epwri’A-os, Amatoria, probably on account of its supposed
AMP 727
power of creating love. The amphicome is mentioned by Amphic-
Democritus and Pliny. tyony.
AMPHICTYONY, in Greek Antiquity, was an associa-
tion of several tribes for the purpose of insuring the obser¬
vation of the law of nations towards one another, and of
protecting the temple of the deity whose worship formed
the outward bond of union among the several tribes. It is
acknowledged on all hands, and admitted by the ancients
themselves, that the name is formed from ap<f>L and kti£co, or
rather ktlw, whence its meaning is “ the dwellers around”
(a common centre). According to this etymology, the
name ought to be spelt Amphictiony ; but in deference to
the ancient legend, which connects the institution with the
mythical hero Amphictyon, the spelling Amphictyony still
prevails; although there were Greek amphictyonies with
which that hero neither had, nor could have had, any con¬
nection whatever. There is positive evidence that several
associations of this kind existed in Greece at a very early
period; and they are of special interest to the philosophic
historian, because they are the first symptoms of civili¬
sation and humanity, and do great honour to the age in
which they originated; but what that age was, and what
the circumstances were which occasioned the formation of
such confederacies, ai-e questions concerning which we have
no historical information. Tradition, indeed, connects the
institution with the Attic king Amphictyon ; but it was in
all probability not formed till after the period of the Doric
migration, when the affairs of Greece became gradually
settled.
The most important of these confederations was the Am¬
phictyony of Delphi, or Thermopylce. It has been supposed
that this was a confederation of the Hellenes against the
Pelasgians; but this opinion is sufficiently refuted by the fact,
that among its members we find both Hellenes and Pelas¬
gians. The names of the twelve tribes forming this Am-
phictyonic league are not the same in all authorities. Har-
pocration, with whom Libanius and Suidas on the whole
agree, mentions the lonians, Dorians, Perrhaebians, Boeo¬
tians, Magnetes, Achaeans, Phthians, Malians, Dolopians,
Tinianians, Delphians, and Phocians. yEschines has no
more than eleven, and instead of the Achaeans, Tinian-
ians, Delphians, and Dolopians, he only gives the Thes¬
salians, CEteans, and Locrians; while lastly, Pausanias’s
list contains only ten names, viz., the lonians, Dolopians,
Thessalians, TCnianians, Magnetes, Malians, Phthians, Do¬
rians, Phocians, and Locrians. The differences in these
lists have been accounted for by the assumption that they
refer to different times, but we have no evidence of any
members of the confederacy having ever dropped off before
the sacred war, after which the Phocians w ere excluded for
a short time. Hence we have to supply two tribes for the
list of Pausanias, and one for that of iEschines ; for it must
be observed that the number twelve was unalterably fixed.
The tribe wanting in dEschines are the Dolopians, and those
which must be added to the list of Pausanias are the Per¬
rhaebians and Boeotians. The Gleans, mentioned by T5s-
chines alone, are the same as the TEnianians whom he omits,
and who dwelt around Mount Gita. The Achaeans and
Phthians, moreover, are the same, and should have been
recorded as the Phthian Achaeans. The Delphians also did
not at first form members of the league, but rose to that
rank only in later times, and instead of these two names the
Thessalians and Locrians have to be entered in the list of
Harpocration. Hence the Delphic Amphictyony consisted
of the lonians, Dolopians, Thessalians, Tmianians (Gitcans),
Magnetes, Malians, Phthian Achaeans, Dorians, Phocians
(including the Delphians), Locrians, Boeotians, and Per¬
rhaebians, who were Pelasgians. All these nations dwelt,
in the earliest times, in and about Thessaly, while after-
728
AMPHICTYONY.
Amphic- wards we find them more scattered over different parts of
tyony. Greece; and this circumstance alone shows, that the forma-
tion of the league must belong to a very early period.
All the twelve members of this confederacy, though some
were very insignificant, and were even treated by others as
subjects, had equal rights at the meetings, and the vote of
the smallest tribe was as weighty as that of the most power¬
ful. The objects of the league are distinctly expressed in
the oath which the Amphictyons had to take, and which is
preserved in iEschines’ oration ‘ De Falsa Legatione. This
oath bound the Amphictyons not to destroy any of the Am-
phictyonic towns, not to turn away its running waters either
in time of war or in time of peace; and if any one should
attempt to rob the temple of Delphi (the common centre of
the confederacy), to employ their hands, feet, tongue, and
their whole power, to bring him to punishment. The human¬
ising influence which this and other enactments of the confe¬
deracy were intended to exercise, is perceptible in the part re¬
lating to war. The framer of the law evidently regarded war
only as an unavoidable means of settling disputes between
two states ; but it was to be carried on only for the purpose
of bringing the dispute to a decision, and not for destruction
and devastation. Another enactment probably was that the
inhabitants of a conquered city should not be sold as slaves.
But the chief care of the Amphictyons appears to have been
to watch over the temple, to punish those who were guilty
of a crime against it, and to reward those who did anything
to increase its splendour and glory. In later times the
political influence of the league generally lay dormant, until
it was exercised by some powerful state or individual for
selfish purposes.
The Amphictyons had regularly two meetings every year
in the spring at Delphi, and in the autumn at Anthela, near
the pass of Thermopylae. At Delphi the deputies met in
the temple of Apollo, and at Anthela in that of Demeter.
This circumstance of the two places of meeting, and of the
two divinities with which the Amphictyony was connected,
renders it highly probable that, in the form in which we
know it, it was a union of originally two distinct Amphic-
tyonies, each of which had its own religious centre. The
deputies of the several states who met at these places are
called Pylagorce (UuAaydpoi, or ai), and Hieromnemones
(Tcpo/xv^yaoves). The difference between these two classes
of deputies has been the subject of much discussion among
the learned; but if we admit that our Amphictyony was a
union of two, the Pylagorae were probably the deputies sent
to Thermopylae, and the Hieromnemones those sent to Del¬
phi, the former, after the union, taking precedence at the
meetings at Thermopylae, and the latter at those of Delphi.
The deputies sent to these annual meetings were appointed
by lot in their respective states; and each state had two votes.
The meetings, however, were attended not only by the de¬
puties but by thousands of others who flocked to Delphi or
Thermopylae for religious and mercantile purposes, or only
for the sake of amusement. This occasioned popular meet-
ings (eK/cA^cnai) distinct from those of the regular deputies.
But we cannot suppose that all the Greeks indiscriminately
were allowed to take part in those popular assemblies, which
must have consisted of visitors from the states which were
members of the Amphictyony.
The constitution of the confederacy and the number of
its members remained, as far as we know, unaltered until
the time of the sacred war; after the termination of which,
in B.c. 346, the Phocians were excluded from the league.
The same was the fate of the Lacedaemonians, who had sup¬
ported the Phocians. The vacancy was filled up by the
admission of the Macedonians to the league. The Phocians,
however, were afterwards restored to their position, because
they had distinguished themselves by their valour during
the invasion of the Gauls under Brennus. At the time of Amphic-
the iEtolian ascendency in Greece, the Altolians appear to tyony.
have usurped the power of the Amphictyons. Strabo speaks ^
of the Amphictyons as broken up in his own time ; and al¬
though their name occurs even at a much later time, yet
they cannot have exercised any influence on the affairs of
Greece. The whole institution died away into the same
obscurity in which its origin is buried.
Wise and humane as were the objects of the Amphic¬
tyons, yet, wherever they actively interfered in the affairs of
Greece during the historical period, we find that they were
more powerful for evil than for good; and the holy wars
which were carried on by them in the defence of the Del¬
phic temple, and the honour of its god, contributed not a
little to the demoralisation of the Greeks.
The very first time that the Amphictyons interfered in the
affairs of Greece, we find them acting in direct opposition to
the spirit of their institution. We allude to the Crissaean or
first sacred war, which broke out in b.c. 594 and lasted till
B.c. 585. The inhabitants of Crissa (or Cirrha) on the Co¬
rinthian Gulf, were charged with extortion and violence to¬
wards the strangers who landed at their port, or passed
through their territory on their way to Delphi. For this the
Amphictyons declared war against Crissa, and it was vigor¬
ously carried on, in the name of the league, by the Thessa¬
lians and Cleisthenes, the tyrant of Sicyon. They even
pretended to have the sanction of Apollo to dedicate the
Crissaeans and their territory to the god, to enslave them,
and make their land a waste for ever. The war is said to
have been terminated by a stratagem of Solon, who poi¬
soned the waters of the river Pleistos, from which the town
was supplied. When the town was taken, the vow of the
Amphictyons was literally carried into effect: Crissa was
razed to the ground, its harbour choked up, and its fertile
plain changed into a wilderness. Such was the terrible
vengeance taken by a body of confederates, whose original
object was to prevent those very things which they now
perpetrated to uphold the honour of the deity presiding
over them. The second sacred war, which likewise lasted
for ten years, from b.c. 355 to 346, was carried on with un¬
paralleled exasperation for a period of ten years, and nearly
all the Greeks took part in it. The Thebans had set their
hearts upon conquering Phocis, but screened their designs
behind a charge preferred against the Locrians, alleging
that they had robbed the temple of Delphi, because they
had taken into cultivation a tract of land belonging to the
Delphic temple. The Amphictyonic council, before which
the charge was brought, condemned the Phocians to pay a
heavy fine, and to destroy the crops of the sacred fields.
No sooner was this verdict pronounced than the Thebans,
Thessalians, Locrians, and Giteans took up arms to exe¬
cute it. The Phocians were joined by Athens and Sparta,
and took possession of the temple of Delphi and its treasures,
which they were obliged to employ in defraying the ex¬
penses of the war. The war was carried on with unexampled
cruelty ; for even the surrender of the dead for burial was
refused, and all Phocian captives were put to death. This
war also afforded Philip of Macedonia an opportunity to in¬
terfere in the affairs of Greece, being invited by the Thes¬
salians to co-operate with them against the Phocians.
Philip and his Macedonians acted as the champions of the
god, and defeated the Phocians in a bloody battle near Mag¬
nesia. Three thousand captive Phocians were put to death.
The latter, however, remained undaunted until at length
they were compelled by treachery to surrender. The Am¬
phictyons now excluded them for ever from the league,
their arms and horses were to be delivered up, their towns
to be destroyed, and the people were henceforth to live in
small villages, and to pay annually to the god sixty talents
x\ M P
AMP
729
Amphi-
dryon
II
Amphi-
lochus.
(about L.15,000) until the temple should be completely in¬
demnified. Macedonian and Theban troops carried the
judgment into execution: twenty-two towns disappeared
from the face of the earth, and the otherwise fertile country
remained for many years a wilderness. A third sacred war
was decreed against the town of Amphissa, because its inhabi¬
tants had taken into cultivation the plain of Crissa; but in
reality the war was brought about by the venal creatures
who endeavoured to promote the ambitious schemes of
Philip of Macedonia, who was bent upon making himself
master of Greece. This war broke out in b.c. 338, and its
unfortunate consequences led to the catastrophe which de¬
prived Greece of her independence in the battle of Chaero-
nea. Such is a brief outline of the history of the Delphic
Amphictyony, which not only itself violated its first prin¬
ciples, but is not known to have ever raised its voice to con¬
demn the wanton destruction of other Amphictyonic towns,
such as Plataeae and Thebes.
Other confederations of a similar kind were,—
1. The Amphictyony of Calaurea, connected with the
temple of Poseidon, in the island of Calaurea. This Am¬
phictyony consisted of the towns of Hermione, Epidaurus,
iEgina, Athens, Prasiae, Nauplia, and the Minyan Orcho-
menos. Sparta and Argos became members of it at a late
pei'iod, after having contrived to get Nauplia and Prasiae
excluded. This circumstance shows that this confederation
was in all probability formed before the Doric migration.
2. Amphictyony of Onchestos, in the territory of Hali-
artus in Bceotia, was likewise connected with the temple of
Poseidon. As at all other Amphictyonies, the meetings of
the members were celebrated with various religious rites,
solemnities, and public games. We do not know the na¬
tions that constituted this league.
3. Amphictyony of Amarynthos, in Euboea, connected
with the temple of Artemis. We know that the two towns
of Eretria and Chalcis were members of it, and that there
existed an ancient treaty, by which these two cities pledged
themselves not to use against each other any missiles thrown
from afar. The meetings were celebrated with splendid fes¬
tivals.
4. Amphictyony of Delos, connected with the temple of
Apollo, was a league formed among the inhabitants of the
Cyclades and the lonians in the neighbourhood. Its insti¬
tution was ascribed to Theseus. The solemnities connected
with its meetings gradually fell into disuse, until they were
revived and increased in b.c. 426, when the island of Delos
was purified by the Athenians. The Athenians, after this
time, regularly sent an annual embassy to Delos, and they
also retained for themselves the superintendence of the
temple and the administration of its treasures. (l.s.)
AMPHIDRYON, in Ecclesiastical Writers, denotes the
veil or curtain which was drawn before the door of the
bema in ancient churches.
AMPHILA, a wide bay in the Red Sea, encumbered
with thirteen small uninhabited islets. Lat. 14. 30. N. Long.
41. E.
AMPHILOCHIA, in Ancient Geography, was a small
district at the eastern end of the Ambracian Gulf. Its
chief town was Argos, surnamed Amphilochicum, to dis¬
tinguish it from the greater Argos.
AMPHILOCHIUS, bishop of Iconium in the fourth
century, was the friend of St Gregory Nazianzen and St
Basil. He assisted at the first general council of Constan¬
tinople in 381, presided at the council of Sidae, and was a
strenuous opposer of the Arians. He died in 394. His
works were published in Greek and Latin at Paris, in 1644,
by Francis Combefis.
AMPHILOCHUS, son of Amphiaraus and Eriphyle,
was believed to have been a celebrated diviner. He had
an altar erected to him at Athens, and an oracle at Mallos Amphi-
in Cilicia, which city was said to have been founded by him macer
and Mopsus. The answers of this oracle were given by Am'' h;_
dreams; and the party inquiring used to pass a night in the theatre,
temple, that night’s dream being the answer.
AMPHIMACER, in Ancient Poetry, a foot consisting
of three syllables, whereof the first and the last are long,
and that in the middle short: such is the word castitas.
AMPHION, in Greek Mythology, the son of Zeus by
Antiope, and the husband of Niobe, was a famous musician
of antiquity, at the magical sounds of whose lyre the stones
began to move, and formed themselves into walls around
Thebes, after his conquest of that city. He was killed by
Apollo for assaulting his temple; or, as some report, he
destroyed himself in despair at the slaughter of his children
by that god. See Niobe.
AMPHIORCIA, or Amphomosia, in Grecian Anti¬
quity, the oath taken in court by the plaintiff and the de¬
fendant, that they would speak the truth. The judges also
took this oath, that they would administer the laws with
impartiality.
AMPHIPOLIS, an Athenian colony, built on the site
of the Thracian city ’Evvea 'OSot, the nine ways, 497 years
B.c. It was on the east bank of the river Strymon, near its
origin from the lake Cercinitis. Its importance arose from
its site on a navigable river, and its vicinity to the gold
mines of Mons Pangceus. It is now Jeni Keni.
AMPHIPROST YLES, in the architecture of the an¬
cients, a temple which had columns in the front, and as
many in the aspect behind, but none on the sides. See
Architecture.
AMPHISCII, among Geographers, a name applied to
the people who inhabit the torrid zone. The Amphiscii,
as the word imports, have their shadows one part of the
year towards the north, and the other towards the south,
according to the sun’s place in the ecliptic. They are also
called Ascii.
AMPHISSA, in Ancient Geography, the chief town of
the Locri Ozolae, about seven miles west of Delphi. The
modern town of Salona occupies its site.
AMPHITHEATRE, in Ancient Architecture, a build¬
ing of an elliptic form, of two or more stories of open ar¬
cades, with a number of interior galleries and arched pas¬
sages, which served both as a communication and support
to several rows of seats which rose above each other, and
were arranged round a large space called the arena. The
derivation of the word ampitheatre indicates that it is a
place where the spectators, circuitously arranged, saw the
performance equally well on all sides.
The history of amphitheatres is of considerable impor¬
tance, in consequence of its connection with ancient man¬
ners. These structures owed their origin to the barbarity
of the ancients, and their ruin to the humanity of the mo¬
derns. They are the production of Roman invention in
the last ages of the republic. The Romans were immoder¬
ately fond of every amusement of a bloody and horrible
nature. Their rulers encouraged this general feature in the
Roman character, to rouse and foster that martial spirit
which rendered them masters of the world. After the Sam-
nite wars had extended the Roman sceptre over the whole
peninsula of Italy, the first gladiatorial conflicts were ex¬
hibited in Rome in the year b.c. 260. Lucius Metellus
brought into the cifcus the elephants which were part ot
the spoil of the Carthaginians, in the year 252, and this
proved the introduction of wild beasts into the spectacles of
Rome. This addition was equally agreeable to the Roman
taste; and those who courted the popular favour vied with
each other in entertaining the people in this barbarous man¬
ner. This soon gave birth to a profession ot men denomi-
vol. n.
X
730 A M PHI T II E A T R E.
Amphi- nated gladiators, who were trained to the combat, and for
theatre, reward slaughtered one another in the arena, whilst every
savage animal which the wilds of Asia or Africa produced
added to the horrors of the scene.
In the days of Pompey and Caesar these barbarous amuse¬
ments were given with an astonishing profusion. In the
games given by Pompey, the elephants attempted to break
down the barrier between them and the people: this cir¬
cumstance, and the form of the circus not enabling all the
spectators to have a full view, induced Caesar to alter the
original form, and construct edifices where the people might
be entertained without danger or interruption. Amphi¬
theatres were suited to this purpose; they were therefore
adopted, and became the common place for the exhibitions
both of gladiators and wild beasts.
It is supposed that the first amphitheatre was composed
of those singular machines, formed by Cains Curio, for the
games which he presented among the funeral honours of his
father. Cains constructed, in a semicircular form, two conti¬
guous wooden theatres, moveable on wheels, first placed back
to back ; and the people having been amused in these the
one-half of the day, they were then wheeled round, forming
one spacious theatre, where the gladiators contended during
the remainder of the day. Pliny is the only writer who
makes mention of this amphitheatre; and from his account
it is difficult to ascertain whether this was the first idea of
an amphitheatre, or whether the previous sight of one had
suggested this huge and wonderful structure. It is said
that Julius Caesar, a few years after, formed a hunting theatre
of wood; and, in consequence of the circular position of the
seats, it obtained the name of an amphitheatre. This ap¬
pears to have been of a very superior kind, and in great
estimation.
In the reign of Augustus, Statilius Taurus erected one
of stone, but it seems to have been seldom used ; and, from
its being consumed by fire in the time of Nero, it is evident
that it was not wholly of stone. These wooden buildings
appear to have been generally temporary, but a few of them
permanent, from the endowment bestowed upon them. The
politic spirit of Augustus induced him to erect several of
these; and Caligula began one, which he left unfinished.
Nero formed a large and spacious one, the building of which
is said to have occupied a year. Herod of Judaea erected
amphitheatres both in Jerusalem and in Caesarea. During
the reign of Tiberius, one was built at Fidenae, which Tacitus
informs us fell while the games were performing, killing or
injuring about 50,000 persons. There was another at Pla¬
centia, reported to have been the most spacious in Italy;
but it was destroyed by fire in the contest between Vitel-
lius and Otho.
The unfortunate accidents which happened to these
wooden buildings led to the construction of others of a more
strong and durable nature, where the crowd might be en¬
tertained without danger. This honour was reserved to
Vespasian and I itus. In his eighth consulate the former
began the amphitheatre, which the latter finished during his
reign. It is said that the expense of this building would
have erected a metropolis, and it is deservedly esteemed
one of the most celebrated edifices of ancient times. Dio
says that 9000 wild beasts were destroyed at the dedication
of this huge building, but Eutropius restricts their number
to 5000. After the hunting of these ferocious animals was
ended, the arena was instantly filled with water, and sea
animals were made to contend, and a sea-fight exhibited.
This immense building obtained the appellation of the
Coliseum or Colosseum.
This amphitheatre became the model of other amphi¬
theatres throughout the empire. Compared with the ori¬
ginal model, these were natural valleys, with seats formed
in the surrounding heights similar to the amphitheatre at Amphi-
Corinth. On the declivity of two hills seats of stones were theatre,
sometimes placed, and the extremes formed by regular
works of stone. Of this kind was that of Gortyna in Candia.
One in the vicinity of Sandwich in Kent had its benches
formed of turf; and similar must have been those amphi¬
theatres which were formed along with the camps and mili¬
tary stations of the Roman soldiers.
When Christianity became the religion of the empire, it
ameliorated the dispositions of the Romans, and induced
them to lay aside this barbarous custom. Constantine the
Great terminated the gladiatorial combats in the East during
his reign ; but they were not finally abolished at Rome until
the beginning of the fifth century, in the reign of Honorius.
The combats of wild beasts continued, however, some time
longer; but during the progress of the fifth century these
gradually declined, until they were finally abolished, and the
amphitheatres were abandoned to the ravages of time and
accident. During the middle ages they were sometimes
employed for judicial conflicts, tilts, and tournaments ; but
these practices having been discontinued, the amphitheatres
experienced universal neglect and ruin.
It is scarcely possible to give a clear idea of the manner
in which such immense crowds of people were seated and
arranged, and how they had a convenient entrance and
exit. It has already been mentioned, that these build¬
ings were circuitous, and that the exterior circuit was com¬
posed of two or more stories of arcades; and it may now be
added, that the number of these stories varied according to
the nature of the building. A corresponding number of
arched passages and staircases opened upon the ground floor
towards these stories, in the direction of radii towards the
arena. These communications were again intersected by
arched passages, which encircled the whole structure, and
afforded an uninterrupted entrance to every part of the
amphitheatre. Sometimes an intermediate gallery sur¬
rounded the whole in the centre of the fabric, and served
as a common place of resort to all the stairs which led to
the higher galleries. This was the form of one at Nismes.
Sometimes each staircase had its distinct communication by
itself. Such was the case with one at Verona.
The four radiating entries on the diameter were usually
more capacious; and by the two principal of these the em¬
peror, the senate, and other persons of distinction, were con¬
ducted to their seats on a place which was called the 'podium.
The other two led to the arena, and by these the gladiators
and beasts made their entrance. The various ranks of the
people passed by the staircases, which led to their respective
seats. The doors which opened from the staircases were
called vomitories, and varied in magnitude, according to the
extent of the amphitheatre and the number of exterior arches.
The number of seats between the several vomitories was
unequal, and seems to have been subject to no positive re¬
gulation. These benches were about one foot and eight
inches in height, and about two feet four inches in breadth.
A platform four feet eight inches broad was formed of one
of these benches, which served as a circular communication
to the whole building. These obtained the name of pre-
cinctions, and the boundaries on the side were called belts.
The latter were surrounded by balustrades, to protect the
persons from falling who occupied the benches in the vicinity.
The podium was more spacious than the precinctions, and
was a platform encircling the arena. From one precinction
to the belt of another, a flight of stairs two feet six inches
in breadth descended opposite to every vomitory. Small
canals were cut in the tops of the benches, by which the
rain and urine were conducted from bench to bench, until
they reached the instruments prepared to convey them to
the drains below. These stairs radiated from the highest
A M P
Amphi- bench to the podium ; so that, with the precinctions, thejT
theatre, separated the whole cavity into wedge-like divisions (cunei),
which the people occupied according to their rank.
The amphitheatre called the Coliseum was of an ellipti¬
cal form, whose longest diameter was about 581 Italian
feet, and the shortest 481. The length of the diameter of
the arena was about 285 feet, and the breadth 182, reserv¬
ing a space for the seats and galleries of about 157 feet in
breadth. The external circumference inclosed a superficies
of above five acres and a half, and could scarcely be included
in a parallelogram of seven acres. Three stories of arcades,
adorned with columns of the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian
orders, and inclosed with apilastrade of the Corinthian order,
composed the external elevation. The first story rose about
four feet from the ground, and the pavement supported the
bases of the columns. The columns which supported the
upper stories were placed upon pedestals. A stylobate sup¬
ported the pilastrade, in which were the windows of an in¬
termediate gallery, and in every second interpilaster was a
window to illuminate the highest gallery. A cantaliver
cornice, perforated with square holes, through which the
erect pieces of wood passed that supported the awning to a
range of corbels, about the centre of the pilastrade, crowned
the building. These various columns, pilasters, and stories,
appear to have been continued without interruption around
the whole edifice. The height of the first story was about
30 feet, the second 38, and the third 38; the pilastrade
about 44 ; and the whole, includiug the blocking course and
the steps, was 157 feet in height. The external circumfer¬
ence of the whole building is 1641 Italian feet.— See Mar¬
chess Guispe Melchiorri.
An ellipsis of 80 open arches formed the exterior circuit
of the ground plan; the piers, with three-quarter columns
in front, of about 2 feet 10 inches diameter. The four
which correspond to the four above-mentioned semi-diame¬
ters, were about 14 feet 2 inches, and 76 of the arches were
about 13 feet 8 inches. These arches led to a large double
corridor, that encircled the whole : this corridor is a magni¬
ficent and distinguishing feature in the Coliseum theatre.
Square openings in the precinction above illuminated the
interior corridor ; and the corridor which was united with
the wall of the podium appears to have been illuminated in
a similar manner. A double corridor was seen on the floor
of the second story, directly above the corridor of the lower
floor, and an interior corridor which sent forth stairs leading
to a range of vomitories on the one hand, and on the other
hand an intermediate corridor which formed a mezzanine
floor above the double corridor of the interior circuit. Here
the stairs began to ascend to the next story, and square holes
in the upper floor illuminated this gallery. A double cor¬
ridor formed the third story, and it appears that here the
stairs commenced that led to the galleries above. There
were also some windows in the interior wall, and vomitories
which opened to the uppermost cunei of benches. In a
similar manner were other three stories constructed and
filled above; the whole composing a most magnificent and
spacious structure.
Justus Lipsius supposes that this amphitheatre was cap¬
able of containing 87,000 spectators on the benches; and
Fontana adds 22,000 for the galleries and other passages.
Upon a fair calculation it appears, that if fully crowded, it
might contain about 80,000. This magnificent structure
astonishes by its vast size, and the adaptation of its various
parts to the intended use. When this amphitheatre was in
its glory, and crowded with Romans, the sight must have
been magnificent and striking. If the report be accurate
that it was completed in two years and nine months, it
affords an astonishing instance of Roman vigour and perse¬
vering industry. Resides former depredations, Michael An-
AMP 731
gelo removed nearly one-half of the external wall to build Amphi-
the Palazzo Farnese. To prevent these depredations, Pope trite
Benedict XIV. consecrated these ruins, and erected several . ^
altars, which were much frequented on the Sundays and trygn*
Fridays, before the revolution in France. To guard these v ^ y
relics, a hermit was stationed in a small dwelling near the
centre.
The different kinds of amusement have already been cur- Amuse-
sorily alluded to. Gladiators contended together, or entered meats,
the lists with wild beasts. These wild animals were hunted
or encountered, or left to devour each other, according to
the humour of the times, or the taste of him who gave the
entertainment. It appears also, that criminals were some¬
times forced to fight with these ferocious creatures, for the
entertainment of the people of Rome; and, in the dawn
of Christianity, many of the Christians suffered death in
this brutal manner. It is also reported, that artificial moun¬
tains were sometimes constructed with caves below, from
whence these devouring animals rushed forth to attack
their prey.
Information concerning the laws that regulated the amphi¬
theatre is rather scanty; but the following are among the
number. In the centre of one side of the podium was the
emperor’s seat, called the suggestum, and highly adorned.
The remainder of the podium was occupied by senators;
and when this space was not sufficient, several of the adja¬
cent wedges were appropriated to the other senators and to
persons of distinction. The equites, and the civil and
military tribunes, had their places next assigned them. From
this order both the liberti and the legati were excluded. The
married men sat by themselves. The young men were also
arranged by themselves, and their tutors sat near them to
observe their conduct. The attendants and servants occu¬
pied the highest gallery. The vestals had special seats, and
frequently the princesses and ladies of distinguished rank
sat along with them. The front of the gallery was assigned
to the women, who were placed on chairs; and the lowest
order of the people stood behind them. It appears, also,
that for the better accommodation of the people, the dif¬
ferent tribes had particular cunei allotted to them. It is
also proper to remark, that the arrangement in the different
provinces was different from that of Rome, as circumstances
varied. The general direction of the amphitheatre was
under the care of an officer, named villicus amphitheatri;
and different officers, who were called locarii, had the direc¬
tion of the cunei. By carefully preventing any person from
occupying a place to which he was not entitled, all confusion
was prevented, and strict order maintained.
The means used by Pope Benedict to preserve the Co¬
liseum at Rome have already been mentioned. Of one
which was erected at Verona, only four arches of the ex¬
ternal circuit remain. These consist of three stories of about
90 English feet. The building otherwise is almost entire.
The whole building was erected without cement, and joined
and secured by iron cramps, overlaid with lead. The super¬
ficies is about four acres and nearly one-third. One erected
at Nismes has suffered much dilapidation ; but the remains
are yet worthy of the attention of the traveller. At Pola in
Istria, there are the remains of an amphitheatre built on the
declivity of a hill. It was erected of stone, with cramps of
iron. The amphitheatre of Italica, 4 miles from Seville in
Spain, is much ruined. The walls are immensely thick, and
contain within them an arched passage 16 feet wide, into
which the vomitoria opened. The diameter measures 300
feet by 195 feet.
AMPHITRITE (A^irpi/n?), in the Greek Mythology,
the wife of Poseidon, and goddess of the sea; sometimes
taken for the sea itself.
AMPHITRYON, son of Alcaeus, and the father of Her-
x
732 AMP
Amphiuma cu]eS) ]ess known by his own exploits than from his wife Alo
siTL AMPHIUMA, a genus of Reptilia, found in North
v , America. See Reptiles.
AMPHORA, in Antiquity, a liquid measure among the
Greeks and Romans. The Roman amphora contained 48
sectari, equal to very nearly six gallons, and the Grecian or
Attic amphora contained one third more.
Ampmhora, a large vessel used by the ancients for pre¬
serving wine, oil, fruits, &c., and so called from its usually
having an ear or handle on each side ot the neck, whence it
was also called diota. It was commonly made of earthen¬
ware, but sometimes of stone, glass, or even more costly
materials; its usual form was tall and narrow, diminishing
below to a point. Homer and Sophocles mention amphorae
used as cinerary urns ; and a discovery made in 1825 at Sa-
iona shows that they were sometimes used as coffins. The
amphora was divided lengthwise to receive the corpse, then
closed and deposited in the earth, thus preserving the skele¬
tons entire.—(Steinbiichel, Alterthum, p. 67.) The wicker
baskets used in gathering the vintage were also called
amphorae.
AMPHORARIUM Vinum, in Antiquity, denotes that
which is drawn or poured into amphorce or pitchers ; by way
of distinction from vinum doliare, or cask wine. The Ro¬
mans had a method of keeping wine in amphorce for many
years to ripen, by fastening the lids tight down with pitch
or gypsum, and placing them either in a situation within
reach of smoke, or under ground.
AMPHOTIDES, in Antiquity, a kind of armour or
covering for the ears, worn by the ancient pugiles, to pre¬
vent their adversaries from laying hold of that part.
AMPLIATION, in a general sense, denotes the act of
enlarging or extending the compass of a thing. On a medal
of the emperor Antoninus Pius, we find the title Ampliator
Civium given him, on account of his having extended the
jus civitatis, or right of citizenship, to many states and
people before excluded from that privilege. Indeed, it is
generally supposed that this prince made the famous consti¬
tution whereby all the subjects of the empire were made
citizens of Rome.
Ampliation, in Homan Antiquity, was the deferring to
pass sentence in certain causes. This the judge did by
pronouncing the word amplius; or by writing the letters
N. L. for non liquet; thereby signifying that, as the cause
was not clear, it would be necessary to bring further evi¬
dence.
AMPLITUDE, in Astronomy, an arch of the horizon
intercepted between the east or west point and the centre
of the sun or a planet at its rising or setting; and which there¬
fore is said to be either north and south, or ortive and oc-
casive.
Magnetical Amplitude, the different rising or setting of
the sun from the east or west points of the compass. It is
found by observing the sun, at his rising and setting, by an
amplitude compass.
AMPSANCTI Vallis, or Amsancti Lacus, a valley
with a small sulphurous lake and cavern in the heart of the
Hirpini, or Principato Ultra, about four miles from the town
of Frigento (Cicero, Pliny). It is now called Mo feta or
Mujiti, from the goddess Mephitis, who had a temple there.
The ancient poets imagined that this gulf led to hell. (Virg.,
AEneid vii. 563.) The Moffeta is thus described by Mr Swin¬
burne: “We were led into a narrow valley, extending a
considerable way to the south-west, and pressed in on both
sides by high ridges thickly covered with copses of oak.
The bottom of the dell is bare and arid : in the lowest part,
and close under one of the hills, is an oval pond of muddy
ash-coloured water, not above fifty feet in diameter; it boils
AMR
up in several places with great force in irregular fits, which Ampthill
are always preceded by a hissing sound. The water was II
several times spouted up as high as our heads in a diagonal Amritser.
direction ; a whirlpool being formed round the tube, like a
basin, to receive it as it fell. A large body of vapour is
continually thrown out with a loud rumbling noise. The
stones on the rising ground that hang over the pool are quite
yellow, being stained with the fumes of sulphur and sal-
ammoniac. A most nauseous smell, rising with the steam,
obliged us to watch the wind, and keep clear of it, to avoid
suffocation. The water is quite insipid, both as to taste and
smell; the clay at the edge is white, and carried into Puglia
to rub upon scabby sheep, on which account the lake is
farmed out at 100 ducats a year. On a hill above this lake
stood formerly a temple dedicated to the goddess Mephitis;
but I perceived no remains of it.”
AMPTHILL, a market town in the hundred of Red-
bourne Stoke, in the county of Bedford. It is pleasantly
situated in a valley between two gentle elevations. It is
neatly built; has a free school, an alms-house for twelve
persons, a new market-house, a bank, and an extensive
brewery. In Ampthill Park, the fine domain of Lord Hol¬
land, a little westward of the town, a cross was erected in
1774, in memory of Catherine of Aragon, queen of Henry
VIII. who resided there. Population in 1851, 1961. Mar¬
ket-day, Thursday.
AMPULLA, in Antiquity, a vessel of glass or earthen¬
ware bellying out like a jug, small-mouthed, and frequently
covered with leather, used to contain unguents for the bath,
perfumes, or any liquid. In reference to the swollen shape
of the ampulla, Horace applies the word to inflated lan¬
guage or bombast.
Ampulla, among Ecclesiastical Writers, denotes one of
the sacred vessels used at the altars. Ampulla; were also used
for holding the oil used in chrismation, consecration, coro¬
nation, &c. Among the ornaments of churches we find fre¬
quent mention made of ampuls or vials.
Knights of St Ampulla belong to an order instituted by
Clovis I., king of France. At the coronation they bear up
the canopy under which the ampulla is carried in procession.
AMPULLARIA,a Lamarckian genus of freshwater uni¬
valves. See Conchology.
AMPURIAS, the capital of the territory of Ampurdan,
in Catalonia, seated at the mouth of the river Llobregat, in
Long. 2. 56. E. Lat. 42. 5. N.
AMPYX, or Ampycter (in Latin Frontale), a broad
band or plate of gold worn upon the forehead in ancient
times by Grecian ladies of rank, and sometimes enriched
with precious stones. It was also used to adorn the heads
of horses and elephants.
AMRAPHEL, the king of Shinar or Babylonia, confe¬
derated with Chedorlaomer, king of the Elamites, and two
other kings, to make war against the kings of Sodom, Go¬
morrah, and the three neighbouring cities. See Genesis
xiv.
AMRIAL-CAIS, the most celebrated of the ancient
Arabian poets, and a contemporary of Mahomet, whom he
satirized. He was poisoned while attempting to avenge the
death of his father, who had been murdered by his tribe.
His poem was published at Leyden in 1748; and a tran¬
slation of it by Sir William Jones appeared in 1782.
AMRITSIR in Northern India, a city in the British
province of the Punjaub, situated within the Division of
Lahore, and at an equal distance from the rivers Beas and
Ravee. It is a populous and extensive place, having a cir¬
cumference of eight miles ; and though the streets are nar¬
row, the houses are lofty and substantially built of brick.
Its opulence, which is considerable, is not the result of its
manufactures, which, with the exception of fine shawls made
AMR AMS "33
Amru- in imitation of the Cashmere fabric, are confined to coarse
Ebn-Al- cloths and inferior silks, but has been derived partly from
A®- an extensive transit trade carried on between Cashmere,
Hindustan, and Central Asia, and partly from its reputation
for sanctity, which has caused it to become a favourite re¬
sort for pilgrims. It is not impossible, however, that its
trade may shortly be diverted to Shikarpore, Sukkur, and
other towns on the Indus, where periodical commercial fairs,
upon a large scale, have been recently established under the
authority of the British Government. The remaining source
of the prosperity of Amritsir is a reservoir or sacred basin
constructed in the year 1581 by Ram Das, the fourth Guru
or Spiritual Guide of the Seiks, immersion in which is sup¬
posed to purify from all sin. The reservoir is about 135
paces square, built of brick, in the centre of which stands a
temple dedicated to Guru Govind Singh, in which is lodged
under a silken canopy the book of laws written by this saint.
From 500 to 600 priests are supported by the pious contri¬
butions of the devotees. Provision is made for an ample
supply of water to the town by means of the Baree Doab
Canal, now in course of execution. This canal issues from
the Ravee above the town of Dinanuggur, and traversing
the country in a south-westerly direction, rejoins the parent
stream some distance above its junction with the Chenab.
The total length of the canal and its branches is 450 miles,
and its cost has been computed at L.527,000. A striking
object in Amritsir is the fortress of Govindghur, built by
Runjeet Sing in 1809. Measures have been recently re¬
sorted to by the British for adding to its security, and it is
now a place of great strength. Distance east from Lahore
37 miles. Lat. 31. 40. N. Long. 74. 45. E. (e. t.)
AMRU-EBN-AL-AS, or Amer, one of the most famous
of the first race of Saracen leaders, was descended of Aasi,
of the tribe of Koreish, by a woman of infamous character.
In his youth he indulged in poetry, and wrote satirical verses
against the person and doctrine of Mahomet. His zeal in
opposing the new religion prompted him to undertake an
embassy to the king of Ethiopia, to stimulate him against
the converts whom he had taken under his protection. It
is uncertain by what arguments he was induced to change
his religious sentiments ; but he returned a convert to the
Mahometan faith, and, along with Khaled, joined the fugi¬
tive prophet at Medina. The military talents of Amru had
begun to attract general attention, when Abubeker resolved
to make a new attack upon Syria, in which he obtained a
high command. After several displays of his military valour
and address in some successful enterprises, he rose to the
elevated station of chief in Irak, when Khaled requested
the attendance of all the Arabian generals before Damascus.
During: the caliphate of Omar he also served in Palestine,
under Abu-Obeidah. While besieging Caesarea, he held a
memorable conference with Constantine, the son of the em¬
peror Heraclius. Historians mention that their time was
chiefly occupied in producing genealogical arguments to
prove the affinity of the Greeks and Arabians, and the con¬
sequent rights of the latter as their descendants.
After the death of Obeidah, Amru assumed the chief com¬
mand in Syria, in which he was confirmed by the khaliff,
notwithstanding the opposition of Othman. An expedition
against Egypt having been resolved upon, Amru wrote to
the khaliff, informing him that he would instantly march
into that country. During the progress of his march, attended
by only 4000 Arabs, a messenger from Omar arrived with
a letter, containing directions to return, if he should receive
this letter in the territories of Syria; but if he should receive
it in those of Egypt, he might advance, and all needful as¬
sistance would be instantly sent to him. Anticipating the
contents, he hastened on to the frontiers of Egypt, and
read the instructions of the khaliff. Then requesting some
of the inhabitants to be brought before him, and inquiring Amrum
of them in what country they were, and being informed that Amgter
they were in Egypt, Amru replied, “ Let us, then, continue " dam
our march.” Having taken Pharma, he advanced to Misrah, v ‘
the ancient Memphis, and besieged it for seven months.
Although numerous reinforcements arrived, he would have
found it very difficult to storm the place previous to the in¬
undation of the Nile, if Mokawkas had not treacherously
lessened the forces of the citadel, which was consequently
taken by storm ; and the Greeks who remained there were
either made prisoners or put to the sword. On the same
spot Amru erected a city named Fostat, the ruins of which
are now known by the name of Old Cairo. The Coptic
Christians, who composed the great majority of the Egyp¬
tian natives, and who were enemies to the Catholic Gieeks,
after this victory submitted to Amru, and engaged to pro¬
vide quarters and support for the Mussulman army.
Amru pursued the Greeks to Alexandria, and, after an
obstinate and bloody siege of 14 months, the city was taken
a.d. 640. To Amru has generally been attributed the burn¬
ing of the famous Alexandrian Library, by command of
the khaliff Omar. But with this act of barbarism, so repug¬
nant to the character of Omar and his general, he is for the
first time charged by Abulpharagius, a Christian writer, wfm
lived six centuries later. It is highly probable that few of
the 700,000 volumes collected by the Ptolemies remained
at the time of the Arab conquest, when we consider the
various calamities of Alexandria from the time of Caesar to
those of Caracalla, Diocletian, and the disgraceful pillage of
the library in a.d. 389 under the rule of a Christian bishop,
Theophilus, a far less respectable character than the Arabian
conquerors.—"See Gibbon, Decline and Lall of the Roman
Empire, c« ol.
In the year 663, of the Hegira 43, Amru died in his go¬
vernment of Egypt, highly esteemed, and much regretted
by his countrymen. In a pathetic oration to his children on
his death-bed, he bitterly lamented his youthful offence in
satirizing the prophet, although Mahomet had forgiven the
offence, and had frequently affirmed that “ there was no
Mussulman more sincere and steadfast in the faith than
Amru.”
AMRUM, an island of Denmark, in the German Ocean,
between latitude 54. 38. and 54. 43. It contains about 15
square miles, with 600 inhabitants. It is in the barony of
Westerlandfohr and Amrum, and the diocese of Ribe.
AMSDORFIANS, in Ecclesiastical History, a sect of
Protestants in the 16th century, who took their name from
Amsdorf, their leader. They maintained that good works
were not only unprofitable, but were obstacles to salva¬
tion.
AMSTERDAM, or Amsteldamme, a great maritime
and commercial city of Holland, capital of the canton and
province of North Holland, standing in N. Lat. 52. 22. and
in E. Long. 4. 53. It derives its name from the river Am-
stel, on the banks of which it is built, somewhat in the form
of a half-moon or crescent, with the horns projecting into
the river Y, an arm of the Zuyder Zee ; while on the other
sides it is surrounded by meadows, gardens, and country-
houses.
Founded about the year 1203, Amsterdam, at the close
of that century, was little more than a fishing village—its
great advancement having taken place in the sixteenth cen¬
tury, when the persecutions of the Spaniards under the Duke
of Alva drove great numbers of Flemish merchants and
manufacturers to seek protection in Holland and in Eng¬
land ; after which period it increased rapidly in wealth and
importance, and during the succeeding century, and the first
half of the eighteenth, maintained its pre-eminence as the
metropolis of the commercial world. This city is said to be
x
734
AMSTERDAM.
Amster- g miles in circumference, covering an area of 900 acres, and
dam- to contain upwards of 28,000 houses. It is surrounded by a
deep fosse or canal 80 feet wide, and was regularly fortified
in the fifteenth century ; but the only remains of its defences
are some picturesque tetes depont on the Amstel, &c.,and 26
bastions, each of which now supports a windmill for grinding
corn. Its site having been originally a salt-marsh, all the
buildings are supported on piles; whence Erasmus likened
the inhabitants to storks, building on the tops of trees. These
piles are from 50 to 60 feet in length; and after passing
through a mixture of peat and sand of little consistence, at
the depth of about 40 feet they enter a bed of firm clay,
which forms a good foundation. When driven to the re¬
quisite depth, their ends are sawed level, and sometimes
covered with thick planks, on which the masonry is con¬
structed. Though many of the houses have declined from
the perpendicular, they were considered to be quite secure
against falling ; yet that they are not altogether exempted
from such a contingency w^as shown in 1822, by the sinking
and total ruin of a large stack of warehouses heavily filled with
corn. The streets in the oldest parts of the town are nar¬
row and irregular, but the houses frequently present a pic¬
turesque sky-line, broken by fantastic gables, roofs, chimneys,
towers, and turrets, of all forms and dimensions. Westward
of the Amstel, which passes almost through the centre of
the city, stands the more modern part, where the houses are
often exceedingly handsome, the streets broad, and planted
with rows of largc^rees between the houses and the canals.
Three great canals, viz., Prinsen Gracht, Kieser’s Gracht,
Heeren Gracht, and a smaller one, Singel, extend in the
form of polygonal crescents, nearly parallel to each other,
and to the great fosse or canal that surrounds the city.
Each of the three first mentioned has a length of about tw o
miles, and the Kieser’s Gracht is about 140 feet wide. Nu¬
merous smaller canals intersect the city, dividing it into 95
islets, and are traversed by no fewer than 290 bridges. All
heavy burthens are transported by water. The grand
bridge over the Amstel is 610 feet long, 65 in width, and
supported on 36 piers, between 11 of which large vessels
pass when the bridges are open. Near to this is the Am-
stel-sluice, by which the waters are confined and let off at
pleasure. Besides the basins within the city, it has five large
docks. Enclosed by the Oosterlijk Dok, is the Ryk’s Maritime
Dok, and the islet of Kattenburg, on which stand the arsenal,
the admiralty offices, and the warehouses of the Dutch East
and West India Companies. The principal shops are in the
Kalver straat, the Nieuwe dyk, and Warmoes straat, and
may vie with the richest of Paris or London. The chief
promenade is the Plantaje or Park, near to which lie the
Botanic and Zoological Gardens ; and the old ramparts are
now converted into boulevards. Of the public buildings, the
principal is the palace, formerly the Stadhuis, an imposing
structure built in 1648 by the architect Van Kampen, at
the cost of 30,000,000 guelders, or L.864,200. It is sup¬
ported on 13,659 piles, is 282 feet in length, 235 in breadth,
and 116 feet in height, exclusive of a cupola 41 feet high.
It was built for the public offices of the legislature, but was
appropriated by Louis Napoleon for a palace in 1808. The
great hall or council-chamber of the Republic is now a ball¬
room, one ol the most magnificent in Europe, measuring
120 feet by 57, and 90 in height: the walls are encrusted
with white Italian marble to the lofty cornice which divides
the upper tier of windows from the square mezzanine or
upper row of lights, and some good emblematic sculptures
are placed over the doors of the principal apartments. In
front of the palace stands the Beurs or exchange, a fine
tetraprostyle Ionic building, serving as the front to a large
quadrangle with a handsome peristyle of the same order.
The Oude Kerk with its fine stained windows, its splendid
organ, and its tombs, is an interesting object. It is 300
feet long, has three aisles, and a steeple 240 feet in height.
The Nieuwe Kerk, which was commenced in 1408, is re- '
markable for its finely carved pulpit, and the elaborate bronze
castings of the choir, the magnificent monument to the
famous admiral De Ruiter, with numerous others; and a
cenotaph to the memory of the gallant Van Speyk, who in
the year 1831 blew up his ship and perished, rather than
yield to the Belgic enemies of Holland.
Amsterdam in 1850 contained 224,235 inhabitants, of
whom about 23,000 were Jews, who reside in a particular
quarter of the city. There are about fifty places of public
worship, viz. fifteen of the Reformed religion, sixteen Ca¬
tholic, fifteen Jansenist, three Lutheran, two Anabaptist,
one Moravian, one Scottish Presbyterian, one English Epis¬
copal, one Greek, one Armenian, and four Jewish Syna¬
gogues. The charitable institutions, which are supported
chiefly by voluntary contributions, amount to twenty-three,
and are admirably adapted to their several ends. These in¬
clude hospitals for the sick, the aged and infirm, the blind,
the deaf and dumb, the insane, widows, orphans and found¬
lings, and an establishment for the reformation of drunkards ;
besides a noble institution for promoting the education and
improvement of the poor, which has branches in every
town in Holland. The beneficial results are very apparent;
beggars and drunken people are rarely to be seen in the
streets. Among the public institutions may be noticed the
Spinhuis, for the punishment of delinquents ; and the Rasp-
huis, at present used merely as a temporary arrest-house.
Notwithstanding the humidity of the atmosphere, and the
deficiency of spring water, Amsterdam is healthy, and the
people are robust; which must be ascribed very much to that
great attention to cleanliness for which they are proverbially
noted above any other nation ; the only exception being
in the Jews’ quarter, which is dingy and dirty. This city
has no good potable water but what is collected in tanks on
the roofs of the houses, or brought from a distance in stone
jars, and in large water-barges for the supply of those who
do not possess tanks. Many of the poorer people dwell in
cellars below the houses: another class live entirely on the
canals, bringing up their families in comfortable apartments
erected on the decks of their vessels. These vessels, which
are of various sizes, according to the wealth of the proprie¬
tors, are employed in inland navigation, and are remarkable
for their neatness and cleanliness, the whole domestic econo¬
my being conducted with a view to the comfort of the inmates.
Sometimes may be seen even a little flower-garden on the
deck. Like all the towns in Holland, Amsterdam is re¬
markably clean, and has an air of newness, though surpassed
perhaps in these respects by Rotterdam and the Hague.
The chief literary institutions are the Athenaeum or col¬
lege with eleven professors, the society called “ Felix Me¬
ntis,” from the first words of the inscription on their place
of meeting, the Scientific Institute, and the Royal Aca¬
demy of the Fine Arts, in all of which lectures are delivered
on science and literature. The collections of pictures and
antiquities are of great value. The Museum or picture
gallery in 1847 contained 386 fine pictures, chiefly of the
Flemish and Dutch schools, including some by Wouver-
mans, Rembrandt, Vander Heist, Both, and Reubens, of
wonderful power. The famous “ Night-guard” of Rem¬
brandt, and the magnificent “ Banquet of the Civic Guard,”
by Vander Heist, are in this collection; which also possesses
a fine collection of prints in 200 portfolios. Among the
private collections those of MM. Six and Vander Hoop stand
pre-eminent; the latter containing between 80 and 90
pictures of the old masters, besides many others. Ams¬
terdam has a Dutch and also a German theatre, an Ita¬
lian opera-house, and several minor theatres. Its industry
Amster¬
dam.
AMS
AMU 735
Amster- comprises manufactures of woollen, cotton, and silk, gold lace,
dam- perfumery, and jewellery: the cutting of diamonds has long
been extensively practised here by the Jews: there are re¬
fineries of borax, sugar, smalt, &c.; soap, oil, glass, iron,
dye, and chemical works, distilleries, breweries, tanneries,
tobacco and snuff factories, &c., &c. The commercial es¬
tablishments are on a grand scale. The celebrated Bank
of the Netherlands, founded in 1609, was dissolved in 1796 ;
and the present bank, on the model of the Bank of England,
was established in 1814. The commerce with all parts of
the world is very extensive; though Antwerp, Rotterdam,
and Hamburg, are powerful rivals. The prosperity of Am¬
sterdam has been subject to vicissitudes : in 1785 the popu¬
lation is said to have amounted to 235,000; and in 1814,
the epoch of its greatest depression, it had declined to
180,000; but the opening of the Helder Canal, in 1825,
has done much to revive its commercial prosperity. This
great work, which extends from Nieuwe Diep opposite the
Texel to Amsterdam, a distance of 51 miles, has obviated
the delays and dangers formerly encountered in the intri¬
cate navigation of the Zuyder Zee, and the formidable ob¬
struction of a bar called the Pampus at the mouth of the
Y, which obliged vessels to unload partially in the road¬
stead ; but now the largest ships are brought direct to the
city. See Navigation, Inland.
It may be noticed as a curious fact that there is not a
water-mill in all Holland, owing to the flatness of the soil,
which is in many parts, like Amsterdam, below the level of
ocean; so that the utmost attention to the dikes is neces¬
sary to prevent the inundation of the country. The ex¬
pense of keeping these dikes in repair is said to amount
annually to a very large sum.
From 250 to 260 large ships belonging to Amsterdam trade
to the East and West Indies, the Baltic, and Mediterranean,
and the port is a scene of unceasing activity. The imports in¬
clude sugar, coffee, tea, spices, tobacco, indigo, cochineal, cot¬
ton, hemp and flax, wine and brandy, linen, cotton and woollen
stuffs, hides, hardwares, rock-salt, tin-plates, iron, timber,
pitch and tar, whale-oil, dried fish, coal, &c. The chief ex¬
ports are the produce of Holland: cheese, butter, &c. ; mad¬
der, clover, rape, hemp, linseeds, rape and linseed oils, Dutch
linen; the produce of East and West India possessions, and
of other tropical countries; Spanish, German, and English
wools, all kinds of grain, linens from Germany, gin from Schie¬
dam, French, Rhenish, and Hungarian wines, brandy, &c.
Amsterdam has a large transit trade, and a very considerable
business in insurance and in bills of exchange. The number
of vessels laden that entered its port in 1850 was 2000, and in
ballast 28, the total tonnage being 348,082 ; the number that
left the port laden was 1457, and in ballast 524, making a total
of 347,253 tons.
There are two railways, one connecting Amsterdam with
Rotterdam, the Hague, Leyden, and Haarlem ; the other with
Utrecht, Arnheim, and Prussia ; and there is regular commu¬
nication by steam-vessels with Kampen, Enkhuizen, Harlin¬
gen, and Hamburg.
Amsterdam, a small town in New York, United States,
on the Utica Railway, 32 miles north-west of Albany. It
contains 5333 inhabitants, principally employed in the
manufacture of carpets, saws, scythes, &c.
Amsterdam, or Tongataboo, an island in the South Sea,
discovered by Tasman, a Dutch navigator. Its greatest ex¬
tent from east to west is about 21 miles, and from north to
south about 13. It is broad at the east end, and tapers to¬
wards the west, where it turns, and runs to a point due north.
It is about six leagues to the west of Middleburg. The
shore is surrounded by coral rocks, and its most elevated
parts are not above six or eight yards above the level of the
sea. It is wholly laid out in plantations, in which are cul¬
tivated plantains in great variety, bread-fruit, shaddocks,
yams, and the fruits of Taheite, with taro, and other esculent
vegetables in great abundance. The people are familiar
with the use of the bow and spear, and are dexterous fisher¬
men. Their manners are licentious; but they have some
commendable qualities, according to the missionaries; though
other accounts represent them as cruel, treacherous, and
vindictive. Long. 175. W. Lat. 21. 11. S.
Amsterdam, New, a seaport town of British Guiana, on
the right bank of the Berbice River, near the confluence of
the Canje. Lat. 6. 14. 51. S. Long. 57. 31. 8. W. It was
founded by the Dutch in 1796; but is now the seat of the
British Colonial Government of Berbice, formerly at George¬
town. It is a healthy town; the houses, which are generally
built of wood, being separated from each other by trenches
which fill and empty with the tide. The whole town is in¬
tersected by canals, communicating with the sea. The har¬
bour is good, though the passage to it is impeded at low
water by a sand-bar. Three strong batteries protect the
entrance of the river. Pop. about 3000.
AMULET, a charm or preservative against mischief,
witchcraft, or diseases. Amulets have been made of stone,
metal, simples, animals, and, in a word, of everything that
imagination could suggest. Sometimes they consisted of
words, characters, sentences, ranged in a particular order,
and engraved upon wood, &c., and worn about the neck, or
some other part of the body. At other times they were
neither written nor engraved, but prepared with many su¬
perstitious ceremonies, great regard being usually paid to
the influence of the stars. The Arabians have given to this
species of amulet the name of Talisman. All nations have
been fond of amulets: the Jews were extremely supersti¬
tious in the use of them to drive away diseases; and the
Mishna forbids them, unless received from an approved
man who had cured at least three persons before by the same
means. Among the Christians of the early times amulets
were made of the wood of the cross, or ribands with a text of
Scripture written on them, as preservatives against diseases.
AMURATH, or Amourad L, the third sultan of the
Turks, and one of the greatest princes of the Ottoman em¬
pire, was the son of Orchan, whom he succeeded in 1360.
After the capture of Gallipoli, he overran all Thrace or Ro¬
magna from the Hellespont to Mount Haemus, and fixed
the seat of the Turkish empire at Adrianople. He defeated
the prince of Bulgaria, conquered Misnia, chastised his re¬
bellious bashaws, and is said to have gained 36 battles.
This prince, in order to form a body of devoted troops that
might serve as the immediate guards of his person and
dignity, appointed his officers to seize annually, as the im¬
perial property, the fifth part of the Christian youth taken in
war. These, after being instructed in the Mahometan re¬
ligion, inured to obedience by severe discipline, and trained
to warlike exercises, were formed into a body distinguished
by the name of Janizaries or Neiv Soldiers. The Janiza¬
ries soon became the chief strength and pride of the Otto¬
man armies, and were distinguished above all the troops
whose duty it was to attend on the person of the sultan. The
death of Lazarus, despot of Servia, who had endeavoured
in vain to stop the progress of Amurath’s arms, touched Milo,
one of his servants, in so sensible a manner, that in revenge
he stabbed the sultan in the midst of his troops, and killed
him upon the spot, a.d. 1389, after he had reigned 23 years.
He was the grandson of Othman, and was succeeded by his
son Bajazet.—Gibbon, xi.
Amurath II., the tenth emperor of the Turks, was the
eldest son of Mahomet I. and succeeded his father in 1421.
He besieged Constantinople and Belgrade without success;
but he took Saloniki from the Venetians, and compelled
the prince of Bosnia, and John Castriot, prince of Albania,
to pay him tribute. He obliged the latter to send his three
Amster¬
dam
Amurath.
X
736 AMY
Amurath sons as hostages, among whom was George, celebrated in
II history by the name of Scanderbeg. John Hunniades de-
Amyga- feated Amurath’s troops, and obliged him to make peace
v a 6 ^with the Christian princes in 1442. These princes after-
wards breaking the peace, Amurath defeated them in the
famous battle of Varna, November 10. 1444, which proved
so fatal to the Christians, and in which Ladislaus, king of
Hungary, was killed. Amurath twice abdicated the throne,
first in 1442, and again in 1444, in favour of his son. In
his retreat he was the companion of Santons and Dervishes ;
practising their fasts and gyrations until the exigencies of the
state again called the royal fanatic into the field. He after¬
wards defeated Hunniades, and killed above 20,000 of his
men; but George Castriot, better known by the name of
Scanderbeg, being re-established in the estates of his father,
defeated the Turks several times, and obliged Amurath to
raise the siege of Croia, the capital of Albania. Chagrined
at his ill success, and infirm with age, Amurath died at Ad-
rianople, February 11. 1451. It is observed to this prince’s
honour, that he always kept his treaties with the greatest
fidelity.
Amurath III., son of Selim II., was born about the year
1545, and crowned a.d. 1573. Naturally weak and suspi¬
cious, he commenced his reign by putting to death his five
brothers, the eldest of whom was but eight years old. His
reign was distinguished by a series of enterprises ill planned
and worse executed. He died a.d. 1595.
Amurath IV., surnamed the Valiant, was the son of
Achmet I., and in the year 1622, at the age of 13, succeeded
his uncle Mustapha. Baghdad fell into the hands of the
Persians, and several other disastrous events clouded the
commencement of his reign. The recovery of Baghdad
being a favourite object, in the year 1637 he marched
against it; and after thirty days of unremitting assault, with
the expense of much blood, he took possession of the city.
By pushing his men forward to the attack at the point of
the scimitar, and by slaughtering 30,000 Persians in cold
blood after the surrender, he displayed the brutal ferocity
of his disposition. One person alone is reported to have
moved his obdurate heart on the present occasion. A fa¬
mous player upon the harp entreated those who were sent
to massacre him to allow him to speak to the sultan previous
to his death. Informed who he was, the sultan requested
him to give a specimen of his skill in his profession: with
this he readily complied, and touched his harp so melo¬
diously, and sung in such pathetic strains the lamentations
on the tragedy of Baghdad, intermixed with the praises of
Amurath, that the hard heart of the cruel monarch being at
length softened, he melted into tears, and saved both the
musician and the remaining inhabitants.
The violence of Amurath soon enfeebled his constitution ;
and the fruits of his debaucheries and excesses were ob¬
vious even in the prime of life. At the age of 31 he fell a
victim to an excess of revelling in the feast of Bairam, in
the year 1640.
AMUSE I TE, a small one pound cannon, well adapted
from its lightness for mountainous regions, but no longer in
use.
AMWELL, a large village in the hundred of Hertford,
of the county of that name, 20 miles from London. It is
at the head of the New River, conducted to the metropolis
by Sir Hugh Middleton, between the years 1606 and 1612.
The population in 1851 was 1652.
AMYCLJE, a city of Laconia in ancient Greece, on the
Eurotas, 20 miles south-east of Sparta. It was according
to some the birthplace of Castor and Pollux.
Amycla:, the name of a Grecian colony in Latium, be¬
tween Cajeta and Terracina.
AMYGADALEA1, a natural order of plants called also
ANA
Drupacese. The bitter and sweet almond belong to this Amygda-
order, both being generally considered as produced by the loid
Amygdalus communis. II
AMYGDALOID, a compound rock of any base with ^ na'
many rounded nodules of other stones imbedded in it. ”
The base is often some kind of trap, as basalt or green¬
stone.
AMYLINE. See Chemistry.
AMYNTAS. See Macedonia.
Amyntas, a Greek writer cited by Athenaeus as the au¬
thor of a work entitled SrafyuH, Stations. The existing
fragments prove it to have been of some value, as giving a
description of the manners, customs, and natural products
of Asia. The epoch of this writer is unknown.
AMYNTIANUS, a Greek historian in the reign of the
emperor Marcus Aurelius, to whom he dedicated a life of
Alexander the Great, of which no fragment remains. He
also wrote lives of Philip, of Olympias, and of several other
distinguished characters, but none of them are extant.
AMYOT, Jacques, bishop of Auxerre and grand almoner
of France, was born of an obscure family at Melun, on the
30th of October 1514, and studied philosophy at Paris, in the
college of Cardinal le Moine. He left Paris at the age of 23,
and went to Bourges with the Sieur Colin, who presided over
the abbey of St Ambrose in that city. At the recommen¬
dation of this abbot, a secretary of state took Amyot into
his house to be tutor to his children. The great improve¬
ments they made under his direction induced the secretary
to recommend him to the Princess Margaret, duchess of
Berry, only sister of Francis I.; and by means of this re¬
commendation Amyot was made public professor of Greek
and Latin in the university of Bourges. It was during this
time that he translated into French the Amours of Theage-
nes and Charicled, with which Francis I. was so pleased,
that he conferred upon him the abbey of Bellosane. He
also translated Plutarch’s Lives, which he dedicated to the
king ; and afterwards undertook that of Plutarch’s Morals,
which he ended in the reign of Charles IX. and dedicated
to that prince. Charles conferred upon him the abbey of
St Cornelius de Compiegne, and made him grand almoner
of France and bishop of Auxerre. He died in 1593,
aged 79.
A M Y R A L D U S, or Amyraut, Moise, an eminent
French Protestant divine, born at Bourgueil in Touraine in
1596. He studied at Saumur, where he was chosen pro¬
fessor of divinity; and his learned works gained him the
esteem of Catholics as well as Protestants, particularly of
Cardinal Richelieu, who consulted him on a plan of reuniting
their churches, which, however, as may well be supposed,
came to nothing. He published a piece, in which he at¬
tempted to explain the mystery of predestination and grace,
which occasioned a controversy between him and some
other divines. His doctrine on this head, which was adopted
by numerous followers, consisted of the following particulars,
viz., that God desires the happiness of all men, and that none
are excluded by a divine decree; that none can obtain sal¬
vation without faith in Christ; that God refuses to none
the power of believing, though he does not grant to all his
assistance, that they may improve this power to saving pur¬
poses; and that many perish through their own fault. Those
who embraced this doctrine were called Unioersalists;
though it is evident they rendered grace universal in words,
but partial in reality, and are chargeable with greater in¬
consistencies than the Supralapsarians. Amyraut also
wrote An Apology for the Protestants, A Paraphrase on
the New Testament, and several other books. This emin¬
ent divine died in 1664.
ANA, a Latin plural termination, appropriated to va¬
rious collections of the observations and criticisms of
ANA.
737
Ana. eminent characters delivered in conversation and re-
corded by their friends, or discovered among their papers
after their decease. Though the term Ana is but of
modern origin, the species of composition to which it has
been applied is not of such recent date as some persons
have imagined. It appears, from D’Herbelot’s Biblio-
theque Orientale, that, since the earliest periods, the eastern
nations have been in the habit of preserving the maxims
of their sages. From them this practice passed to the
Greeks and Romans. Plato and Xenophon treasured up
and recorded the sayings of their master Socrates. From
their example Arrian, in the concluding books of his
Enchiridion, which have not descended to posterity, col¬
lected the casual observations which had dropped from
Epictetus. The numerous apophthegms scattered in Plu¬
tarch, Diogenes Laertius, and other writers, evince that
it had been customary in Greece to preserve the ideas
delivered by illustrious characters. It appears that Julius
Caesar compiled a book of apophthegms, in which he re¬
lated the bon-mots of Cicero; and Quintilian informs us,
that a freedman of that celebrated wit and orator com¬
posed three books of a work entitled De Jocis Ciceronis.
We are told by Suetonius, that Caius Melissus, originally
the slave, but afterwards the freedman and librarian, of
Maecenas, collected the sayings of his master; and Aulus
Gellius has filled his Nodes Atticce with anecdotes which
he heard from those distinguished characters whose so¬
ciety he frequented in Rome. Were the books compiled
by the freedmen of Cicero and Maecenas now extant,
they might be entitled Ana ; and it is certainly to be re¬
gretted that we possess no authentic record of the
conversational remarks or hints which dropped from the
sages, orators, or statesmen of Greece and Rome. How
interesting would be a Colloquia Mensalia of Atticus or
Caesar !
But though vestiges of this species of composition may
be traced in the classical ages, it is only in modern times
that it has attained to full popularity and perfection.
Literary anecdotes, critical reflections, and historical in¬
cidents, came to be mingled with the detail of bon-mots
and ludicrous tales ; so that instruction and entertainment
were agreeably blended. The term Ana seems to have
been applied to such collections as far back as the begin¬
ning of the fifteenth century. Thus, Francesco Barbaro,
in a letter to Poggio, says, that the information and
anecdotes which Poggio and Barthelemi Montepolitiano
had picked up during a literary excursion through Ger¬
many, will be called Ana: “ Quemadmodum mala ab
Appio e Claudia gente Appiana, et pira a Mallio Malliana
cognominata sunt, sic hmc literarum quae vestra ope et
opera Germania in Italiam deferentur, aliquando et Pog-
qiana et Montepolitiana vocabuntur. ’
Poggio Bracciolini, to whom this letter is addressed,
and to&whom the world is indebted for the preservation of
so many classical remains, is the first eminent person of
modern times whose jests and opinions have been trans¬
mitted to posterity. Poggio was secretary to five succes¬
sive popes. During the pontificate of Martin V., who was
chosen in 1417, Poggio and other members of the Roman
chancery were in the habit of assembling in a common
hall adjoining the Vatican, in order to converse freely on
all subjects. Being more studious of wit than of truth,
they termed this apartment Buggiale, a word signifying
a place of recreation where tales are related, and which
Poggio himself interprets Mendaciorum Officina. At
these meetings Poggio and his friends discussed the news
and scandal of the day, and communicated to each other
entertaining anecdotes ; they attacked what they did not
approve, and they approved of little ; they also indulged
VOL. II.
Ana.
in the utmost latitude of satiric remark, dealing out their
sarcasms with such impartiality, that they did not spare
even the pope and cardinals. Ihe pointed jests and hu¬
morous stories which occurred in these unrestrained eon-^
versations were collected by Poggio, and formed the chief
materials of his Facetim, first printed, according to De
Bure, in 1470. This celebrated collection, which forms a
principal part of the Poggiana, is chiefly valuable as re¬
cording interesting anecdotes of eminent men of the four-^
teenth and fifteenth centuries. It also contains a number of
quibbles ov jeux-de-niots, and a still greater number of idle
and licentious stories. Many of these, however, are not
original, some of them being taken from ancient authors,
and a still greater number from the Fabliaux of the Trou-
veurs. Thus, the Fabliau La (Julotte des Cordeliers the
Braccce Bivi Francisci of Poggio; Le Meunier d Aleus
is Poggio’s Quinque Ova ; Du Vilain et de sa Femme is
his Mulier Demersa ; and Du Pre Tondu is the Pertinacia
Muliebris of the Facetiae. On the other hand, Poggio
has suggested much to succeeding writers. Hans Lar-
vel’s Ring is his Visio Francisci Filelji ; and Fontaine s
fables, Le Charlatan, Le Coq et le Benard, and that of the
Wolf and Fox pleading before the Ape, are from stories
originally related by Poggio. The Facetiee forms, upon
the whole, the most amusing and interesting part of the
Poggiana printed at Amsterdam in 1720; but this collec- Poggiana.
tion also comprehends some further anecdotes of his life,
and a few scattered maxims extracted from his graver
compositions.
Though Poggio was the first person whose remarks and
bon-mots were collected under the name of Ana, the Sca-
ligerana, which contains the opinions of Joseph. Scaliger,
was the first work published under that appellation; and,
accordingly, may be regarded as having led the way to
that class of publications.
There are two collections called Scaligerana—a prima Scaliger-
and secunda Scaligerana. The first was compiled by a ana.
physician named Francis Vertunien, Sieur de Lavau, who
attended the family of the Messieurs Chateigner, in
whose house Joseph Scaliger resided. He, in conse¬
quence, had frequent opportunities of meeting. that
celebrated critic, and was in the custom of committing
to paper the learned or ingenious observations which
dropped from him in the course of conveisation ; to
which he occasionally added remarks of his own. This
collection, which was chiefly Latin, remained in manu¬
script many years after the death of the compiler.. It
was at length purchased by M. de Sigogne, who publish¬
ed it in 1669, under the title of Prima Scaligerana, nus-
quam antehac edita; bestowing upon it the title prima,
in order to preserve its claim of priority over another
Scaligerana which had been published three years before,
but had been more recently compiled. Ihis second work,
known by the name of Secunda Scaligerana, was collect¬
ed by two brothers of the name of Vassan, who went to
complete their studies at the university of Leyden, of which
Scaliger was at that time one of the professors. Being
particularly recommended to Scaliger, they were received
in his house, and daily enjoyed his conversation; in the
course of which, he gave them much information concern¬
ing various topics of history and criticism. Ihe Vassans
immediately wrote down what they had heard, and soon
made up a large manuscript volume, in which, however,
there was neither connection nor arrangement of any de¬
scription. In this state the manuscript was delivered by
one of the Vassans, on his retirement to a monastery, to
M. de Puy ; and after passing through various hands, it
came into the possession of M. Daille, who for his own use
arranged in alphabetical order the articles which it con-
5 A
738 ANA.
Ana. tained. Isaac Vossius having come to Paris on a visit to M.
Daille, obtained the loan of the manuscript, which he
transcribed, and afterwards published at the Hague, un¬
der the title of Scaligerana, sive Excerpta ex ore Josephi
Scaligeri. This edition was full of inaccuracies and blun¬
ders ; but a more correct impression was afterwards pub¬
lished by M. Daille, with a preface complaining of the use
that Vossius had made of the manuscript, which he de¬
clares was never intended for publication, and was not of
a nature to be given to the world. Indeed most literary
men in that age conceived that the Scaligercinci) particu¬
larly the second, detracted considerably from the reputa¬
tion of the great scholar whose sentiments they recorded.
They are full of mistakes and contradictions; and Bayle
has remarked, that the Vassans attribute to him observa¬
tions which it is almost impossible he could have uttered.
Joseph Scaliger, with more extensive erudition, but less
genius than his father Julius Caesar Scaliger, had inhe¬
rited his ridiculous vanity and dogmatical spirit. He
wished it to be thought that he knew every thing, and
that his opinions were infallible. Conversing with two
young students of a university, of which he formed the
principal ornament, he would probably be but little cau¬
tious in the opinions he expressed, as his literary errors
could not be detected or exposed. Unfortunately the
blind admiration of his pupils led them to regard even
his most absurd opinions as the responses of an oracle,
and his most unmerited censures as just condemnations.
The Scaligerana, accordingly, contains many falsehoods,
with much unworthy personal abuse, of the most distin¬
guished characters of the age. Thus, he calls Cardinal
Bellarmin a mere atheist (plane atheus), and compares the
duke of Sully to Sejanus. Indeed M. Daille, in his pre¬
face to the Secunda Scaligerana, confesses that it con¬
tains “ multa futilia, scurrilia, obscoena; quaedam mani-
feste falsa. Ubique de se suisque magnihce, ne dicam
thrasonice, loquitur ; laudum parcus, conviciorum largus,
in omnes contumeliosissime invehitur: denique, neminem
sibi de manibus elabi patitur, cujus non errata, vitia, nae-
vos etiam levissimos, acerrime insectetur, et plusquam
cynica licentia arrodat.”
In imitation of the Scaligerana, a prodigious number
of similar works appeared in France towards the end
of the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth cen¬
tury. At first these collections were confined to what
had fallen from eminent men in conversation; but they
were afterwards made to embrace fragments found
among their papers, and even passages extracted from
their works and epistolary correspondence. Of those
which merely record the conversations of eminent men,
the best known, the fullest, and most valuable, is the
Menagiana. Menage was a person of good sense, of
various and extensive information, and of a most com¬
municative disposition. He lived during the greater part
of his life in the best society. An assembly of literary
characters met, during a long period of time, at his house
every Wednesday ; and, during his latter years, he daily
received persons of that description. Much of his time
was thus spent in conversation; and those of his friends
who habitually enjoyed it were at pains to record his
opinions, which were generally founded on a correct taste
and judgment, and were always delivered in a manner
the most interesting and lively. A collection of his oral
opinions was published in 1693, soon after his death; and
this collection, which was entitled Menagiana, was after¬
wards corrected and enlarged by M. la Monnoye, in an
edition published by him in 1715. Among the most cu¬
rious articles in the Menagiana may be numbered the
dissertation on Le Moyen de Parvenir, a work attributed
to Beroalde de Verreville ; that on Le Songe de Polipkile ; Ana.
as also a letter of La Monnoye on the existence of
book supposed to have been entitled De Tribus Imposto-
ribus, concerning which there has been much discussion
and controversy.
The Perroniana, which exhibits the opinions of Car- Perroni-
dinal Perron, was composed from his familiar conversa-ana>
tion by M. de Puy, and published by Vossius, by the
same contrivance which put him in possession of the Scali¬
gerana. Some parts of this collection are useful in illus¬
trating the literary and ecclesiastical history of the age in
which Perron lived; but it also contains many puerile,
imprudent, and absurd remarks, which it is generally sup¬
posed he never uttered, and many of which were proved
by M. Chevreau (Chevrceana) to have been the interpo¬
lations of his friends. Some of his assertions,—as that
Luther denied the immortality of the soul, and that every
English peasant drinks from a silver goblet,—are evi¬
dently false. Nor can much reliance be placed on the
judgment or taste of an author who has elsewhere declar¬
ed that a page of Quintus Curtius is worth thirty of Ta¬
citus, and that, next to Quintus Curtius, Florus is the
greatest Roman historian. The Thuana, or observations of Thuana.
the president De Thou, have usually been published along
with the Perroniana. This collection is not extensive,
and by no means of such value as might have been ex¬
pected from a man so able and distinguished.
The Valesiana is a collection of the literary opinions of Valesiana.
the historiographer Adrian Valois, published by his son.
M. Valois was a great student of history, and the Valesi¬
ana, accordingly, comprehends many valuable historical
observations, particularly on the works of Du Cange.
The Fureteriana contains the bon-mots of M. Furetiere, Fureteri-
of the French academy, the stories which he was in theana*
habit of telling, and a number of anecdotes and remarks
found among his papers after his decease. This produc¬
tion, however, consists chiefly of short stories, and com¬
prehends but few thoughts, opinions, or criticisms on
books. Furetiere, it is well known, had a violent quarrel
with the French xicademy, of which he was a member,
concerning his Dictionnaire Universel de la Langue
Frangoise. Flaving published a preliminary discourse,
the further printing was interdicted by the French Aca¬
demy, which accused him of purloining materials they
had amassed for a similar work. This controversy sub¬
sisted during the rest of the life of Furetiere, who spent
his concluding years in writing and publishing libels on
his associates. The Fureteriana, accordingly, is replete
with allusions to a subject with which his thoughts were
so completely engrossed : in particular we find there the
plan and outline of an allegorical and burlesque poem,
entitled Les Couches de lAcademic ; in which he has sa¬
tirized different members of the academy, especially M.
Charpentier, one of his bitterest foes, whom he has de¬
signated by the name of Marmentier.
The Chevrceana, so called from M. Chevreau, exhibits Chevne-
more research than most works of a similar description, ana.
and is probably more accurate, as it was published during
the life of the author, and revised by himself. Among
other interesting articles, it contains a learned and inge¬
nious commentary on the works of Malherbe, to whom
the French language and poetry were highly indebted for
the perfection to which they attained.
Parrhasiana is the work of Jean le Clerc, a professor Parrhasi.
of Amsterdam, who bestowed this appellation on his mis-aiia*
cellaneous productions with the view of discussing vari¬
ous topics of philosophy and politics with more freedom
than he could have employed under his own name. T his^
work is not of the light and unconnected description ot
A N A.
739
Ana. most of the Ana which have been above enumerated,
as it contains much learned philological disquisition, and
a long dissertation on poetry and eloquence. In the first
volume there is a list of his published works, and a bitter
reply to all those who had censured them.
Hnetiana. The Huetiana, which has always held a distinguished
place among the Ana, contains the detached thoughts
and criticisms of Huet, bishop of Avranches, which he
himself committed to writing during his life. This author
was well fitted to produce a valuable work in this depart¬
ment of literature. He enjoyed the friendship of a num¬
ber of distinguished characters, and his reading was va¬
rious and extensive. This collection, however, was not
begun by him till he was far advanced in life. Huet was
born in 1630, and in 1712 he was attacked by a malady
which impaired his memory, and rendered him incapable
of the sustained attention necessary for the completion of
a long or laborious work. In this situation he employed
himself during the concluding years of his life in throw¬
ing his detached observations on paper. These were pub¬
lished by the Abbe d’Olivet the year after his death, under
the name of Huetiana,—a work which is not, like some
other Ana, a succession of bon-mots or anecdotes, but
forms a series of thoughts and criticisms on various topics
of morals, philosophy, and literature, and also compre¬
hends pretty long dissertations on the origin of rhyme,
the comparative merit of the ancients and moderns, with
similar topics. One of the most instructive discussions
to a scholar, in this collection, is that on the Latinization
of names and surnames ; in which he points out and cri¬
ticises the different modes of this process. His critical
judgments on Montaigne, Rochefoucauld, and Tacitus,
seem also well founded; and if some of his opinions in
matters of taste betray singular or defective feelings,
there are others which appear equally just and refined.
But were there no other literary memorials of the bishop
of Avranches, he certainly would not derive high reputa¬
tion from the Huetiana. D’Alembert has treated this
collection with contempt; and has selected some articles
to show the bishop’s incompetent judgment and frivolous
taste. It may be suspected, indeed, from the circum¬
stances in which the articles contained in the Huetiana
were composed, that they do not always display that cor¬
rect judgment which distinguishes many of the other
works of this learned writer.
Casaubo- The Casauboniana presents us with the miscellaneous
niana. observations, chiefly philological, of the celebrated Isaac
Casaubon. During the course of a long life, that eminent
commentator was in the daily practice of committing to
paper any thing remarkable which he heard in conversa¬
tion with his friends, especially if it bore on the studies in
which he was engaged. He also made diurnal annota¬
tions on the works he was employed in reading, with
which he connected his judgments concerning the author
and his writings. This compilation, which was styled
Ephemerides, together with his Adversaria, and materials
amassed for a refutation of the Ecclesiastical Annals of
Baronius, came, at his death, into the possession of his
son Meric Casaubon, who bequeathed the whole to the
Bodleian library at Oxford. These were shown to Chris¬
topher Wolfius during a visit which he paid to that uni¬
versity ; and having been transcribed by him, were pub¬
lished under the title of Casauboniana. This collection
consists of opinions concerning various eminent writers,
illustrations of passages in Scripture, and philological ob¬
servations and animadversions on the first thirty-four
years of the Annals of Baronius. The materials and in¬
formation which it contains are probably more accurate
than is usually the case in works of the same description,
ana.
vremoni.
ana.
as they were not communicated in casual conversation, Ana
and reported by others, but were daily committed to'^-^v™*,ta'
writipg by Casaubon himself, while the works from which
they were derived remained fresh in his recollection.
Besides the above, a great many works, under the title
of Ana, appeared in France about the same period. Thus,
the opinions and conversation of Charpentier, Colomesius,
and St Evremond, were recorded in the Carpente-
Colomesiana, and St Evremoniana; and those of Segrais inriana.
the Segraisiana,—a collection formed by a person station- Colomesi-
ed behind the tapestry in a house where Segrais was ac-jf
customed to visit, and of which Voltaire has declared,^
“ que de tous les Ana c’est celui qui merite le plus d’etre segraisj_
mis au rang des mensonges imprimes, et surtout des men-ana.
songes insipides.” The Ana, indeed, from the popularity
which they now enjoyed, were compiled in such num¬
bers, and with so little care, that they became almost
proverbial for inaccuracy. About the middle of the
eighteenth century they were sometimes made the
vehicles of political squibs, as in the Maupeouana, and of Maupeou-
heretical opinions, as in the Longueruana. Thus theana-
evil naturally began to cure itself, and by a re-action, Eoagueru-
which is very general in regard to all productions ofliter-ana'
ature, the French Ana sunk in public esteem as much
below their intrinsic value as they had formerly been ex¬
alted above it.
Although these connections have been chiefly formed
from the oral opinions of eminent men on the Continent,
particularly in France, England has also produced one or
two examples of this species of composition, which are
not altogether undeserving of attention. Of these, per¬
haps the most curious is the Walpoliana, which is aWalpoli-
transcript of the literary conversation of Horace Walpole.ana-
That multifarious author was distinguished for his re¬
sources of anecdote, wit, and judicious remark, as well as
for his epistolary qualifications. From his father, Sir
Robert Walpole, he had learned many anecdotes concern¬
ing the political characters who figured during the period
of his administration. He was himself personally acquaint¬
ed with all the eminent literary characters of his own day
in England ; and his repeated visits to Paris, and constant
correspondence with friends in that capital, supplied him
with the most interesting information with regard to
France. A great part of his life was devoted to conver¬
sation. While residing at Strawberry-hill, he generally
rose from table about five o'clock, and taking his place on
his drawing-room sofa, to which his gout in a great mea¬
sure confined him, he passed the time, till two o’clock in
the morning, in miscellaneous chit-chat, full of singular
anecdotes, strokes of wit, and acute observations. As he
possessed, and was daily communicating, such stores of
instruction and amusement, it was suggested to him that
he ought to form a collection of these anecdotes and ob¬
servations. This he declined, but he furnished the editor
of the Walpoliana with many anecdotes in his own hand¬
writing. After his death, several specimens of this mis¬
cellany were published in the Monthly Magazine; and
being afterwards enlarged by anecdotes retained in the
memory of the editor, or communicated by others, were
published in two volumes, under the title of Walpoliana.
Most other works which, in this country, have been pub¬
lished under the name of Ana, as Baconiana, Atterbury-
ana, are rather extracts from the writings and corre¬
spondence of eminent men, than memorials of their con¬
versation.
There are some works which, though they do not bear
the title, belong more strictly to the class of Ana than
many of those collections which are known under that ap¬
pellation. Such are the Melange dHisioire et de Littera-
x
740 ANA.
Ana. ture, published under the name of Vigneul Marville ; and
the Locorum Communium Collectanea^ ex Lectionibus Phi¬
lippi Melanchthonis,—a work which was published a<s far
back as the sixteenth century, and has obtained consider¬
able reputation on account of its theological learning, and
the information it communicates concerning the early
state of the reformed church. But of those productions
which belong to the class, though they do not bear the
Luther’s name, of Ana, the most celebrated are the Colloquia Men-
Colloquia salia of Luther, and Selden’s Table-Talk, both of which
Alensalia. particular notice. The first, which comprehends
the conversation of Luther with his friends and coadjutors
in the great work of the Reformation, was first published
in 1566. Captain Henry Bell, who translated it into Eng¬
lish in the time of the Commonwealth, informs us that,
at the instigation of the pope, the emperor of Germany
had promulgated an edict commanding the works of Lu¬
ther to be destroyed. It was for some time supposed
that all the copies of the Colloquia Mensalia had been
burned in consequence of this order; but at length, in
1626, a German called Van Sparr, having occasion to
build on the old foundation of a house in which his grand¬
father dwelt when the imperial edict was issued, he found
lying in a deep hole, and wrapped up in a linen cloth,
a printed copy of the Colloquia Mensalia. Captain Bell
having formerly become acquainted with Van Sparr dur¬
ing a long residence in Germany, his friend transmitted
the work to him in England, where he executed a trans¬
lation of it; an undertaking to which he pretends that
he was urged by the vision of an old man with a long
white beard, arrayed in white, who spoke these words:
“ Sirrah, will you not take time to translate that book ?”
The extraordinary book translated by Bell, at the in¬
stance of this vision, is said to have been originally col¬
lected by Dr Anthony Lauterbach, “ out of the holy
mouth of Luther and was afterwards digested into com¬
mon-places by Dr John Aurifaber. It chiefly contains
observations and discussions on idolatry, auricular con¬
fession, mass, excommunication, clerical jurisdiction,
general councils, and all the points agitated by the re¬
formed church in those early periods. With such topics
there is intermixed many diatribes against Antichrist and
the Cardinals, and much sarcasm on popish miracles and
relics. Occasionally, however, it must be confessed that
our great reformer expresses a belief in superstitions fully
as wild and monstrous as those which he derides, and
which he was called to overthrow. Thus, he asserted
that he was repeatedly kept from sleep by the devil
cracking nuts in his chamber; and he affirmed that there
was a child at Dessau, which had been substituted by
the arch-fiend instead of one he had stolen away, and
which child Luther earnestly advised the prince of An¬
halt to throw into the river Moldaw.
Seldeii's If the collection of Selden’s apophthegms and sayings,
table- entitled Table-Talk, be regarded of good authority, we
1 alk. shall find in it a more genuine and undisguised expression
of the sentiments of that eminent man, than in his more
studied productions. This work was published, after the
death of Selden, by Richard Milward, his amanuensis,
who, in his dedication to Selden’s executors, affirms that,
for twenty years, he enjoyed the opportunity of daily
hearing his discourse, during which long period he made
it his practice, from time to time, faithfully to commit to
writing “ the excellent things that usually fell from him.”
Dr Wilkins, in his introductory discourse to the Works of
Selden, has attempted to throw discredit on the genuine¬
ness of this compilation, asserting that it contains many
things derogatory from Selden’s erudition, and foreign
from his manners and principles. It is not improbable,
indeed, that the memory of the amanuensis may have Ann.
occasionally failed him, and that he may have recorded
sayipgs which inadvertently escaped his master in the
heat of conversation, and such as he probably would not
have deliberately maintained. But, on the whole, the
work has completely an air of genuineness ; and although
the familiarity of his illustrations and parallels may ap¬
pear to clash with the idea formed of so great a scholar,
they are characteristic of a man who had been conversant
with scenes of common life, no less than the speculations
of the closet. That such was the usual manner of Selden’s
conversation, the editor of the Table-Talk recalls to the
recollection of those friends of his patron to whom the
work is dedicated ; and this appeal forms a presumption
of his veracity. The Table-Talk contains many curious
facts and opinions concerning the political and ecclesias¬
tical history of the interesting period during which Selden
lived, and in the important events of which he bore a
considerable share. To judge from this work, Selden had
great contempt for the theologians of his day; and seems
to have been of opinion that the state should invariably
keep a rein on the church. He was partial to the Epis¬
copal form of worship ; but was evidently not very strict
in doctrinal points, as appears from what he is reported to
have said on the subject of heresy. In his political opinions
he seems to have entertained a high respect for the sa¬
credness of the social contract; and he justified the re¬
sistance to the Stewarts, on the ground that they had in¬
fringed and violated this compact between prince and
people. Besides religious and political opinions, the Table-
Talk contains much of a lighter description; in conse¬
quence of which, Selden has been accused of showing
more laxness, in point of moral principle, than might have
been expected from so grave and respectable a character.
Many of those sentiments, however, which have been
considered objectionable, may have been merely advanced
as plausible deductions from principles assumed for the
sake of argument. But whatever difference of opinion
may exist with regard to the matter of the Table-Talk,
the manner in which the sentiments are there expressed
must be universally admitted to be perspicuous and agree¬
able. The style of Selden, in most of the works published
under his own care, is harsh and obscure; but Clarendon,
who differed from him so widely in political opinions, ac¬
knowledges that he was “ a clear discourser, and that he
possessed the faculty of making difficult things easy, and
presenting them clearly to the understanding.” Accord¬
ingly, this talent for elucidation shines chiefly in his
Table-Talk, which is filled with the stores of his exten¬
sive reading, delivered without any pretensions to that
order and method, the want of which has been attributed
to his other productions.
It thus appears that, although the compilations desig¬
nated by the name of Ana belong more particularly to
France, they have not been wholly unknown in this coun¬
try. In their Motti e Burle, and sometimes in their novels,
the Italians also have recorded the witticisms of their
distinguished poets and artists. The novels of Sacchetti
are full of repartees attributed to Dante and the painters
Giotto and Buffalmacco. Almost every Italian biographi¬
cal work of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, like
Boswell’s Life of Johnson, records at great length the
conversational remarks of the individual whose life is de¬
tailed. Thus, Manso has dedicated one of the books of
his life of Torquato Tasso to an account of the wise and
witty sayings of that illustrious poet, who, towards the
close of his days, had become the intimate friend of his
biographer. The conversation of the poet, however, was
neither gay nor brilliant. One of the characters in Gol-
ANA
Ana. doni’s drama of Torquato Tasso thus contrasts his writings
^rf^v^^and conversation:
Arnmiro il suo talento, gradisco i carmi suoi;
Ma placer non trovo a conversar con lui.
It also unfortunately happens that the greater part of
the sayings recorded by Manso may be found in the
Apophthegms of Erasmus, which were published before
the birth of Tasso. Indeed Manso seems to have been
aware of the want of originality in the bon-mots of his
friend; for, after mentioning one, he says, “ questo mot¬
to fu da alcuni ad Epiteto attribuito.” It was usual, in¬
deed, among the biographers of those times to pillage Xeno¬
phon or Plutarch for good things to put into the mouths of
their heroes; a practice from which Machiavel could not
abstain in his short account of the illiterate soldier Cas-
truccio Castracani. In those ages of pedantry, however, it
is not improbable that many sayings of the old philoso¬
phers might have been repeated as their own by the
learned men of the times; and that the Italian literati
might occasionally attempt to make their hearers merry
with the jests of Socrates or Diogenes. The genius and
character of the people rendered any collection of this
nature less agreeable than the Ana of the neighbouring
nation. In Italy, gravity was numbered among the vir¬
tues, and, in the eulogy of an illustrious man, is always
mentioned as one of his most commendable qualities.
There seems, in that country, to have been no medium
between the most fantastic buffoonery and a certain tragic
solemnity. The Italians wanted that “ mobility of ima¬
gination,” that facility, rapidity, abandonment, and gaiety,
which seems almost peculiar to the French, and forms the
chief charm of social intercourse, as well as of those works
in which it is represented; though, no doubt, when re¬
duced into writing, much of its grace and spirit must eva¬
porate and disappear.
The existence of similar causes, and perhaps in a
stronger degree, prevented the popularity of Ana among
the Spaniards ; though they too have related the jests and
opinions of the duke d’Ossuna, and of some others. In¬
deed, whatever may be the genius or disposition of a peo¬
ple, traces of this mode of composition may in some shape
or other be discovered among them.
When presented in their most perfect form, which is
that of the French Ana, these collections are certainly
entertaining from their variety, and curious, as presenting
a lively image of the distinguished characters whose sen¬
timents they record. If men reason more correctly on
paper, they usually display their feelings and convictions
with more truth in unpremeditated conversation. Few
are so cautious or hypocritical that they do not sometimes
drop the mask in the society of their friends, and express
what they think or feel, when they no longer entertain
apprehensions that their sentiments will be communicated
to the vulgar. In general, however, the Ana should
rather be regarded as affording a notion of the spirit and
turn of thinking of those whose conversation they detail,
than as authorities for particular opinions. A spirit of
contradiction, a wish to display ingenuity, to astonish
by paradoxes, or even to support conversation, may often
lead men to maintain opinions in colloquial intercourse
which they perhaps never seriously held, or at least would
be ready to disclaim on mature consideration. It also un¬
fortunately happens that, in many of the Ana, those who
collected the conversations which they presented to the
world interpolated their own opinions; which, of course,
greatly diminishes their authority as characteristical re¬
cords. It has also been objected to this species of com¬
position, that every subject is treated supeificially, but
it should be recollected that the Ana do not profess to
ANA 741
contain profound dissertations; and in fact no one con- Anabap-
sults them with the view of being deeply informed on any^Jf^
topic. A better founded objection is, that many subjects
are treated, not merely superficially, but inaccurately.
Such compositions are liable to a double risk of error;
first, of the person who delivers opinions in the heat of
discourse, or relates anecdotes from vague recollection;
and, secondly, of the person who records them, who must
be liable to mistake what he has only heard in the course
of conversation. From these causes, and from their wide
and general circulation, many of the most current literary
errors may be traced to the Ana. When read, however,
with discrimination, they may prove highly useful in il¬
lustrating various points of literary history, as they cer¬
tainly contain a great deal which is not to be found in the
formal compositions of the learned.
Wolfius has given a history of the Ana in a preliminary
discourse to his edition of the Casauboniana, published in
1710. In the Repertoire de Bibliographies Speciales, Cu-
rieuses, et Instructives, by Peignot, there is a Notice Bi-
bliographique of these collections ; but many of the books
there enumerated consist of mere extracts from the writ¬
ings of popular authors, and do not, therefore, belong to
that class of literary works described in the preceding
article. (j. C. d*)
ANABAPTISTS, a name which has been indiscrimi¬
nately applied to Christians of very different principles
and practices, though many of them object to the deno¬
mination, and hold nothing in common besides the opi¬
nion, that baptism ought always to be performed by im¬
mersion, and not administered before the age of discretion.
The word Anabaptist is compounded of am, anew,
and fSavriffTTis, a baptist} and in this sense the Nova-
tians, the Cataphrygians, and the Donatists, may be con¬
sidered as a kind of Anabaptists in the earlier ages, though
not then denoted by this name; for they contended that
those Christians of the Catholic church who joined them¬
selves to their respective parties should be rebaptized.
But we must not class under the same denomination those
bishops of Asia and Africa who, in the third century,
maintained that baptism administered by those whom they
called heretics was not valid, and therefore thatsuch of them
as returned into their churches ought to be rebaptized.
Nor do the English and Dutch Baptists considei the de¬
nomination as at all applicable to their sect, by whom the
baptism appointed by Christ is held to be “ nothing short
of immersion upon a personal profession of faith; of which
profession infants being incapable, and sprinkling being
no adequate symbol of the thing included, the baptizing
of proselytes to their communion, who in their infancy
had undergone the ceremony of sprinkling, cannot, it is
urged, be interpreted a repetition of the baptismal ordi¬
nance.
Anabaptists, in a strict and proper sense, appear to be
those who not only rebaptize, when they arrive at an adult
age, persons that were baptized in their infancy, but also,
as often as any person comes from one of their sects to
another, or as often as any one is excluded from their
communion and again received into the bosom of the
church, they baptize him. And such were many of the
German Baptists. But the single opinion common to all
the sects to which the name of Anabaptists has been in¬
discriminately applied, is that of the invalidity of infant
baptism, in whatever way administered; and hence the
general denomination of Antipcedobaptists, which included
Anabaptists, Baptists, Mennonites, WTaterlandians, &c., as
distinguished by their respective peculiarities; though
Anabaptists seems to have been adopted by most writers
as the general term.
742 ANA
Anabap- To the above peculiar notion concerning the baptismal
lists, sacrament, the Anabaptists added principles of a different
nature, depending upon certain ideas which they enter¬
tained concerning a perfect church establishment, pure in
its members, and free from the institutions of human po-
licy.
The Anabaptists appear to have made little noise, or
to have been little noticed, before the time of the refor¬
mation in Germany. The most prudent and rational part
of them considered it possible, by human wisdom, indus¬
try, and vigilance, to purify the church from the contagion
of the wicked, provided the manners and spirit of the pri¬
mitive Christians could but recover their lost dignity and
lustre; and seeing the attempts of Luther, seconded by
several persons of eminent piety, prove so successful, they
hoped that the happy period was arrived in which the
restoration of the church to purity was to be accomplish¬
ed, under the divine protection, by the labours and coun¬
sels of pious and eminent men. Others, far from being
satisfied with the plan of reformation proposed by Luther,
looked upon it as much beneath the sublimity of their
views, and consequently undertook a more perfect refor¬
mation, or, to express more properly their visionary enter¬
prise, they proposed to found a new church, entirely spi¬
ritual, and truly divine.
This sect was soon joined by great numbers, and (as
usually happens in sudden revolutions of this nature) by
many persons whose characters and capacities were very
different, though their views seemed to turn upon the
same object. Their progress was rapid; for, in a very
short space of time, their discourses, visions, and predic¬
tions, excited commotions in a great part of Europe, and
drew into their communion a prodigious multitude, whose
ignorance rendered them easy victims to the illusions of
enthusiasm. The most pernicious faction of all those
which composed this motley multitude, was that which
pretended that the founders of the new and perfect church
already mentioned were under the direction of a divine
impulse, and were armed against all opposition by the
power of working miracles. It was this faction that, in
the year 1521, began their fanatical work, under the
guidance of Munzer, Stubner, Storck, &c.
These persons were disciples of Luther; but well know¬
ing that their opinions were such as would receive no
sanction from him, they availed themselves of his absence
to disseminate them in Wittenburg, and had the address
to overreach the piety of Melanchthon. Their principal
purpose was to gain over the populace, and to form a con¬
siderable party. To effect this, says Bayle, they were in¬
dustrious and active, each in his own way. Storck, want¬
ing knowledge, boasted of inspiration; and Stubner, who
had both genius and erudition, laboured at commodious
explications of Scripture. . Not content with discrediting
the court of Rome, and decrying the authority of consis¬
tories, they taught, that among Christians, who had the
precepts of the gospel to direct, and the Spirit of God to
guide them, the office of magistracy was not only unne¬
cessary, but an unlawful encroachment on their spiritual
liberty ; that the distinctions occasioned by birth, or rank,
or wealth, being contrary to the spirit of the gospel, which
considers all men as equal, should be entirely abolished;
that all Christians, throwing their possessions into one
common stock, should live together in that state of equality
which becomes members of the same family; that as nei¬
ther the laws of nature nor the precepts of the New Tes¬
tament had placed any restraint upon men with regard to
the number of wives which they might marry, they should
use that liberty which God himself had granted to the
patriarchs.
ANA
They employed at first the various arts of persuasion in Anabap-
order to propagate their doctrine. They preached, ex- tists.
horted, admonished, and reasoned, in a manner that seem-v^"v''N~
ed proper to impress the multitude; and related a great
number of visions and revelations with which they pre¬
tended to have been favoured from above. But when
they saw that these methods of making proselytes were
not attended with such rapid success as they fondly ex¬
pected, and that the ministry of Luther and other emi¬
nent reformers was detrimental to their cause, they then
had recourse to more expeditious measures, and madly
attempted to propagate their fanatical doctrine by force
of arms. Munzer and his associates, in the year 1525,
put themselves at the head of a numerous army, compos¬
ed for the most part of the peasants of Suabia, Thuringia,
Franconia, and Saxony; and declared war against all laws,
government, and magistrates of every kind, under the
chimerical pretext that Christ was now to take the reins
of civil and ecclesiastical government into his own hands,
and to rule alone over the nations. But this seditious
crowd was routed and dispersed without much difficulty
by the elector of Saxony and other princes; and Munzer,
their ringleader, ignominiously put to death, and his fac¬
tious counsellors scattered abroad in different places.
Many of his followers, however, survived and propa¬
gated their opinions through Germany, Switzerland, and
Holland. In the year 1533 a party of them settled at
Munster under the direction of two Anabaptist prophets,
John Matthias, a baker of Haerlem, and John Bockholdt,
a journeyman tailor of Leyden. Having made themselves
masters of the city, they deposed the magistrates, confis¬
cated the estates of such as had escaped, and deposited
the wealth they amassed together in a public treasury
for common use. They made preparations of every kind
for the defence of the city; and sent out emissaries to the
Anabaptists in the Low Countries, inviting them to assem¬
ble at Munster, which was now dignified with the name
of Mount Sion, that from hence they might be deputed
to reduce all the nations of the earth under their domi¬
nion. Matthias, who was the first in command, was soon
cut off, in an act of frenzy, by the bishop of Munster’s
army, and was succeeded by Bockholdt, who was pro¬
claimed, by a special designation of Heaven, as he pre¬
tended, king of Sion, and invested with legislative powers
like those of Moses. The extravagancies of Bockholdt were
too numerous to be recited: it will be sufficient to add, that
the city of Munster was taken after a long siege and an
obstinate resistance; and Bockholdt, the mock monarch,
was punished with a most painful and ignominious death.
It must, however, be acknowledged, that the true rise
of the numerous insurrections of this period ought not to
be attributed to religious opinions. The first insurgents
groaned under the most grievous oppressions—they took
up arms principally in defence of their civil liberties; and
of the commotions that took place, the Anabaptist leaders
above mentioned seem rather to have availed themselves,
than to have been the prime movers. That a great part
of the main body, indeed, consisted of Anabaptists, seems
indisputable ; and whatever fanaticism existed among them
would naturally be called forth or inflamed by particu¬
lar situations or circumstances, and run riot in its wildest
shapes. At the same time it appears from history, that a
great part also consisted of Roman Catholics, and a still
greater of persons who had scarcely any religious princi¬
ples at all. Indeed, when we read of the vast numbers
that were concerned in those insurrections, of whom it is
reported that 100,000 fell by the sword, it appears reason¬
able to conclude that a great majority of them were not
Anabaptists.
ANA
Anabas Before concluding this article, it must be remarked, that
II the Baptists or Mennonites in England and Holland are to
Anachar- consi(]erej in a very different light from the enthusiasts
S1S' , we have been describing ; and it appears equally uncandid
' and invidious to trace up their distinguishing tenet, as some
of their adversaries have done, to those obnoxious charac¬
ters. and there to stop, in order as it were to associate with
it the ideas of turbulence and fanaticism, with which it cer¬
tainly has no natural connection. Their coincidence with
some of those oppressed and infatuated people in denying
baptism to infants, is acknowledged by the Baptists; but
they disavow the practice which the appellation of Anabap¬
tists implies, and their doctrines seem referable to a more an¬
cient and respectable origin. They appear supported by his¬
tory in considering themselves as the descendants of the
Waldenses, who were so grievously oppressed and perse¬
cuted by the despotic heads of the Roman hierarchy; and
they profess an equal aversion to all principles of rebellion on
the one hand, and to all suggestions of fanaticism on the
other. See Baptists.
ANABAS, Cuvier’s name for a genus of fishes that have
the faculty of climbing up and living for some time out of
water. See Ichthyology, Acanthopterygii.
ANABASIS (dvd^acris), the title of the work of Xeno¬
phon describing the expedition of Cyrus the younger against
his brother Artaxerxes of Persia, 401 years b.c. Major
Rennell, in an elaborate memoir, has estimated the retreat
of the 10,000 Greek auxiliaries of Cyrus as equal to a dis¬
tance of 3465 English miles (taking the stadia of Xeno¬
phon at 10 to our mile), through a difficult, and to them,
unknown country. Arrian’s account of the expedition of
Alexander the Great is likewise called Anabasis.
ANABATHRA, in Ancient Writers, denotes a kind of
steps or ladder whereby to ascend to some eminence. In
this sense we read of the anabathra of theatres, pulpits, &c.
Anabathra appears to have been sometimes also applied to
ranges of seats rising gradually over each other.
Anabathra is more particularly applied to a kind of stone
blocks raised by the highway sides, to assist travellers in
mounting or alighting, before the useof stirrups was invented.
The first author of this contrivance among the Romans was
C. Gracchus, brother of Tiberius.
ANABLEPS, a Cuvierian genus of Malacopterygious
fishes, with a divided pupil, cornea, and iris in each eye,
giving the appearance of four eyes, from which the trivial
name of the only species is derived. It inhabits the rivers
of Guyana.
A N A BOL/EU M, or Anabole, in Antiquity, a kind of
upper coat, worn over the tunica.
ANACALYPTERIA, according to Suidas, were pre¬
sents made to the bride by her husband’s relations and
friends, when she first uncovered her face and showed her¬
self to men. These presents were also called i-iravXLa ; for,
among the Greeks, virgins before marriage were under
strict confinement, being rarely permitted to appear in pub¬
lic, or converse with the other sex ; and when allowed that
liberty, wore a veil over their faces, termed KaAvVn?, or
KaAuVrpa, which was not left off in the presence of men till
the third day after marriage ; whence, according to Hesy-
cnius. this day was also called anacalypterion.
ANACAMPTIC, a name applied by the ancients to that
part of optics which treats of i-eflection, being the same with
what is now called Catoptrics.
ANACARDIACEiE, a natural order of trees with acrid
resins in their bark. The cashew nut belongs to this order.
ANACHARSIS,a Scythian philosopher, who lived about
600 years before Christ. His father was one of the chiefs
of his nation, and married a woman of Greece. Instructed
in the Greek language by his mother, he prevailed upon
A N A 743
the king to intrust him with an embassy to Athens. On his Anaeharsis
arrival in that renowned city, he was introduced to Solon by II
one of his own countrymen, named Foxaris. From such a
well-qualified master Anacharsis rapidly acquired a knowledge v ‘ ,
of the wisdom of Greece, and the literature then in circulation. ^
By the influence of Solon he was introduced to the princi¬
pal characters of Athens, and was the first stranger who was
honoured with the title of citizen by the Athenians. After
he had resided several years at Athens, he travelled through
different countries in quest of knowledge, and then returned
to his native country inflamed with the desire of instructing
them in the laws and the religion of the Greeks. But his
countrymen were not prepared to profit by his instructions;
and while he was performing sacrifice to the goddess Cybele,
in fulfilment of a vow which he had made on his way home,
he was slain by an arrow, said to have proceeded from the
hand of his own brother Saulius, the king. Thus fell the
Scythian philosopher, a victim to the folly and ignorance of
his countrymen who w antonly rejected the wisdom and learn¬
ing of Greece. His energetic mode of expressing himself
gave birth to the proverbial saying “ Scythian eloquence.”—
Herodot. iv. 76, Lucian. Scyth. ii.
Anacharsis, Travels of. See Barthelemy.
ANACHORET,in Ecclesiastical History, denotes a her¬
mit or solitary monk, who retires from the society of mankind
into some desert, with a view to avoid the temptations of the
world, and to be more at leisure for meditation and prayer.
Such were Paul, Anthony, and Hilarian, the first founders
of monastic life in Egypt and Palestine.
ANACHRONISM, in matters of literature, an error with
respect to chronology, whereby an event is placed earlier than
it really happened. The word is compounded of the negative
dv, and xpovos, time. Such is that of Virgil, wdio places
Dido in Africa at the time of iEneas, though in reality she
did not come thither till 300 years after the taking of Troy.
ANACLASTIC Glasses (dva, and Adais, a breaking),
a kind of sonorous flat-bellied phials, resembling inverted
funnels, with bottoms extremely thin, and slightly convex.
They have the property of emitting a vehement noise when
alternately filled with air and exhausted by the mouth. In
Germany, where they are chiefly made, they are called
vexier glaser, i. e., vexing glasses, on account of the dis¬
turbance they occasion by their resilition.
ANACLASTICS, that part of optics which considers the
refraction of light, commonly called Dioptrics. See Optics.
ANACLETERIA, in Antiquity, a solemn festival cele¬
brated by the ancients when their kings or princes came of
age, and assumed the reins of government. This designa¬
tion was more especially applied to the inauguration of the
Graeco-Egyptian princes.
ANACLETICUM, in the Ancient Art of War, a par¬
ticular blast of the trumpet, whereby the fearful and flying
soldiers were rallied, and recalled to combat.
AN AGLET US, or Cletus, bishop of Rome from the
year 78 to 91. Some spurious decretals are extant under
his name.
Anacletus, anti-pope, of Jewish extraction, was elected
in 1130. He maintained his position till his death, in the
face of all opposition, and was succeeded by Innocent II. in
1138.
ANACLINTERIA, in Antiquity, a kind of pillows on
the dining couch, whereon the guests used to lean. The an¬
cient tricliniary beds had four pillows, one at the head, another
at the feet, a third at the back, and a fourth at the breast.
ANACGHNOSIS (am/cou/axns), in Rhetoric, a figure by
which a speaker applies to his opponents for their opinion on
the point in debate.
ANACOLUTHON (dvaKohovOov), in Rhetoric and
Grammar, a want of coherency or of sequence in a sentence.
x
744 ANA
Anaconda ANACONDA, in Natural History, is a name given in
tl the isle of Ceylon to a very large and powerful snake, the
Anacreon. Pyf}lQn Nivittatus.
“ v'*- ANACREON, the celebrated lyric poet, was born at
Teos, an Ionian city in Asia Minor, about the year b.c. 560.
Of his personal history little is known ; but it would appear
that his early youth was passed at Teos; and when Ionia
fell under the Persian yoke, about b.c. 540, he migrated with
many of his countrymen to Abdera in Thrace. In the same
year he went to Samos, in consequence of an invitation from
Polycrates the tyrant, by whom he was treated with great
distinction and regard, and loaded with favours, which the
poet repaid by praises in many of his songs. His residence
at the splendid court of Polycrates was the happiest period
of his life. On the murder of his friend and patron, in B.C.
522, he was invited to Athens by Hipparchus, the son of
Pisistratus, who is said by Plato to have sent a galley of fifty
oars for his conveyance. (Hipparch. p. 228.) At Athens
he became acquainted with the younger Simonides and seve¬
ral other poets, and enjoyed the intimacy of many illustrious
persons in that city. Anacreon is said to have perished by
choking on the stone of a grape, in the 85th year of his age ;
and judging from the second of his two epitaphs by Simo¬
nides, that event took place at Teos, whither he is supposed
to have retired on the death of Hipparchus in B.c. 514. The
Athenians erected on the acropolis a statue representing
Anacreon in a state of bacchanalian joyousness; and his
effigy appears on several coins of Teos, which are still ex¬
tant. The story of his passion for Sappho involves an ana¬
chronism that would appear to render it a fiction.
The harp of Anacreon was strung to the praises of beauty,
love, and wine; and we are enabled to form some estimate
of his genius from the numerous fragments of his poetry that
time has spared. Though he continually alludes to wine as
the source of his inspiration, Athenaeus (x. 429) argues, with
much propriety, that the poet merely affected inebriation in
the composition of his celebrated dithyrambics. Indeed,
from the tenor of his writings, it has very generally been
assumed that the poet himself was the votary of voluptuous¬
ness and excess : though against this most natural inference
we have the testimony of many writers, who ascribe to
Anacreon the highest merits, not only as a poet, but also as
a man. His rejection of the munificent presents of Poly¬
crates, as not worthy the anxieties they entailed, is a cir¬
cumstance certainly in his favour ; and scarcely less so is the
praise of Plato, who dignifies the poet with the epithet of
“ wise.” Simonides, also, in a fragment still extant, places
his character in a very favourable light. (See Anthol.
Palat. vii. 25.) Yet, in spite of all this testimony, when we
reflect on the inherent tendency of our nature to exalt the
characters of extraordinary men, though we may allow Ana¬
creon to have possessed many merits, it is impossible, on an
impartial review of his writings, to elude the conviction that
he was in fact a consummate voluptuary.
Five books of Anacreon’s odes were extant in the time of
Plutarch and Athenseus ; and these were sung on all festive
occasions to music composed by the poet himself. He also
wrote elegies, hymns, satires, and epigrams ; of which last
several are preserved in the Anihologia Grer.ca. All his
poems were written in the Ionic dialect; his favourite
metres being the Choriambic and the Ionic a Minore. A
collection of fifty-five odes ascribed to Anacreon was first
published by FI. Stephens at Paris, in 1554, and subse¬
quently by Maittaire, by Spaletti with a fac-simile of the
Vatican MS., by Brunck, and others. It is now universally
admitted that most, if not all, of these poems are spurious.
They probably were written soon after the time of Alex¬
ander the Great, and some of them even so late perhaps as
the fourth and fifth centuries of our era. Though many of
ANA
these poems display considerable elegance, they are deficient Anacreon-
in that vigour and earnest tone which characterize the tic Verse
genuine remains : the versification is sometimes defective, . ^ .
and the language occasionally barbarous; not to mention ^ nagma.^
that they contain ideas altogether foreign to the age of *'
Anacreon, and afford but one solitary example of the nume¬
rous citations from this poet by ancient writers. Some
valuable observations on this subject are given by Fischer
in the preface to his second edition of Anacreon, published
at Leipzig in 1776, which contains this collection, together
with the genuine remains. The best editions are by Mehl-
horn, Glogau, 1825; Fischer, 3d edition, Leipzig, 1793;
Brunck, 2d edition, Strasburg, 1786; and of the separate
fragments, that of Bergk, Leipzig, 1834.
ANACREONTIC Verse, in Ancient Poetry, a kind of
verse, so called from its being much used by the poet Ana¬
creon. It consists of three feet and a half, usually spondees
and iambuses, and sometimes anapaests.
ANACRISIS (dvd/c/Dio-is), a trial or examination which the
archons or chief magistrates of Athens underwent before
their admission into that office. The anacrisis stands dis¬
tinguished from the dokimasia, which was a second exami¬
nation in the agora. The anacrisis was performed in the
senate-house. The questions here proposed to them were
concerning their family, kindred, behaviour, estate, &c. It
is the opinion of some that all magistrates underwent the
anacrisis.
Anacrisis, among Civilians, an investigation of truth, in¬
terrogation of witnesses, and inquiry made into any fact,
especially by torture.
ANACRUSIS (avaKpovo-is), in Antiquity, denotes a part
of the Pythian song, wherein the combat of Apollo and
Python is described. The anacrusis was the first part, and
contained the preparation to the fight.
ANADEMA (dvd^pxi), among the Ancients, denoted an
ornament of the head, wherewith victors at the sacred games
had their temples bound.
ANADIPLOSIS (dm and SittAoos, double), in Rhetoric
and Poetry, a repetition of the last w ord of a line, or clause
of a sentence, in the beginning of the next: thus,
Pierides, vos haec facietis maxima Gallo :
Gallo, cujus amor, &c.
Et matutinis accredula vocibus instat,
Yocibus instat, et assiduas jacit ore querelas.
ANAD YOMENE Aphrodite (dvahvopivq, emerging), in
Grecian Mythology, answered to the Sea Venus of the Ro¬
mans, and described that goddess as rising from the sea.
The most celebrated picture in all antiquity w as the Aphro¬
dite Anadyomene by Apelles.
ANADYR, a river in North Asiatic Russia, arising from
a lake between Lat. 68° and 69°, consequently within the
Arctic circle. After passing southwards, a little way beyond
that circle, its general course is to the east, and it discharges
itself into Behring’s Strait, near the promontory ofTschuts-
koi Nos.
ANAESTHESIA. See Chloroforme.
ANAFESTO Paollucio, of Heracleia, was elected the
first Doge of Venice, a.d. 697, and was succeeded in office
by Marcello Tagliana in 717.—Sismondi, Hist. Rep. Ital. i.;
Figliasi, Mem. de’ Veiled i.
ANAGLYPH (from dm and y\v<f>a)), any work sculp¬
tured in relief on a plane or smooth surface, as exemplified
in cameos. When the object or design is produced by
engraving or indenting, as in seals, the work is styled dia-
glyphic, or intaglio.
ANAGNIA, now Agnani, a town of Italy, once the ca¬
pital of the ancient Hernici, and still containing about 6000
inhabitants. It occupies the summit of a hill, above the
Fiume Sacco, about 35 miles E.S.E. of Rome.
ANA
Anagnosta ANAGNOSTA, John, a Byzantine historian of the fif-
II teenth century. He was present at the siege of Thessalo-
Anak. njca by Amurath in 1430, of which he gives an account in
his work De Rebus Constantinopolitanorum Macedonius.
ANAGNOSTES (avayvwtrr^s), in Antiquity, a kind of
literary servant, retained in the families of persons of dis¬
tinction, and whose chief business was to read to them dur¬
ing meals, or at any other time. Cornelius Nepos relates
of Atticus, that he had always an anagnostes at his meals.
ANAGOGE (dmytoyTj), among Ecclesiastical Writers,
the elevation of the mind to things celestial and eternal. It
is particularly used where words, in their natural or primary
meanings, denote something sensible, but have a further view
to something spiritual or invisible.
In a more particular sense, it denotes the application of
the types and allegories of the Old Testament to subjects of
the New; thus called, because the veil being here drawn,
what before was hidden is exposed to open sight.
ANAGRAM (from the Greek dm, backwards, and
ypdfjL/xa, letter\ a transposition of the letters of some name,
whereby a new word is formed, either to the advantage or
disadvantage of the person or thing to which the name be¬
longs. Thus the anagram of Galenus is angelus; that of
Logica, caligo ; that of Alstedius, sedulitas. Calvin, in the
title of his Institutions, printed at Strasburg in 1539, calls
himself Alcuinus, which is the anagram of Calvinus, and the
name of the great restorer of learning in the time of Charle¬
magne.
Those who adhere strictly to the definition of an anagram
take no other liberty than that of omitting or retaining the
letter n at pleasure ; whereas others make no scruple to use
E for M, v for w, s for z, and c for K; and vice versa. Be¬
sides anagrams formed as above, we meet with another kind
in ancient writers, made by dividing a single word into
several; thus, sus tinea mus are formed out of the word
sustineamus. Anagrams are sometimes also made out of
several words ; such as that on the question put by Pilate
to our Saviour, Quid est veritas ? whereof we have this ad¬
mirable anagram, viz., Est vir qui adest. A work entitled
Z. Celspirii (Christ. Serpilii) de Anagrammatismo, Libri
IL Ratisb. 1715, 8vo, gives numerous examples of this
art.
The cabalists among the Jews are professed anagramma-
tists; the third part of their art, which they call themuru,
i. e., changing, being nothing but the art of making anagrams,
or finding hidden and mystical meanings in names ; which
they do by changing, transposing, and differently combining
the letters of those names. Thus, of PO, the letters of
Noah’s name, they make "jH) grace ; of the Messiah,
they make he shall rejoice. .
Thomas Billon, a Provencal, was a celebrated anagram-
matist, and retained by Louis XIII. with a pension of 1200
livres, in the capacity of anagrammatist to the king.
ANAGROS, in Commerce, a measure for grain, used in
some cities in Spain, particularly at Seville. It is equal to
two bushels.
ANAITIS (’Avtans), an Armenian divinity, whom the
Greeks sometimes identified with their own Artemis and
Aphrodite. From the nature of her worship, she appears to
have represented the creative powers of nature. Her name
is variously written—Anaitis, Anaea, Aneitis, Tanais, or
Nansea.— Vide Plin. xxxiii.
ANAK, the father of the Anakim, was the son of Arba,
who gave his name to Kirjath-arba, or Hebron. (Josh. xiv.
15.) Anak had three sons, Sheshai, Ahiman, and Talmai
(chap. xv. 14, and Numb. xiii. 22), all of gigantic size ; their
posterity were remarkable, not only for their extraordinary
stature, but for their fierceness, and were called Anakim ;
in comparison with whom, the Hebrews who were sent to
von. n.
ANA
745
view the land of Canaan reported that they were but as Analecta
grasshoppers. (Numb. xiii. ult.) Caleb, assisted by the tribe AnJ[orr
of Judah, took Kirjath-arba, and destroyed the Anakim, a.m. v
2559. (Judges i. 20, and Joshua xv. 14.)
ANALECTA (dvdXeKTa), in literature, is used to denote
a collection of small pieces ; as essays, remarks, &c.
ANALEMMA, in Geometry, a projection of the sphere
on the plane of the meridian, orthographically made by a
straight line and ellipses, the eye being supposed at an in¬
finite distance, and in the east or west point of the horizon.
Anaeemma denotes likewise an instrument of brass or
wood, upon which this kind of projection is drawn, with an
horizon or cursor fitted to it, wherein the solstitial colure, and
all circles parallel to it, will be concentric circles ; all circles
oblique to the eye will be ellipses; and all circles whose
planes pass through the eye will be right lines. The use of
this instrument is to showthe common astronomical problems,
which, if not too large, it will do, though not very exactly.
AN ALEP SIS (from dvaXayjSdvw, to restore), the aug¬
mentation or nutrition of an emaciated body.
ANALEPTICS, restorative or nourishing medicines.
ANALOGY (dvaAoyia), in Philosophy, a certain relation
and agreement between two or more things, which in other
respects are entirely different. There is likewise an ana¬
logy between things that have some resemblance to one
another; for example, between animals and plants ; but the
analogy is still stronger between different species of animals.
Analogy enters much into all our reasoning, and serves
to explain and illustrate. A great part of our philosophy,
indeed, has no other foundation than analogy.
“ It is natural to mankind,” says Dr Reid, “ to judge of
things less known, by some similitude, real or imaginary,
between them and things more familiar or better known.
And where the things compared have really a great simili¬
tude in their nature, w hen there is reason to think that they
are subject to the same laws, there may be a considerable
degree of probability in conclusions drawn from analogy.
Thus, we may observe a very great similitude between this
earth which we inhabit, and the other planets, Saturn, Ju¬
piter, Mars, Venus, and Mercury. They all revolve round
the sun, as the earth does, although at different distances and
in different periods. They borrow all their light from the
sun, as the earth does. Several of them are known to re¬
volve round their axis like the earth, and, by that means,
must have a like succession of day and night. Some of
them have moons, that serve to give them light in the ab¬
sence of the sun, as our moon does to us. They are all, in
their motions, subject to the same law of gravitation as the
earth is. From all this similitude, it is not unreasonable to
think that those planets may, like our earth, be the habita¬
tion of various orders of living creatures. There is some
probability in this conclusion from analogy.
“ But it ought to be observed, that as this kind of rea¬
soning can afford only probable evidence at best, so, unless
great caution be used, we are apt to be led into error by
it.”—“ No author has made a more just and a more happy
use of this mode of reasoning than Bishop Butler, in his
Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the Consti¬
tution and Course of Nature. In that excellent work, the
author does not ground any of the truths of religion upon
analogy, as their proper evidence; he only makes use of
analogy to answrer objections against them. When ob¬
jections are made against the truths of religion, which
may be made with equal strength against what we know to
be true in the course of nature, such objections can have no
weight.
“ Analogical reasoning, therefore, may be of excellent use
in answering objections against truths which have other evi¬
dence. It may likewise give a greater or a less degree of
5 b
a
746 A N A
Analogy probability in cases where we can find no other evidence.
II But all arguments drawn from analogy are still the weaker,
-jiamoui\ tjie g.reater disparity there is between the things compared;
v-*- and therefore must be weakest of all when we compare body
with mind, because there are no two things in nature more
unlike.
“ There is no subject in which men have always been so
prone to form their notions by analogies of this kind, as in
what relates to the mind. We form an early acquaintance
with material things by means of our senses, and are bred
up in a constant familiarity with them. Hence we are apt
to measure all things by them, and to ascribe to things most
remote from matter the qualities that belong to material
things. It is for this reason that mankind have, in all ages,
been so prone to conceive the mind itself to be some subtile
kind of matter; that they have been disposed to ascribe
human figure and human organs, not only to angels, but
even to the Deity.” {Essays on the Intellectual Pouters.)
See Locke’s Essay, B. iv. c. xvi. § 12; Beattie on Truth,
part i. c. 2, § 7; and Stewart’s Philosophy of the Mind, vol. ii.
chap. ii. § 4.
Analogy, in Grammar, is the correspondence which a
word or phrase bears to the genius and received forms of
any language.
ANALYSIS (from dvoAvco, to resolve), in a general sense,
implies the resolution of something compounded into its
original and constituent parts.
Analysis, in Mathematics, is properly the method of re¬
solving problems by means of algebraical equations, whence
we often find that these two words, analysis and algebra,
are used as synonymous. Analysis is divided, with regard
to its object, into that offinites and infinites. Analysis of
Einite Quantities is what we otherwise call specious arith¬
metic or algebra. Analysis of Infinites, called also the New
Analysis, is particularly used for the method of fluxions, or
the differential calculus.
Analysis, in Mental Philosophy, signifies the process of
decompounding our thoughts into their simplest elements,
or of resolving our intellectual operations into their primary
principles.
Analysis, in Physics, and in Chemistry, also denotes de¬
composition, that is, the separation of what is complex into
its constituent parts. The different meanings of the term
Analysis, as used in mathematics and the other branches of
science, are well explained in Stewart’s Philosophy of the
Mind, vol. ii. chap. iv. § 3.
AN AM, or An-nam, a large country in the south-eastern
part of Asia, between China and the Gulf of Siam, 965 miles
in length from north to south, with a breadth varying from
about 85 miles to 400. It has a long, winding, and much
indented sea-coast, affording many safe and commodious har¬
bours. I he view which the country presents from the sea
is that of a varied landscape, composed of bold headlands,
picturesque valleys, well-cultivated slopes, extensive down
and low plains, frequently terminating in sandhills, with a
distant background of lofty mountains. Along the coast are
numerous groups of islands. It is all comprised in one em¬
pire ; but it is made up of three distinct territories, and
part of a fourth, all formerly separate independent states,
namely, Tonquin, Cochin-China, Champa, or Tsiampa,
and the eastern part of Cambodia, or Camboja; which seel
ANAMNESIS, dm/n^o-is, a rhetorical figure, the call¬
ing to remembrance of something omitted.
ANAMORPHOSIS, in Perspective Drawing, is a de¬
formed or distorted figure, which appears confused and un¬
intelligible to the common unassisted view; but when seen
at a certain distance and height, or as reflected from a plane
or curved mirror, appears regular and in right proportion.
ANAMOUR, Cape, in Lat. 36. 3. N. Long. 32. 50. E.,
A N A
is the most southern point of Asia Minor. It was the an- Anancitis
cient Anemurium. ||
ANANCITIS, in Antiquity, a kind of figured stone, Ar>asta-
otherwise called synochitis, celebrated for its magical virtue . 81US II*
of raising the shadows of the infernal gods.
ANANIAS, a Sadducee, high priest of the Jews, who
put to death St James, the brother of our Lord, and was
deposed by Agrippa.
Ananias, a Christian belonging to the infant church at
Jerusalem, who, conspiring with his wife Sapphira to deceive
and defraud the brethren, was overtaken by sudden death,
and immediately buried. (Acts v. 1-11).
Ananias, a Christian of Damascus who was commanded
in a vision to go and visit the newly converted Saul of Tar¬
sus. (See Acts ix. 10; xxii. 12.)
Tradition represents Ananias as the first that published
the Gospel in Damascus, over which place he was subse¬
quently made bishop; but having roused, by his zeal, the
hatred of the Jews, he was seized by them, scourged, and
finally stoned to death in his own church.
ANANISABTA, or Ananisapta, a magical word fre¬
quently found inscribed on coins and other amulets, sup¬
posed to have the virtue of preserving the wearer from the
plague.
ANAPAEST, in Ancient Poetry, a foot consisting of two
short syllables and one long: such is the word scopulos. It
is just the reverse of the dactyl.
ANAPHORA, in Rhetoric, the repetition of the same
word or words in the beginning of a sentence or verse.
ANAPHRODISIA, a medical term derived from the
Greek, signifying impotence.
ANARCHY, the want of government in a nation, where
no supreme authority is lodged either in the prince or other
rulers, but the people live at large, and all things are in con¬
fusion. The word is derived from the Greek privative a,
and dpxv> command, government.
ANASARCA, an effusion of serum into the cellular tis¬
sues, occasioning a soft, pale, inelastic swelling.
ANASTASIUSI., EmperoroftheEast,and the successor
of Zeno, was raised from obscurity to that exalted position
by the Empress Ariadne, who married him on the fortieth
day of her widowhood. His reign commenced auspicious¬
ly, but was afterwards disturbed by foreign and intestine
wars, and by religious distractions. In the year 500 he
was anathematized by pope Symmachus for his support
of the Eutychians. He died in 518 at the age of nearly 90,
leaving behind a name darkened by avarice, cruelty, and
cowardice.
Anastasius II., whose proper name was Artemius, was
elevated from the humble situation of a secretary to the
throne of Constantinople, by the free voice of the senate and
Roman people, a.d. 713. His natural talents, improved by
education and daily exertion, enabled him to manage with
great prudence the affairs of the empire during the time that
he was secretary to his predecessor Philippicus. The Sara¬
cens had made inroads upon Asia Minor in the beginning of
his reign; but he sent a strong army to the frontiers of
Syria for its protection, under the command of Leo the Is-
aurian, a man of great military experience. These enemies
of the empire also meditated the design of taking Constan¬
tinople ; but the vigilance of Anastasius defeated their pur¬
pose, by providing a formidable naval force, repairing and
strengthening the walls of the city, and by forcing all the
inhabitants either to provide themselves with provisions for
three years, or instantly to depart from the city. Disap¬
pointed in their design, the enemy’s fleet sailed to Phoenicia,
and the imperial fleet assembled at Rhodes to watch the
motions of the enemy. But the measures of the emperor
received a severe check from the conduct of the sailors, who
ANA
ANA
747
Anastasius raised a mutiny, and slew their admiral for no other cause
II than his honourable endeavours to maintain proper discipline
Anatomy. jn j-pg fleet. Justly dreading severe punishment, the sea-
men raised the standard of rebellion, declared Anastasius
unworthy to reign, and conferred the purple upon one Theo¬
dosius, a person of mean birth. Informed of this sedition,
Anastasius fled from his tottering throne to Nice. The new
emperor hastened to besiege Constantinople, which, after
a vigorous resistance of six months, was reduced to subjec¬
tion. The late emperor being assured of his life, abandoned
his claim to the crown, assumed the character of a monk,
and was banished to Thessalonica, having worn the purple
only during the space of two years. Having, however, pre¬
vailed upon the Bulgarians to espouse his cause, he laid aside
the habit of the monk for that of the warrior, and, in the year
721, in the time of the Emperor Leo, he resumed his claim to
the throne. A numerous army of these barbarians hastened
to the capital; but being unable to reduce it, they delivered
up the unhappy Anastasius to the emperor, who put him to
death, along with his principal associates.
Anastasius, surnamed Bibliothecarius, a Roman abbot,
library-keeper of the Vatican, and one of the most learned
men of the ninth century, assisted in 869 at the fourth ge¬
neral council, the acts and canons of which he translated from
the Greek into Latin. He also composed the lives of seve¬
ral popes, and other works: the best edition of which is that
of the Vatican.
ANASTOMATICS, medicines supposed to have the
power of opening the mouths of vessels, and promoting the
circulation ; such as deobstruents, cathartics, and sudorifics.
ANASTOMOSIS. See Anatomy.
ANASTROPHE, in Rhetoric and Grammar, denotes
the inversion of the natural order of the words: such is saxa
per et scopulos, for per saxa et scopulos.
ANATHEMA (dyade/ia), among Ecclesiastical Writers,
imports whatever is set apart, separated, or divided; but
is most usually meant to express the cutting off a person
from the privileges of communion with the faithful. The
anathema differs from excommunication in the circumstances
of being attended with curses and execrations. It was prac¬
tised in the primitive church against notorious offenders. Se¬
veral councils also have pronounced anathemas against such
as they thought corrupted the purity of the faith. There
are two kinds of anathemas, the one judiciary and the other
abjuratory. The former can only be denounced by a coun¬
cil, a pope, or a bishop ; the latter makes a part of the cere¬
mony of abjuration, the convert being obliged to anathema¬
tize the heresy he abjures.
Anathema (dm^y/xa), in Heathen Antiquity, was an offer¬
ing or present made to some deity, and hung up in the temple.
Whenever a person left off his employment, it was usual to
dedicate the tools to the patron deity of the trade. Persons,
too, who had escaped from imminent danger, as shipwreck and
the like, or had met with any other remarkable instance of
good fortune, seldom failed to testify their gratitude by some
present of this kind.
ANATOCISMUS (from dva and tokos), in Antiquity, a
kind of usury corresponding to what we call compound in¬
terest. This is the worst kind of usury, and has been severely
condemned by the Roman law, as well as by the common
laws of most other countries.
ANATOLIA. See Natolia.
Anastro-
phe
Anatomy.
ANATOMY.
ANATOMY (Avaro/xij), signifying literally dissection,
or separation of parts by cutting, applied to organized
bodies, is used to denote the artificial separation of their
component parts in order to obtain an exact knowledge
of their situation, shape, and structure.
A more just idea of the nature and objects of anatomy
may be given by defining it as that science, the province
of which is to ascertain the structure of living and orga¬
nized bodies.
All the objects of the material world may be arranged
in two great divisions, according as they are organized or
void of organization. Inorganic bodies {corpora hruta)
are distinguished by the homogeneous characters of their
internal structure, any one portion of which, in the same
mass, presents the same appearance and properties as
any other. Endowed also with the general properties of
matter, as weight, cohesion, impenetrability, and atomic
attraction, or that resident in the constituent parti¬
cles, they are subject to physical laws only. All the
changes which inorganic bodies undergo consist either
in mechanical changes of place or shape, or in change of
chemical constitution ; and the consideration of the mode
in which these changes take place, of the agents by which
they are effected, and the laws by which they are regu¬
lated, constitutes the sciences of Mechanics and Che¬
mistry*
In organic bodies {corpora organica, c. viva), on the con¬
trary, we recognise a peculiar structure, in which the parts,
though arranged in a certain order, are heterogeneous,
or consist of different kinds of matter. In other words,
not only do organized bodies consist of different kinds of
substance, but these component substances may be again
resolved into material elements, differing from each other
in mechanical, chemical, and vital properties.
Observation further shows, that organic are distinguish¬
ed from inorganic bodies by the presence of a series and
combination of actions and processes, which are collectively
known under the abstract denomination of Life. Of this
term, however familiar it may appear, it has been found
difficult to give a satisfactory and unobjectionable defini¬
tion ; and physiological authors have found it requisite, in
order to avoid obscurity, to define it from its tendency,
its obvious effects, or, negatively, from what experience
shows to ensue upon its termination. Life is an attribute
of living bodies, and is known only as it manifests its
presence in these; and hence, instead of saying what it
is, we are compelled to specify only the circumstances
which denote its existence. Attentively considered, all
the varieties of organized and living bodies may be said
to be distinguished from those which are inorganic by
two great characters,—growth or the reproduction of the
individual, and generation or the reproduction of the spe¬
cies. Growth, or increase of size, includes the general
processes of assimilation and nutrition, with all the sub¬
ordinate actions of which these are composed; and since
it consists in the conversion of brute or inorganic into
living or organic matter, it constitutes one of the most
essential characters of life and organization. By virtue
of this, living bodies are the seat of an incessant change
in their interior structure; whereas inorganic bodies re¬
main in the same state, unless from the operation of chemi¬
cal laws. The formation of a new body similar to others
of the same class, order, and kind, however various in its
mode, is also a uniform attribute of all living and orga-
x
748 A N A T
Anatomy nized bodies. To one or other of these two general pur-
poses, then, all the actions and processes of living bodies,
however complex and multifarious they seem, may he ul¬
timately referred. To these two characters of living
bodies Cuvier adds a third,—death, or the termination of
life; but as this is a negative circumstance, and is in¬
cluded in the idea of life as a process having beginning
and end, it is superfluous in the general idea of the term.
The knowledge of the actions and processes of living and
organized bodies, and of the laws to which they are sub¬
ject, constitutes the science of Physiology, or, as it has
been also denominated, Zoonomy and vo/Mg, laws of
life,) or Biology (j3iog and Xoyog, doctrine of life).
Life supposes organization or the arrangement of mat¬
ter and material particles peculiar to living bodies; and,
reciprocally, organization, though not the cause of life
and living processes, invariably implies their existence,
either present or previous. In other words, every orga¬
nized body either is or must have been living; and every
living body is endowed with the peculiar internal structure
termed organic. Though it is difficult to specify by defi¬
nition the characters of this structure, some idea of it may
be communicated by stating, that all living bodies pos¬
sess material organs of definite shape, substance, and
structure, consisting of certain parts, and placed in pro¬
per positions. While it is the province of Physiology to
study the actions and processes of living bodies, and to in¬
vestigate the laws by which they are regulated, the exclu¬
sive object of Anatomy is to distinguish and describe their
constituent parts,—to determine the shape, position, and
structure of their organs,—and, in short, to develope
their structure. The term is not free from objection,
since it literally denotes one only of the means employed
to acquire the information requisite. But the objection
is not obviated by the substitution of such terms as
morphology and organology, in so far as the study of ana¬
tomy is not confined either to the shapes of parts or the
knowledge of organs alone, but considers their position,
their intimate structure, and their organization; in short,
all the circumstances relating to the material constitution
of living bodies.
All living and organized bodies, though agreeing in the
general character of possessing organs for assimilation and
nutrition, and organs of reproduction, differ nevertheless
in the possession or the want of organs for two other
functions, viz. those for recognising the presence of foreign
bodies, or organs of sensation, and those for changing place,
or organs of locomotion. The possession of these organs
distinguishes those living beings denominated animals ;
the want of them in like manner characterizes those
termed plants or vegetables. Upon this principle
anatomy, or the science of organic structures, resolves it¬
self into two great divisions,—Animal Anatomy, or
Zootomy (fmv and ro/irj), the object of which is the inves¬
tigation of the structure of animal bodies; and Veget¬
able Anatomy, or Phytotomy (purov and ro/Mj), the
object of which is to explain the structure peculiar to the
vegetable tribes.
Animal anatomy, again, naturally resolves itself into se¬
veral divisions, according as the object is to explain the
structure of the animal kingdom at large, or that of cer¬
tain classes, orders, tribes, families, or genera only. The
most ordinary and convenient division, however, is into
that which treats of the anatomy of the known animal
tribes in general, and that which treats of the structure
peculiar to the human subject. The accidental circum¬
stance of the former being studied chiefly in comparison
with the latter, the organic forms of which are regarded
as the standard of reference, has given it the denomina-
O M Y.
tion of Comparative Anatomy, though that of Am- Anatomy.
mal Anatomy or Zootomy would be more appropriate.
The latter has generally been named Anatomy simply,
or the Anatomy of the Human Body, and occasionally
Anthropotomy or Human Anatomy.
The connection which subsists between the latter and
the several divisions of the art of healing, renders it inter¬
esting to the medical, the surgical, and the philosophical
reader generally, and invests it with the highest import¬
ance to all. Comparative Anatomy, nevertheless, possesses
the peculiar advantage of directing the mind of the in¬
quirer to general resemblances, to universal facts, and to
comprehensive analogies. Independent of the important
services which its knowledge renders to several of the
arts, it is of the greatest use in throwing light on some of
the obscurest parts of physiology; by the extensive chain
of analogical facts which it traces, it tends to explain dif¬
ficulties in organization and function, which could not
otherwise be intelligible; and by establishing the connec¬
tion between external characters and habits with pecu¬
liarities of internal structure, it affords the only rational
basis for the classifications and distinctions of zoology.
Comparative or Animal Anatomy constitutes the great
source of what may be termed the Philosophy of Animal
Life.
Of the present treatise, the greater part will be devoted
to the subject of Human Anatomy, or the explana¬
tion of the structure of the human frame in the healthy
state. In a smaller proportion, it is proposed to give a
view of the structure of animal bodies generally, with oc¬
casional observations on those peculiarities in configura¬
tion and structure which distinguish classes, orders, and
genera, from each other. This will constitute Compara¬
tive Anatomy.
The subject of Vegetable Anatomy, unfolding the pe¬
culiarities of structure observed in plants, will be treated of
in the article Botany.
Previous to entering on the subject of Animal Anatomy,
however, and its two divisions, Human and Comparative
Anatomy, it is requisite to take a historical view of the
progress of the science from its origin to the present time.
In tracing the history of the origin of anatomy, it may History,
be justly said that more learning than judgment has been
displayed. Some writers claim for it the highest anti-B.C. 1957-
quity, and pretend to find its first rudiments alternately in 1537.
the animal sacrifices of the shepherd kings, the Jews, and
other ancient nations; and in the art of embalming, as
practised by the Egyptian priests. Even the descriptions 1184.
of wounds in the Iliad have been supposed adequate to
prove that, in the time of Homer, mankind had distinct
notions of the structure of the human body. Of the first,
it may be said that the rude information obtained by the
slaughter of animals for sacrifice does not imply profound
anatomical knowledge; and those who adduce the second
as evidence, are deceived by the language of the poet of
the Trojan war, which, distinguishing certain parts by
their ordinary Greek epithets, as afterwards used by Hip¬
pocrates, Galen, and all anatomists, has been rather too
easily supposed to prove that the poet had studied syste¬
matically the structure of the human frame.
With not much greater justice has the cultivation of
anatomical knowledge been ascribed to Hippocrates, who,
because he is universally allowed to be the father of me¬
dicine, has also been thought to be the creator of the
science of anatomy. Of the seven individuals of the fa-460-377.
mily of the Heracleidae who bore this celebrated name,
the second, who was son of Heraclides and Phenarita, and
grandson of the first Hippocrates, was indeed distinguished
ANATOMY. 749
History, as the author of medical observation and experience, and
the first who appreciated the value of studying accurately
the phenomena, effects, and terminations of disease. It
does not appear, however, notwithstanding the vague and
general panegyrics of Riolan, Bartholin, Le Clerc, and
Portal, that the anatomical knowledge of this illustrious
person was either accurate or profound. Of the works
ascribed to Hippocrates, five only are genuine. Most of
them were written either by subsequent authors of the
same name, or by one or other of the numerous impostors
who took advantage of the zealous munificence of the Pto¬
lemies, by fabricating works under that illustrious name.
Of the few which are genuine, there is none expressly
devoted to anatomy; and of his knowledge on this sub¬
ject, the only proofs are to be found in the exposition of
his physiological opinions, and his medical or surgical in¬
structions. From these it appears that he had some accu¬
rate notions on osteology ; but that of the structure of the
human body in general, his ideas were at once superficial
and erroneous. In his book on injuries of the head, and
in that on fractures, he shows that he knew the sutures of
the cranium, and the relative situation of the bones; and
that he had some notion of the shape of the bones in ge¬
neral, and of their mutual connections. Of the muscles,
of the soft parts in general, and of the internal organs,
his ideas are confused, indistinct, and erroneous. The
term ipXe£g he seems, in imitation of the colloquial Greek,
to have used generally to signify a blood-vessel, without
being aware of the distinction of vein and artery; and the
term agrjjg/a, or air-holder, is restricted to the windpipe.
He appears to have been unaware of the existence of the
nervous chords; and the term is used by him, as by Gre¬
cian authors in general, to signify a sinew or tendon. On
other points his knowledge is so much combined with
peculiar physiological doctrines, that it is impossible to as¬
sign them the character of anatomical facts; and even
the works in which these doctrines are contained are
with little probability to be ascribed to the second Hip¬
pocrates. If, however, we overlook this difficulty, and ad¬
mit what is contained in the genuine Hippocratic writ¬
ings to represent at least the sum of knowledge possess¬
ed by Hippocrates and his immediate descendants, we
find that he represents the brain as a gland, from which
exudes a viscid fluid; that the heart is muscular and of
pyramidal shape, and has two ventricles separated by a
partition, the fountains of life—and two auricles, recepta¬
cles of air; that the lungs consist of five ash-coloured lobes,
the substance of which is cellular and spongy, naturally
dry, but refreshed by the air; and that the kidneys are
glands, but possess an attractive faculty, by virtue of
which the moisture of the drink is separated, and descends
into the bladder. He distinguishes the bowels into colon
and rectum (6 ci^og).
374. The knowledge possessed by the second Hippocrates
was transmitted in various degrees of purity to the de¬
scendants and pupils, chiefly of the family of the Hera-
cleidae, who succeeded him. Several of these, with feel¬
ings of grateful affection, appear to have studied to pre¬
serve the written memory of his instructions, and in this
manner to have contributed to form part of that collection
of treatises which have long been known to the learned
world under the general name of the Hippocratic writings.
Though composed, like the genuine remains of the physi¬
cian of Cos, in the Ionian dialect, all of them differ from
these in being more diffuse in style, more elaborate in
form, and in studying to invest their anatomical and me-
1 Hipi Zuaiv 'irwtJtcc;,
dical matter with the fanciful ornaments of the Platonic History,
philosophy. Hippocrates had the merit of early recog-
nising the value of facts apart from opinions, and of those
facts especially which lead to general results; and in the
few genuine writings which are now extant, it is easy to
perceive that he has recourse to the simplest language,
expresses himself in terms which, though short and pithy,
are always precise and perspicuous, and is averse to the
introduction of philosophical dogmas. Of the greater part
of the writings collected under his name, on the contrary,
the general character is verboseness, prolixity, and a great
tendency to speculative opinions. For these reasons, as
well as for others derived from internal evidence, while
the Aphorisms, the Epidemics, and the works above men¬
tioned, bear distinct marks of being the genuine remains of
Hippocrates, it is impossible to regard the book rrep Qvcticg
Avdguvou as entirely the composition of that physician;
and it appears more reasonable to view it as the work of
some one of the numerous disciples to whom the author
had communicated the results of his observation, which
they unwisely attempted to combine with the philosophy
of the Platonic school and their own mysterious opinions.
Among those who aimed at this distinction, the most 374-
fortunate in the preservation of his name is Polybus, the
son-in-law of the physician of Cos. This person, who
must not be confounded with the monarch of Corinth
immortalized by Sophocles in the tragic story of CEdipus,
is represented as a recluse, severed from the world and
its enjoyments, and devoting himself to the study of ana¬
tomy and physiology, and to the composition of works on
these subjects. To him has been ascribed the whole of
the book on the Nature of the Child, and most of that on
Man ; both physiological treatises, interspersed with ana¬
tomical sketches. His anatomical information, with which
at present is our chief concern, appears to have been rude
and inaccurate, like that of his preceptor. He represents
the large vessels of the body to consist of four pairs : the
first proceeding from the head by the back of the neck
and spinal chord to the hips, lower extremities, and outer
ankle; the second, consistingof the jugular vessels (a/cpay/-
nfog), proceeding to the loins, thighs, hams, and inner
ankle; the third proceeding from the temples by the
neck to the scapula and lungs, and thence by mutual in¬
tercrossings to the spleen and left kidney, and the liver
and right kidney, and finally to the rectum; and the
fourth from the fore-part of the neck to the upper extre¬
mities, the fore-part of the trunk, and the organs of gene¬
ration.
This specimen of the anatomical knowledge of one of 3G3.
the most illustrious of the Hippocratic disciples differs
not essentially from that of Syennesis, the physician of
Cyprus, and Diogenes, the philosopher of Apollonia, two
authors, for the preservation of whose opinions we are
indebted to Aristotle.1 They may be admitted as repre¬
senting the state of anatomical knowledge among the
most enlightened men at that time, and they only show
how rude and erroneous were their ideas on the structure
of the animal body. It may indeed, without injustice, be
said, that the anatomy of the Hippocratic school is not
only erroneous, but fanciful and imaginary, in often sub¬
stituting mere supposition and assertion for what ought
to be matter of fact. From this censure it is impossible
to exempt even the name of Plato himself, for whom some
notices in the Timaeus on the structure of the animal body,
as taught by Flippocrates and Polybus, have procured a
place in the history of the science.
lib. iii. cap. ii.
ANATOMY.
750
History. Amidst the general obscurity in which the early history
of anatomy is involved, only two leading facts may be ad¬
mitted with certainty. The first is, that previous to the
time of Aristotle there was no accurate knowledge of
anatomy; and the second, that all that was known was
derived from the dissection of the lower animals only.
By the appearance of Aristotle, this species of knowledge,
which was hitherto acquired in a desultory and irregular
manner, began to be cultivated systematically and with a
definite object; and among the services which the philoso¬
pher of Stagira rendered to mankind, one of the greatest
and most substantial is, that he was the founder of Compa¬
rative Anatomy, and was the first to apply its facts to the
elucidation of zoology. The works of this ardent and
original naturalist show that his zootomical knowledge was
extensive, and often accurate; and from several of his
descriptions it is impossible to doubt that they were de¬
rived from frequent personal dissection.
384. Aristotle, who was born 384 years before the Christian
era, or in the first year of the 99th Olympiad, was, at the age
of 39, requested by Philip to undertake the education of his
son Alexander. During this period, it is said, he composed
several works on anatomy, which however are now lost.
The military expedition of his royal pupil into Asia, by
laying open the animal stores of that vast and little known
continent, furnished Aristotle with the means of extending
his knowledge, not only of the animal tribes, but of their
structure, and of communicating more accurate and dis¬
tinct notions than were yet accessible to the world. A
sum of 800 talents, and the concurrent aid of numerous
334-327. intelligent assistants in Greece and Asia, were intended
to facilitate his researches in composing a system of
zoological knowledge ; but it has been observed, that the
number of instances in which he was thus compelled to
trust to the testimony of other observers, led him to com¬
mit errors in description, which personal observation
might have enabled him to avoid.
The first three books of the History of Animals, a
treatise consisting of ten books, and the four books on the
Parts of Animals, constitute the great monument of the
Aristotelian Anatomy. From these we find that Aristotle
was the first who corrected the erroneous statements of
Polybus, Syennesis, and Diogenes, regarding the blood¬
vessels, which they made, as we have seen, to arise from the
head and brain. These he represents to be two in number,
placed before the spinal column, the larger on the right, the
smaller on the left, which, he also remarks, is by some
called aorta (ao£r?j), the firsttime, we observe, which thisepi-
thet occurs in the history. Both he represents to arise from
the heart, the larger from the largest upper cavity, the
smaller or aorta from the middle cavity, but in a different
manner, and forming a narrower canal. He also distin¬
guishes the thick, firm, and more tendinous structure of
the aorta from the thin and membranous structure of the
vein. In describing the distribution of the latter, how¬
ever, he confounds the vena cava and pulmonary artery,
and, as might be expected, he confounds the ramifica¬
tions of the former with those of the arterial tubes in ge¬
neral. While he represents the lung to be liberally sup¬
plied with blood, he describes the brain as an organ al¬
most destitute of this fluid. His account of the distribu¬
tion of the aorta is wonderfully correct. Though he does
not notice the cceliac, and remarks that the aorta sends
no direct branches to the liver and spleen, he had ob- History,
served the mesenteric, the renal, and the common iliac ar-^-^vv-
teries. It is nevertheless singular, that though he re¬
marks particularly that the renal branches of the aoi ta go
to the substance and not the pelvis (xoi’kict) of the kidney,
he appears to mistake the ureters for branches of the
aorta.
Of the nerves (vtugu) he appears to have the most con¬
fused notions. Making them arise from the heart, which
he says has nerves (tendons) in its largest cavity, he re¬
presents the aorta to be a nervous or tendinous vein
(vevguSqe <pXs£s)- By afterwards saying that all the articu¬
lated bones are connected by nerves, he makes them the
same as ligaments; while the character of divisibility in
the long direction identifies them rather with tendons;
and the assertion that no part destitute of them has sen¬
sation, makes them approach to the nervous chords of the
modern anatomists. He distinguishes suet, fat, and mar¬
row, from each other; and though he admits the spinal
chord to consist of the latter substance, he differs from
those authors who regard the brain of the same nature,
because while brain is cold, marrow is hot.
He distinguishes the windpipe or air-holder (a^rjjj/a)
from the oesophagus, because it is placed before the lat¬
ter, because food or drink passing into it causes distress¬
ing cough and suffocation, and because there is no passage
from the lung to the stomach. He knew the situation
and use of the epiglottis, seems to have had some indis¬
tinct notions of the larynx, represents the windpipe to be
necessary to convey air to and from the lungs, and appears
to have a tolerable understanding of the structure of the
lungs. He repeatedly represents the heart, the shape and
site of which he describes accurately, to be the origin of
the blood-vessels, in opposition to those who made them
descend from the head; yet, though he represents it as
full of blood, and the source and fountain of that fluid,
and even speaks of the blood flowing from the heart to
the veins,1 and thence to every part of the body,2 he says
nothing of the circular motion of the blood.
The diaphragm he distinguishes by the name 5/a^aa,
and With the liver and spleen, and the whole ali¬
mentary canal, he seemswell acquainted. The several parts
of the quadruple stomach of the ruminating animals are
distinguished and named ; and he even traces the relations
between the teeth and the several forms of stomach, and
the length or brevity, the simplicity or complication, of
the intestinal tube. Upon the same principle he dis¬
tinguishes the jejunum (i/ vtjtrr/i), or the empty portion of
the small intestines in animals (ro ivngov Xinrov), the ccecum
(rv<p\ov n xai oyzwcieg), the colon (ro xwXov), and the sigmoid
flexure (txrsvunpov xu/ t/X/y^mv). The modern epithet of
rectum is the literal translation of his description of the
straight progress (ivd'S) of the bowel to the anus (rrguxrog).
He knew the nasal cavities and the passage from the
tympanal cavity of the ear to the palate, afterwards de¬
scribed by Eustachius.
Next to Aristotle occur the names of Diodes of Carys- 354.
tus, and Praxagoras of Cos, the last of the family of the
Asclepiadae. The latter is remarkable for being the first 341.
who distinguished the arteries from the veins, and the
author of the opinion that the former were air-vessels.
Hitherto anatomical inquiry was confined to the exami¬
nation of the bodies of brute animals. We have, indeed,
* E* l^xtrtutra, us rai Aura, ,« r„; Ka^laf hXo,ral ™ <*,>«. (n^i Z^v lib. iii. Cap. iv. V.)
2wn<7TfleJteiv»y l t&iv fMgiwv sx rev uifiaros, xadetTio UToftiv, ivXoyea; n tuv (pxsfttuv putri; hcc wavros rov <ru/u.aTos •n’itpvxt. Ss/ y<zp XX1 vo uiptct S/a
a-avr.f *a/ vip' *«v urn,, utipjm iKcctro, ix rovTov «,*. £v r£ re; a/ ilpciyvytou wo puccS
**/ fnynt, US oroXXovs oXtrovs *cti aXXovs am ttbo; to noism /m-aSihnai. {Hid. lib. iii. Cap. V.)
ANATOM Y.
751
History, no testimony of the human body being submitted to ex-
-^v^v^amination previous to the time of Erasistratus and Hero-
philus; and it is vain to look for authentic facts on this point
before the foundation of the Ptolemaic dynasty of sove¬
reigns in Egypt. This event, which, as is generally known,
succeeded the death of Alexander, 320 years before the
Christian era, collected into one spot the scattered embers
of literature and science, which were beginning to lan¬
guish in Greece under a weak and distracted government,
and an unsettled state of society. The children of her
divided states, whom domestic discord and the uncer¬
tainties of war rendered unhappy at home, wandered into
Egypt, and found, under the fostering hand of the Alex¬
andrian monarchs, the means of cultivating the sciences,
and repaying with interest to the country of Thoth and
Osiris, the benefits which had been conferred on the in¬
fancy of Greece by Thales and Pythagoras. Alexandria
became in this manner the depository of all the learning
and knowledge of the civilized world; and while other
nations were sinking under the effects of internal animo¬
sities and mutual dissensions, or ravaging the earth with the
evils of war, the Egyptian Greeks kept alive the sacred
flame of science, and preserved mankind from relapsing
into their original barbarism.
These happy effects are to be ascribed in an eminent
degree to the enlightened government and liberal opinions
285. of Ptolemy Soter, and his immediate successors Philadel-
phus and Euergetes. The two latter princes, whose au¬
thority was equalled only by the zeal with which they pa¬
tronised science and their professors, were the first who
enabled physicians to dissect the human body, and pre¬
vented the prejudices of ignorance and superstition from
compromising the welfare of the human race. To this
happy circumstance Herophilus and Erasistratus are in¬
debted for the distinction of being known to posterity as
the first anatomists who dissected and described the parts
of the human body. Both of these physicians flourished
under Ptolemy Soter, and probably Ptolemy Philadelphus,
and were indeed the principal supports of what has been
named in medical history the Alexandrian School, to
which their reputation seems to have attracted numerous
pupils.
But though the concurrent testimony of antiquity assigns
to these physicians the merit of dissecting the human
body, time, which wages endless war with the vanity and
ambition of man, has dealt hardly with the monuments of
their labours. As the works of neither have been pre¬
served, great uncertainty prevails as to the respective
merits of these ancient anatomists; and all that is now
known of their anatomical researches is obtained from the
occasional notices of Galen, Oribasius, and some other wri-
804. ters. From these it appears that Erasistratus recognised
the valves of the'heart, and distinguished them by the
names of tricuspid and sigmoid; that he studied particu¬
larly the shape and structure of the brain, and its divi¬
sions, and cavities, and membranes, and likened the con¬
volutions to the folds of the jejunum; that he first form¬
ed a distinct idea of the nature of the nerves, which he
made issue from the brain ; and that he discovered lympha¬
tic vessels in the mesentery, first in brute animals, and
afterwards, it is said, in man. It is not uninteresting to
observe, that he appears to have distinguished the nerves
into those of sensation and those of motion.
Of Herophilus it is said that he had extensive anatomi¬
cal knowledge, acquired by dissecting, not only brutes, but
human bodies. Of these he probably dissected more than
any of his predecessors or contemporaries. But it is History,
almost superfluous to remind the classical reader, that thev'-^v“x‘-y
passage of Tertullian, in which he is said to have dissect¬
ed 600 corpses, is not to be understood literally, and
means only that he had dissected many; and that this
language is employed by an author who speaks of him in
terms of execration, and who evidently exaggerates in
order to prejudice the reader against the anatomist. De¬
voted to the assiduous cultivation of anatomy, he appears
to have studied with particular attention those parts which
were least understood. He recognised the nature of the
pulmonary artery, which he denominates arterious vein ;
he knew the vessels of the mesentery, and showed that
they did not go to the vena portce, but to certain glandu¬
lar bodies; and he first applied the name of twelve-inch
or duodenum (SwSsxaSaxryXof) to that part of the alimen¬
tary canal which is next to the stomach. Like Erasis-
tratus, he appears to have studied carefully the configura¬
tion of the brain; and we learn from Galen that he first
compared the linear furrow at the bottom of the fourth
ventricle to the cavity of a writing pen; and though like
him he distinguishes the nerves into those of sensation
and those of voluntary motion, he adds to them the liga¬
ments and tendons. A tolerable description of the liver
by this anatomist is preserved in the writings of Galen.1
He first applied the name of choroid or vascular mem¬
brane to that which is found in the cerebral ventricles;
he knew the fourth or straight sinus, which still bears
his name; he described the posterior end of the vault or
fornix as the principal seat of the sensations; and to him
the linear furrow at the bottom of the fourth ventricle is
indebted for its name of calamus scriptorius.
The celebrity of these two great anatomists appears to
have thrown into the shade, for a long period, the names
of all other inquirers; for among their numerous and
rather celebrated successors in the Alexandrian school, it
is impossible to recognise a name which is entitled to dis¬
tinction in the history of anatomy. In a chasm so wide
it is not uninteresting to find, in one who combined the cha¬
racter of the greatest orator and philosopher of antiquity,
the most distinct traces of attention to anatomical know¬
ledge. Cicero, in his treatise De Natura Deorum, in a 44.
short sketch of physiology, such as it was taught by Aris¬
totle and his disciples, introduces various anatomical
notices, from which the classical reader may form some
idea of the state of anatomy at that time. The Roman
orator appears to have formed a pretty distinct idea of
the shape and connections of the windpipe and lungs;
and though he informs his readers that he knows the ali¬
mentary canal, he omits the details through motives of
delicacy. In imitation of Aristotle, he talks of the blood
being conveyed by the veins (yence), that is, blood-vessels,
through the body at large; and, like Praxagoras, of the air
inhaled by the lungs being conveyed through the arteries.
Aretseus, though chiefly known as a medical author,
makes some observations on the lung and the pleura,
maintains the glandular structure of the kidney, and de¬
scribes the anastomosis or communications of the capil¬
lary extremities of the vena cava with those of the portal
vein.
The most valuable depository of the anatomical know-A. D. 3-5.
ledge of these times is the work of Celsus, one of the
most judicious medical authors of antiquity. He left, in¬
deed, no express anatomical treatise ; but from the intro¬
ductions to his 4th and 8th books, De Medicina, with
incidental remarks in his 7th, the modern reader may
1 Uto, kvaTOfttzav Ey^u^inuy, lib. vi.
752
History.
54-81.
ANATOMY.
form very just ideas of the anatomical attainments of the
Roman physician. From these it appears that Celsus was
well acquainted with the windpipe and lungs, and the
heart; with the difference between the windpipe and
(esophagus (^stomachus), which leads to the stomach (yen-
triculus); and with the shape, situation, and relations or
the diaphragm. He enumerates also with accuracy the
principal facts relating to the situation of the liver, the
spleen, and the kidneys. His description of the situation
and connections of the stomach is interesting. He ap¬
pears, however, to have been unaware of the distinction
of duodenum or twelve-inch bowel, already admitted by
Herophilus, and represents the stomach as directly con¬
nected by means of the pylorus with the jejunum or up¬
per part of the small intestine. His account of the rest
of the alimentary canal, though brief and cursory, is ac¬
curate ; and his subsequent descriptions of diseases seat¬
ed in these parts show that he had formed ideas, upon the
whole very just, of the relative positions of these parts.
The 7th and 8th books, which are devoted to the con¬
sideration of those diseases which are treated by manual
operation, contain sundry anatomical notices necessary to
explain the nature of the diseases, or mode of treatment.
Of these, indeed, the merit is unequal; and it is not won¬
derful that the ignorance of the day prevented Celsus
from understanding rightly the mechanism of the patho¬
logy of hernia. He appears, however, to have formed a
tolerably just idea of the mode of cutting into the urinary
bladder; and even his obstetrical instructions show that
his knowledge of the uterus, vagina, and appendages was
not contemptible. It is in osteology, however, that the
information of Celsus is chiefly conspicuous. He enume¬
rates the sutures and several of the holes of the cranium,
and describes at great length the superior and inferior
maxillary bones and the teeth. With a good deal of
care he describes the vertebrae and the ribs, and gives
very briefly the situation and shape of the scapula, hume¬
rus, radius, and ulna, and even the carpal and metacarpal
bones, and then of the different bones of the pelvis and
lower extremities. He had formed a just idea of the ar¬
ticular connections, and is desirous to impress the fact,
that none is formed without cartilage. From his mention
of many minute holes (multa et tenuia foramina), in the re¬
cess of the nasal cavities, it is evident that he was ac¬
quainted with the perforated plate of the ethmoid bone;
and from saying that the straight part of the auditory canal
becomes flexuous, and terminates in numerous minute ca¬
vities (multa et tenuia foramina diducitur), it is inferred
by Portal that he knew the semicircular canals.
Though the writings of Celsus show that he cultivated
anatomical knowledge, it does not appear that the science
was much studied by the Romans; and there is reason to
believe, that after the decay of the school of Alexandria
it languished in neglect and obscurity. It is at least cer¬
tain that the appearance of Marinus during the reign of
Nero is mentioned by authors as an era remarkable for
anatomical inquiry, and that this person is distinguished by
Galen as the restorer of a branch of knowledge which had
been before him suffered to fall into undeserved neglect.
From Galen also we learn that he gave an accurate ac¬
count of the muscles, that he studied particularly the glands,
that he discovered those of the mesentery, and that he
improved much the anatomical history of the nerves. The
number of the latter he fixed at seven ; he observed the
palatine nerves, which he rated as the fourth pair; and
described as the fifth the auditory and facial, which he
regards as one pair; and the hypoglossal as the sixth.
Not long after Marinus, appeared Ruffus of Ephesus, a
Greek physician, who in the reign of Trajan was much at¬
tached to physiology, and as a means of cultivating this History,
science studied Comparative Anatomy, and made sundry
experiments on living animals. Of the anatomical writ¬
ings of this author, there remains only a list or catalogue
of names of different regions and parts of the animal body.
He appears, however, to have directed the attention par¬
ticularly to the tortuous course of the uterine vessels, and
to have recognised even at this early period the Fallopian
tube. He distinguishes the nerves into those of sensation
and those of motion. He knew the recurrent nerve.
His name is further associated with the ancient experi¬
ment of compressing in the situation of the carotid arteries
the pneumogastric nerve, and thereby inducing insensibi¬
lity and loss of voice.
Of all the authors of antiquity, however, none possesses
so just a claim to the title of anatomist as Claudius Ga-
lenus, the celebrated physician of Pergamus. This person,
who was born about the 131st year of the Christian era,
and lived under the reigns of Trajan, Antoninus, Commo-
dus, and iElius, was trained by his father Nicon, whose
memory he embalms as an eminent mathematician, archi¬
tect, and astronomer, to all the learning of the day, and
initiated particularly into the mysteries of the Aristote¬
lian philosophy. In an order somewhat whimsical he after¬
wards studied philosophy successively in the schools of the
Stoics, the Academics, the Peripatetics, and the Epicu¬
reans. While at the age of 17, his father, he informs us,
was admonished by a dream to devote his son to the study
of medicine; but it was fully two years after, that Galen
entered on this pursuit, under the auspices of an instructor,
whose name he has thought proper to conceal. Shortly after,
he betook himself to the study of anatomy under Satyrus,
a pupil of Quintus, and of medicine under Stratonicus, a
Hippocratic physician, and iEschrion, an empiric. He had
scarcely attained the age of 20, when he had occasion to
deplore the loss of the first and most affectionate guide of
his studies ; and soon after he proceeded to Smyrna to ob¬
tain the anatomical instructions of Pelops, who, though
mystified by some of the errors of Hippocrates, is com¬
memorated by his pupil as a skilful anatomist. After
this he appears to have visited various cities, distinguish¬
ed for philosophical or medical teachers; and, finally, to
have gone to Alexandria with the view of cultivating
more accurately and intimately the study of anatomy
under Heraclianus. Here he remained till his 28th year,
when he regarded himself as possessed of all the knowledge
then attainable through the medium of teachers. He
now returned to Pergamus, to exercise the art which he
had so anxiously studied, and received, in his 29th year, an
unequivocal testimony of the confidence which his fellow-
citizens reposed in his skill, by being intrusted with the
treatment of the wounded gladiators; and in this capacity
he is said to have treated with success several wounds which
used to be fatal. A seditious tumult appears to have
caused him to form the resolution of quitting Pergamus
and proceeding to Rome, at the age of 32. Here,
however, he remained only five years; and returning
once more to Pergamus, after travelling for some time,
finally settled in Rome as physician to the emperor Corn-
modus.
The anatomical writings ascribed to Galen, which are
numerous, are to be viewed not merely as the result of
personal research and information, but as the common
depository of the anatomical knowledge of the day, and as
combining all that he had learnt from the several teachers
under whom he successively studied, with whatever per¬
sonal investigation enabled him to acquire. It is on this
account not always easy to distinguish what Galen had
himself ascertained by personal research, from that which
A N A 1
History, was known by other anatomists. Tins, however, though
of moment to the history of Galen as an anatomist, is of
little consequence to the science itself; and, from the ana¬
tomical remains of this author, a pretty just idea may be
formed, both of the progress and of the actual state of the
science at that time.
The osteology of Galen is undoubtedly the most per¬
fect of the departments of the anatomy of the ancients.
He names and distinguishes the bones and sutures of the
cranium nearly in the same manner as at present. Thus
he notices the quadrilateral shape of the parietal bones ; he
distinguishes the squamous, the styloid, and the mastoid
portions, and the lithoid or petrous portions of the tem¬
poral bones; and he remarks the peculiar situation and
shape of the wedge-like or sphenoid bone. Of the eth¬
moid, which he omits at first, he afterwards speaks more
at large in another treatise. The malar he notices under
the name of zygomatic bone; and he describes at length
the upper maxillary and nasal bones, and the connection
of the former with the sphenoid. He gives the first
clear account of the number and situation of the verte¬
brae, which he divides into cervical, dorsal, and lumbar, and
distinguishes from the sacrum and coccyx. Under the
head Bones of the Thorax, he enumerates the sternum,
the ribs (a/ tr'kvjgoti'), and the dorsal vertebrae, the connec¬
tion of which with the former he designates as a variety
of diarthrosis. The description of the bones of the ex¬
tremities and their articulations concludes the treatise.
Though in myology Galen appears to less advantage
than in osteology, he nevertheless had carried this part
of anatomical knowledge to greater perfection than any of
his predecessors. He describes a frontal muscle, the six
muscles of the eye, and a seventh proper to animals; a
muscle to each ala nasi, four muscles of the lips, the thin
cutaneous muscle of the neck, which he first termed jo/a-
tysma rnyoides, or muscular expansion, two muscles of the
eyelids, and four pairs of muscles of the lower jaw, the tem¬
poral to raise, the masseter to draw to one side, and two
depressors, corresponding to the digastric and internal
pterygoid muscles. After speaking of the muscles which
move the head and the scapula, he adverts to those by
which the windpipe is opened and shut, and the intrinsic
or proper muscles of the larynx and hyoid bone. Then
follow those of the tongue, pharynx, and neck, those of the
upper extremities, the trunk, and the lower extremities
successively; and in the course of this description he
swerves so little from the actual facts, that most of the
names by which he distinguishes the principal muscles
have been retained by the best modern anatomists. It is
chiefly in the minute account of these organs, and espe¬
cially in reference to the minuter muscles, that he appears
inferior to the moderns.
The angiological knowledge of Galen, though vitiated
by the erroneous physiology of the times, and ignorance
of the separate uses of the arteries and veins, exhibits,
nevertheless, some accurate facts which show the dili¬
gence of the author in dissection. Though, in opposi¬
tion to the opinions of Praxagoras and Erasistratus, he
proved that the arteries in the living animal contain not
air, but blood, it does not appear to have occurred to
him to determine in what direction the blood flows, or
whether it was movable or stationary.1 Representing the
left ventricle of the heart as the common origin of all the
arteries, though he is misled by the pulmonary artery, he
nevertheless traces the distribution of the branches of the
' O M Y. 753
aorta with some accuracy. The vena azygos also, and the History,
jugular veins, have contributed to add to the confusion of^^*Y'"wy
his description, and to render his angiology the most im¬
perfect of his works.
In neurology we find him to be the author of the dog¬
ma, that the brain is the origin of the nerves of sensation,
and the spinal chord of those of motion; and he distin¬
guishes the former from the latter by their greater softness
or less consistence. Though he admits only seven cerebral
pairs, he has the merit of distinguishing and tracing the
distribution of the greater part of both classes of nerves
with great accuracy.
His description of the brain, though derived from dis¬
section of the lower animals, is accurate; and his distinc¬
tions of the several parts of the organ have been retained
by modern anatomists. His mode of demonstrating this
organ, which indeed is clearly described, consists of five
different steps. In the first the bisecting membrane, i. e.
the falx br/proyovisci), and the connecting blood¬
vessels are removed; and the dissector, commencing at
the anterior extremity of the great fissure, separates the
hemispheres gently as far as the torcular, and exposes a
smooth surface (rjji' ruXudr; vug outrun'), the mesolobe
of the moderns, or the middle band. In the second he
exposes by successive sections the ventricles, the choroid
plexus, and the middle partition. The third exhibits the
conoid body (<rw/xa xuvosibsg) or conarium, concealed by a
membrane with numerous veins, meaning that part of the
plexus which is now known by the name of velum interpo-
situm, and a complete view of the ventricles. The fourth
unfolds the third ventricle (rig aWr, r^irri xoiXia), the com¬
munication between the two latter ones, the psalloid or
arch-like body (tsuya ^at.idosibsg) fornix, and the passage
from the third to the fourth ventricle. In the fifth he gives
an accurate description of the relations of the third and
fourth ventricle, of the situation of the two pairs of emi¬
nences, nates (yXoura) and testes (diduyiu vel the
scolecoid or worm-like process, anterior and posterior,
the tendons or processes, and lastly the linear furrow,
called by Herophilus calamus scriptorius.2 He appears
not to have known the inferior recesses. Morgagni how¬
ever concludes, from a passage of the 7th book vigi Aoyyu-
ruv, that he did; but after accurately examining this and
others of his anatomical writings, I cannot see any good
reason for admitting the inference.
In the account of the thoracic organs equal accuracy may
be recognised. He distinguishes the pleura by the name of
inclosing membrane (vyriv umfyr.oig, membrana succingens),
ami remarks its similitude in structure to that of the perito¬
neum, and the covering which it affords to all the organs.3
The pericardium also he describes as a membranous sac
with a circular basis corresponding to the base of the
heart, and a conical apex; and after an account of the
tunics of the arteries and veins, he speaks shortly of the
lung, and more at length of the heart, which, however, he
takes some pains to prove not to be muscular, because it
is harder, its fibres are differently arranged, and its action
is incessant, whereas that of muscle alternates with the
state of rest. In the particular description of the parts
of the organ he ascribes to the auricles a more cu-
ticular structure than to the other parts; he gives a good
account of the valves and of the vessels ; and notices
especially the bony ring formed in the heart of the horse,
elephant, and other large animals. -
The description of the abdominal organs, and of the
* IIsj/ A.vxreptlx-wv lib. Vll. 2 Higi Avarofiiicuv lib. ix.
3 A/.X' o ovtu( vvorunrat vaai rets tvhov <rov Su^axot ogyavoi;, ei; o iXi%Qn, xcu rois xa.ru ruv <pati/av. Ibid.
VOL. II. 5 c
X
754 ANATOMY.
History, kidneys and urinary apparatus, is still more minute, and
in general very accurate. Our limits, however, do not
permit us to give any abstract of them ; and it is sufficient
in general to say, that Galen gives correct views of the
structure and distribution of the peritoneum and omentum,
and distinguishes accurately the several divisions of the
alimentary canal, and the internal structure of its com¬
ponent tissues. In the liver, which he allows to receive
an envelope from the peritoneum, he admits, in imitation
of Krasistratus, a proper substance or parenchyma, inter¬
posed between the vessels, and capable of removal by suit¬
able dissection.
His description of the organs of generation is rather
brief, and is, like most of his anatomical sketches, too much
blended with physiological dogmas.
This short sketch may communicate some idea of
the condition of anatomical knowledge in the days of
Galen, who indeed is justly entitled to the character
of rectifying and digesting, if not of creating, the sci¬
ence of anatomy among the ancients. Though evi¬
dently confined, perhaps entirely, by the circumstances
of the times, to the dissection of brute animals, so inde¬
fatigable and judicious was he in the mode of acquiring
knowledge, that many of his names and distinctions are
still retained with advantage in the writings of the mo¬
derns. Galen was a practical anatomist, and not only
describes the organs of the animal body from actual dis¬
section, but gives ample instructions for the proper mode
of exposition. His language is in general clear, his style
as correct as in most of the authors of the same period,
and his manner is animated. It is indeed impossible to
imagine any thing so interesting as the description of the
process for demonstrating the brain and other internal
organs, which is given by this patient and enthusiastic ob¬
server of nature. To some it may appear absurd to speak
of any thing like good anatomical description in an author
who writes in the Greek language, or any thing like an
interesting and correct manner in a writer who flourished
at a period when taste was depraved or extinct, and lite¬
rature corrupted,—when the philosophy of Antoninus,
and the mild virtues of Aurelius, could do little to soften
the iron sway of Lucius Verus and Commodus; but the
habit of faithful observation in Galen seems to have been
so powerful, that, in the description of material objects,
his genius invariably rises above the circumstances of his
age. Though not so directly connected with this subject,
it is nevertheless proper to mention, that he appears to
have been the first anatomist who can be said, on authen¬
tic grounds, to have attempted to discover the uses of
organs by vivisection and experiments on living animals.
In this manner he ascertained the position and demon¬
strated the action of the heart; and he mentions two
instances in which, in consequence of disease or injury,
he had an opportunity of observing the motions of this
organ in the human body.1 In short, without eulogizing
an ancient author at the expense of critical justice, or
commending his anatomical descriptions as superior to
those of the moderns, it must be admitted that the ana¬
tomical writings ot the physician of Pergamus form a re¬
markable era in the history of the science; and that by
diligence in dissection, and accuracy in description, he gave
the science a degree of importance and stability which
it has retained through the lapse of many centuries.
The death of Galen, which took place at Pergamus in
the 90th year of his age, and the 193d of the Christian
era, may be regarded as the downfall of anatomy in an¬
cient times. After this period we recognise only two History,
names of any celebrity in the history of the science,—
those of Soranus and Oribasius, with the more obscure
ones of Meletius and Theophilus, the latter the chief of
the imperial guard of Heraclius.
Soranus, who was an Ephesian, and flourished under
the emperors Trajan and Hadrian, distinguished himself
by his researches on the female organs of generation.
He appears to have dissected the human subject; and
this perhaps is one reason why his descriptions of these
parts are more copious and more accurate than those of
Galen, who derived his knowledge from the bodies of the
lower animals. He denies the existence of the hymen,
but describes accurately the clitoris. Soranus the ana¬
tomist must be distinguished from the physician of that
name, who was also a native of Ephesus.
Oribasius, who was born at Pergamus, is said to have
been at once the friend and physician of the emperor
Julian, and to have contributed to the elevation of that 361-363.
apostate to the imperial throne. For this he appears to
have suffered the punishment of a temporary exile under
Valens and Valentinian; but was soon recalled, and lived
in great honour till the period of his death. By Le Clerc, 387.
Oribasius is regarded as a compiler; and indeed his ana¬
tomical writings bear so close a correspondence with those
of Galen, that the character is not altogether groundless.
In various points, nevertheless, he has rendered the Ga-
lenian anatomy more accurate; and he has distinguished
himself by a good account of the salivary glands, which
were overlooked by Galen.
To the same period generally is referred the anatomi¬
cal introduction of an anonymous author, first published
in 1618 by Lauremberg, and more recently by Bernard.
It is to be regarded as a compilation formed on the mo¬
del of Galen and Oribasius. The same character is ap¬
plicable to the treatises of Meletius and Theophilus.
The decline indicated by these languid efforts soon
sunk into a state of total inactivity; and the unsettled
state of society during the latter ages of the Roman em¬
pire became extremely unfavourable to the successful
cultivation of science. The sanguinary conflicts in which
the southern countries of Europe were repeatedly en¬
gaged with their northern neighbours, between the second
and eighth centuries, tended gradually to estrange their
minds from scientific pursuits; and the hordes of barba¬
rians by which the Roman empire was latterly overrun,
while they urged them to the necessity of making hostile
resistance, and adopting means of self-defence, introduced
such habits of ignorance and barbarism, that science was
almost universally forgotten; and the art most essential
to the success of military operations was either neglected
or debased by the grossest ignorance. While the art of
healing was professed only by some few ecclesiastics, or
by itinerant practitioners, anatomy was utterly neglected ;
and no name of anatomical celebrity occurs to diversify
the long and uninteresting period commonly distinguished
as the middle ages.
Anatomical learning, thus neglected by European na¬
tions, is believed to have received a temporary cultiva¬
tion from the Asiatics. Of these, several nomadic tribes,
known to Europeans under the general denomination of
Arabs and Saracens, had gradually coalesced under va¬
rious leaders ; and by their habits of endurance, as well as
of enthusiastic valour, in successive expeditions against the
eastern division of the Roman empire, had acquired such
military reputation, as' to render them formidable where-
1 llig/ AvaT5,u/«fc/y lib. vii.
ANATOMY.
755
History, ever they appeared. After a century and a half of fo-
reign warfare or internal animosity, under the successive
dynasties of the Ommiades and Abassides, in which the
propagation of Islamism was the pretext for the extinc¬
tion of learning and civilisation, and the most remorseless
system of rapine and destruction, the Saracens began,
under the latter dynasty of princes, to recognise the va¬
lue of science, and especially of that which prolongs life,
heals disease, and alleviates the pain of wounds and inju¬
ries. The caliph Almansor combined with his official
knowledge of Moslem law, the successful cultivation of
astronomy; but to his grandson Almamon, the seventh
prince of the line of the Abassides, belongs the merit of
undertaking to render his subjects philosophers and phy¬
sicians. By the directions of this prince, the works of
the Greek and Roman authors were translated into Arabic ;
and the favour and munificence with which literature and its
professors were patronised, speedily raised a succession
of learned Arabians. The residue of the rival ^family
of the Ommiades, already settled in Spain, was prompted
by motives of rivalry or honourable ambition to adopt the
same course ; and while the academy, hospitals, and li¬
brary of Bagdad bore testimony to the zeal and liberality
of the Abassides, the munificence of the Ommiades was
not less conspicuous in the literary institutions of Cordova,
Seville, and Toledo.
Notwithstanding the efforts of the Arabian princes,
however, and the diligence of the Arabian physicians,
little was done for anatomy, and the science made no
substantial acquisition. The Koran denounces as un¬
clean the person who touches a corpse; the rules of Is¬
lamism forbid dissection; and whatever their instructors
taught was borrowed from the Greeks. Abu Bekr Al-
Rasi, Abu-Ali Ibn-Sina, Abul-Casem, and Abu-Walid
Ibn-Roschd, the Razes, Avicenna, Albucasis, and Aver-
hocs of European authors, are their most celebrated
names in medicine; yet to none of these can the histo¬
rian with justice ascribe any anatomical merit. Al-Rasi
has indeed left descriptions of the eye, of the ear and
its meatus, and of the heart; and Ibn-Sina, Abul-Casem,
and Ebn-Roschd, give anatomical descriptions of the parts
of the human body. But of these the general character
is, that they are copies from Galen, sometimes not very
just, and in all instances mystified with a large proportion
of the fanciful and absurd imagery and inflated style of
the Arabian writers. The chief reason of their obtaining
a place in anatomical history is, that, by the influence
which their medical authority enabled them to exercise
in the European schools, the nomenclature which they
employed was adopted by European anatomists, and con¬
tinued till the revival of ancient learning restored the ori¬
ginal nomenclature of the Greek physicians. Thus, the
cervix, or nape of the neck, is nucha ; the oesophagus is
meri; the umbilical region is samcn, or sumac; the ab¬
domen is myrach; the peritoneum is siphac; and the
omentum, zirhus.
From the general character now given, justice requires
that we except Abdollatiph, the annalist of Egyptian
affairs. This author, who maintains that it is impossible
to learn anatomy from books, and that the authority of
Galen must yield to personal inspection, informs us, that
the Moslem doctors did not neglect opportunities of
studying the bones of the human body in cemeteries ; and
that he himself, by once examining a collection of bones
in this manner, ascertained that the lower jaw is formed
of one piece; that the sacrum, though sometimes com¬
posed of several, is most generally of one; and that
Galen is mistaken when he asserts that these bones are
not single.
The era of Saracen learning extends to the 13th cen- History,
tury; and after this we begin to approach happier times.
The university of Bologna, which, as a school of litera¬
ture and law, was already celebrated in the twelfth cen¬
tury, became, in the course of the following one, not
less distinguished for its medical teachers. Though the 1222-1224.
misgovernment of the municipal rulers of Bologna had
disgusted both teachers and students, and given rise to
the foundation of similar institutions in Padua and Naples,
—and though the school of Salerno, in the territory of
the latter, was still in high repute,— it appears, from the 1241-1271.
testimony of Sarti, that medicine was in the highest esteem
in Bologna, and that it was in such perfection as to re¬
quire a division of its professors into physicians, surgeons,
physicians for wounds, barber-sui’geons, oculists, and even
some others. Notwithstanding these indications of re¬
finement, however, anatomy was manifestly cultivated
rather as an appendage of surgery than a branch of
medical science ; and, according to the testimony of Guy
de Chauliac, the cultivation of anatomical knowledge was
confined to Roger, Roland, Jamerio, Bruno, and Lan-
franc; and this they borrowed chiefly from Galen. For
this and similar reasons, physicians were not in all in¬
stances respected by the best informed men of the age ;
and they fell, perhaps not altogether undeservedly, un¬
der the bitter lasb of the satirical Petrarch.
In this state matters appear to have proceeded with
the medical school of Bologna till the commencement of
the fourteenth century, when the circumstance of pos¬
sessing a teacher of originality enabled this university to
be the agent of as great an improvement in medical
science as she had already effected in jurisprudence.
This era, indeed, is distinguished for the appearance of
Mondino, under whose zealous cultivation the science
first began to rise from the ashes in which it had been
buried. This father of modern anatomy, who taught in
Bologna about the year 1315, quickly drew the curiosity
of the medical profession, by well-ordered demonstrations
of the different parts of the human body. In 1315 he
dissected and demonstrated the parts of the human body
in two female subjects; and in the course of the follow¬
ing year he accomplished the same task on the person of
a single female. But while he seems to have had suffi¬
cient original force of intellect to direct his own route,
Riolan accuses him of copying Galen; and it is certain
that his descriptions are corrupted by the barbarous
leaven of the Arabian schools, and his Latin defaced by
the exotic nomenclature of Ebn-Sina, and Abu-Bekr Al-
Rasi. He died, according to Tiraboschi, in 1325.
Mondino divides the body into three cavities (ventres),
the upper containing the animal members, as the head,
the lower containing the natural members, and the middle
containing the spiritual members. He first delivers the
anatomy of the lower cavity or the abdomen, then proceeds
to the middle or thoracic organs, and concludes with the
upper, comprising the head, and its contents and append¬
ages. His general manner is to notice shortly the situa¬
tion and shape or distribution of textures or membranes,
and then to mention the disorders to which they are
subject. The peritoneum he describes under the name
of siphac, in imitation of the Arabians, the omentum under
that of zirhus, and the mesentery or eucharus as distinct
from both. In speaking of the intestines, he treats first of
the rectum, then the colon, the left or sigmoid flexure
of which, as well as the transverse arch and its connec¬
tion with the stomach, he particularly remarks; then the
caecum or monoculm, after this the small intestines in
general under the heads of ileum and jejunum, and latter¬
ly the duodenum, making in all six bowels. The liver and
756
ANATOMY.
History.
1480.
1495.
1505.
14G3.
1512.
its vessels are minutely, if not accurately examined; and
the cava, under the name chilis, a corruption from the
Greek xoi'kri, is treated at length, with the emulgents and
kidneys. His anatomy of the heart is wonderfully accu¬
rate ; and it is a remarkable fact, which seems to be
omitted by all subsequent authors, that his^ description
contains the rudiments of the circulation of the blood.
“ Postea vero versus pulmonem est aliud orificium venae
arterialis, quae portal sanguinem ad pulmonem a corde ;
quia cum pulmo deserviat cordi secundum modum dic¬
tum ut ei recompenset, cor ei transmittit sanguinem per
hanc venam, quae vocatur vena arterialis, et vena quae
portat sanguinem, et arterialis, quia habet duas tunicas ;
et habet duas tunicas, primo quia vadit ad membrum
quod existit in continue motu, et secundo quia , portat
sanguinem valde subtilem et cholericum.” The merit
of these distinctions, however, he afterwards destroys,
by repeating the old assertion, that the left ventricle
ought to contain spirit or air, which it generates from the
blood.
His osteology of the scull is erroneous. In his account
of the cerebral membranes, though short, he notices the
principal characters of the dura mater. He describes
shortly the lateral ventricles, with their anterior and pos¬
terior cornua, and the choroid plexus as a blood-red sub¬
stance, like a long worm. He then speaks of the third or
middle ventricle, and one posterior, which seems to cor¬
respond with the fourth ; and describes the infundibulum
under the names of lacuna and emboton. The inferior re¬
cesses he appears to have omitted. In the base of the
organ he remarks, first, two mammillary caruncles, the ori¬
gins of the olfactory nerves, which, however, he overlooks ;
the optic nerves, which he reckons the first pair; the
oculo-muscular, which he accounts the second; the third,
which appears to be the sixth of the moderns; the fourth;
the fifth, evidently the seventh; a sixth, the nervus
vagus ; and a seventh, which is the ninth of the moderns.
Notwithstanding the misrepresentations into which this
early anatomist was betrayed, his book is valuable, and
has been illustrated by the successive commentaries of
Achillini, Berenger, and Dryander.
Matthew de Gradibus, a native of Gradi, a town in
Friuli, near Milan, distinguished himself by composing a
series of treatises on the anatomy of various parts of the
human body. He is the first who represents the ovaries
of the female in the correct light in which they were
subsequently regarded by Steno.
Similar objections to those already urged in speaking
of Mondino apply to another eminent anatomist of those
times. Gabriel de Zerbis, who flourished at Verona to¬
wards the conclusion of the 15th century, is celebrated as
the author of a system, in which he is obviously more
anxious to astonish his readers by the wonders of a ver¬
bose and complicated style, than to instruct by precise
and faithful description. In the vanity of his heart he
assumed the title of Medicus Theoricus ; but though like
Mondino he derived his information from the dissection
of the human subject, he is not entitled to the merit
either of describing truly or of adding to the knowledge
previously acquired. He is superior to Mondino, however,
in knowing the olfacient nerves.
Eminent in the history of the science, but more distin¬
guished than any of this age in the history of cerebral
anatomy, Alexander Achillini of Bologna, the pupil and
commentator of Mondino, appeared at the close of the
15th century. Though a follower of the Arabian school,
the assiduity with which he cultivated anatomy has res¬
cued his name from the inglorious obscurity in which the
Arabesque doctors have in general slumbered. He is
known in the history of anatomical discovery as the first History,
who described the two tympanal bones, termed malleus^-^^^
and incus. In 1503 he showed that the tarsus consists of
seven bones; he re-discovered the fornix and the infun¬
dibulum ; and he was fortunate enough to observe the
course of the cerebral cavities into the inferior cornua,
and to remark peculiarities to which the anatomists of a
future age did not advert. He mentions the orifices of
the ducts afterwards described by Wharton. He knew
the ileo-caecal valve; and his description of the duode¬
num, ileum, and colon, shows that he was better acquaint¬
ed with the site and disposition of these bowels than any
of his predecessors or contemporaries.
Not long after, the science boasts of one of its most l518*
distinguished founders. James Berenger of Carpi, in the
Modenese territory, flourished at Bologna at the begin¬
ning of the 16th century. In the annals of medicine his
name will be remembered not only as the most zealous
and eminent in cultivating the anatomy of the human
body, but as the first physician who was fortunate enough
to calm the alarms of Europe, suffering under the ravages
of syphilis, then raging with uncontrollable virulence. In
the former character he surpassed both predecessors and
contemporaries ; and it was long before the anatomists of
the following age could boast of equalling him. His as¬
siduity was indefatigable; and he declares that he dis¬
sected above 100 human bodies. He is the author of a
compendium, of several treatises which he names intro¬
ductions {Isagogoe), and of commentaries on the treatise
of Mondino. Like him, he is tinged with the mysticism
of the Arabian doctrines ; and though he employs the
Grecian nomenclature in general, he never forgets to give
the Arabian terms, and often uses them exclusively. In
his commentaries on Mondino, which constitute the most
perspicuous and complete of his works, he not only recti¬
fies the mistakes of that anatomist, but delivers minute
and in general accurate anatomical descriptions.
He is the first who undertakes a systematic view of
the several textures of which the human body is compos¬
ed ; and in a preliminary commentary he treats succes¬
sively of the anatomical characters and properties of fat,
of membrane in general (panniculus), of flesh, of nerve,
of villus or fibre (Jilum), of ligament, of sinew or tendon,
and of muscle in general. He then proceeds to describe
with considerable precision the muscles of the abdomen,
and illustrates their site and connections by wooden cuts,
which, though rude, are spirited, and show that anatomi¬
cal drawing was in that early age beginning to be under¬
stood. In his account of the peritoneum, he admits only
the intestinal division of that membrane, and is at some
pains to prove the error of Gentilis, who justly admits the
muscular division also. In his account of the intestines,
he is the first who mentions the vermiform process of the
caecum ; he remarks the yellow tint communicated to the
jejunum by the gall-bladder ; and he recognises the open¬
ing of the common biliary duct into the duodenum (qui-
dam porus portans choleram). In the account of the
stomach he describes the several tissues of which that
organ is composed, and which, after Almansor, he repre¬
sents to be three, and a fourth from the peritoneum; and
afterwards notices the rugee of its villous surface. He is at
considerable pains to explain the organs of generation in
both sexes, and gives a long account of the anatomy of
the foetus. He was the first who recognised the larger
proportional size of the chest in the male than in the fe¬
male, and conversely the greater capacity of the female
than of the male pelvis. In the larynx he discovered the
two arytenoid cartilages. He gives the first good de¬
scription of the thymus; distinguishes the oblique situa-
ANATOMY. 757
History, tion of the heart; describes the pericardium, and main- with the goods of fortune, Dubois betook himself to m'e‘
tains the uniform presence of pericardial liquor. He then dicine. After the acquisition of a medical degree in the
describes the cavities of the heart; but perplexes him- university of Montpellier, at the ripe age of fifty-one
self, as all the anatomists of that age, about the spirit Dubois returned to Paris to resume a couise of anatomi-
supposed to be contained. The aorta he properly makes cal instructions which had been interrupted by tie cano-
to arise from the left ventricle ; but confuses himself with nical interference of the medical faculty. Here he taught
the arteria venalis (pulmonary vein), and the vena ar- anatomy to a numerous audience in the college of L i in-
terialis, the pulmonary artery. His account of the brain quet; and, on the departure of Vidus Vidius for Italy,
is better. He gives a minute and clear account of the was appointed to succeed that physician as pro essoi o
ventricles, remarks the corpus striatum, and has the saga- surgery to the Royal College. His charactei is easi y es-
city to perceive that the choroid plexus consists of veins timated. With a greater portion of coarseness in his
and arteries; he then describes the middle or third ven- manners and language than even the rude state of so-
tricle, the infundibulum or lacuna of Mondino, and the ciety can palliate, with much varied learning and consider-
pituitary gland ; and, lastly, the passage to the fourth able eloquence, he was a blind, indiscriminate, and irra-
ventricle, the conarium or pineal gland, and the fourth tional admirer of Galen, and interpreted the anatomica
or posterior ventricle itself, the relations of which he and physiological writings of that author, in preference to
had studied accurately. He rectifies the mistake of Mon- giving demonstrations from the subject. Without talent
dino as to the olfactory or first pair of nerves, gives a good for original research or discovery himself, his envy an
account of the optic and others, and is entitled to the jealousy made him detest every one who gave proofs of
praise of originality in being the first observer who con- either. We are assured by Vesalius, who was some time
tradicts the fiction of the wonderful net, and indicates the his pupil, that his manner of teaching was calculated nei-
principal divisions of the carotid arteries. He enumerates ther to advance the science nor to rectify the mistakes of
the tunics and humours of the eye, and gives an account his predecessors. A human body was never seen in t e
of the internal ear, in which he notices the malleus and theatre of Dubois; the carcasses of dogs and other am-
incus. mals were ti16 materials from which he taught; and so
It had been written in the book of the destinies, that difficult even was it to obtain human bones, that unless
the science of anatomy was to be cultivated first in Italy ; Vesalius and his fellow-students had collected assiduous y
and that the country, already so illustrious in literature, from the Innocents and other cemeteries, they must have
should be honoured in giving birth to the first eminent committed numerous errors in acquiring the first princi-
anatomists in Europe. This distinction she long retained ; pies. This assertion, however, is contradicted by Riolan,
and the glory she acquired in the names of Mondino, and more recently by Sprengel and Lauth, the last of
Achillini, Carpi, and Massa, was destined to become more whom decidedly censures Vesalius for this ungrateful
conspicuous in the labours of Columbus, Fallopius, and treatment of his instructor. It is certain that opportum-
Eustachius. While Italy, however, was thus advancing ties of inspecting the human body were by no means so
the progress of science, the other nations of Europe were frequent as to facilitate the study of the science. I hough
either in profound ignorance or in the most supine indif- his mention of injections has made him be thought the
ference to the brilliant career of their zealous neighbours, discoverer of that art, he appears to have made no sub-
The sixteenth century had commenced before France be- stantial addition to the information already acquired ; and
gan to acquire any anatomical distinction in the names of the first acknowledged professor of anatomy to the um-
Dubois, Fernel, and Etienne; and even these celebrated versity of Paris appears in history as one who lived with-
teachers were less solicitous in the personal study of the out true honour, and died without just celebrity. He
animal body, than in the faithful explanation of the ana- must not be confounded with hranciscus Sylvius (De le
tomical writings of Galen. The infancy of the French Boe), who is mentioned by Ruysch and Malacarne as
school had to contend with other difficulties. The small the author of a particular method of demonstrating the
portion of knowledge which had been hitherto diffused in brain.
the country was so inadequate to eradicate the prejudices Almost coeval may be placed Charles Etienne, a younger I503-G4.
of ignorance, that it was either difficult or absolutely im- brother of the celebrated printers, and son to Henry, who
possible to procure human bodies for the purposes of Hellenized the family name by the classical appellation
science; and we are assured, on the testimony of Vesa- of Stephen; (Srspavo;). It is uncertain whether he
lius and other competent authorities, that the practical taught publicly. But his tranquillity was disturbed, and
part of anatomical instruction was obtained entirely from his pursuits interrupted, by the oppressive persecutions in
the bodies of the lower animals. The works of the Ita- which their religious opinions involved the family; and
lian anatomists were unknown ; and it is a proof of the Charles Etienne drew the last breath of a miserable life in
tardy communication of knowledge, that while the struc- a dungeon in 1564. Etienne, though sprung of a family
ture of the human body had been taught in Italy for more whose classical taste has been their principal glory, be-
than a century by Mondino and his followers, they are trays not the same servile imitation of the Galenian ana-
never mentioned by Etienne, who flourished long after. tomy with which Dubois is charged, and is the fiist ana-
Such was the aspect of the times at the appearance of tomical author who deviates from the beaten path. He ap-
Jacques Dubois, who, under the Romanized name of pears to have been the first to detect valves in the orifice
Jacobus Sylvius, according to the fashion of the day, has of the hepatic veins. He was ignorant, however, of the re-
been fortunate in acquiring a reputation to which his re- searches of the Italian anatomists ; and his description of
searches do not entitle him. For the name of James the brain is inferior to that given 60 years before by Achil-
Dubois, the history of anatomy, it is said, is indebted to lini. His comparison of the cerebral cavities to the hu-
his inordinate love of money. At the instance of his man ear has persuaded Portal that he knew the interior
brother Francis, who was professor of eloquence in the cornua, and hippocampus, and its prolongations ; but this
College of Tournay at Paris, he repaired to this university, is no reason for giving him that honour, to the detriment
and devoted himself to the study of the learned languages of the reputation of Achillini, to whom, so far as histori-
and mathematics ; but discovering that these elegant ac- cal testimony goes, the first knowledge of this fact is due.
complishments do not invariably reward their cultivators The researches of Etienne into the structure of the ner-
758
History.
1514.
anatomy.
vous system are, however, neither useless nor inglorious ;
and the circumstance of demonstrating a canal through
the entire length of the spinal chord, which had neither
been suspected by contemporaries nor noticed by succes¬
sors, till M. Senac made it known, is sufficient to place
him high among the class of anatomical discoverers.
The French anatomy of the sixteenth century was dis¬
tinguished by two circumstances unfavourable to the ad¬
vancement of the science,—extravagant admiration of an¬
tiquity, with excessive confidence in the writings of Galen,
and the general practice of dissecting principally the
bodies of the lower animals. Both of these errors were
much amended, if not entirely removed, by the exertions
of a young Fleming, whose appearance forms a conspicu¬
ous era in the history of cerebral anatomy. Andrew Ve-
salius, a native of Brussels, after acquiring at Louvain the
ordinary classical attainments of the day, began, at the
age of 14, to study anatomy under the auspices of Dubois.
Though the originality of his mind soon led him to aban¬
don the prejudices, by which he was environed, and take
the most direct course for attaining a knowledge of the
structure of the human frame ; yet he neither underrated
the Galenian anatomy, nor was he indolent in the dissec¬
tion of brute animals. The difficulties, however, with
which the practical pursuit of human anatomy was be¬
set in France, and the dangers with which he had to
contend, made him look to Italy as a suitable field for
the cultivation of the science; and in 1536 we find him
at Venice, at once pursuing the study of human ana¬
tomy with the utmost zeal, and requested, ere he had at¬
tained his 22d year, to demonstrate publicly in the uni¬
versity of Padua. After remaining here about seven
years, he went by express invitation to Bologna, and
shortly afterwards to Pisa; and Vesalius, thus professor
in three universities, appears to have carried on his ana¬
tomical investigations and instructions alternately at Pa¬
dua, Bologna, and Pisa, in the course of the same win¬
ter. It is on this account that Vesalius, though a Flem¬
ing by birth, and trained originally in the French school,
belongs, as an anatomist, to the Italian, and may be view¬
ed as the first of an illustrious line of teachers by whom
the anatomical reputation of that country was in the
course of the sixteenth century raised to the greatest
eminence.
Vesalius is known as the first author of a comprehen¬
sive and systematic view of human anatomy. The know¬
ledge with which his dissections had furnished him, proved
how many errors were daily taught and learned under the
broad mantle of Galenian authority; and he perceived
the necessity of a new system of anatomical instruction,
divested of the omissions of ignorance and the misrepre¬
sentations of prejudice and fancy. The early age at
which he effected this object has been to his biogra¬
phers the theme of boundless commendations ; and we are
told that he began at the age of 25 to arrange the mate¬
rials he had collected, and accomplished his task ere he
had completed his 28th year.
Soon after this period we find him invited as imperial
physician to the court of Charles V., where he was occu¬
pied in the duties of practice, and answering the various
charges which were unceasingly brought against him by
the Galenian disciples. After the abdication of Charles,
he continued at court in great favour with his son Philip
II. To this he seems to have been led principally by the
troublesome controversies in which his anatomical writ¬
ings had involved him. It is painful to think, however,
that even imperial patronage bestowed on eminent talents
does not insure immunity from popular prejudice; and
the fate of Vesalius will be a lasting example of the bar¬
1564.
barism of the times, and of the precarious tenure of the History,
safety even of a great physician. On the preliminary cir-v
cumstances authors are not agreed; but the most gene¬
ral account states, that when Vesalius was inspecting, with
the consent of his kinsmen, the body of a Spanish gran¬
dee, it was observed that the heart still gave some feeble
palpitations when divided by the knife. The immediate
effects of this outrage to human feeling were to denounce
the anatomist to the inquisition; and Vesalius escaped
the merciful dispensations of this tribunal only by the in¬
fluence of the king, and by promising to perform a pil¬
grimage to the Holy Land. He forthwith proceeded to
Venice, from which he sailed with the Venetian fleet, un¬
der James Malatesta, for Cyprus. When he reached Je¬
rusalem, he received from the Venetian senate a message
requesting him again to accept the Paduan professorship,
which had become vacant by the death of his friend and
pupil Fallopius. His destiny, however, which pursued
him fast, suffered him not again to breathe the Italian air.
After struggling for many days with adverse winds in the
Ionian Sea, he was wrecked on the island of Zante, where
he quickly breathed his last in such penury, that unless
a liberal goldsmith had defrayed the funeral charges, his
remains must have been devoured by beasts of prey. At
the time of his death he was scarcely 50 years of age.
To form a correct estimate of the character and merits
of Vesalius, we must not compare him, in the spirit of mo¬
dern perfection, with the anatomical authors either of
later times or of the present day. Whoever wmuld frame
a just idea of this anatomist, must imagine himself living
in the days of Charles V., when learning did not uniform¬
ly liberalize,—when the rekindling light of ancient times
shone on nothing but its owm glories,—when education
consisted in the knowledge of ancient opinions, and the au¬
thority of Grecian and Roman names usurped in the tem¬
ple of science the legitimate worship of nature. He
must imagine, not a bold innovator without academical
learning,—not a genius coming from a foreign country,
unused to the forms and habits of Catholic Europe,—nor
a wild reformer, blaming indiscriminately every thing
which accorded not with his opinions;—but a young stu¬
dent scarcely emancipated from the authority of instruc¬
tors, and whose intellect was still influenced by the doctrines
with which it had been originally imbued,—an individual
strictly trained in the opinions of the time, living amidst
men who venerated Galen as the oracle of anatomy and
the divinity of medicine,—exercising his reason to esti¬
mate the soundness of the instructions then in use, and
proceeding, in the way least likely to offend authority and
wound prejudice, to rectify errors, and to establish on the
solid basis of observation the true elements of anatomical
science. Vesalius has been denominated the founder of
human anatomy; and though we have seen that in this
career he was preceded with honour by Mondino and Be-
renger, still the small proportion of correct observation
which their reverence for Galen and Arabesque doctrines
allowed them to communicate, will not in a material de¬
gree impair the original merits of Vesalius. The errors
which he rectified, and the additions which he made, are
so numerous, that it is impossible, in such a sketch as the
present, to communicate a just idea of them.
Besides the first good description of the sphenoid bone,
he showed that the sternum consists of three portions,
and the sacrum of five or six; and described accurately
the vestibule in the interior of the temporal bone. He
not only verified the observation of Etienne on the valves
of the hepatic veins, but he described well the vena azy¬
gos, and discovered the canal which passes in the foetus
between the umbilical vein and the vena cava, since nam-
A N A T
History, ed ductus venosus. He described the omentum, and its
connections with the stomach, the spleen, and the colon;
gave the first correct views of the structure of the pylo¬
rus ; remarked the small size of the caecal appendix in
man ; gave the first good account of the mediastinum and
pleura, and the fullest description of the anatomy of the
brain yet advanced. He appears, however, not to have
understood well the inferior recesses ; and his account of
the nerves is confused by regarding the optic as the first
pair, the third as the fifth, and the fifth as the seventh.
The labours of Vesalius were not limited to the imme¬
diate effect produced by his own writings. His instruc¬
tions and example produced a multitude of anatomical
inquirers of different characters and varied celebrity, but
by whom the science was extended and rectified. Of
these it belongs not to this place to speak in detail; but
historical justice requires us to notice shortly those towhose
exertions the science of anatomy has been most indebted.
1495 or The first that claims attention on this account is Bar-
1500. tholomeo Eustachi of San Severino, near Salerno, who
though greatly less fortunate in reputation than Vesalius,
divides with him the merit of creating the science of
human anatomy. He extended the knowledge of the in¬
ternal ear, by re-discovering and describing correctly the
tube which bears his name; and if we admit that Ingras-
sias anticipated him in the knowledge of the third bone
of the tympanal cavity, the stapes, he is still the first who
described the internal and anterior muscles of the malleus,
as also the stapedius, and the complicated figure of the
cochlea. He is the first who studied accurately the ana¬
tomy of the teeth, and the phenomena of the first and
second dentition. The work, however, which demon¬
strates at once the great merit and the unhappy fate of
Eustachius, is his Anatomical Engravings, which, though
completed in 1552, nine years after the impression of
the work of Vesalius, the author was unable to publish.
First communicated to the world in 1714 by Lancisi, af¬
terwards in 1740 by Cajetan Petrioli, again in 1744 by
Albinus, and more recently at Bonn, in 1790, they show
that Eustachius had dissected with the greatest care and
diligence, and taken the utmost pains to give just views of
the shape, size, and relative position of the organs of the
human body.
The first seven plates illustrate the history of the kid¬
neys, and some of the facts relating to the structure of
the ear. The eighth represents the heart, the ramifica¬
tions of the vena azygos, and the valve of the vena cava,
named from the author. In the seven subsequent plates
is given a succession of different views of the viscera of
the chest and abdomen. The seventeenth contains the
brain and spinal chord; and the eighteenth more accurate
views of the origin, course, and distribution of the nerves
than were then given. Fourteen plates are devoted to the
muscles.
Eustachius did not confine his researches to the study
of relative anatomy. He investigated the intimate struc¬
ture of organs with assiduity and success. What was too
minute for unassisted vision he inspected by means pf
glasses. Structure, which could not be understood in the
recent state, he unfolded by maceration in different fluids,
or rendered more distinct by injection and exsiccation.
The facts unfolded in these figures are so important, that
it is justly remarked by Lauth, that if the author himself
had been fortunate enough to publish them, anatomy
would have attained the perfection of the 18th century
two centuries earlier at least. Their seclusion for that
period in the papal library has given celebrity to many
names, which would have been known only in the verifi¬
cation of the discoveries of Eustachius.
O M Y. 759
Eustachius was the contemporary of Vesalius. Colum- History,
bus and Fallopius were his pupils. The former, as his'^^'p^'
immediate successor in Padua, and afterwards as profes- 1523-
sor at Rome, distinguished himself by rectifying and im¬
proving the anatomy of the bones ; by giving correct ac¬
counts of the shape and cavities of the heart, of the pul¬
monary artery and aorta, and their valves, and tracing the
course of the blood from the right to the left side of the
heart; by a good description of the brain and its vessels,
and by correct understanding of the internal ear, and the
first good account of the ventricles of the larynx.
The latter, who after being professor at Pisa in 1548, and
at Padua in 1551, died at the age of 4Q, studied the general
anatomy of the bones; described better than heretofore
the internal ear, especially the tympanum and its osseous
ring, the two fenestrce, and their communication with the
vestibule and cochlea; and gave the first good account of
the stylo-mastoid hole and canal, of the ethmoid bone and
cells, and of the lacrymal passages. In myology he recti¬
fied several mistakes of Vesalius. He made some curious
researches into the organs of generation in both sexes,
and discovered the utero-peritoneal canal which still bears
his name.
Osteology nearly at the same time found an assiduous i5io_40-
cultivator in John Philip Ingrassias, a learned Sicilian 80.
physician, who, in a skilful commentary on the osteology
of Galen, corrected numerous mistakes. He gave the
first distinct account of the true configuration of the
sphenoid and ethmoid bones, and has the merit of first
describing the third bone of the tympanum, called stapes, 1546.
though this is also claimed by Eustachius and Fallopius.
He appears also to have known the fenestrce, the chorda
tympani, the cochlea, the semi-circular canals, and the
mastoid cells.
The anatomical descriptions of Vesalius underwent the 1530-89.
scrutiny of various inquirers, actuated, some by motives of
hostility to the individual, others by the more honourable
wish to ascertain if his representations accorded with
nature. Of the latter, Fallopius was one; but the most
distinguished by the importance and veracity of their re¬
searches, as well as the temperate tone of their observa¬
tions, were Julius Caesar Aranzi, anatomical professor for
32 years in the university of Bologna, and Constantio
Varoli, physician to Pope Gregory XIII. To the former
we are indebted for the first correct account of the ana¬
tomical peculiarities of the foetus, and for being the first
to show that the muscles of the eye do not, as was falsely
imagined, arise from the dura mater, but from the margin
of the optic hole. He also, after considering the anatomi¬
cal relations of the cavities of the heart, the valves, and
the great vessels, corroborates the views of Columbus re¬
garding the course which the blood follows in passing
from the right to the left side of the heart. I have al¬
ready mentioned Alexander Achillini as the reputed and
probable discoverer of the inferior recesses of the cerebral
cavities; but whether he knew them or not, certain it is
that neither his contemporaries nor successors gave any
proof that they were acquainted with these regions of
the brain. Aranzi is the first anatomist who describes
them distinctly, who recognises the objects by which
they are distinguished, and who gives them the name by
which they are still known (hombyx, hippocampus'); and
his account is more minute and perspicuous than that of
the authors of the subsequent century. He speaks at
large of the choroid plexus, and gives a particular descrip¬
tion of the fourth ventricle under the name of cistern of
the cerebellum, as a discovery of his own.
Italy, though rich in anatomical talent, has produced 1545-75.
probably none greater than Constantio Varoli of Bologna.
x
760
ANATOMY.
History. Though limited in the measure of his existence to the
short space of 32 years, he acquired reputation not inferior
to that of the most eminent of his contemporaries. He is
now known chiefly as the author of an Epistle, inscribed
to Hieronymo Mercuriali, on the optic nerves, in which he
describes a new method of dissecting the brain, and com ¬
municates many interesting particulars relating to the ana¬
tomy of the organ. Overlooking the fanciful comparison
of the transverse eminence and the prolongations (crura)
of the brain and cerebellum to a bridge over the water of
an aqueduct, though he examines the lower surface of the
organ with tedious minuteness, he gives evidence that he
formed a more accurate and just idea of its configuration
than any of the best modern anatomists. He observes the
threefold division of the inferior surface or base, defines
the limits of the anterior, middle, and posterior eminences,
as marked by the compartments of the scull, and justly
remarks that the cerebral cavities are capacious, commu¬
nicate with each other, extending first backward and then
forward, near the angle of the pyramidal portion of the
temporal bone, and that they are folded on themselves,
and finally lost above the middle and inferior eminence of
the brain. He appears to have been aware that at this
point they communicate with the exterior or convoluted
surface. He recognised the impropriety of the term cor¬
pus callosum, seems to have known the communication,
called afterwards foramen Monroianum, and describes
the hippocampus more minutely than had been previously
done.
1534. Among the anatomists of the Italian school, as a pupil
of Fallopius, Eustachius, and Aldrovandus, is generally
enumerated Volcher Goiter of Groningen. He dis¬
tinguished himself by accurate researches on the cartilages,
the bones, and the nerves, recognised the value of morbid
anatomy, and made some experiments on living animals
to ascertain the action of the heart and the influence of
the brain.
The Frutefull and Necessary 13ri(fe Worhe of John Halle
(1565), and The Englisheman s Treasure, by Master
Thomas Vicary (1586), both English works published
at this time, are tolerable compilations, partly from Be-
renger, partly from Vesalius, and much tinged by the
Galenian and Arabian distinctions.
1537-66- The celebrity of the anatomical school of Italy was
1619. worthily maintained by Hieronymo Fabricio of Aqua-
pendente, who, in imitation of his master Fallopius,
laboured to render anatomical knowledge more precise
by repeated dissections, and to illustrate the obscure by
researches on the structure of animals in general. In this
manner he investigated the formation of the foetus, the
structure of the oesophagus, stomach, and bowels, and the
peculiarities of the eye, the ear, and the larynx. The dis¬
covery, however, on which his surest claims to eminence
rest, is that of the membranous folds, which he names
valves, in the interior of veins. Several of these folds had
been observed by Fernel, Sylvius, and Vesalius; and in
1547 Cannani observed those of the vena azygos ; but no
one appears to have offered any rational conjecture on
their use, or to have traced them through the venous sys¬
tem at large, until Fabricius in 1574, upon this hypothesis,
demonstrated the presence of these valvular folds in all
the veins of the extremities.
Fabricius, though succeeded by his pupil Julius Casserius
of Piacenza, may be regarded as the last of that illustrious
line of anatomical teachers by whom the science was so
successfully studied and taught in the universities of Italy.
The discoveries which each made, and the errors which
their successive labours rectified, tended gradually to give
anatomy the character of a useful as well as an accurate
science, and to pave the way for a discovery which, though
not anatomical, but physiological, is so intimately connect¬
ed with correct knowledge of the shape and situation of
parts, that it exercised the most powerful influence on
the future progress of anatomical inquiry. This was the
knowledge of the circular motion of the blood,—a fact
which, though obscurely conjectured by Aristotle, Mon-
dino, and Berengei’, and partially taught by Servetus, Co¬
lumbus, Caesalpinus, and Fabricius, it was nevertheless re¬
served to William Harvey fully and satisfactorily to de¬
monstrate.
I have already shown that Mondino believed that the
blood proceeds from the heart to the lungs, through
the vena arterialis or pulmonary artery, and that the
aorta conveys the spirit into the blood, through all parts
of the body. This doctrine was adopted with little mo¬
dification by Berenger, who further demonstrated the
existence and operation of the tricuspid valves in the
right ventricle, and of the sigmoid valves at the beginning
of the pulmonary artery and aorta, and that there were
only two ventricles separated by a solid impervious sep¬
tum. These were afterwards described in greater de¬
tail by Vesalius, who nevertheless appears not to have
been aware of the important use which might be made
of this knowledge. It was Michael Servet or Servetus,1
a Spanish monk, who in his treatise de Trinitatis Er-
roribus, published at Basil in 1531, or, according to
Sprengel, in 1552, first maintained the imperviousness
of the septum, and the transition of the blood by what
he terms an unknown route, namely, from the right ven¬
tricle by the vena arteriosa (pulmonary artery) to the lungs,
and thence into the arteria venosa or pulmonary vein, and
left auricle and ventricle, from which, he adds afterwards,
it is conveyed by the aorta to all parts of the body.2 * *
Though the leading outlines, not only of the pulmonary
History.
1 Born in 1509; burnt in 1553.
*, Passa-ge of Servetus is so interesting, that our readers may feel some curiosity in perusing it in the language of the
aut )or; and it is not unimportant to remark, that Servetus appears to have been led to think of the course of the blood, by
e ( es.ie o explaining the manner in which the animal spirits were supposed to be generated. “ Vitalis spiritus in sinistro cordis
ven ricu o suam originem habet, juvantibus niaxime pulmonibus ad ipsius perfectionem. Est spiritus tenuis, caloris vi elabora-
UfS’ . aV0f.C0, or.e’ P°tentia, ut sit quasi ex puriore sanguine lucens, vapor substantiam continens aquae, aeris, et ignis. Gene-
ra ui ex acia in pu mone commixtione inspirati aeris cum elaborate subtili sanguine, quern dexter ventriculus sinistro communicat.
i au em communica 10 haec, non per parietem cordis medium, ut vulgo creditur, sed magno artificio a dextro cordis ventriculo,
on^o per pu mones uc u agitatur sanguis subtilis; a pulmonibus praeparatur, flavus efficitur, et a vena arteriosa in arteriam
yenosam lans unci ur. einde in ipsa arteria venosa, inspirato aeri miscetur, et exspiratione a fuiigine expurgatur; atque ita
an em a s.ms 10 core is ventriculo totum mixtum per diastolen attrahitur, apta supellex, ut fiat spiritus vitalis. Quod ita
pei pu mones a communica 10 et piseparatio, docet conjunctio varia, et communicatio venae arteriosae cum arteria venosa in
pu mo.ni >us. .on rma ioc magnitude insignis venae arteriosae, quae nec talis nec tanta esset facta, nec tantam a corde ipso vim
punssimi sanguinis in pu mones emitteiet, ob solum eorum nutrimentum; nec cor pulmonibus hac ratione serviret, cum praesertim
ef f fm r.'r™e s<T’ eren Pu ’nones ip3i aliunde nutriri, ob membranulas illas seu valvulas cordis, usque ad horum nativitatem ; ut
docet.Galen us, &f-. Itaque die spiritus a sinistro cordis ventriculo arterias totius corporis deinde transfunditur, ita ut qui tenuior est,
supenora petit, ubi magis elaborate praecipue in plexu retiformi, sub basi cerebri sito, ubi ex vitali fieri incipit animalis, ad pro-
pnam rationalis animse rationem accedens.” (De Trinitate, lib. v.j r i
ANATOMY.
761
History, or small, but even of the great circulation, were sketched
thus early by one who, though a philosopher, was attached
to the church, it was only in his work De Re Anatomica,
published at Venice in 1559, that Columbus formally and
distinctly announced the circular course ol the blood as a
discovery of his own; and maintained, in addition to the
imperviousness of the septum, the fact that the arteria ve-
nalis (pulmonary vein) contains not air, but blood mixed
with air brought from the lungs to the left ventricle of the
heart, to be distributed through the body at large.
1570-1593. Soon after, views still more complete of the small or
pulmonary circulation were given by Andrew Caesalpmus
of Arezzo, who not only maintained the analogy between
the structure of the arterious vein or pulmonary artery
and the aorta, and that between the venous artery or pul¬
monary veins, and veins in general, but was the first to
remark the swelling of veins below ligatures, and to infer
from it a refluent motion of blood in these vessels. Ihe
discoveries of Aranzi and Eustachius in the vessels of the
foetus, tended at first to perplex, and afterwards to eluci¬
date some of these notions. At length it happened, that
between the years 1598 and 1600, a young Englishman,
pursuing his anatomical studies at Padua under Fabricius
of Aquapendente, learnt from that anatomist the existence
of the valves in the veins of the extremities, and under¬
took to ascertain the use of these valves by experimental
inquiry. It is uncertain whether he learnt from the writ¬
ings of Caesalpinus the fact observed by that author, of
the tumescence of a vein below the ligature; but he
could not fail to be aware, and indeed he shows that he
was aware, of the small circulation as taught by Servetus
and Columbus. Combining these facts already known, he,
by a series of well-executed experiments, demonstrated
clearly the existence, not only of the small, but of a gene¬
ral circulation from the left side of the heart by the aorta
and its subdivisions, to the right side by the veins. This
memorable truth was first announced in the year 1619.
It belongs not to this place, either to consider the argu¬
ments and facts by which Harvey defended his theory, or
to notice the numerous assaults to which he was exposed,
and the controversies in which his opponents wished to
involve him. It is sufficient to say, that after the temporary
ebullitions of spleen and envy had subsided, the doctrine
of the circular motion of the blood was admitted by all
enlightened and unprejudiced persons, and finally was
universally adopted, as affording the most satisfactory
explanation of many facts in anatomical structure which
were either misunderstood or entirely overlooked. The
inquiries to which the investigation of the doctrine gave
rise produced numerous researches on the shape and
structure of the heart and its divisions, of the lungs, and
of the blood-vessels and their distribution. Of this de¬
scription were the researches of Nicolas feteno on the struc¬
ture of the heart, the classical work of Richard Lower,
the dissertation of Pechlin, the treatise of Vieussens, the
work of Malpighi on the structure of the lungs, several
sketches in the writings of Mayow, and other treatises of
less moment. Systematic treatises of anatomy began to
assume a more instructive form, and to breathe a more
philosophical spirit. The great work of Adrian Spigelius,
which appeared in 1627, two years after the death of
the author, contains indeed no proof that he was aware
of the valuable generalization of Harvey; but in the in¬
stitutions of Caspar Bartholin, as republished and improv¬
ed by his son Thomas in 1651, the anatomical descriptions
and explanations are given with reference to the new doc¬
trine. A still more unequivocal proof of the progress of
correct anatomical knowledge was given in the lectures
delivered by Peter Dionis, at the Jardin Royal of Paris,
VOL. II.
in 1673 and the seven following years, in which that in- History,
telligent surgeon gave most accurate demonstrations of^—
all the parts composing the human frame, and especially
of the heart, its auricles, ventricles, and valves, and the
large vessels connected with it and the lungs, dhese
demonstrations, first published in 1690, were so much
esteemed, that they underwent in the space of 30^ years
seven editions, were translated into English, and formed
for a long time the best and only anatomical system in
Europe. . . ,
The progress of anatomical discovery continued in the
mean time to advance. In the course of the 16th century,
Eustachius, in studying minutely the structure of the
vena azygos, had recognised in the horse a white vessel
full of watery fluid, connected with the internal jugular
vein, on the left side of the vertebral column, correspond¬
ing accurately with the vessel since named thoracic duct
Fallopius also described vessels belonging to the liver,
distinct from arteries and veins; and similar vessels ap¬
pear to have been noticed by Nicolaus Massa. The
nature and properties of these vessels were, however, en¬
tirely unknown. On the 23d July 1622 Gaspar Asellius,
professor of anatomy at Pavia, while engaged in demon¬
strating the recurrent nerves in a living dog, first observ¬
ed numerous white delicate filaments crossing the me¬
sentery in all directions; and though he took tliem at fiist
for nerves, the opaque white fluid which they shed quick¬
ly convinced him that they were a new order of ves¬
sels. The repetition of the experiment the following day
showed that these vessels were best seen in animals re¬
cently fed; and as he traced them from the villous mem¬
brane of the intestines, and observed the valves with
which thev were liberally supplied, he inferred that they
were genuine chyliferous vessels. By confounding them
with the lymphatics, he made them proceed to the pan¬
creas and liver,—a mistake which appears to have been
first rectified by Francis De le Boe. The discovery of
Asellius was announced in 1627 ; and the following year,
by means of the zealous efforts of Nicolas Peiiesc, a li¬
beral senator of Aix, the vessels were seen in the person
of a felon who had eaten copiously before execution, and
whose body was inspected an hour and a half after. In
1629 they were publicly demonstrated at Copenhagen by
Simon Pauli, and the same year the thoracic duct was ob¬
served by Mentel for the first time since it was described
by Eustachi. Five years after (1634), John Wesling,
professor of anatomy and surgery at Venice, gave the
first delineation of the lacteals from the human subject,
and evinced more accurate knowledge than his predeces¬
sors, of the thoracic duct and the lymphatics. Highmore
in 1637 demonstrated unequivocally the difference be¬
tween the lacteals and the mesenteric veins; and though
some perplexity was occasioned by the discovery of the
pancreatic duct by Wirsung, yet this mistake was correct¬
ed by Thomas Bartholin; "and the discovery by Pecquet
in 1647, of the common trunk of the lacteals and lympha¬
tics, and of the course which the chyle follows to reach
the blood, may be regarded as the last of the series of iso¬
lated facts by the generalization of which the extent, dis¬
tribution, and uses of the most important organs of the
animal body were at length developed.
To complete the history of this part of anatomical
science one step yet remained,—the distinction between
the lacteals and lymphatics, and the discovery of the ter¬
mination of the latter order of vessels. The honour ot
this discovery is divided between Jolyffe, an English ana¬
tomist, and Olaus Rudbeck, a young Swede. The former,
according to the testimony of Glisson and Wharton, was
aware of the distinct existence of the lymphatics in IboU,
5 D
762
ANATOM Y.
History and demonstrated them as such in 1652. It is neverthe-
less doubtful whether he knew them much before the
latter period; and it is certain that Rudbeck observed
the lymphatics of the large intestines, and traced them to
glands, on the 27th January 1651, after he had, in the
course of 1650, made various erroneous conjectures re¬
garding them, and, like others, attempted to trace them
to the liver. The following year he demonstrated them
in presence of Queen Christina, and traced them to the
thoracic duct, and the latter to the subclavian vein. Their
course and distribution were still more fully investigated
by Thomas Bartholin, Wharton, Swammerdam, and Blaes,
the two last of whom recognised the existence of valves ;
while Antony Nuck of Leyden, by rectifying various er¬
rors of his predecessors, and adding several new and va¬
luable observations, rendered this part of anatomy much
more precise than formerly.
After this period anatomists began to study more ac¬
curately organs and textures already known, and to obtain
more precise knowledge of the intimate structure and or-
1654. ganization of the human body. Francis Glisson distin¬
guished himself by a minute description of the liver,
and a clearer account of the stomach and intestines than
1656. had yet been given. Thomas Wharton investigated the
structure of the glands with particular care; and though
rather prone to indulge in fanciful generalization, he deve¬
loped some interesting views of these organs ; while Charle-
ton, who appears to have been a person of great genius,
though addicted to hypothesis, made some good remarks on
the communication of the arteries with the veins, the foe¬
tal circulation, and the course of the lymphatics. But
the circumstance which chiefly distinguished the history
of anatomy at the beginning of the seventeenth century,
was the appearance of Thomas Willis, who rendered him¬
self eminent not only by the first good researches on the
brain and nerves, but by many judicious observations on
the structure of the lungs, the intestines, the blood-ves¬
sels, and the glands. His anatomy of the brain and
nerves is so minute and elaborate, and abounds so much
in new information, that the reader is struck by the im¬
mense chasm between the vague and meagre notices of
his predecessors, and the ample and correct descrip¬
tions of Willis. This excellent work, however, is not the
result of his own personal and unaided exertions; and
the character of Willis derives additional lustre from the
candid avowal of his obligations to Wren and Millington,
and, above all, to the diligent researches of his fellow-
anatomist Richard Lower.
Willis was the first who correctly numbered the nerves,
and described their origins in the order in which they have
been generally named till the recent improvements of Soem¬
mering. His observation of the connection of the eighth
pair with the slender nerve which issues from the beginning
of the spinal chord is known to all. He remarked the paral¬
lel lines of the mesolobe, afterwards minutely described by
Vicq d’Azyr. He seems to have recognised the commu¬
nication of the convoluted and figurate surfaces of the
brain, and that between the lateral cavities beneath the
fornix. He designates the objects of the central surface—
the anterior as the lentiform eminences, with the striated
appearance of their internal substance—the posterior as
the optic chambers or thalami; the four orbicular emi¬
nences, with the bridge, which he first named annular
protuberance; and the white pisiform bodies, since called
mammillary eminences, behind the infundibulum. In
the cerebellum he remarks the arborescent arrangement
of the white and grey matter, and gives a good account
of the internal carotids, and the communications which
they make with the branches of the basilar artery. Wep-
fer had already demonstrated the peculiar curvature of History,
the former vessels in the carotic canal, and refuted the
fiction of the rete mirabile.
About the same time the researches of Malpighi
tended greatly to improve the knowledge of minute struc¬
ture. He gave the first distinct ideas on the organization
of the lung, and the mode in which the bronchial tubes
and vessels terminate in that organ. By the microscope
he traced the transition of the arteries into the veins.
He examined the omentum, and inquired into the manner
in which fat and marrow are secreted. He endeavoured
to unfold, by dissection and microscopic observation, the
minute structure of the brain. He demonstrated the or¬
ganization of the skin, and considered its constituents as
the organ of touch. He studied the structure of bone,
and rectified the errors of Gagliardi; he traced the for¬
mation and explained the structure of the teeth; and
he finally carried his researches into the substance of
the liver, the spleen, the kidneys, and the conglobate
glands. In these difficult inquiries the observations of
Malpighi are in general faithful, and his descriptions are
accurate. He may be regarded as the founder of that
part of anatomical science which treats of structure and
organization; and, even in the present day, his writings
are both interesting and instructive.
Nicolas Steno described with accuracy the lacrymal 1660.
gland and passages, and re-discovered the parotid duct.
Bellini studied the structure of the kidneys, and de¬
scribed the tongue and tonsils with some care; and
Drelincourt laboured to investigate the changes effect¬
ed on the uterus by impregnation, and to elucidate
the formation of the foetus. The science might have
derived still greater advantages from the genius of
Regnier de Graaf, who investigated with accuracy the
structure of the pancreas and of the organs of generation
in both sexes, had he not been cut off at the early age of
32. Lastly, Wepfer, though more devoted to morbid ana¬
tomy, made, nevertheless, some just observations on
the anatomical disposition of the cerebral vessels, the
glandular structure of the liver, and the termination of
the common duct in the duodenum.
The appearance of Frederic Ruysch, who was born in
1638, and became professor of anatomy at Amsterdam in
1665, gave a new impulse to anatomical research, and
tended not only to give the science greater precision, but
to extend its limits in every direction. The talents of
Ruysch are said to have been developed by accident. To
repel the audacious and calumnious aspersions with which
De Bils attacked De le Boe and Van Horne, Ruysch pub¬
lished his tract on the valves of the lymphatics, which com¬
pletely established his character as an anatomist of origin¬
ality and research. This, however, is the smallest of his
services to the science. The art of injecting, which had
been originally attempted by Eustachi and Varoli, and
was afterwards rudely practised by Glisson, Bellini, and
Willis, was at length carried to greater perfection by De
Graaf and Swammerdam, the former of whom injected
the spermatic vessels with mercury and variously colour¬
ed liquors, while the latter, by employing melted wax with
other ingredients, made the first approach to the refine¬
ments of modern anatomy. By improving this idea of
using substances, which, though solid, may be rendered
fluid at the period of injecting, Ruysch carried this art to
the highest perfection.
By the application of this happy contrivance, he was
enabled to obtain more correct views than his predeces¬
sors of the arrangement of minute vessels in the interior
of organs, and to demonstrate peculiarities of organization
which escaped the scrutiny of previous anatomists. Scarce-
ANATOMY.
History, ty a part of the human body eluded the penetration of his
syringe; and his discoveries were proportionally great.
His account of the valves of the lymphatics, of the vessels
of the lungs, and their minute structure; his researches
on the vascular structure of the skin, of the bones, and their
epiphyses, and their mode of growth and union; his ob¬
servations on the spleen, the glam penis, the clitoris, and
the womb impregnated and unimpregnated, were suffi¬
cient to give him the reputation of a skilful and accurate
anatomist. These, however, were but a limited part of
his anatomical labours. He studied the minute structure
of the brain; he demonstrated the organization of the
choroid plexus; he described the state of the hair when
affected with Polish plait; he proved the vascular struc¬
ture of the teeth; he injected the dura mater, the pleura,
the pericardium, and peritoneum ; he unfolded the minute
structure of the conglomerate glands; he investigated
that of the synovial apparatus placed in the interior of
the joints ; and he discovered several curious particulars
relating to the lacteals, the lymphatics, and the lymphatic
glands. So assiduously, indeed, did Ruysch study by in¬
jection the tissue of the organs of the animal body, that
it is less easy to say what he did than what he neglected.
To him we are indebted for many of the facts of which
anatomy at the present day consists. The success of his
injections, however, though it enabled him to trace the
most delicate terminations of vessels in the substance of
organs, perhaps exercised an unfavourable bias in making
him look for vessels exclusively in the minute structure of
all the tissues.
1670. Meanwhile, Meibomius re-discovered the palpebral
glands, which were known to Casserius; Swammerdam
studied the action of the lungs, described the structure
of the human uterus, and made numerous valuable obser¬
vations on the coeca and pancreatoid organs of fishes; and
Kerckringius attempted to explain the process of ossifica¬
tion, and determine its different stages. John Conrad Brun-
1667. ner, in the course of experinaents on the pancreas, disco¬
vered the muciparous glands of the duodenum,—a fact to
1677-Rl. which Conrad Peyer gave a more generalized character
by his description of the muciparous glands of the intes¬
tinal canal at large. Leonard Tassin, distinguished for
original observation, rendered the anatomical history of
the brain more accurate than heretofore, and gave parti-
1678. cular accounts of the intestinal tube, the pancreatic duct,
and the hepatic ligaments. About the same time much
light was thrown on the intimate constitution of several
of the tissues, and on the minute communications of the
arterial and venous tubes by the microscopical observations
of Leeuwenhoeck.
That France might not be without participation in the
glory of advancing the progress of anatomical knowledge,
the names of.Duverney and Vieussens are commemorated
with distinction. The former, born in 1648, and first in¬
troduced into public life in 1676 in the Royal Academy
of Sciences, decorated with the honorary title of profes¬
sor of anatomy to the Dauphin, and appointed in 1679
professor at the Jardin Royal, distinguished himself by
the first accurate account of the organ of hearing, and
by his dissections of several animals at the academy,
supplied valuable materials for the anatomical details of
the natural history of animals published by that learned
body. He appears to have been the first who demonstrat¬
ed the fact, that the cerebral sinuses open into the jugu¬
lar veins, and to have been aware that the former receive
the veins of the brain, and are the venous receptacles of
the organ. He understood the cerebral cavities, and their
mode of communication; distinguishes the posterior pil¬
lars of the vault from the pedes hippocampi; recognises
763
the two plates of the septum lucidum; and, what is still History,
more remarkable, he first indicates distinctly the crossing
or plaiting of the cerebral chords in the linear furrow be¬
tween the right and left pyramidal bodies,—a fact after¬
wards verified by the researches of Mistichelli, Petit, and
Santorini. He studied the ganglions attentively, and
gives the first distinct account of the formation, con¬
nections, and distribution of the intercostal nerve. It
is interesting to remark, that his statement that the veins
or sinuses of the spinal chord terminate in the vena azygos
has been verified by the recent researches of Dupuytren
and Breschet, which show that the vertebral veins com¬
municate by means of the intercostal and superior lumbar
veins with the azygos and demi-azygos. His account of
the structure of bones, and of the progress of ossification,
is valuable. He recognised the vascular structure of the
spleen; and he gives a correct account of the excretory
ducts of the prostate gland, the verumontanum, and the
anteprostates.
One of the circumstances which the history of this
period of anatomical science shows tended considerably
to its improvement, is the attention with which Compara¬
tive Anatomy was beginning to be cultivated. In ancient
times, and at the revival of letters, the dissection of the
lower animals was substituted for that of the human body ;
and the descriptions of the organs of the latter were too
often derived from the former. The obloquy and con¬
tempt in which this abuse involved the study of animal
anatomy made it be neglected, or pursued with indifference,
for more than two centuries, during which anatomists con¬
fined their descriptions, at least very much, to the parts
of the human body. At this period, however, the preju¬
dice against Comparative Anatomy began to subside ; and
animal dissection, though not substituted for that of the
human body, was employed, as it ought always to have
been, to illustrate obscurities, to determine doubts, and to
explain difficulties, and, in short, to enlarge and rectify the
knowledge of the structure of animal bodies generally.
For this revolution in its favour, Comparative Anatomy
was in a great measure indebted to the learned societies
which were established about this time in the different
countries of Europe. Among these the Royal Society of
London, embodied by charter by Charles II. in 1660, and
the Academy of Sciences of Paris, founded in 1665 by
Colbert, are undoubtedly entitled to the first rank. Though
later in establishment,the latter institution was distinguish¬
ed by making the first great efforts in favour of Compara¬
tive Anatomy; and Perrault, Pecquet, Duverney,and Mery,
by the dissections of rare animals obtained from the royal
menagerie, speedily supplied valuable materials for the
anatomical naturalist. In England, Nehemiah Grew, Ed¬
ward Tyson, and Samuel Collins, cultivated the same de¬
partment with diligence and success. The first has left
an interesting account of the anatomical peculiarities of
the intestinal canal in various animals; and the second, in
the dissection of a porpoise, an opossum, and an ourang
outang, adduces some valuable illustrations of the com¬
parative differences between the structure of the human
body and that of the lower animals. To the third be¬
longs the merit of conceiving, and executing on an en¬
larged plan, a comprehensive system, embodying all the
information then extant. With the aid of Tyson and
his own researches, which were both extensive and accu¬
rate, he composed a system of anatomical knowledge, in 1685.
which he not only delivers ample and accurate descriptions
of the structure of the human body, and the various mor¬
bid changes to which the organs are liable, but illustrates
the whole by accurate and interesting sketches of the pe¬
culiarities of the lower animals. The matter of this work
764 A N A T
History, is so excellent, that it can only be ascribed to ignorance
that it has received so little attention. Though regarded
as a compilation, and though indeed much of the human
anatomy is derived from Vesalius, it has the advantage of
the works published on the Continent at that time, that it
embodies most of the valuable facts derived fiom Mal¬
pighi, Willis, and Vieussens. The Comparative Anatomy
is almost all original, and acquired from personal reseaich
and dissection; and the pathological observations, though
occasionally tinged with the spirit of the times, show the
author to have been endowed with the powers of observa¬
tion and judicious reflection in no ordinary degree.
About this time also we recognise the first attempts to
study the minute atomic constitution of the tissues, by
the combination of the microscope and the effects of che¬
mical agents. Bone furnished the first instance in which
this method was put in use; and though Gagliardi, who
undertook the inquiry, had fallen into some mistakes which
it required the observation of Malpighi to rectify, this
did not deter Clopton Havers and Nesbitt, in England,
and Courtial, Du Hamel, and Delasone, and afterwards
Herissant, in France, from resuming the same train of in¬
vestigation. The mistakes into which these anatomists
fell belong to the imperfect method of inquiry. The facts
which they ascertained have been verified by recent ex¬
periment, and constitute no unessential part of our know¬
ledge of the structure of bone.
1695. Ten years after the publication of the work of Collins,
Henry Ridley, another English anatomist, distinguished
himself by a monograph on the brain, which, though not
free from errors, contains nevertheless some valuable ob¬
servations. Ridley is the first who distinguishes by name
the restiform processes, or the posterior pyramidal emi¬
nences. He recognised the figure of the four eminences in
the human subject; he remarked the mammillary bodies;
and he discovered the sinus which passes under his name.
Raymond Vieussens, by the publication of his great
work on neurography in 1684, threw new light on the
configuration and structure of the brain, the spinal chord,
and the nerves; and gave a description of the arrange¬
ment and distribution of the latter more precise than
heretofore. Of the formation and connections of the
sympathetic nerve especially he gave views which have
been generally adopted by subsequent anatomists. His
new arrangement of the vessels, published in 1705, con¬
tains several curious and some hypothetical opinions. His
observations on the structure of the heart, published in
1706, and enlarged in 1715, exhibit the first correct views
of the intimate structure of an organ, which afterwards
was most fully developed by the labours of Lancisi and
Senac. His treatise on the ear is not superior to that of
Duverney.
1685-97* To the same period belong the rival publications of
Godfrey Bidloo and William Cowper, the last of whom,
however, stained a reputation otherwise good, by publish¬
ing as his own the engravings of the former. Cowper
further distinguished himself by a minute account of the
urethral glands, already known to Columbus and Mery; a
good description of the intestinal glands, discovered by
Brunner and Peyer; and by demonstrating the communi¬
cation of the arteries and veins of the mesentery.
The anatomical genius of Italy, which had slumbered
since the death of Malpighi, was destined once more to
revive in Lancisi, Valsalva, and his illustrious pupils Santo¬
rini and Morgagni. Valsalva especially distinguished him¬
self by his description of the structure of the ear, which,
in possessing still greater precision and minuteness than
that of Duverney, is valuable in setting the example of
rendering anatomy altogether a science of description.
O M Y.
Santorini, who was professor at Venice, was no unworthy History,
friend of Valsalva arid Morgagni. His anatomical observa-^^^^
tions, which relate to the muscles of the face, the brain, and 1724‘
several of the nerves, the ducts of the lacrymal gland, the
nose and its cavities, the larynx, the viscera of the chest
and belly, and the organs of generation in the two sexes,
furnish beautiful models of essays distinguished for per¬
spicuity, precision, and novelty, above any thing which
had then appeared. These observations, indeed, which
bear the impress of accurate observation and clear con¬
ception, may be safely compared with any anatomical
writings which have appeared since. Those on the brain
are particularly interesting. Morgagni, though chiefly
known as a pathological anatomist, did not neglect the
healthy structure. His Adversaria, which appeared be- 1706.
tween 1706 and 1719, and his Epistles, published in 1728, DD-
contain a series of observations to rectify the mistakes of
previous anatomists, and to determine the characters of ly40‘
the healthy structure of many parts of the human body.
Many parts he describes anew, and indicates facts not
previously observed. All his remarks show how well he
knew what true anatomical description ought to be. In this
respect, indeed, the three anatomists now mentioned may
be said to have anticipated their contemporaries nearly a
century; for, while other authors were satisfied with giv¬
ing loose and inaccurate or meagre notices of parts, with
much fanciful supposition, Valsalva, Santorini, and Mor¬
gagni, laboured to determine with precision the anatomical
characters of the parts which they describe.
The same character is due to Winslow, a native of Den¬
mark, but, as pupil and successor of Duverney, as well as
a convert to Catholicism, naturalized in France, and finally
professor of anatomy at the Royal Garden. His exposi- 1732.
tion of the structure of the human body is distinguished
for being not only the first treatise of descriptive anatomy,
divested of physiological details and hypothetical expla¬
nations foreign to the subject, but for being a close de¬
scription derived from actual objects, without reference
to the writings of previous anatomists. About the same
time Cheselden in London, the first Monro in Edinburgh, 1713-22.
and Albinus in Leyden, contributed by their several trea- 1726-32.
tises to render anatomy still more precise as a descriptive 1726-46.
science. The Osteographia of the former was of much 1733.
use in directing attention to the study of the skeleton,
and the morbid changes to which it is liable. This
work, however, magnificent as it was, was excelled by
that of Albinus, who, in 1747, published engravings de¬
scriptive of the bones and muscles, which, perhaps, will
never be surpassed either in accuracy of outline or beauty
of execution. The several labours of this author, indeed,
constitute an important era in the history of the science.
He was the first who classified and exhibited the muscles
in a proper arrangement, and applied to them a nomencla¬
ture which is still retained by the consent of the best
anatomists. He gives a luminous account of the arteries 1736.
and veins of the intestines, represents with singular fide- 1737.
lity and beauty the bones of the foetus, inquires into the
structure of the skin, and the cause of its colour in differ¬
ent races; represents the changes incident to the womb
in different periods of pregnancy, and describes the rela¬
tions of the thoracic duct and the vena azygos with the 1757-
contiguous parts. Besides these large and magnificent
works, illustrated by the most beautiful engravings, six
books of Academical Annotations were the fruits of his 1754-64.
long and assiduous cultivation of anatomy. These con¬
tain valuable remarks on the sound structure and morbid
deviations of numerous parts of the human body.
To render the knowledge of the skeleton more com- 1739-43.
plete, Duhamel and Delasone studied the minute structure
ANATOMY.
History, of bone, and the process of ossification; William Hunter
and Herissant investigated the texture of the cartilages;
1 and Weitbrecht gave a copious and minute account of
the ligaments. M. Lieutaud also, who had already la¬
boured to rectify many errors in anatomy, described with
much accuracy the structure and relations of the heart
1753. and its cavities, and rendered the anatomy of the bladder
very precise, by describing the triangular space and the
mammillary eminence at its neck.
Albinus found a worthy successor in his pupil Albert
Von Haller, who, with a mind imbued with every depart¬
ment of literature and science, directed his chief atten¬
tion, nevertheless, to the cultivation of anatomical and
physiological knowledge. Having undertaken at an early
age (21) to illustrate, with commentaries, the physiological
prelections of his preceptor Boerhaave, he devoted him¬
self assiduously to the perusal of every work which could
tend to facilitate his purpose; and as he found numerous
erroneous or imperfect statements, and many deficiencies
to supply, he undertook an extensive course of dissection
of human and animal bodies, to obtain the requisite infor¬
mation. For 17 years, during which he was professor at
Goettingen, he dissected 400 bodies,1 and inspected their
organs with the utmost care. The result of these assidu¬
ous labours appeared at intervals in the form of disserta¬
tions by himself, or under the name of some one of his
pupils, finally published in a collected shape, between
1746 and 1751 (Disputationes Anatomicce Selectiores);
and in eight numbers of most accurate and beautiful en¬
gravings, representing the most important parts of the
human body, e. g. the diaphragm, the uterus, ovaries and
vagina, the arteries of the different regions and organs,
with learned and critical explanatory observations. Some
years after, when he had retired from his academical
duties at Goettingen, he published, between 1757 and
1765, the large and elaborate work which, with singular
modesty, he styled Elements of Physiology. This work,
though professedly devoted to the latter science, rendered
nevertheless the most essential services to the former.
Haller, drawing an accurate line of distinction between
the two, gave the most clear, precise, and complete de¬
scriptions of the situation, position, figure, component
parts, and minute structure of the different organs and
their appendages. The results of previous and coeval in¬
quiry, obtained by extensive reading, he sedulously veri¬
fied by personal observation ; and though he never rejected
facts stated on credible authorities, he in all cases labour¬
ed to ascertain their real value by experiment. The ana¬
tomical descriptions are on this account not only the most
valuable part of his work, but the most valuable that had
then or for a long time after appeared; and it is perhaps
a sufficient proof of their intrinsic merit, that they are
still resorted to by the anatomist as the most faithful
guide to many of his researches. It is painful, neverthe¬
less, to think, that the very form in which this work is com¬
posed, with copious and scrupulous reference to authori¬
ties, made it be regarded as a compilation only; and that
the author was compelled to show, by a list of his person¬
al researches, that the most learned work ever given to
the physiologist, was also the most abundant in original
information.2
With the researches of Haller, it is proper to notice
those of his contemporary, John Frederick Meckel, and
his pupil John Godfrey Zinn. The former, who was
professor of anatomy at Berlin, described with unrivalled
1748-51. accuracy the Gasserian ganglion, the first pair of nerves
765
and its distribution, and that of the facial nerves general- History,
ly, and discovered the spheno-palatine ganglion.
made some original and judicious observations on the
tissue of the skin and the mucous net; and above all, 1753-57.
he recognised the connection of the lymphatic vessels
with the veins,—a doctrine which, though neglected, has
been lately revived by Fohmann and Lippi. He also
collected several valuable observations on the morbid
states of the heart and brain. At the same time Zinn,
who was professor of medicine at Goettingen, published on
the eye a classical treatise, which demonstrated at once 1755.
the defects of previous inquiries, and how much it was
possible to elucidate, by accurate research and precise de¬
scription, the structure of one of the most important or¬
gans of the human frame. As a general proof of the ex¬
traordinary merit of this work, it is sufficient to say, that
in critical learning and descriptive accuracy it has not
been equalled, and probably will never be surpassed. It
was re-published after his death by Wrisberg. 178Q.
General anatomy, and the study of the atomic consti¬
tution of the tissues which had originally been com¬
menced by Leeuwenhoeck, Malpighi, and Ruysch, began
at this period to attract more general attention. De
Bergen had already demonstrated the general distribution 1732.
of cellular membrane, and shown that it not only incloses
every part of the animal frame, but forms the basis of
every organ,—a doctrine which was adopted, and still
more fully expanded, by his friend Haller, in opposition to 1757.
what was asserted by Albinus,3 who maintains that each
part has a proper tissue. William Hunter at the same
time gave a clear and ingenious statement of the difference
between cellular membrane and adipose tissue, in which
he maintained the general distribution of the former,
and represented it as forming the serous membranes, and
regulating their physiological and pathological proper ties,— 1757.
doctrines which were afterwards confirmed by his brother
John Hunter. A few years after, the department of ge¬
neral anatomy first assumed a substantial form, in the
systematic view of the membranes and their mutual con¬
nections traced by Andrew Bonn of Amsterdam. In his
inaugural dissertation De Continuationibus Membranarum,
published at Leyden in 1763, this author, after some pre- 1763.
liminary observations on membranes in general and their
structure, and an exposition of that of the skin, traces its
transition into the mucous membranes and their several
divisions. He then explains the distribution of the cellu¬
lar membrane and the aponeurotic expansions, and the
periosteum and perichondrium, by either of which, he
shows, every bone of the skeleton is invested and con¬
nected. He finally gives a very distinct view of the ar¬
rangement of the internal membranes of cavities, those
named serous and fibro-serous, and the manner of their
distribution over the contained organs. This essay, which
is a happy example of generalization, is remarkable for
the interesting general views of the structure of the ani¬
mal body which it exhibits ; and to Bonn belongs the
merit of sketching the first outlines of that system which
it was reserved for the genius of Bichat to complete and
embellish. Lastly, Bordeu, in an elaborate essay on the 1707.
mucous tissue, or cellular organ, as he terms it, brought
forward some interesting views of the constitution, nature,
and extent of the cellular membrane.
Though anatomy was hitherto cultivated with much
success as illustrating the natural history and morbid
states of the human body, yet little had been done for the
elucidation of local diseases, and the surgical means by
1 “ Pene quadringentis mea manu dissectis hominum cadaveribus.” (Praefatio ad tom. vi. Elementorum Physiologix.)
4 Ibid. * Annot. Acad. lib. iii. p. 2.
766
ANATOMY.
History, which they may be successfully treated. The idea of ap-
plying anatomical knowledge directly to this purpose ap¬
pears to have originated with Bernardin Genga, a Roman
surgeon, who published in 1672, at Rome, a work entitled
Surgical Anatomy, or the Anatomical History of the Hones
and Muscles of the Human Body, with the description of
the Blood-vessels. This work, which reached a second
edition in 1687, is highly creditable to the author, who
appears to have studied intimately the mutual relations
of different parts. It is not improbable that the example
1718-26. of Genga led Palfyn, a surgeon at Ghent, to undertake a
similar task about 30 years after. For this, however,
he w|is by no means well qualified ; and the work of
Palfyn, though bearing the name of Surgical Anatomy, is a
miserable compilation, meagre in details, inaccurate in
description, and altogether unworthy of the honour of be¬
ing republished, as it afterwards was, by Antony Petit.
While these two authors, however, were usefully em¬
ployed in showing what was wanted for the surgeon,
others were occupied in the collection of new and more
accurate facts. Albinus, indeed, ever assiduous, had, in
his account of the operations of Rau, given some good
sketches of the relative anatomy of the bladder and ure¬
thra ; and Cheselden had already, in his mode of cutting
into the urinary bladder, shown the necessity of exact
knowledge of the relations of contiguous parts. The first
decided application, however, of this species of anatomical
research it was reserved for a Dutch anatomist of the 18th
century to make. Peter Camper, professor of Anatomy at
1760. Amsterdam, published in 1760 and 1762 his anatomico-
1762. pathological demonstrations of the parts of the human
arm and pelvis, of the diseases incident to them, and the
mode of relieving them by operation. These observations
are of the utmost value. The situation of the blood-ves¬
sels, nerves, and important muscles, is explained with the
greatest clearness; and though the engravings are rather
bold and accurate than elegant, they constitute a work
indispensable to the anatomical reader. His remarks on
the lateral operation of lithotomy, which contain all that
was then known on the subject, are exceedingly inter¬
esting and valuable to the surgeon. It appears further
that he was the first who examined anatomically the me¬
chanism of ruptures, his delineations of which were pub¬
lished in 1801 by Soemmering.
It had been originally observed by Riolan, Severinus,
Rudbeck, Harvey, and De Graaf, that in the foetus the
testicles are situate in the abdomen; but this observa¬
tion, so pregnant with important results, appears to have
been overlooked, nay doubted, till verified by Haller, who
showed that their removal from this region is connected
with the formation of congenital hernia. The situation of
the testicles previous to birth, their gradual descent into the
scrotum, and the mode in which a portion of intestine may
slip down with them, was still more fully investigated by
William Hunter, by Camper, and finally by John Hunter;
and the peculiarities of the inguinal canal, and the man¬
ner in which its persistence after birth, or its re-opening,
may occasion hernial protrusions, have been well explain¬
ed by Sandifort, Scarpa, Sir Astley Cooper, Allan Burns,
and Lawrence, and more recently by Hesselbach and
Langenbeck.
The attention of anatomists was now directed to the
elucidation of the most obscure and least explored parts of
the human frame—the lymphatic vessels and the nerves.
Although, since the first discovery of the former by
Asellius, Rudbeck, and Pecquet, much had been done, es¬
pecially by Ruysch, Nuck, Meckel, and Haller, many
points, notwithstanding, relating to their origin, and dis¬
tribution in narticular organs, and in the Several classes of
1746-48-
51.
animals, were imperfectly ascertained or entirely un- History,
known. William Hunter investigated their arrangement, ’
and proposed the doctrine that they are absorbents; and
John Hunter, who undertook to demonstrate the truth of
this hypothesis by experiment, discovered, in 1758, lym¬
phatics in birds in the neck. As this doctrine required
the existence of this order of vessels, not only in quadru¬
peds and birds, but in reptiles and fishes, the inquiry at¬
tracted attention among the pupils of Hunter; and Wil¬
liam Hewson at length communicated, in December 1768,
to the Royal Society of London, an account of the lac-
teals and lymphatics in birds, fishes, and reptiles, as he had
discovered and demonstrated them. The subject appears
about the same time to have been investigated by the se¬
cond Monro, who indeed claimed the merit of discovering
these vessels in the classes of animals now mentioned
But whatever researches this anatomist may have insti¬
tuted, Hewson, by communicating his observations to the
Royal Society, must be allowed to possess the strongest
as well as the clearest claim to discovery. The same au¬
thor, in 1774, gave the first complete account of the ana¬
tomical peculiarities of the lymphatic system in man and
other animals, and thereby supplied an important gap in
this department. Hewson is the first who distinguishes the
lymphatics into two orders, the superficial and the deep,
both in the extremities and in the internal organs. He also
studied the structure of the intestinal villi, in which he ve¬
rified the observations of Lieberkuhn ; and in inquiring into
the minute structure of the glands, he adopted the views
of Ruysch. He finally applied his anatomical discoveries
to explain many of the physiological and pathological phe¬
nomena of the animal body. Ten years after, John Sheldon,
another pupil of Hunter, gave a second history and descrip¬
tion of the lymphatics, which, though divested of the charm
of novelty, contains many interesting anatomical facts.
He also examined the structure of the villi.
Lastly, Cruikshank, in 1786, published a valuable his¬
tory of the anatomy of the lymphatic system, in which he 1786
maintains the accuracy of the Hunterian doctrine, that the
lymphatics are the only absorbents; gave a more minute
account than heretofore of these vessels, of their coats
and valves; and supplied the defect left by Hewson, by
explaining the structure of the lymphatic glands. He
also injected the villi, and examined them microscopically,
verifying most of the observations of Lieberkuhn. The
origin of the lymphatics he maintains rather by inference
than direct demonstration. To these three works, though
in other respects very excellent, it is a considerable ob¬
jection that the anatomical descriptions are much mixed
with hypothetical speculation and reasonings on properties,
and that the facts are by no means always distinguished
from mere matters of opinion. At the same time Haase
published an account of the lymphatics of the skin and
intestines, and the plexiform nets of the pelvis.
To complete this sketch of the history of the anato¬
my of the lymphatic system, it may be added that Mas¬
cagni, who had been engaged from the year 1777 to
1781 in the same train of investigation, first demonstrat¬
ed to his pupils several curious facts relating to the ana¬
tomy of the lymphatic system. When at Florence in 1782,
he made several preparations, at the request of Peter
Leopold, grand duke of Tuscany; and when the Royal
Academy of Sciences at Paris announced the anatomy ot
this system for their prize essay appointed for Maxxh
1784, Mascagni resolved on communicating to the public
the results of his researches—the first part of his com¬
mentary, with four engravings. Anxiety, however, to
complete his preparations detained him at Florence till
the close of 1785; and from these causes his work did
ANATOMY.
767
History, not appear till 1787. These delays, however, unfavourable
-^■v^v^as they were to his claims of priority to Sheldon and
Cruikshank, were on the whole advantageous to the per¬
fection of his work, which is not only the most magnifi¬
cent, but also the most complete, that ever was published
on the lymphatics. In his account of the vessels and their
valves, he confirms some of Hewson’s observations, and
rectifies others. Their origins he proves by inference
much in the same manner as Cruikshank; but he antici¬
pates this author in the account of the glands, and he gives
the most minute description of the superficial and deep lym¬
phatics, both in the members and in the internal organs.
General accounts of the nerves had been given with
various degrees of accuracy by Willis, Vieussens, Winslow,
and the first Monro ; and the subject had been much rec¬
tified and improved by the indefatigable Haller. The
first example of minute descriptive neurography was given
in 1748 by J. F. Meckel, whose account of the fifth pair,
and their connection with the intercostal, and of the
nerves of the face, will long remain a lasting proof of ac¬
curacy and research. The same subject was investigated
in 1765 by Hirsch, and in 1777 by Wrisberg. In 1766
Metzger examined the origin, distribution, and termina¬
tion of the first pair,—a point which was afterwards very
minutely treated by Scarpa in his anatomical disquisitions
published in 1780; and the internal nerves of the nostrils
were examined in 1791 by Haase. The optic nerve,
which had been studied originally by Varoli, and after¬
wards by Mery, Duverney, Henkel, Moeller, Hein, and
Kaldschmid, was examined with extreme accuracy, with
the other nerves of the organ of vision, by Zinn, in his
elaborate treatise. The phrenic nerves, and the oesopha¬
geal branches of the eighth pair, were studied by Haase;
the phrenic, the abdominal, and the pharyngeal nerves, by
Wrisberg ; those of the heart most minutely by Andersch ;
and the origins, formation, and distribution of the intercos¬
tal nerve, by Iwanoff, Ludwig, and Girardi. The labours of
these anatomists, however, were eclipsed by the splendid
1783. works of Walter on the nerves of the chest and belly; and
1794. those of Scarpa on the distribution of the 8th pair, and
splanchnic nerves in general. In minuteness of descrip¬
tion, and in beauty of engraving, these works have not
yet been equalled, and will never perhaps be surpassed.
About the same time Scarpa, so distinguished in every
branch of anatomical research, investigated the minute
structure of the ganglions and plexuses.
1780. The brain was also studied with great attention by Ma-
lacarne, Vicq d’Azyr, and Soemmering; more recently
lleil examined the minute structure of the organ and its
component parts with unrivalled research and accuracy;
and Rolando studied the structure of the cerebellum.
Lastly, the anatomy of the gravid uterus, which had
been originally studied by Albinus, Roederer, and Smel-
lie, was again illustrated most completely by William
1774. Hunter, whose engravings will remain a lasting memorial
of scientific zeal and sculptorial talent.
The perfection which anatomical science has attained has
been evinced during the last ten years of the eighteenth
century, and the first half of the nineteenth century, in
the improved character of the systems published by anato¬
mists. The first who gave a good modern system was
Sabatier; but his work was speedily eclipsed by the superior
merits of the treatises of Soemmering, Bichat, and Portal.
To the first belongs the character of being at once the most
learned and critical, and at the same time the most precise,
yet published. The General Anatomy of Bichat is a monu¬
ment of his philosophical genius, which will last as long as
the structure and functions of the human body are objects
of interest. His Descriptive Anatomy is distinguished by
clear and natural arrangement, precise and accurate de- History,
scription, and the general ingenuity with which the subject
is treated. The physiological observations are in general
correct, often novel, and always highly interesting. It is
unfortunate, however, that the ingenious author was cut off
prematurely during the preparation of the third volume. It
must nevertheless be acknowledged, that if the two last ones
betray the want of the genius of Bichat, they are pervaded
with the general spirit by which the others are impressed, and
are highly creditable to the learning, the judgment, and the
diligence of MM. Roux and Buisson. The system of Portal
is a valuable and correct digest of anatomical and patholo¬
gical knowledge, which, in exact literary information, is
worthy of the author of the History of Anatomy and Sur¬
gery, and, in accuracy of descriptive details, shows that
M. Portal trusts not to the labours of his predecessors only.
Since the appearance of these standard works, Meckel pub¬
lished a Manual, which combines the philosophical generali¬
zations of Bichat with the precise description and patholo¬
gical knowledge of Portal. Of this work a French transla¬
tion was published at Paris in 1825. Lastly, Cloquet formed,
on the model of the Descriptive Anatomy of Bichat, a sys¬
tem in which he avails himself of the literature and precision
of Soemmering, and the details of Portal. The system of
Gordon is imperfect, its completion being interrupted by the
death of the author; but, so far as it goes, it gives a correct
summary of General Anatomy, and some accurate descrip¬
tive details of the heart and brain. The work of Dr Monro
is entitled to mention in this place, as an elementary trea¬
tise, containing with anatomical description a good deal of
physiological and pathological matter. These, however,
must be considered foreign to the subject.
Of treatises on particular departments, those of Blumen-
bach on the bones, Innes and Sandifort on the muscles, the
several anatomical writings and engravings of Charles Bell
on the arteries, the nerves, and the brain, Barclay on the
arteries, Tiedemann on the nerves of the uterus, and the
same author’s engraved delineations of the arteries, and
Harrison’s excellent work on the arteries, deserve notice.
The most complete work, however, on the anatomy of the
arteries was published at London between the years 1840
and 1844, by Richard Quain, Professor of Anatomy in Lon¬
don University College. In this work, Mr Quain has given
with great accuracy, views of the normal origin, course, and
distribution of all the important arteries of the human body;
and has bestowed great attention in distinguishing and fixing
all those which are normal from those which are abnormal.
This work consists of eighty-seven most faithful lithographed
engravings of large size, and is accompanied by 543 octavo
pages of descriptive letterpress. From the attention with
which it has been prepared, it ought long to continue a
standard work on the anatomy of the arterial system.
The minute structure of bone which had been examined
by Scarpa, was again studied by that indefatigable inquirer,
and in this country by Howship. In 1834, Deutsch pub¬
lished at Breslau a dissertation containing some good obser¬
vations on the minute structure of Bone; and in 1836,
Miescher, with the aid of John Muller, published at Berlin
a history of the general anatomy of bone, with some import¬
ant observations on the canaliculi of Clopton Havers, and
the manner in which the earthy matter is deposited in the
bony texture. These observations, which were made by
the aid of the microscope, form the basis of much of the
modern knowledge on the structure of these organs.
On the minute structure of the teeth, the results ofAare-
ful investigation were published by Retzius in 1837; by
Alexander Nasmyth in 1839 and 1849 ; and by John lomes
in 1848 ; and the mode in which these organs are developed
was elucidated with much skill in 1839 by Mr John Goodsir.
768 A N A T
History. The structure of the lungs, which was investigated in 1808
v'—by Reisseissen, in 1821 by Magendie, and in 1827 by Sir E.
Home, was anew subjected to scrutiny in 1836 by Bourgery,
in 1842 by Mr William Addison; in 1845 by Mr George
Rainey; and in 1846 by M. Rossignol.
On the anatomy of the nervous system numerous trea¬
tises have appeared during the last forty years. Joseph and
1812. Charles Wenzel investigated in 1812 the minute structure of
the brain in man and the lower animals ; Tiedemann traced
the development of the organ in the foetus, and rectified
many errors on its formation and minute structure; Six
Everard Home and M. Bauer investigated its atomic con¬
stitution by the microscope. But this was done in a manner
still more elaborate, and with improved means of observa¬
tion, by Ehrenberg in 1833, by Valentin in 1834, by Remak
in 1838, and by Purkinje about the same time. In 1836
Samuel Solly published an instructive treatise containing
the anatomical history of the brain and its parts, elucidated
chiefly after- the method of demonstration proposed by Gall
and Red, and improved by Foville. A second edition of this
work, enlarged and improved by much additional informa¬
tion, appeared in 1847; and though much of the volume is
devoted to physiological and pathological matter, it may be
regarded as the most complete treatise on the subject in the
English language. More strictly anatomical, and not less
valuable, is the Descriptive and Physiological Anatomy of
the Brain, Spinal Chord, and Ganglions, by Robert Bentley
Tod, published in 1845 ; a treatise remarkable for accuracy
and precision in information.
Lobstein investigated in 1823 the structure and distribu¬
tion of the Great Sympathetic Nerve ; Bellinger! published
the same year an accurate description of the Spinal Chord
and its Nerves ; Charles Bell, in his great work on the Ner¬
vous System, develops and establishes the truth of the an¬
cient theory of the separate nature of the nerves of motion
and those of sensation.
Between 1830 and 1834, Joseph Swan published a series
of twenty-five excellent drawings, representing the con¬
nections, course, and distribution of all the demonstrable
nerves of the human body, upon a scale as large as life ; a
work, the result of several years of personal dissection.
Robert Lee gave in 1842 elaborate views of the position of
the ganglia, and distribution of the Nerves of the Uterus in
the virgin, and in the impregnated state; and the same parts
were made the subject of investigation by Mr Snow Beck.
Comparative Anatomy, which, during the eighteenth cen¬
tury, was diligently cultivated by Daubenton, Pallas, Haller,
John Hunter, and the second Monro, became during the
first thirty years of the nineteenth century a subject of in¬
creased interest, from its intimate connection with the sciences
of zoology, physiology, and geology, and has consequently
been studied with great assiduity and skill by Cuvier, Du-
meril, Home, Tiedemann, Meckel, Spixand Martius, Robert
Grant, Rymer Jones, Richard Owen, and by numerous in¬
quirers in the several countries of Germany.
The improvement which has been effected in the con¬
struction of the compound microscope during the thirty years
subsequent to 1822, has contributed, in no small degree, to
enable anatomists to obtain more correct information on the
intimate structure of different organs and tissues of the ani¬
mal body. For the first twenty years of the nineteenth
century, opticians and instrument-makers had at intervals
endeavoured to render the compound microscope at once an
instrument of greater power, and more free from sources of
error and optical illusion than it had hitherto been possible
to obtain it. Two defects, however, still adhered to the
O M Y.
compound microscope. The instrument was not achroma- History,
tic; and a considerable degree of spherical aberration un- -./-«•»-
corrected rendered the image indistinct.
Between 1812 and 1815, Professor Amici of Modena had
attempted to construct an achromatic object-glass of one
single lens ; but found that this was impracticable. M. Sel-
ligues of Paris, in 1823, after various trials, found that this
could be done by making the object-glass consist of four
achromatic compound lenses, each of which was composed
of two single lenses. This method was carried into prac¬
tice, and improved by the two MM. Chevalier of Paris.
About the same time, Dr Goring in London, with the aid
of Mr Tulley and Mr Pritchard, constructed compound
microscopes upon a similar principle.
On the 5th of April 1824, M. Selligues presented to the
Academy of Sciences a microscope, constructed by M. Che¬
valier, on the principle of combined lenses; and in the
course of the same year, and without the knowledge of what
had been done in France, the late Mr Tulley, at the sug¬
gestion of Dr Goring, constructed a compound microscope,
an achromatic object-glass, of nine-tenths of one inch focal
length, composed of three lenses, and transmitting a pencil
of eighteen degrees. This was the first achromatic micro¬
scope that had been made in England.
By the labours of these practical opticians, and the sug¬
gestions of various scientific persons, as Sir John Herschel,
Mr Airy, Mr Barlow, one great defect of the compound
microscope was obviated. There was still another under
which the instrument laboured; the effects of spherical aber¬
ration. This was overcome, in a very simple manner, by
the experiments of Mr Jackson Lister, who had early ob¬
served that the combined achromatic object-glasses, devised
by Selligues, were fixed in their cells with tfxe convex side
foremost, and that this is the most improper position, as it
renders the spherical error very great. This gentleman found,
after various trials, that, by placing three or more achromatic
glasses with their plane surfaces directed foremost, it was
possible to correct completely all spherical aberration.1
This fact was made known in the beginning of the year
1830; and by its application, the compound microscope
was brought to a high degree of perfection as an achromatic
instrument in 1831 and 1832, and became the means of
affording valuable assistance in anatomical inquiries. After
this period, accordingly, we find a succession of valuable
monographical essays appearing, from time to time, from the
anatomists of this country and the continent, on the minute
microscopical anatomy of various important organs of the
animal body. The whole of these writings it is impossible
to mention in this place, further than to say that the use of
the microscope in anatomy, which had in the times of Mal¬
pighi, Leeuwenhoeck, William Cowper, Baker, Fontana,
Hewson, and the second Monro, been much cultivated, but
had afterwards, from the imperfection of the instrument, and
the illusions to which it not unfrequently gave rise, been
unduly neglected, became so general and so necessary, that
it may be said that, since the year 1832, minute structural
anatomy has been, if not created anew, at least most
thoroughly revised. The amount of knowledge has been
increased ; that which was already possessed was rendered
greatly more accurate and precise.
By the aid furnished by these improved instruments, John
Muller was enabled in 1830 to publish his elaborate Com¬
mentary on the Minute Structure of the Glands, the first
work in which the anatomy of these organs was examined
and elucidated in a comprehensive and systematic manner.
By the aid of the same instrument Ehrenberg was enabled
1 On some Properties in Achromatic Object-Glasses applicable to the Improvement of the Microscope. By Joseph Jackson Lister, Esq.
Philosophical Transactions, 1830. Read 21st January 1830.
ANATOMY.
769
to publish, in 1833, his observations on the Minute Structure
of the Brain ; to explain in a manner hitherto impracticable
the structure of numerous infusoria, and to disclose the pe¬
culiarities of many other structures, animal, vegetable, and
mineral, which had previously eluded the most skilful re¬
searches. By the same means Francis Kiernan, in 1833,
published the first correct account of the Minute Anatomy
of the Liver. By means of the same assistance, Dr Martin
Barry has communicated a large amount of new and correct
information upon the structure of the Germinal Vesicle and
the changes which it undergoes ; the structure of cells; the
minute structure of muscular fibres, and several other sub¬
jects intricate and little understood. By the same means,
Mr William Addison and Mr George Rainey in this country,
and M. Rossignol in Belgium, have been enabled to investi¬
gate carefully the minute structure of the lungs, and the dis¬
position and figure of the air-vesicles. By the same means
Gulliver, Queckett, and Wharton Jones, have studied to ex¬
plain the minute structure of the corpuscules or globules of the
blood in different classes of animals, and have thrown much
light upon the forms of these globules. Lastly, by means
of the same instrument, Mr Bowman has been enabled to
give the first clear and intelligible views of the sacculo-vas-
cular structure of the corpora globosa or Malpighian bodies
of the kidney, and has shown in what manner the cirriform
or curling capillaries of these bodies contribute to the secre¬
tion of the urine ; while in the same department Huschke,
Reichert, Gerlach, and Bidder, have laboured with great
perseverance in elucidating various obscure points.
For several years past, in short, anatomists in Great Bri¬
tain, France, Switzerland, Germany, Belgium, and Holland,
have been industriously occupied in studying various de¬
partments of minute anatomy, by means of the improved
compound microscope, and in throwing light upon all those
points that are most obscure and uncertain. It cannot he
said, nevertheless, that all has been discovery and all ac¬
quisition. These investigations have given rise to a large
proportion of discordance in the representations given by
different observers; and though all must have beheld the
same objects, yet all have not put upon them the same in¬
terpretation. The result is, that it is a work of no ordinal y
difficulty to reconcile these discordant points, and out of the
whole stock of facts, to form a consistent and correct descrip¬
tion. Perhaps a considerable time must elapse before all
these difficulties can be fully explained, and all the points of
discordance can be satisfactorily reconciled.
Meanwhile, it is proper to mention that systematic trea¬
tises have shared in the general improvements and rectifica¬
tions thus introduced into anatomical science. In the year
1833 Carl Frederick Theodore Krause published at Hano¬
ver the first division or section of the first volume, in the
year 1836 the second part, and in 1838 the third division,
completing the first volume of a Flandbook oi Manual on
Anatomy, General and Special. The general anatomy i»
given in the first part of the first division ; the rest of the first
division is occupied with the anatomy of the skeleton, the
muscles, the ligaments, and the fasciae. The second division
is employed in explaining the anatomy of the compound or- History,
gans and apparatus, including the organs of the senses, those of
respiration, digestion, the organs of secretion, and those of re¬
production. In the third division the author treats of the heart,
the bloodvessels and lymphatics, and the nervous system.
This treatise is one of great merit. It is remarkable for
clearness and method, brevity, accuracy, and precision , and
the author must be allowed to have presented a most instruc¬
tive system of anatomical knowledge. Krause has given in
it accurate average estimates of the weights and dimensions
of the different organs. This work appeared in a second
edition in 1841 and 1842.1
In the year 1837, Joseph Berres, professor of anatomy at
Vienna, published in that city the Microscopical Anatomy
of the Human Body ; and in which he gave views of the
anatomy of all the simple textures and the various organs,
as disclosed by the microscope. The instrument which Pro¬
fessor Berres employed was one made by Ploesslich. This
work is undoubtedly one of great labour and no ordinary
value ; but probably it is in its plan too comprehensive, and
embraces too large a field to be in all points accurate. The
descriptions are given in the German and Latin languages.
Cruveilhier published in 1834 and 1835, a good general
treatise on Descriptive Anatomy, which was translated into
English, and published in 1841 as part of the Library of
Medicine.3 A new and improved edition of this treatise
the author himself published at Paris in 1842 and 1844.
The excellent work by Samuel Thomas Soemmering,4
originally published in the German language, between the
years 1791 and 1796; then in the Latin language between
the years 1794 and 1800; and in a second edition in the
German language in 1800 and 1801, maintaining the high
character which it first possessed for clear arrangement, ac¬
curate description, and general precision ; was between the
years 1841 and 1844 republished in eight volumes at Leip-
sic, by Bischoff, Henle, Huschke, Theile, Valentin, Vogel,^
and Wagner, with suitable additions, and a large amount of
new and accurate information. In this edition Rudolph
Wagner gives in the first division of the first volume, the
Life, Correspondence, and Literary writings of Soemmer¬
ing ; and, in the second volume, the anatomy of the Bones
and Ligaments. The third volume contains the anatomy
of the Muscles and the Vascular system by Theile. Va¬
lentin devotes one volume, the fourth, to the minute ana¬
tomy of the Nervous system and its parts, as disclosed by
careful examination by the microscope ; and it must be al¬
lowed that the author has been at great pains to present
just views of the true anatomy of the Brain, the Spinal
Cord, the Nervous Branches, and the Ganglia. In the fifth
volume, Huschke of Jena, gives the anatomical histoiy of
the Viscera, and the organs of the senses; a department
which had been left in some degree incomplete in the ori¬
ginal ; but for one division of which the author had left use¬
ful materials in his large figures already mentioned. In the
sixth volume, an entire and complete system of General
Anatomy, deduced from personal observation, and that of
other careful observers, the materials being in general new,
1 Handbuch der Menschlichen Anatomie Durchaus nach Eigenen Untersuchungen und mit Besonderer Ruchsicht auf das Bedurf-
niss ^er S^udirenden, der Practischen Aerzte und Wundarzte und der Gerichtsarzte Verfasst von Carl Fnedench Theod. Krause, M.D.,
rzsKU vo„ ^ ^ K. K. 0^^ ^ a.,-
‘° A^f Mic'rolp^Spo^HuIr Aul™ Dr Joseph, Berres Professor. Publico Ordiuario iu Dniversitut, Vindobooeusi,
of Anatomy to the PacuDy of Medicine of PurD, Physician io the Hospital
of Salne" ere L TwoTOlumes smali 8»o, London, 1841-42, pp. 1214. Library of Medicine, volumes seventh »nd «ghth.
4 Thomas Von Soemmerring vom Baue des Menschlichen Kdrpers. Neue umgearbeitete und vervollstandigte Ong _
Ansgab" Besorgt W Th B^hoff, !• Henle, G. Huschke, F. W. Theile, G. Valentin, J. Vogel und Rud. Wagner. 1.^1841-44.
Acht Bande.
VOL. II.
770
ANATOMY.
History, and in all instances confirmed and rectified, is given by Henle,
at that time at Zurich, but subsequently professor at Heidel¬
berg. The seventh volume contains the history of the pro¬
cess of Development in Mammalia and Man, by Th. L. W.
Bischoff. The eighth volume contains the Pathological Ana¬
tomy of the Human Body, by Julius Vogel, but only the first
division thereof, relating to the generalities of the subject.
This, which is probably the most accurate, as it is the
most elaborate system of anatomical knowledge up to the
date of its publication in 1844, was translated into the French
language by Jourdan, and published in 1846, under the
name of Encyclopedic Anatomique. The eighth volume
was translated into the English language in the year 1847.
In 1840, Francis Gerber published at Berne a Manual of
General Anatomy in the Human Subject and the Domestic
Mammalia. Of this work, which contains a large amount
of new and accurate information, an English translation was
published by Mr Gulliver in 1842.1
In 1846, Joseph Hyrtl published at Prague a system of
Anatomy of the Human Body in reference to Physiology,
which contains short but interesting views of the Physiolo¬
gical Anatomy of the different organs. In the course of
the same year, and in 1847, the same writer published a
Manual of Topographical and Surgical Anatomy ; the lat¬
ter chiefly for surgeons and accoucheurs, as the former work
was intended for the benefit of physicians. The second
volume contains the surgical anatomy of the Male and Fe¬
male Pelvis, the Spine, and the extremities.2
Bourgery began in 1834 to publish a work on Elemen¬
tary Anatomy ; and in 1837 a large and complete system of
anatomical knowledge, illustrated with large figures of all
the divisions and organs of the human body. This work con¬
sist of two divisions, one on Medical and Physiological Ana¬
tomy; the other on Surgical Anatomy. It is only now com¬
pleted.
In England the treatise by Jones Quain, which was
highly esteemed, was republished in a fifth edition between
the years 1843 and 1848, by Mr Richard Quain and Dr
Sharpey, in two volumes. The work was in this form en¬
larged to about double its previous size; and it contains a
large amount of accurate information in General Anatomy,
and in several of the divisions of Descriptive Anatomy. The
General Anatomy is written entirely anew by Dr Sharpey,
who has taken great pains to present a just and accurate view
of the state of knowledge in that department. This work is
the most complete English system hitherto published. Of
various English manuals, those by Ellis, by Wilson, and
Harrison, are most entitled to recommendation.3
In the three years between 1846 and 1849, Dr Arthur
Hill Hassall published the Microscopic Anatomy of the Hu¬
man Body in Health and Disease* Though in this work
the author treats of the morbid state of the fluids and solids,
as well as their normal or healthy condition; yet as he takes
great pains to give correct views of the minute anatomy of
the textures in the state of health, it would be unjust here History,
to omit mentioning his services. The work is illustrated by v-»-'
sixty-nine coloured drawings, and may be recommended as
one giving very just views of the minute anatomy of the tis¬
sues and organs, both from personal observations, and that
of contemporary inquirers.
In the year 1850, Dr A. Kolliker, Professor of Ana¬
tomy at Wurzberg, published at Leipsic the first half of
the second volume of a work devoted to the elucidation
of the microscopical anatomy of the human body: and
in 1852 the second half of the same volume. For mani¬
fold reasons the author states that he publishes the se¬
cond volume, which is devoted to the history of the Spe¬
cial or Particular Tissues, before the first. In the first
half of this volume, Kolliker treats of the microscopical
anatomy of the Skin, the Muscles, the Bones, and the
Nerves, and in the first division of the second half of the
microscopical anatomy of the Organs of Respiration and
Digestion.5 From the specimens already published, this
work gives the promise of being the most complete and ac¬
curate hitherto published on the subject of minute structural
anatomy. The author has been at great pains in examining
every texture with the greatest care, and comparing his own
observations with those given by previous and contemporary
anatomists; and while the information is ample on every
disputed point, every reader must feel that he finds in this
work more accurate knowledge on the intimate structure of
organs than he had previously possessed. This work, when
completed, will, in short, probably prove to be the standard
treatise on general and microscopical anatomy. The de¬
scriptions are illustrated by numerous beautiful wood en¬
gravings (295), and four lithographed tables.
The account now given embraces the principal works
upon anatomy, not by any means the whole, that have been
published since the use of the improved compound micro¬
scope has become general. Many writings of very consider¬
able merit upon individual subjects and questions in anatomy
have during the same time appeared in different countries
of Europe. Upon the brain and the nervous system they
have been most numerous; some inquirers devoting their
attention to the nerves, as Remak, Purkinje, Pappenheim,
Bidder, and Yolkmann, Budge, Schiff, Bowman; others,
as Valentin, Longet, Solly, Todd, Lockhart, to the Brain
and its Vertebral Prolongation. These, however, the limits
assigned to the present outline prevent us from recording. It
shall be our study, nevertheless, in the proper place to notice
whatever facts may seem most important, as ascertained by
each, as far as the nature and objects of this article will admit.
Minute details it will not be possible to introduce. But it
shall be our endeavour to present upon the structure of the
tissues and the different organs, such accounts as may con¬
vey a just idea of the facts hitherto ascertained, and may
enable readers to form correct notions on the state of anato¬
mical knowledge in the middle of the nineteenth century.
1 E r. Gerber Handbuch der Allgemeine Anatomie des Menschen und der Haussaugthiere mit Steindruck Tafeln. Folio. 2 Durchgesch:
Ausgabe gr. 8vo. Bern, 184.0.
Elements of General and Minute Anatomy by Fr. Gerber, translated by George Gulliver. London 1842, atlas 8vo.
P I* ^Tsib Ije^rbuch Anatomie des Menschen mit Ruchsicht auf Physiologische Begriinde und Practische Anwendung gr. 8vo.
Joseph Hyrtl Handbuch der Topographischen Anatomie und ihre Practische Med-Chirurg Anwendung mit Steindruck Tafeln N. Finer
Band gr. 8vo. Wien 1846-47.
3 Elements of Anatomy by Jones Quain, M.D. Fifth Edition. Edited by Richard Quain, F.R.S., and William Sharpey, M.D., F.R.S.,
Professors of Anatomy and Physiology in University College, London. In two volumes, Illustrated with numerous engravings in wood,
8vo. General Anatomy cccvii. pp. Descriptive Anatomy 1324 pp.
4 The Microscopic Anatomy of the Human Body in Health and Disease. Illustrated with numerous Drawings in colour, by Arthur
Hill Hassall, M.B., &c., Member of the Royal College of Surgeons, England. In two volumes. London 1846-9, 8vo, pp. 570. Sixty-
nine coloured Drawings.
6 Mikroscopische Anatomie, oder Gewebelehre des Menschen von Dr A. Kolliker, Professor der Anatomie und Physiologic in Wurz¬
burg. Zweiter Band Specielle Gewebelehre; Erste Halfte mit 168 Holzschnitten. Leipzig 1850, grdsse 8vo, seite 554, Zweite Halfte I.
Abtheilung Mit. 127 Holzschnitten. Leipzig 1852, seite 346.
ANATOMY.
Human In the foregoing account we have been anxious to trace
Anatomy, merely a general sketch of the progressive advancement
of anatomical discovery, from the first cultivation of the
art to the present time. To mention every circumstance is
impracticable, and would have extended this outline much
beyond its legitimate limits. Though no name of genuine
importance, however, has been omitted, every one not
directly connected with strict anatomy has been excluded.
771
For more minute and detailed information, we refer in Human
general to the elaborate History of Anatomy and Surgery Anatomy,
by Portal, the Bibliotheca Anatomica of Haller, and the N'—^
critical and learned history of Lauth. The latter work is not
completed. But by combining its perusal with that of the
works already mentioned, and several of the chapters ot
Sprengel’s History of Medicine, the anatomical inquirer will
form very just ideas of the literary history of his science.1
HUMAN ANATOMY.
All animal bodies agree in the possession of certain ge¬
neral characters, by which they are distinguished equally
from inorganic bodies and from vegetables.
Besides the round shape by which organic bodies are
distinguished, most animals are, externally at least, symme¬
trical, or present on each side of the mesial plane, lateral
halves mutually alike. The substances of which they
consist are not entirely solid, but are soft, compressible,
distensible, and elastic, and contain a proportion of liquid
matter, which is generally in the ratio of majority to that
of the solid. These substances are enveloped in a thready
or filamentous matter, named areolar or cellular, from the
interstitial spaces which result from the intersection of
its filaments; and the whole is inclosed in a general
covering, which in several classes is soft, membranous,
and elastic, but in others is hard, crustaceous, and even
horny. The body is perforated by an internal cavity
for the reception of food; and this cavity is lined by a
membranous covering, which is continuous with that by
which the exterior is involved. In several classes of ani¬
mals there are tubular canals, distributed in an arborescent
form, for conveying, in definite directions, the nutritious
matter to all parts of the frame. These are named blood¬
vessels, or organs of circulation. One modification of
these, arranged in such manner that this matter is sub¬
jected to the influence of the atmospheric air, forms
lungs, gills, or organs of respiration ; and another, in which
part of it is separated from the whole, constitutes secreting
organs or glands. The genital or reproductive organs
consist of a cavity, from which the germs or ova are de¬
tached. For the purpose of motion, animals further pos¬
sess organs generally of a fibrous structure, and which
have the remarkable property of undergoing contraction
on the application of a stimulus or irritating agent. These
organs are denominated muscles (lacerti, tori); and their
contractile property is termed irritability or contractility.
For receiving the impression of external objects, they are
provided with one or more organs of sensation, of structure
more or less complex. And in almost all animal bodies,
except the very lowest, there are found soft, gray, or
whitish cords, inelastic, but marked in their course by
fusiform, spheroidal, or irregular-shaped swellings, and
connected at their further extremity with the muscles, with
the organs of sensation, or with the exterior or interior
coverings. It is remarkable that the purpose of these
cords, which are named nerves, is not exactly known.
They neither communicate mobility to the muscles, nor
sensibility to the organs of sensation; but they render the
actions of the former steady, regular, and voluntary ; and
the impressions received by the latter they certainly
serve to convey to the centre of the nervous system.
The faculty ascribed to the nerves is named nervous ac¬
tion, nervous energy, nervous power, nervous influence, or
simply innervation.
In chemical composition, animal bodies consist of
gelatine, albumen, fibrin, fat or oleaginous matter, a
modification of mucus, and various saline substances.
Subjected to combustion, or spontaneous decomposition,
while vegetable substances furnish water, carbonic acid,
and carburetted hydrogen, animal matters furnish also
ammonia,—a circumstance which shows that they con¬
tain azote. They furnish also sulphuretted hydrogen,
apparently from the decomposition of albuminous matters.
The fluids of animal bodies (liquores, latices, humores)
are contained in tubular canals or vessels. If these fluids
move through the vessels, they are denominated gene¬
rally blood, whatever be their colour. All the fluids con¬
sist either of this, or of some modification separated from
it by means of glandular action ; and of the fluids so
separated, some are destined for purposes within the
economy, and are therefore secretions proper; others are
intended to be eliminated immediately, and may there¬
fore be regarded as excretions. Though it is impossible
to estimate accurately the proportion of the fluids, some
idea of it may be formed by the fact, that an animal body
may be reduced by desiccation to ^ or ^ even of its pre¬
vious weight. The proportion may be stated, in general
terms, to vary from 9 or 6 of fluid, to 1 of solid matter.
The various forms of animal bodies may be referred
to general divisions or classes, according to certain pe¬
culiarities in configuration and structure. These divi¬
sions are, the Vertebrata, Mollusca, Articulata,
and Radiata.
In the first class the central portion of the nervous sys¬
tem, consisting of the brain and spinal chord, is inclosed
in a case of hard matter, containing much calcareous earth,
and denominated bone. While one portion of this forms,
by the union of its pieces, a cavity named the scull or
cranium, the other is composed of separate pieces, which
by their union constitute at once a continuous canal and
a sort of internal pillar or column for attaching and sup¬
porting the soft parts. These pieces are named vertebrce
(tTrovduXoi); and their presence is so uniform, that they
constitute the character of the class, which are therefore
named Vertebrated Animals; (Animalia Verte-
BRIS PRiEDITA, sife VeRTEBRATA).
The presence of vertebrae is accompanied with other
peculiarities of structure. Thus the vertebrated animals
have red blood and a muscular heart; a system of tubes
for conveying blood from this to the different organs,—the
distributory, or arteries; another system for returning
it,—the regredient, or veins; and a particular system of
1 Histoire de rAnatomic et dc la Chirurgie, §c. par M. Portal, Lecteur au Itoi, &c. Paris, 1770-1773, 6 vols. Bibliotheca Anatomica,
qua Scripta ad Anatomen et Physiologiam facicntia a rerum initiis recensentur. Auctore Alberto von Haller Domino a Goumoens, &c.
Tiguri, 1774-1777, 2 vols. 4to. Histoire de 1'Anatomic, par Thomas Lauth, D. M. &c. &c. Strasbourg, 1815. Versuch einer
pragmatischen Geschichte der Arzneikunde von Kurt Sprengel. Halle, 1792-1803. 3e Auflage, 1821-28.
772
anatomy.
Human vessels for exposing the latter blood to the influence o
Anatomy the atmosphere. They have further a mouth with two
' horizontal jaws ; distinct organs of vision, hearing, smell,
and taste, lodged in the cavities of the face; never more
than four members; separate sexual organs ; and con¬
siderable similarity in the arrangement of the central
masses and the ramified chords of the nervous system.
In all the vertebrated animals the blood which serves for
the secretion of bile is the venous, which has circulated
in the intestines, and which is afterwards made to un-
dergo a ramifying distribution in the poital vein. In a
the vertebrated animals also a peculiar secretion is form¬
ed from the arterial blood by two large glands, denomi¬
nated kidneys. _ .
In the second general division, which are destitute of
those firm pieces named bones, the central portion of the
nervous system, instead of being inclosed in portions of
the skeleton, is placed on the oesophagus, and, with the
other internal organs, is inclosed in a general soft en¬
velope, contractile, corresponding to the skin, to which the
muscles are attached, and in which stony patches named
shells are occasionally formed. Of the four proper organs
of sensation, those only of taste and sight are observed;
and the last are often wanting. One family only are provid¬
ed with organs of hearing. There is always a complete
system of circulation, and organs for respiration. Those
of digestion and secretion are almost as complicated as in
the vertebrated animals. The division of the animal world
thus distinguished have been named Molluscous Ani¬
mals ; (Animalia Mollusca).
In the third general division, the nervous system con¬
sists of two chords extending longitudinally along the
belly, and swelling at intervals into knots or ganglions.
The first of these, placed on the oesophagus, and distin¬
guished as the brain, is scarcely larger than the others.
The covering of the trunk is divided by transverse folds
into a number of rings, the integuments of which may be
hard or soft, but to the interior of which muscles are in
all cases attached. The sides of the trunk, though often
provided with, are nevertheless often without, articulated
members. The annular appearance of the trunk has given
these animals the character of Articulated ; (Animalia
Articulata). They have been occasionally named
Annulosa.
This class of animal bodies is remarkable for present¬
ing the first transition from circulation in close tubes or
vessels, to nutrition by imbibition, and the corresponding
transition from respiration in circumscribed organs to
that which takes place in air-tubes distributed through
the whole body. The only distinct organs of sensation
are those of taste and sight; and a single family have or¬
gans of hearing. The jaws, when present, are lateral.
In these three divisions of animals the organs of motion
and sensation are arranged symmetrically on both sides of
an axis or imaginary line. In a fourth class they are dis¬
tributed circularly round a centre. In these, which in
homogeneous structure approach the nature of plants,
neither distinct nervous system nor proper organs of sen¬
sation are observed. Scarcely do we recognise traces of
circulation. The organs for respiration are almost always
at the surface of the body. Most of them have for intes¬
tine a sac without vent; and some present only a homo¬
geneous pulp, movable and sensible. To this class,
which comprehends those beings denominated since the
time of Aristotle zoophytes (J^wtpvra), or animal plants, the
name of Radiated Animals has been recently applied ;
(Animalia Radiata).
The vertebrated animals, however similar in general
characters, present certain peculiarities by which they are
naturally distinguished into classes. The first, and per- Human
haps the most striking difference, is in the mode of birth, Anatomy,
one large division being separated from the body of the^-^^^
female parent in a state of complete life, and therefore
denominated viviparous; the other being detached in
the form of an ovum or egg, which, though possessed
of the elements of life, is not yet endowed with it, and
requires for the full developement of that principle the
assiduous care of the parent. This difference, however
obvious, is more apparent than real. In viviparous birth
the foetus or new animal remains attached to the inner
surface of the womb by means of nutrient blood-vessels,
and is enveloped in membranes, which correspond very
accurately to the coverings of the ova of oviparous ani¬
mals. The rupture of these membranes at the moment
of birth or detachment from the body of the parent is the
only circumstance which constitutes a material difference
between viviparous and oviparous generation. The vivi¬
parous animals, nevertheless, are further distinguished by
nursing their offspring by means of teats or mammae, glands
destined for separating from the mass of blood the oleo-
albuminous fluid denominated milk.
A still more important source of distinction among the
vertebrated animals is found in the disposition of the vas¬
cular organs destined for respiration. The blood, which
proceeds from the heart by the distributing tubes or ar¬
teries to the different organs, thereby undergoes a certain
change, in consequence of which it is no longer capable of
answering the several purposes of nutrition, secretion, &c.
which are necessary to the maintenance of the animal
body in the healthy state. To fit it once more for these
purposes, the blood, in whole or in part, is, by means of
the veins, brought back to the heart, and thence conveyed
by means of a system of arborescent tubes to the surface
of an organ, where it is, through the interposition of a
thin membrane, exposed more or less freely to the atmo¬
spheric air. When it is exposed directly to this fluid in¬
troduced into the body by means of a single tube divided
into ramifying branches, the respiratory organ is denomi¬
nated lungs. When the blood, on the other hand, is ex¬
posed to atmospheric air by means of water, which passes
over a pectiniform organ, the latter is denominated gills.
Respiration varies, therefore, according as the structure
of the organ allows the whole or part of the blood to
be exposed to air, and according as this exposure is direct
or indirect.
Taken together, these circumstances may be viewed as
the integrant or constituent elements of the quantity, ex¬
tent, or degree of respiration, which conversely, indeed,
depends on two circumstances,—the quantity of blood
present in the respiratory organ at any given moment, and
the relative quantity of oxygen in the respired fluid.
The organs of circulation may be double, so that the
whole mass of blood which is brought by the veins from
the remote parts must circulate in the respiratory organ
before it is again distributed by the arteries;—or they may
be single, so that one portion only of the regredient blood
is made to pass through the respiratory organ, while the
residue is distributed by the arteries without undergoing
this circulation. Of this mode of respiration an example
is given by the class of animals denominated Reptiles;
(Reptilia ; Animalia Repentia) ; in which the heart
is so constructed that only part of the blood is conveyed
to the lungs, and in which, consequently, the amount or
degree of respiration, and the concomitant qualities, vary
according to the proportion of this fluid which goes to the
lungs at each pulsation.
In Fishes, on the other hand, though the circulation is
two-fold, that is, distributory by means of arteries, and
A N A T
Human regredient by means of veins, the respiratory organ is
Anatomy. formed for respiration through the medium of water, and
the blood thus exposed to air receives the influence of
that only which is mingled or held in solution by the
water. Their extent of respiration is therefore supposed
to be less than that of reptiles, by reason of the imperfect
exposure to the operation of the air. Their respiration
may be termed hydro-aerial.
In mammiferous animals, again, though the circulation is
two-fold, or distributory and regredient, the respiration is
single, or confined to the lungs only. Their extent of
respiration is therefore superior to that of the reptiles, by
reason of the shape of their circulatory organs, and to
that of fishes by reason of the nature of the element in
which they live. Their respiration is aerial.
In another class of vertebrated animals, however, respi¬
ration assumes a form still more perfect and extensive,
since not only is the circulation two-fold, and the respira¬
tion aerial, as in the mammalia, but their structure is such
that the air of the trachea communicates with other cavi¬
ties, especially those of the bones, and surrounds the
branches of the aorta as completely as it does those of the
pulmonary artery. The effect of this arrangement with
regard to the ambient atmosphere is at once to render
these animals specifically lighter, and enable them to sup¬
port themselves in the air, and to restore and change the
regredient or venous blood so completely, that when again
distributed it may impart to the various organs the high¬
est degree of energy of which they are susceptible.
From these characters a division of vertebrated animals
may be formed in the following manner. ls£, Quadrupeds,
in which the extent of respiration is moderate, and which
are distinguished for walking or running, or other muscu¬
lar exertion with strength ; 2c?, Birds, in which the extent
of respiration is the greatest possible, and is connected
with the levity of substance and energy of muscle requi¬
site for flight; 3c?, Reptiles, in which the small extent of
respiration is connected with languor of motion and occa¬
sional seasons of torpor ; and, 4?A, Fishes, in which the still
more limited form of the respiratory organ requires a
fluid of nearly equal specific weight to their own bodies
to enable them to move with facility. These characters
are necessarily general; but they are so essential, that
between them and the other circumstances of organization
proper to each class, and especially those relating to motion
and sensation, a necessary relation exists.
To the quadrupeds, mammiferous animals, or viviparous
vertebrated animals, which form the first of these great
classes, this place belongs, not only by the mode of gene¬
ration and respiration, but by the more perfect form of
the animal functions, and the higher degree of intelligence
which their habits and actions indicate. They are less
under the influence of that blind animal propensity deno¬
minated instinct, which, like the properties of inorganic
matter, seems to operate regularly and uniformly, inde¬
pendent either of sensation or volition.
This class of animals is distinguished by great unifor¬
mity and regularity of structure and organization. In all
of them the upper jaw forms part of the cranium ; and upon
this the lower jaw, consisting of two pieces only, articulat¬
ed by a prominent condyle to the temporal bone, is made
to move. The neck consists of seven, and, in one species
only, of nine vertebra; to the sternum are attached cer¬
tain of the ribs, therefore named sterno-vertebral; the
thoracic extremity is supported by a flat bone named
shoulderblade (scapula, u/MvXarri^, not articulated, but
simply suspended in the muscles, and in some species
supported on the sternum by an intermediate bone, named
collar-bone or clavicle (clavicula, xXrjis); in all excepting
O M Y. 773
the cetacea or whale-like animals, the first part of the Human
pelvic extremity is fixed to the vertebral column, and forms Amtomy^
a cincture or basin (pelvis), which in early life is divid¬
ed into three pairs of bones, the os ilium, which is attach¬
ed to the spine, the os pubis, which constitutes the anterior
or abdominal part of the pelvis, and the os ischium, which
constitutes the most remote lateral portions of the pelvis.
At the point of junction of these three bones on each side
is a spherical cavity, io which the articular head of the
thigh-bone is lodged.
The scull, articulated by two prominent convex surfaces
with the first vertebra, denominated atlas, may be repre¬
sented as consisting of three annular portions, an anterior
formed by the frontal and ethmoid bones, a middle by the
parietal and sphenoid bones, and a posterior by the occipital
bone; the temporal bones, which are common to the face
and scull, being interposed between the sphenoid, the oc¬
cipital, and the parietal bones.
The face is formed essentially by the superior and in¬
ferior maxillary bones. Between the former is the cavity
of the nostrils above, separated by the azygos bone named
vomer ; before are the intermaxillary bones, and behind are
the two palate bones. The entrance of the nasal cavity is
bounded above by the proper nasal bones; and to a groove
in this cavity are attached the inferior turbinated bones,
so as to cover partially the entrance into the maxillary
sinus.
The brain consists of two similar hemispherical halves,
united by a white mass, fibrous, especially in the transverse
direction, named mesolobe, middle-band, or smooth body
(tfw/xa nXKosibig, corpus callosum). Each hemisphere con¬
tains an interior cavity, formed into definite-shaped masses,
uniform and symmetrical. These cavities communicate
with each other, and with a third situate on the mesial
plane, and extending by a narrow canal to a fourth situate
between the cerebellum and medulla oblongata. The pro¬
per matter of the cerebral and cerebellic hemispheres
is united on the mesial plane in a mass named annular
protuberance or pons Varolii, the lower surface of whicn
is marked by transverse fibres, while the upper is mould¬
ed into four roundish eminences named nates and testes,
or corpora quadrigemina.
In the eye, lodged in a cavity of the cranium named
orbit, and provided with two eye-lids and the vestige of
a third, the crystalline lens is fixed by the ciliary processes;
and the sclerotic, though firm, is cellular. The ear con¬
sists of a cavity named tympanum, closed externally by a
membrane, and containing four minute but articulated
and movable bones; an oval cavity or vestibule, in the
orifice of which, one of these bones, the stapes, is fixed,
and which communicates with three semi-circular canals ;
and, lastly, a spiral and tapering cavity, termed cochlea,
parted by a thin plate into two spiral canals, one of which
communicates with the tympanum, the other with the
vestibule. The tongue is fleshy, and is supported by a
jDara5o?a-shaped bone, attached to the cranium by liga¬
ments, and to the larynx by membranes^
The lungs, in number two, consisting of numerous
tubular canals, proceeding from the windpipe, and termi¬
nating in an infinity of minute intersecting canals, named
cells or vesicles, are inclosed without attachment, in a
cavity formed by the ribs on each side, the diaphragm
abdominally, and on the mesial plane by a membranous
partition named mediastinum, and lined all over by a thin
transparent membrane ; (pleura). At the guttural extre¬
mity of the windpipe is placed a particular apparatus,
formed of cartilages put in motion by muscles, and which
serves at once to regulate the quantity of air admitted into
the tube, and to form the voice. This is named the
774
ANATOMY.
Human larynx. A membranous fleshy production, suspended from
Anatomy, the palate bones like a veil or valve, also moved at the
wjh 0f the animal, establishes a direct communication
between the larynx and the posterior nostrils.
The intestinal canal is suspended to a duplicature of
the peritoneum, named mesentery, between the folds of
which the blood-vessels, nerves, lymphatics, and lymphatic
glands pertaining to the canal, are lodged. The peritoneum,
after passing over the intestines, forms a similar duplica¬
ture, which in the manner of a prolongation hangs freely
before them.
The urine, after secretion by the kidneys, is retained for
a time shorter or longer in a distensible musculo-membra-
nous bladder, and is expelled at various periods by a
canal which opens, with few exceptions, in common with
that of the organs of generation.
The latter function is, in all the mammiferous animals,
essentially viviparous. The ovum, consisting of the foetus
and the enveloping membranes, immediately after con¬
ception is conveyed by appropriate tubes into the womb,
to the inner surface of which it is attached by one or
more plexiform clusters of vessels named placenta, and
which furnish the blood requisite to the nourishment of
the new body. In the earliest periods of uterine life,
however, the mammiferous animals present a bladder or
vesicula (vitellar membrane), analogous to that which con¬
tains the yolk of the oviparous animals, and receiving also
mesenteric vessels.
The peculiar mode in which viviparous animals nurse
their offspring has been already noticed as that which
distinguishes them particularly from the other three
divisions of vertebrated animals.
Another character peculiar to this class, are the hairs
with which their integuments are provided, and which,
though analogous to the feathers or quills of birds, are never¬
theless so characteristic, that they cannot be properly omit¬
ted in this enumeration. They are found in all mammi¬
ferous animals except the cetacea, in which marine re¬
sidence is supposed to render them less necessary. Last¬
ly, the blood of the mammalia is said to differ from that
of oviparous animals in the shape of the coloured particles.
In the former they are represented as lenticular, or of the
shape of flat or oblate spheroids ; in the latter they are
ovoidal, or like oblong spheroids.
The mammiferous animals may be subdivided into
subordinate groups or orders, according to certain natural
characters in organization, which imply again peculiarities
of habit and mode of life. These characters are derived
from the organs of touch or prehension, on which de¬
pends their degree of ability or address ; and from the
organs of mastication, which always bear a certain rela¬
tion to the nature of the food on which the individual
animal subsists.
The delicacy of the organ of touch depends on the
number and mobility of the toes, and on the extent to
which their tips are enveloped in nail or hoof. The lat¬
ter, enveloping entirely the part of the foot which touches
the ground, impairs sensation, and renders the foot or
paw incapable of prehension. When, on the contrary, a
single plate of nail covers one of the surfaces of the tip of
the toe, it not only leaves the other all its natural nicety
of touch, but gives each toe that free and unembarrassed
motion which enables the animal to seize and hold by the
claws.
The nature of the aliment used by animals bears a re¬
lation to the teeth, with the form of which, again, the
articulation of the jaws corresponds. To divide flesh, in¬
cisive teeth, like a saw, and jaws mutually opposed, like
the blades of scissors, which simply open and shut, are
Marsupia-
lia.
requisite. In order to break grains or roots, teeth with a Human
flat crown, and jaws admitting @f horizontal motion, are re- Anatomy’
quired. The crowns of these teeth must further be un¬
equal or tuberculated, like the surface of a mill-stone, and
their substance must be unequally firQi, since certain parts
are more exposed to attrition than others.
All hoofed animals are necessarily herbivorous, or
have flat-crowned teeth, since their feet do not allow
them to seize living prey. Unguiculated animals, again,
are susceptible of greater variety in the shape of the
teeth, and their aliment depends on the mobility and de¬
licacy of their toes One character of this description,
which exercises great influence on their address, and mul¬
tiplies their means of industry, is the faculty of opposing
the great toe to the others, or the thumb to the fingers,—
a circumstance which essentially constitutes what is term¬
ed the hand, and which is carried to its highest perfection
in the case of man, in whom the pectoral extremity is en¬
tirely free and susceptible of every mode of prehension.
The several combinations now mentioned furnish cha¬
racters for distinguishing the mammalia into the follow¬
ing orders.
Bim a n a ; hands on the thoracic extremity;
supported vertically by the pelvic ex¬
tremities.
Quadrumana; hands on the thoracic and
pelvic extremities.
Unguicu- Carnivora; toes with-'
lata; animals J out free and opposable
with separate 1 thumb,
toes or claws. Rodentia ; no canine
teeth; gnawing incisors.
Edentata; no incisors;
occasionally no canine;
sometimes teeth want¬
ing. J
Pachydermata ; dense, compact, cal¬
lous hide.
Solidipeda ; six incisors and six molars
in each jaw ; single stomach and large
caecum ; one undivided hoof.
Fissipeda s. Ruiminantia ; no incisors
in the upper jaw; quadruple stomach ;
cloven foot.
Cetacea ;
animals with
very short pel¬
vic extremi¬
ties, living in
the water.
Of these subdivisions, the first three orders are known
by the common character of possessing all the three va¬
rieties of teeth, molar, canine, and incisive. They differ
from each other in the possession of complete hands on
the thoracic extremities, of imperfect hands on the four
extremities, and in the want of thumb or opposable toe on
the four extremities. The fourth order is peculiar in
wanting canine teeth, and having incisors constructed
for gnawing. In the fifth the toes are much constrained
in motion, being sunk in large clatvs; and the incisors are
wanting. Some genera want the canine teeth, and some
are void of teeth entirely.
This distribution of unguiculated animals would be
complete, and would form a regular series, were it not in¬
terrupted by a small lateral series from New Holland, the
native soil of the Marsupial animals. Of these, it is the
peculiar distinction, that while some of their genera cor¬
respond to the Carnivora, others to the Rodentia, and
a third set to the Edentata, in the form of teeth and na-
Ungulata;
hoofed ani¬
mals.
C. Herbivora.
C. Capitulata.
C. Capitones.
A N A 1
Human ture of food, all of them agree in the common character of
Anatomy, having a large sac or purse (marsupiuin) for retaining some
time after birth their offspring, which are detached from
the body of the parent in a state of imperfection, corre¬
sponding nearly to the foetus of other mammiferous ani¬
mals shortly after conception.
In the series of hoofed animals, which are less numer¬
ous, less irregularity is also observed. The order of Ru¬
minant animals is well distinguished by cloven feet, the
absence of incisors in the upper jaw, and the quadruple
stomach, or that with four compartments. The other
hoofed quadrupeds maybe unitedin one order, distinguish¬
ed by the absence of the ruminating stomach, and a pe¬
culiar density of integuments, from which they are named
Pachydermata. The elephant alone constitutes a dis¬
tinct family, and is allied, by the form and mechanism of
the teeth, with the family of Rodentia. A third family
of hoofed quadrupeds is distinguished by one apparent
toe and one hoof in each foot; though beneath the skin,
on each side of the metacarpus and metatarsus, are pro¬
minences corresponding to lateral toes. This small family
(Solidipeda) includes the horse, ass, zebra, and quagga.
Lastly, the Cetaceous or whale-like animals form a fa¬
mily by themselves, so peculiar, that though viviparous and
mammiferous, they might readily be regarded as belonging
to the class of fishes. Their organization, however, im¬
mediately shows their proper place in the classification;
and even the fact observed by the ancients, that, though
pisciform, they have warm blood, demonstrates their title
to the character of Mammalia.
Man, who, as the most perfect specimen of mammife¬
rous animal with which we are acquainted, is placed at
the head of this class, partakes of the general characters
of structure and function belonging to the class, and
possesses also certain peculiarities by which he is distin¬
guished. The study of the facts of the former descrip¬
tion belongs properly to Comparative or Animal Anatomy.
That of the latter constitutes Human Anatomy proper. It
is, however, expedient to waive this distinction, and trace
the anatomical history of the human body, without sup¬
posing the reader already minutely acquainted with the
structure of mammiferous animals in general. In the
course of this description, however, it is requisite to recur
frequently to the lower animals, and to derive from them
information more or less direct, tending to illustrate the
structure of the human subject.
The external appearance of the human frame it is super¬
fluous to describe minutely. Naturalists distinguish man
as a bimanous and biped animal, or as one possessing two
complete hands, and supporting himself in the vertical po¬
sition by the two pelvic extremities. These characters
are neither arbitrary nor unessential. Both depend on
invariable peculiarities of structure; and whatever at¬
tempts have been made by men, more distinguished for
ingenious paradox than accurate observation, to show that
man was naturally quadruped, are readily refuted by ap¬
pealing to the anatomical configuration and disposition of
the four members, and their relation to the trunk.
Another character of the human subject is the globular
or rather spheroidal shape of the skull, and its large size
in proportion to the rest of the frame, with the general
tendency of the plane of the face to the vertical direction.
In no other mammiferous animal does the head make so
near an approach to the spheroidal shape ; and in no other
is the plane of the face so nearly vertical. In the other Mam¬
malia, the skull is angular-oblong, and the face acquires a
peculiar character, which is readily ascribed to the lower
animals by the extreme projection of the mouth, or, in
1 o M Y. 775
other words, by the length to which the two jaws are pro- Human
longed. Even in the monkey tribe, the similitude
which to the human face was remarked by the poet En¬
nius, this remarkable character is by no means lost; and
the upper and lower jaws make a much more conspicuous
projection than in the human skull.
The great characteristic of the human race, however, is
articulate or oral speech, which, combined with the per¬
fect developement of which the mental faculties are sus¬
ceptible, constitutes a very wide distinction between man
and the lower animals. The latter possess what may be
termed laryngeal voice, or that which is formed in the
larynx. To man is superadded the faculty of articulate
speech by means of the lips, tongue, and teeth.
All the known individuals of the human species, though
agreeing in the possession of the general characters now
enumerated, and therefore to be regarded as unigenous,
or of one general family, differ nevertheless by certain
peculiarities in external characters, which have been sup¬
posed sufficient to justify the separation into individual
races or breeds. Of these, three appear to be very distinct,
the White or Caucasian, the Tawny or Mongolian, and
the Negro or Ethiopian ; and to one or other of these
all the various forms which the human body assumes in
different climates and countries may be referred.
The Caucasian race is distinguished by the oval shape
of the head, the softened aspect, and symmetrical har¬
mony of the general person, and the high degree of cultiva¬
tion of which the intellectual faculties admit. The colour
of the skin and of the hair varies. In warm climates the for¬
mer is dark or olive-coloured, and the latter is black and
glossy. In colder regions the skin is fair and light-coloured,
or ruddy, and the hair becomes chesnut, fair, or even red.
The Mongolian or Altaic race is distinguished by
prominent cheek-bones, flat countenance, oblique eyes, part¬
ed by a small interval, straight black hair, slender beard,
and olive, tawny, or copper-coloured complexion. This
race has formed great empires in China and Japan, and
has sometimes extended its conquests beyond the Great
Desert; but its civilisation has remained stationary.
The Negro or Ethiopian race is confined to the
south of the Atlas. Black complexion, crisp woolly hair,
compressed skull, and flat nose, prominent mouth, and
large thick or everted lips, form its distinguishing external
characters. The tribes of which it consists have ever re¬
mained barbarous.
The first of these races, from which Europe, Asia, and
the north and east of Africa have been peopled, is deno¬
minated Caucasian, because tradition and the natural af¬
finity of nations seem to justify the opinion that this race
had originally inhabited the mountainous range between
the Caspian and Black Seas, from which it has spread
by radiation. In confirmation of this, it may be observed
that the tribes of the Caucasus, the Circassians, the
Georgians, and the Armenians, afford at the present hour
the most perfect and beautiful specimens of the human
form. This race may be distinguished, by the analogy
of languages spoken by them, into three principal branches.
1. The Aramaean or Syrian branch, proceeding to the
south, gave birth to the Assyrians, the Chaldeans, the
Arabs ever unsubdued, and who, after Mahomet, aspired
at the sovereignty of the world; the Phoenicians, the Jews,
the Abessins, colonies of the Arabs, and probably the
Egyptian or Koptic race. From this first branch, ever
prone to mysticism, the most extended forms of religious
belief have issued. Science and literature, occasionally
flourishing among them, have, nevertheless, been always
disguised or corrupted by fanciful ceremonials and a style
highly figurative.
ANATOMY.
776
Human 2. The Indian, German, and Pelasgic branch was
Anatomy, much earlier divided into tribes, and much more exten-
'^~v-x^/sively diffused. The most numerous affinities may never¬
theless be traced between its four principal languages,
the Sanscrit, at present the sacred language of the Hin¬
doos, and the parent of all the dialects of Hindostan;
the ancient language of the Pelasgi, the common parent
of the Greek, the Latin, of many extinct languages, and
of all the present dialects of southern Europe ; the Gothic
or Tudesc, from which are derived the languages of the
north and north-west, for instance the German, Hutch,
Anglo-Saxon, and English, the Danish, Swedish, and their
dialects; lastly, the Sclavonian, from which are sprung
the languages of the north-east, the Russ, the Polish, the
Bohemian, and the Vend.
By this branch of the Caucasian race, philosophy, the
sciences, and the arts, have been carried to the highest
degree of perfection ; and of these they may be regarded
as the chief depositaries. In Europe this race is believed
to have been preceded by the Celtce or Titano- Celtce, whose
tribes, proceeding by the north, and formerly very exten¬
sive, were nevertheless confined to the most western
points; and by the Cantabrians, who passed from Africa
to Spain, and who are now almost lost among the nume¬
rous nations, the posterity of which is mingled in the
European peninsula. The ancient Persians are derived
from the same source as the Indians; and their descend¬
ants still bear the most conspicuous marks of connection
with the European nations.
3. The Scythian and Tartar branch, bending first to the
north and north-east, always erratic in the immense
plains of these countries, have returned only to ravage
the happier establishments of their brethren. From this
branch issued the Scythians, who anciently distinguished
themselves by inroads into Upper Asia; the Parthians,
who destroyed the Greek and Roman dominions; the
Turks, who subverted that of the Arabs, and subdued in
Europe the last remnant of the Hellenic nation. The
Fins and Hungarians are tribes of the same family disse¬
minated among the Sclavonian and Judaic nations. The
north and east of the Caspian, their native soil, still main¬
tains tribes which have the same origin and speak similar
languages; but they are intermingled with numerous
other small septs of different origin and speech. The
Tartar tribes remained more unchanged in that tract from
which they long threatened Russia, which has at length
subdued them, from the mouths of the Danube to beyond
the Irtish. Their blood, nevertheless, has been mixed
with that of the Mongols, many traces of which may be
seen in the younger Tartars.
On the east of thisTartar branch of the Caucasian racebe-
gins the Mongolian, which thence extends to the shores
of the Eastern Ocean. Its branches, still nomadic, the
Calmucks and the Kalkas, roam the Great Desert. Three
times have their ancestors, under Attila, Gengis, and
Timour, spread the terror of their name among the set¬
tled inhabitants of Europe and Asia. The Chinese consti¬
tute the branch most early civilized, not only of this
race, but of known nations. The Mantchoux, a third
branch, who recently conquered, still retain, China. To
the same race in great part belong the Japanese and the
Coreans, and almost all the hordes which stretch to
the north of Siberia, under the sway of the Russians.
Excepting some learned Chinese, the whole Mongolian
race are attached to the sects addicted to the worship of Fo.
The origin of this great race appears to be in the
mountains of the Altaic range, as that of the Asio-Euro-
pean is in the elevation of Caucasus. It is impossible,
however, to trace the filiation of its branches with the
same accuracy. The history of these nomadic nations is Human
as transitory as their establishments; and that of the Anatomy.
Chinese, confined to the bosom of their empire, furnishes
only short and unconnected views of the contiguous na¬
tions. The affinities of their modes of speech are further
too little known to guide us in this labyrinth.
The languages spoken in the north of the Ultra-Gan-
getic peninsula, as well as that of Thibet, present some
relations, at least in monosyllabic character, with the Chi¬
nese ; and the nations by whom they are spoken are not
void of features of physical resemblance to the other Mon¬
golian tribes. The south of this peninsula, however, is
inhabited by the Malays, a much handsomer race, whose
breed and language have spread to the coasts of all the
islands of the Indian Archipelago, and have occupied the
greater number of those of the South Sea. In the largest
of the former, especially in the wildest places, dwell other
tribes, with crisp hair, black complexion, and negro fea¬
tures, all extremely barbarous. The best known are de¬
nominated Papous, which may be applied to the whole.
Neither the Malays nor the Papous can be readily re¬
ferred to any one of the three great races. The former
it is difficult to distinguish from the neighbouring races
on each side the Caucasian Indians and the Mongolian
Chinese. The Papous may be negroes anciently cast
away in the Indian Seas; but to determine this point we
require both accurate figures and descriptions.
The inhabitants of the north of the two continents, the
Samoieds, the Laplanders, and the Esquimaux, spring,
according to some, from the Mongolian breed ; according
to others, they are degenerate slips of the Scythian and
Tartar branch of the Caucasian breed.
The Americans have not yet been clearly traced either
to one or other of the races of the ancient continent; yet
they are void of character sufficiently precise and constant
to constitute a peculiar race : their copper-coloured skin
is inadequate : by the dark hair and slender beard they ap¬
proach to the Mongols; but from these again they are
distinguished by the well-marked features and the pro¬
minent nose. The modes of speech are as numerous as
their tribes; and neither between themselves nor with
those of the ancient world has any satisfactory analogy
been traced.
Of the various breeds now enumerated, the Caucasian
or Asio-European is supposed to furnish the most per¬
fect model of the human frame; and from this, therefore,
anatomists derive their descriptions both of the body at
large and of individual parts and organs.
The structure of the human body may be studied in
two modes, either as an assemblage of organic substances
endowed with characteristic physical and vital proper¬
ties, or as an assemblage of organs destined to effect par¬
ticular and definite purposes.
The human body, like that of every other mammiferous
animal, consists of several kinds of animal organic sub¬
stances endowed with appropriate characters and pro¬
perties. The substances thus distinguished have been
named elementary textures, since into them, as into so
many elements or integrant principles, the human body is
supposed capable of being resolved. To enumerate these
elementary textures, to ascertain their minute structure
or organization, to investigate their distinctive properties,
and to determine the extent to which they enter into the
composition of particular organs, is the province of Gene¬
ral Anatomy. In this department the anatomist, ab¬
stracting from the shape, position, and mechanical configu¬
ration of parts, studies only their intimate and distinctive
characters as organic substances.
ANATOMY.
General The human body may further be regarded as an
Anatomy, assemblage of organs, and sets of organs, destined to
effect certain purposes. These purposes may be re¬
ferred to two general heads; those which are common
to plants and animals, and those which are proper to
the latter. The first comprehends nutrition and ge¬
neration, and have been named vital, organic, or auto¬
matic functions ; the second embraces muscular action,
sensation, and nervous influence or innervation, and are
distinguished as animal functions. Since these purposes
are effected by certain processes going on successively and
simultaneously by the action of one or more organs, they
are distinguished by the general name of functions, or or¬
ders of functions. Each function consists of several inte¬
grant and individual processes ; every process consists of
one or more actions; each action depends on certain pro¬
perties; and properties in living bodies, though mechanical,
chemical, or vital, are always connected either with the
intimate structure of parts or with the configuration of
organs. Thus nutrition is at once termed a function,
and is said to consist of the several functions of di¬
gestion, absorption, circulation, respiration, and secre¬
tion. Generation, on the other hand, is said to be a func¬
tion consisting of several processes—the formation of
germs or ova, the secretion of semen, impregnation, gesta¬
tion, and exclusion. Of the functions proper to animals,
muscular action, modified in various modes, produces lo¬
comotion, gesture, voice, and several motions necessary
to the performance of nutrition and generation. Sensa¬
tion may be said in all cases to depend on nervous action
and the mechanism peculiar to each species of sensation.
Nervous energy, again, may be said to consist of three pro¬
perties, those of receiving, transmitting, and recognising
impressions. Lastly, a form of faculties connected with the
immaterial or thinking part of the system peculiar to man
constitutes what are named the intellectual functions.
This division of the phenomena of living bodies into
certain assemblages or functions, has given rise to a simi¬
lar division of these bodies into organs. An organ may
be defined to be a part of a living body, of a definite
shape, consisting of certain parts, composed of various
elementary textures, the seat of one or more actions, and
placed in a certain position and region. It rarely happens
that one organ only is sufficient for the performance of a
function. Several $re commonly required to concur to
the same general purpose; and hence the organs are ar¬
ranged in classes, sets, or assemblages, according to the
functions to which they are subservient. Thus the or¬
gans subservient to the function of digestion consist of
777
the teeth, tongue, and mouth, as organs of mastication; General
the pharynx and oesophagus as the tube of deglutition; Anatomy,
the stomach as the organ of chymification; the duodenum
and small intestines as that of chylification ; and the large
intestines as the temporary receptacle of the excrementi-
tial residue of food and drink. Such assemblages of or¬
gans have received, for want of better, the denomination
of apparatuses ; and the anatomist, when he designates a
class of organs devoted to the performance of a specific
function, is compelled to distinguish them as the appara
tus of digestion, the apparatus of absorption, of circula¬
tion, of respiration, of secretion, and so forth. To this
method of distinction it may indeed be objected, that
scarcely in one instance are all the organs of any appara¬
tus exclusively directed to the performance of the func¬
tion of that apparatus; and an organ concerned in the
function of digestion may also contribute to that of circu¬
lation or respiration. Thus the larynx, though more par¬
ticularly the organ of voice, is also an organ of respira¬
tion ; the tongue and teeth, though belonging in one sense
to the organs of digestion, are not less important as those
of speech ; the diaphragm and abdominal muscles, though
organs of respiration, are also accessary agents of diges¬
tion. These, however, are only to be regarded as examples
of the ingenuity with which one organ in the animal body
is made to answer several purposes ; and since all arrange¬
ments are artificial, or bear relation, not to the purpose
of construction, but to the mind of the observer, the best
course is to choose that which is least so, and which
makes the nearest approach to the apparent objects of nature.
To acquire a just knowledge of the organs of the hu¬
man body, with the views now stated, it is requisite to
study their external shape and configuration, their posi¬
tion and contiguous relations, their ordinary size and di¬
mensions, the mechanical divisions of which they con¬
sist, their external characters and physical properties,
their intimate structure and the elementary textures of
which they are composed, their chemical constitution,
their vital properties and consequent actions, and the
uses to which they are obviously applied. The history of
the organs, arranged upon these principles, constitutes the
business of Descriptive, Particular, or Special Ana¬
tomy. The term Topographical Anatomy, which has al¬
so been proposed, is inadequate, since it indicates one
class only of facts,—those belonging to local relations.
That of Morphology is equally objectionable. The term
Organology, though preferable by reason of greater gene¬
rality, is not sufficiently appropriate to justify its adoption,
to the exclusion of the one already in general use.
GENERAL ANATOMY.
The human body consists of solid and fluid substances,
the former of which are organized, and determine the
shape of the body and its parts. These organized solids
are not in a strict physical sense solid and impenetrable.
Most of them are soft, compressible, and elastic, by rea¬
son of the fluid matter contained in their interstices; and
when deprived of this by desiccation, they shrink in va¬
rious degrees, and lose both bulk and weight. The ge¬
neral ratio of the fluid to the solid parts has been already
stated to vary from 7 to 1, to 9 to 1. An adult carcass
weighing perhaps from 9 to 10 stones, has been reduced
by desiccation to rl\ lbs. In short, a human body may
be reduced to nearly the weight of its skeleton, which
varies from 150 ounces —9f lbs. to 200 ounces =121 lbs.
These organized solids agree in the possession of cer-
vOL. II.
tain general characters. Their internal structure ap¬
pears to consist of a union of solid and liquid matter,
which is observed to exude in drops more or less abun¬
dant from the surface of sections. The solid parts are
generally arranged in the form of collateral lines, some¬
times oblique, sometimes perfectly parallel, sometimes
mutually intersecting. Such lines are denominated fibres,
and occasionally filaments. In other instances the solids
are observed to consist of minute globular or spheroidal
particles, connected generally by delicate filaments. Most
of these solids anatomists and miscroscopical observers
have attempted to resolve into what they conceive to be
an ultimate fibre or last element; but this inquiry leads
beyond the bounds of strict observation.
Most of the solids may be demonstrated to be pene-
5 F
778
ANATOMY.
General trated by minute ramifying tubes or bloodvessels, which
Anatomy, traverse their substance in every direction, and in which is
contained the greater part, perhaps the whole, of the fluid
matter found in the solids. In a few in which ramifying
vessels cannot be positively demonstrated, their existence is
inferred by analogy from those in which they can. The
filamentous, fibrous, or globular arrangement, with the dis¬
tribution of arborescent vessels, constitutes organisation.
The substances so constructed are named organised tissues
(telce, text us), or textures, or simply tissues.
The organised solids also resemble each other in chemical
constitution. They may be resolved into proximate prin¬
ciples, either the same or very closely allied. The proxi¬
mate principles most generally found are albumen, fibrin,
and gelatine, one or other of which, sometimes more, form
the basis of every tissue of the human body. ^Next to these
are mucus, and oily or adipose matter. Osmazome or ex¬
tractive matter is found in certain tissues. And lastly,
several saline substances, as phosphate of lime, carbonate of
lime, soda, hydrochlorate of soda, are found in variable pro¬
portions in most of them. Of these principles albumen and
fibrin, which are closely allied and pass into each other,
are the most common and abundant. Osmazome, which
is probably a modification of fibrin, is less frequent. These
also are contained in the blood, and probably derived from
that fluid. Gelatine, though not found in the blood, is
nevertheless a principle of extensive distribution, being
found in skin, filamentous tissue, tendon, cartilage, and bone.
These proximate principles are resolved, in ultimate analysis,
into carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, azote, phosphorus, chlorine,
and sulphur. From the saline substances, calcium, potassium,
sodium, chlorine, iron, manganese, and, according to some,
titanium and arsenic may be obtained.
The organised solids, which enter into the composition
of the human body, though agreeing in the characters now
mentioned, differ, nevertheless, in other respects. The most
remarkable differences of this kind consist in peculiarities in
the arrangement of their constituent fibres, peculiarities in
the nature of these fibres, and different proportions or modi¬
fications of their proximate chemical principles. From one
or other of these circumstances the organised solids may be
referred to the following 17 elementary tissues :—Filamen¬
tous or cellular tissue, including ordinary cellular membrane,
and adipose membrane ; artery, vein, with their minute com¬
munications, termed capillary vessels, and the erectile ves¬
sels ; lymphatic vessel, and gland ; nerve, plexus, and gan¬
glion ; brain, or cerebral matter; muscle ; white fibrous
system, including ligament, periosteum, and fascia; yellow
fibrous system, including the yellow ligaments, &c.; bone
and tooth ; gristle or cartilage ; fibro-cartilage ; skin ; mu¬
cous membrane ; serous membrane ; synovial membrane ;
and lastly, glandular structure, or the peculiar matter which
forms the liver, the pancreas, the kidneys, the female breast,
the testicle, and other organs termed glands.
These tissues may be distinguished into orders, accord¬
ing to the mode of their distribution in the animal frame.
Several,—for instance filamentous tissue, artery and vein,
lymphatic vessel, and nerve,—are most extensively distri¬
buted, and enter into the composition of all the other simple
tissues. To these, therefore, which are named by Bichat
general or generating systems, the character of textures of
distribution may be applied. A second order, consisting of
substances confined to particular regions and organs, and
placed in determinate situations, viz., brain, muscle, white
fibrous system, yellow fibrous system, bone, cartilage, fibro-
cartilage, and gland, may be denominated particular tissues.
To a third order, consisting of substances which assume the
form of a thin membrane, expanded over many different
tissues and organs, may be referred skin, mucous membrane,
serous membrane, and synovial membrane, under the deno- General
mination of enveloping tissues. It may indeed be objected Anatomy,
that the circumstance of mechanical disposition is insufficient
to communicate a distinctive or appropriate character, and
several of the tissues referred to the second head, e.g. fascia,
must, on this principle, be referred to the third. The ob¬
jection is not unreasonable. But it may be answered that
it is almost vain to expect an arrangement entirely faultless;
and the present is convenient in being, on the whole, more
natural, and therefore more easily remembered, than any
other. A distinct idea of it may be formed from the follow¬
ing tabular view.
General
or
Common
Tissues.
{Filamentous tissue.
Artery.
Vein.
Lymphatic vessel.
Nerve.
/Brain.
Muscle.
Particular
Tissues.
White fibre.
Yellow fibre.
| Capillary vessel.
j Ligament.
< Periosteum.
( Fascia.
j Yellow ligaments.
\ Ligamentum nucha;.
Tooth.
Bone.
Cartilage.
Fibro-cartilage.
Gland.
/Skin.
Enveloping]Mucous membrane.
Tissues. j Serous membrane.
Synovial membrane.
The Fluids or Liquids.
The fluids of the animal body are various, but may be
distinguished into three sorts ; the circulating nutritious
fluid named the blood; the fluids which are incessantly
mixed with the blood for its renewal; and those which are
separated from it by secretion.
I. The blood is well known to be a viscid liquid, of red
colour, peculiar odour, and saline, something nauseous taste.
Its temperature in the living body is about 97°; its specific
gravity is about 105 to water as 100. Its quantity is in
the adult considerable, varying from seventeen and nineteen
pounds (Lehmann) to thirty pounds.
The colour of the blood varies in different parts of the
system. In the left auricle, ventricle, and arterial trunks
generally, its colour is bright scarlet, a tint which it loses in
the capillary vessels. In the veins, venous trunks, right
auricle, right ventricle, and pulmonary artery, its colour is
a dark or purple-red, or Modena. As it moves from the
trunk and branches through the minute divisions of the pul¬
monary artery, it gradually parts with this tint; and in the
branches of the pulmonary veins it is found to have acquired
the bright scarlet colour which it has in the left auricle,
ventricle, and aorta. Hence the Modena or dark-coloured
blood is distinguished as venous, or proper to the veins; and
the bright red or scarlet-coloured as proper to the arteries.
According to the results of microscopic observation, blood Globules
consists of red particles suspended in a serous fluid. On or blood
the shape of these red particles various opinions have been corpuscu a.
entertained. Generally represented as globular, Hewson
describes them as flattened spheroids, or lenticular bodies,
a view which is partly confirmed by the observations of
Prevost and Dumas, of Beclard, of Hodgkin and Lister, of
Gulliver and Wharton Jones. The opinion of Home and
Young, that the flattening of these globules is a process
posterior to the discharge of the fluid, is not improbable.
These particles have, indeed, since the time of Hewson,
been almost universally represented as consisting of a cen-
ANATOMY.
779
General tral transparent whitish globule, inclosed in a red translucent
Anatomy, vesicle, which gives them the shape of an oblate spheroid.
v—The diameter of these particles is estimated, by the sub-
Globules divided scale of Kater, the micrometer of Wollaston, and
or blood the eriometer of Young, at ^^g-th, and by the common mi-
corpuscula. crometer at T7^_.th of an inch. {Phil. Trans?) Mr Gulliver
estimates the average diameter of the human blood-corpuscle
at g-jVtfth part of an English inch, and the average thick¬
ness at Y^-j^g-th part. This description applies to the blood
circulating in the vessels.
In man, and the Mammalia in general, the blood-globules
have, like a biconcave disk, a depression on each side of the
broad surface. In the camel tribe they have an oval or
elliptical outline, but agreeing in size and structure with the
corpuscles in the Mammalia in general. In Birds, Rep¬
tiles, and most Fishes, they are oval disks, with an apparent
central elevation. But
the oval shape is liable
to vary, and is in some
osseous fishes short¬
ened to nearly a circle.
The blood-disks of the
lamprey, and other cy-
clostomatous fishes are
circular and biconcave.
In the Aspondylous
classes, or those void of
vertebrae, the blood-
corpuscles are colour¬
less and flattened disks;
but as to figure, in
some they are orbicular, in others oblong oval.
Fig. 1. Red particles of human blood (Wagner).
... 2. Red particles of the blood of the common fowl, a, Ordi¬
nary appearance when the flat surface is turned towards '
the eye. b, Appearance sometimes presented by the par¬
ticle in the same portion, c, d, Different appearances of
the particle viewed edgeways.
... 3. Red particles of the frog.
... 4. Red particles of the Squalus squatina (Wagner).
... 5. Red particles of the Lophius piscatorius, or angler fish,
... 6. Corpuscula from the blood of the scorpion.
As to size of the globules in relation to the different
kinds of animals, the general rule is, that in the Mammalia
they are smaller than in Birds, Fishes, and Reptiles ; and in
the small Mammalia they are as large as in the large Mam¬
malia. In the harvest mouse the corpuscles are as large as
those of the horse; and in the common mouse they are
larger than in the ox and horse. The blood-corpuscles of
the elephant are larger, [^yV^th of an inch,] than those of
any other mammiferous animal; they are next in size in the
sloth; next in the whale, in which they are larger than in
man; next in the capybara and the porpoise. They ap¬
pear to be smallest in the goat and deer family. In the
Napu musk-deer the corpuscles are the smallest yet ob¬
served, nriinfth of an inch; those of the Stanley musk-deer
are about the same size (y^iyyth); in the ibex {Capra Cau¬
casia) they are larger ; and in the goat a little larger, being
about double the size of those of the Napu musk-deer.
In Birds in which the corpuscles are oval, there is con¬
siderable variation in size. But, in general, the long dia¬
meter is greater than the diameter of the corpuscles in the
Mammalia; wdiile the short diameter varies from the y^Vtfth
part of one inch to the -n^^th part of one inch. In the
majority, the short diameter is about the same as the dia¬
meter of the circular corpuscles in man.
In Reptiles in general, in which the corpuscles are oval,
they are much larger than in the Mammalia; the average
long diameter being about °f one inch, and the ave¬
rage short diameter about y^s^th.
The corpuscles are largest in size in what are called the General
Amphibia, including the frog, toad, triton, and siren. In
the frog, the long diameter is TT^th part of one inch, the ^
short diameter x^xth. In the siren, the long diameter isGlobules
x£o4h part of one inch, and the short diameter y^th partor blood'
of one inch. "
In the large Ruminants and Rodents the corpuscula are
larger than in the small species. The Feral, if arranged
according to the size of the corpuscula, would assume the
following order: the seal, dog, bear, weasel, cat, viverra.
Among genera of doubtful affinity, if regard be given to the
size of the blood-corpuscula, the hyaena would be arranged
with the CanidBasaris with the Ursine family, and Cer-
coleptes with the Viverridal. In the fox the corpuscles
are smaller than in the dog.
In the Frog, salamander, and other lower vertebrated ani¬
mals, the large Corpuscula consist of a thin, transparent ve¬
sicular covering, enclosing another body in general oval,
which appears to be solid, and surrounded by a quantity of
soft red coloured matter. This inclosed body has been
named a nucleus. When weak acetic acid is dropped upon
these corpuscula, the colouring matter is removed, the nu¬
cleus becomes distinct, and the envelope is rendered faint.
Strong acetic acid dissolves the envelope, and the nucleus
escapes.
Some observers have attempted to demonstrate an ana¬
logy between the nucleus of the lower yertebrata and the
central spot of the human corpuscula. But according to the
testimony of the most careful observers, it is not possible to
recognise in the corpuscula of the Mammalia any body simi¬
lar to the nucleus of the lower vertebrated animals.
When blood is drawn from the vessels and immediately
afterwards examined by the microscope, the red corpuscula
are observed dispersed in a confused manner in the liquor
sanguinis, as is represented in Fig. 2. In the course of half
a minute or a little longer, the red corpuscula are seen to
overlap each other, and assuming the appearance of stand¬
ing on their edges, to be applied to each other by their broad
surfaces, like a pile or rouleau of coins. In a small quantity
of blood several piles or rolls of blood-disks are in this man¬
ner formed; the direction of these is not exactly straight,
but often slightly curved; and the rolls intersect each other
so as to form interstitial spaces. In the case of healthy
blood, these intervening spaces are small. In the case of
blood that is drawn during the state of inflammation, they
are larger.
Fig. 1. Red corpuscula of healthy blood dispersed confusedly in li¬
quor sanguinis (W. Jones).
... 2. Arrangement of the red corpuscula like coins in rolls, when
beginning and when fully formed.
... 3. The irregular net-like arrangement of the rolls of red cor¬
puscula in healthy blood. Meshes small.
.;. 4. The net-like arrangement of the same rolls presented by
buffy blood. The meshes are large.
ANATOMY.
780
General Henle admits two sorts of blood corpuscula ; the one co-
Anatomy. loured, those namely belonging to the vertebrated animals,
and especially to Mammalia, Birds, and Fishes; another
Globules sort, colourless, found mostly in the lower vertebrated ani-
or blood- mals? as the frog and triton, and in the Aspondylous animals,
corpuscula. These are the same as those called lymph-globules. They
are smaller in size than the coloured globules ; those in the
frog being 0005 in diameter, according to W agner. The
proportion of these colourless globules to the coloured par¬
ticles, varies according to rate of feeding and other circum¬
stances. After the blood of a healthy frog has stood two
hours, there are, in one drop of the upper stratum, among
55 coloured globules, 76 colourless particles.
Mechanical Discharged from the vessels, the blood exhales, during
separation;tjie process 0f COoling, a thin watery vapour, consisting of
Its results. water sUSpen(Jing animal matter capable of impressing the
sense of smell, and undergoing decomposition. During the
same space it is observed to be converted into a firm mass,
which, though still soft and elastic, is entirely void of flu¬
idity. As this process advances, a thin watery fluid, straw-
coloured, not perfectly transparent, is observed to exude
from every part of the solid mass, which also diminishes in
size, till at length it is found floating like a tolerably thick
cake in the thin watery fluid. The thick solid mass is named
the clot or coagulum; the watery fluid is denominated
serum ; and the process of the separation, which is sponta¬
neous, is termed coagulation. The blood at the same time
is said to discharge carbonic acid.
The clot, if divided and washed in water often changed,
or in alcohol or aqua potassce, may be deprived of its red
colour, and made to assume a gray or bluish-white tint.
This gray mass, which is tough, coherent, opaque, and more
or less dense, homogeneous, but void of traces of organic
structure, consists chiefly of albumen or fibrin, or a sub¬
stance partaking of several of the characters of both. To
this substance the blood owes its viscidity and its property
of spontaneous coagulation; and from the circumstance of
its resemblance to the lymph or albuminous fluid which is
effused from wounds and inflamed surfaces, and to the fibrin
of muscle, and the albumen of many of the tissues, it may
be regarded as the most vital and nutritious part of that
fluid. It is a mistake nevertheless to assert, as is done by
Beclard and others, that this substance presents to the mi¬
croscope the aspect and structure of muscular fibre. Its
aspect is by no means so regular as this, nor can its par¬
ticles be said to present traces of organic structure or ar¬
rangement.
The red matter removed by washing is a mixture of se¬
rum, of globules, and of a peculiar colouring matter. Mo¬
dern chemistry shows that the latter is a particular sub¬
stance, insoluble in water, but susceptible of suspension in
it to an extreme extent, and consisting of animal matter
combined with peroxide of iron. It is distinguished by
the name oSizoohcematine, hcematine, and hcematosine. De¬
prived of this, the globules are estimated by Bauer at ^eV^th
of an inch in diameter.
Another principle or element which it has been believed
important to distinguish is, that which has been named Glo-
buline. This forms the principal part of the blood globules,
indeed, the whole of them excepting the hcematosine, or
colouring principle. Globuline is an albuminous substance ;
it has not been obtained in a pure state ; but it possesses the
composition and characters of albumen. By stirring blood
so as to separate the fibrin, and mixing it with six volumes
of a saturated solution of sulphate of soda, and then boiling
the mass with alcohol acidulated with sulphuric acid, sul¬
phate of hasmatosine is dissolved, and sulphate of globuline General
remains. This is gray or white, and is said to contain four Anatomy,
atoms of sulphuric acid and one of proteine.
The serum, with the taste and odour of the blood, rather Mechanical
alkaline, coagulates at 162° F. or on the addition of acids, seParation;
nitrate of silver, or corrosive sublimate, and then resemblesits results-
boiled white of egg. The coagulated matter is albumen ;
and a little water containing soda and salts of soda may be
separated. It is a remarkable difference between this al¬
bumen, which is suspended in the serum, and that which
constitutes the clot, that while the former requires heat as a
re-agent, the latter assumes the solid form spontaneously.
The specific gravity of arterial serum is 1022 ; of venous
serum 1026.
The proportion of serum to clot varies in different animals,
in different individuals, and in different states of the system.
In the human body a quantity of five ounces of blood
usually furnishes about one ounce and two drachms, or one
ounce and four drachms of serum. In inflammatory diseases
the amount of the serum is usually increased. In fever, on
the contrary, the proportion of serum is diminished, espe¬
cially at advanced periods of the disease. But the clot is
at the same time less firm than usual, and is soft, loose, and
flabby. This seems to show, that the force with which the
blood is coagulated is diminished.
Liquid fibrin, or the spontaneously coagulable part of the
blood, is most abundant in warm-blooded animals; and
among these it is more abundant in the blood of Birds than
in that of the Mammalia. In Fishes it is scanty ; and it is
also sparing in the blood of the Reptiles and Amphibia.
It is a well-known fact, that in frogs the blood does not
coagulate on exposure of the vessels to air, as it does in the
Mammalia. This must be owing, either to the blood of
these animals containing a much smaller proportion of fibrin
than that of the Mammalia, or the fibrin having much less
coagulating power.
This property of spontaneous coagulating power has been
supposed by Saissy and others to bear some relation to the
state of respiration, or what may be denominated the in¬
tensity and energy of that function in the different classes
of animals; and the idea seems accordant with the facts.
In Birds the function of respiration is most fully developed.
In Reptiles and Fishes it is very imperfectly developed.
When blood, drawn from the veins of a person labouring Liquor
under acute rheumatism and other inflammatory diseases, is Sanguinis
undergoing coagulation in a glass vessel, a colourless fluidor J’iasma-
may be perceived round the edge of the surface ; and, after
an interval of four or five minutes, a bluish appearance is
observed from the formation of an upper layer of the blood,
in consequence of the subsidence of the red particles to a
certain distance below the surface, and the clear liquor being
left between the place of the red particles and the edge of
the vessel. This liquid may be collected by a spoon and
placed in another vessel, where it is first clear, though opa¬
lescent, viscid, homogeneous. After some time, however, it
undergoes separation into two parts, one coagulated, the
other fluid. The coagulated part is the fibrin of the blood, or
that which is spontaneously coagulable; the fluid part the
serum. The opalescent liquor lias been named Liquor
Sanguinis (Babington).1
To this the name of Plasma has been given by Muller,
Henle, and other German writers. The former by filter¬
ing the blood of the frog, which coagulates very slowly,
causing the larger corpuscula to be retained by the filter,
and the liquor sanguinis to come though clear and colour¬
less, obtained it in a separate form.
1 Some Considerations with respect to the Blood, &c. Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, vol. xvi., p. 293.
ANATOMY.
781
General From the facts now stated, it seems reasonable to infer,
Anatomy, that the element of the blood which is called Liquor san-
' guinis and Plasma, is the coagulable part, or the albuminous
or fibrinous, freed from the colouring matter and the serum.
In 1830, Dr Babington found a yellow concrete oil in
blood in the state of health ;x Boudet, in 1833, found in the
serum a peculiar oily or fat matter, to which he gives the
name of seroline, and which melts at 97° F.;2 and Gmelin,
Chevreul, and Lecanu, obtained from the blood stearine and
elaine. In certain morbid states these adipose principles are
liable to become greatly increased in amount, and their pre¬
sence then renders the serum opaque and milky-like. 1 he
globules are often at the same time deficient (Lecanu).
The chemical constitution of the blood and its elements
has been examined by many chemists with different degrees
of accuracy and completeness. It may be sufficient here
to advert to the results of those given by Denis and Lecanu,
the former of which was given in 1830, and the last was
published in 1837.
In the first place, it is to be observed, that one thousand
parts of blood consist of 869 parts of serum., and about 131
parts of what has been named coagulum, that is, globules and
colouring matter.
In the second place, it is admitted, that the serum con¬
tains all the immediate principles of the blood, excepting
fibrine and colouring matter ; that the fibrine and colouring
matter make part of the globules ; and that the serum repre¬
sents exactly the fluid, in the midst of which, during life,
the globules float; while the clot or coagulated portion re¬
presents the globules themselves, though in a state more or
less deformed and altered.
For these reasons, chemists in ascertaining the chemical
constitution of the blood have subjected the serum only to
accurate analysis.
The two following tables exhibit the quantitative analyses
of the serum, as given by Denis and Lecanu.
According to Denis.
Water   900-0
Albumen   80-0
Soda 
Lime 
Magnesia traces
Sulphate of potash .
0-5
0-2
0-8
Sulphate of soda  0-8
Phosphate of soda
Chloride of sodium ...
Oleic acid and mar-'t
garate of soda ... (_
Volatile sebacic acid f
with soda 
Phosphate of lime ...
Yellow biliary co¬
louring matter...
Blue colouring
traces  
0-4
4-0
3-0
0-3
3-0
According to Lecann
Water 906-00
Albumen   78-
Extractive matters 3-79
Fat matter  2-20
Hydrochlorates I
of soda and 1 6-
potash J
Subcarbonate...'
Phosphate  
Sulphate 
Subcarbonate of
lime and mag¬
nesia, phos¬
phate of lime
and magnesia
Loss...   
901-00
81-2
4- 60
3-40
5- 52
2-10
0-91 0-87
1-41
lOOO-O?
> Serum 869T547
Free oxygen, \
... azote,
... carbonic acid,
Extractive matters,
Fat phosphorated matter,
Cholesterine,
Seroline,
Free oleic acid,
Free margaric acid,
Hydrochlorate of soda,
... of potash,
... of ammonia, )■ 109800
Sulphate of potash,
Carbonate of soda,
... lime,
... magnesia,
Phosphate of soda,
... lime,
... magnesia,
Lactate of soda,
Salt with fat fixed acids,
... volatile and yel¬
low colouring matter, /
Albumen, 67-8040
Water, 790-3707
Fibrin, 2-94804
Hematosine, 2-2700)- Globules, 130-8453
Albumen, 125-6273}
General
Anatomy.
Chemical
constitu¬
tion.
1000-0000 1000-0000
Further, if we suppose that one thousand parts of blood
give
869-1547 of serum,
1.30-8453 of globules,
these numbers may then be represented in distribution in
the following manner.
869-1547 Serum.
( 2-9480 Fibrin. 4
130-8453 -l 2-2700 Globules. >- Globules.
(125-6273 Albumen of globules )
1000-00 1000-00*
These tables show the substances contained in the blood
taken as a whole, and the proportions, as nearly as may be,
in which each substance is contained. But it is of conse¬
quence to ascertain, as nearly as may be practicable, the pro¬
portion in which these articles are present in the serum
and the globules respectively. This Lecanu attempts to
exhibit in the following table, which he gives as represent¬
ing in man the medium composition of the venous blood
in the normal state.
iooo-oooa
The main point which it is important to know, is that
blood consists of albumen and fibrin to the extent of between
78 and 81 parts in the thousand, suspended in about 902
parts of water, with some adipose matter, and salts, chiefly
of soda, potash, and lime. Though these saline substances
are neutral, yet in general the blood presents an alkaline
reaction, which is ascribed to a slight predominance of soda.
In persons and animals that subsist much on vegetable food,
this alkaline reaction ought also to depend on the presence
of potash.
The blood may be believed to contain all the substances
which are found to be present in the different textures and
organs.- It either does so, or it contains their material ele¬
ments, excepting in one instance. It contains, so far as is
hitherto known, no gelatine. According to Marchand, it
contains a little urea. But in the healthy state, this is in ex¬
ceedingly small quantity.
The blood, that is, the seruip, has in the normal state an
alkaline reaction, which is ascribed to the presence of phos¬
phate of soda, not carbonate. The saline matter is of use
in maintaining the fluidity of the blood; in contributing to
1 Account of a Concrete Oil existing as a constituent principle in healthy Blood, by Benjamin G. Babington, M.D. Medico-Chtrurgical
^s^ouveau^Recherches, &c., par Felix Boudet. Journal de Pharmacie, No. vi. June 1838 ; and Edinburgh Medicaland Surgical Journal,
vol. xl., p. 489. Edinburgh, 1834.
3 Recherches Experimentales sur le Sang Humain. Par P. S. Denis. Paris, 1830. ^ -,007 atn „
4 Etudes Chimiques sur le Sang Humain. These, &c. Novembre le 23, 1837. Par Louis Ren6 Lecanu, D.M. Paris, 1837, 4to, p. 7.
ANATOMY.
782
General its red colour (Stevens) ; and probably it may be useful in
Anatomy, contributing to certain galvanic or electro-magnetic actions
in different organs.
Chemical From the blood and its elements the animal tissues derive
const!tu- tlie materials of their nutrition, and the different secreted
tion‘ fluids are formed.
Arterial blood differs from venous according to Lecanu,
besides the difference in colour already mentioned, chiefly
in the following circumstances.
It contains a larger amount of globules, a greater propor¬
tion of fibrin, an amount of albumen, extractive matters,
saline and fatty matters, to all appearance equal, more oxy¬
gen in proportion to its carbonic acid, less combined carbon
and oxygen. In consequence chiefly of the larger propor¬
tion of globules, it shows a greater tendency to coagulation,
and the clot is more bulky, more firm, and gives a small
proportion of serum. Its density is to that of venous blood
as 1050 to 1053 (J. Davy).
The proportion of serum is smaller, and the proportion of
globules greater in man than in the female ; in the blood of
sanguine persons than in the blood of lymphatic individuals
of the same sex; in the blood of adults than in the blood
of children and of the aged; and in the blood of persons
w ell fed than in those imperfectly nourished.
The blood of the portal vein contains a smaller proportion
of globules and a larger proportion of water, serum, and fat,
than the blood of the venous system in general.
The blood of the placenta is greatly more rich in globules,
and contains less water than the blood of the veins.
In the foetus, the blood contains little coagulable matter;
and this principle is entirely wanting in the blood of the
menstrual discharge.
Chyle and II. The fluids received by the blood are chyle and lymph.
Lymph. Chyle is derived from chyme, a gray pulpy substance, formed
from the alimentary mass in the stomach and duodenum.
Detached from this substance, and received by the chylife-
rous tubes, it is whitish and scarcely coagulable. In the me¬
senteric glands, it becomes more coagulable, and assumes a
rose colour. Lastly, in the thoracic duct, and before joining
the mass of blood, it is distinctly rose-coloured, coagulable
and globular in its particles. In the branches of the pul¬
monary artery it appears to become perfect blood. Lymph
is a colourless, viscid, albuminous fluid, imperfectly known.
The globules or corpuscula of the chyle, of the thymus
fluid, and of the lymph, appear delicately granulated on the
surface. They are generally globular or lenticular, never
following the differences in shape and size of the blood-disks
in different classes of animals, nor in birds affecting the
long oval figure of the nucleus of the red corpuscle.
The globules of chyle, thymus fluid, and of lymph, are
smaller than the colourless globules of the blood. They
also differ in structure. In the last, two, three, or four nu¬
clei are seen when the envelope is made more or less trans¬
parent by acetic, sulphuric, citric, or tartaric acid. But the
globules of chyle, of lymph, and of the thymus fluid, like
the nuclei of the red corpuscula of the blood, are only ren¬
dered more distinct and smaller by any of these acids, so
that the central part presents no regular nuclei, or divided
nucleus, such as are contained in the colourless globules of
the blood. In short, according to Mr Gulliver, who has
examined these bodies with great care, the colourless glo¬
bules of the blood have the character of elementary cells,
while the globules of chyle resemble, and probably are, nu¬
clei or immature cells.
The microscopical and chemical characters of the globules
of the chyme, of the thymus, and of the lymphatic glands,
are nearly the same. When quite recent, they swell on
being mingled with pure water, as does the nucleus of the
blood corpuscle. When wrell mixed with a strong solution General
of alkali, or of a neutral salt, the globules undergo partial Anatomy,
solution, become misshapen or faint, forming a ropy tena-
cious compound with the fluid (Gulliver).
III. Of the fluids separated from the blood, all cannot be Secreted
said to belong to the animal body. Several,—for instance, fluids,
the perspired fluid of the skin and lungs, the fluid of the cu¬
taneous and mucous follicles, and the urine,—become, after
secretion, foreign to the body, and require to be removed.
Those belonging to the body are such as are prepared for
some purpose within it, and after this are either re-absorbed,
or, being decomposed, are expelled. Of the former kind,
fat, serum of serous membranes, and synovia, afford exam¬
ples. To the latter description belong tears, saliva, gastric
juice, pancreatic fluid, bile, the seminal fluid of the male,
and the milk of the female, all of which are the result of a
distinct glandular secretion for a specific purpose, after which
they are expelled from the economy.
Of the fluids secreted upon the surface, or on different
points of the alimentary canal, some are alkaline, some acid ;
but all agree in possessing some albuminous or albuminoid
principle, which is believed to act by what is called cata¬
lysis, or being placed in contact with foreign bodies intro¬
duced, to act on them, either by inducing chemical changes,
or by causing actions of assimilation.
1. Thus saliva contains salivine, a species of diastase,
besides sulphocyanic acid, chlorides, lactates, and phos¬
phates. It is alkaline when food is taken, and during mas¬
tication.
2. Gastric juice contains pepsine and chlorine or hydro¬
chloric acid, and, according to some, lactic acid.
3. Bile contains choleic acid or biline, taurine, free soda,
and the salts of the blood; while taurine, which is an albumi¬
noid principle, contains sulphur. Thenard and Gmelin found
in it picromel. Bernard states that the liver forms sugar.
4. Pancreatic juice contains, besides an albuminous prin¬
ciple, which may be named Pancreatinine, according to the
observations of Bernard, free soda, which gives it an alka¬
line reaction.
5. The intestinal fluid (Succm intestinalis) has a reaction,
sometimes acid, sometimes alkaline.
Urine may be regarded as urea suspended or dissolved
in water. Urea is the peculiar and characteristic element
of the secretion. It contains also a little uric acid, which is
probably produced from the urea, as this acid can scarcely
be said to be a constituent of healthy urine. The other in¬
gredients are saline matters common to the blood and the
urine or complementary between them.
The density of healthy urine varies from 1015 to 1033,
water being as 1000; and the average, as determined from
the examination of the urine in fifty instances of persons
in good health, is at the highest 1026 and at the lowest
1017. The general average, therefore, amounts to 1022.
This is understood while the quantity discharged daily is
from 45 to 53 ounces, which is about the general average in
healthy individuals who consume liquids at the ordinary rate.
This density above that of water, urine owes to the pre¬
sence of urea and saline matters. If the urea and saline
matters be incfeased, the density of the urine is increased; if
they be diminished, the density of the urine is also dimi¬
nished.
It may here be observed, that urea is the form which the
elements of the fibro-albuminous parts of the blood assume,
after these fibro-albuminous principles have been employed
in repairing the waste of the tissues. If the proximate
chemical principles of albumen be compared with those of
urea, it is seen that the latter are the complement of the
former. Thus,—
ANATOMY.
783
General Hydrogen. Carbon.
Anatomy. Albumen consists of. 7*77 5CH)0
v'—Urea consists of. 6-66 20.00
Secreted
fluids.
Oxygen.
26-66
26-66
Nitrogen.
15-55
46-66
Thus while albumen and urea contain the same propor¬
tion of oxygen, the former contains one-seventh more hy¬
drogen, three-fifths more carbon, and two-thirds less nitro¬
gen. It is known that the former proportions of these prin¬
ciples are employed in repairing the waste of the albumi¬
nous tissues, especially the muscular system; and while
carbon and oxygen are discharged by the lungs, and carbon,
oxygen, and hydrogen by the liver, the large superfluous
portion of nitrogen not required, namely 31 per cent., unit¬
ing with hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon in the form of urea,
is left to pass through the blood, and by means of the kid¬
neys to be expelled from the system.
In the healthy state urine is always slightly acid when dis¬
charged. This acidity is liable to become excessive on the
one hand; and on the other to diminish so far as to render
the urine alkaline. This change is much favoured, if not
wholly occasioned by the presence of mucus, purulent mat¬
ter, or other azotised substances.
CHAP. i.
BOOK. I.
-FORMATION, DEVELOPMENT, AND ULTIMATE
ANALYSIS OF THE TISSUES.
Cell-for- It has, at different times, in the history of Anatomy and
mation. Physiology, been an object with various ingenidus observers
to trace to some one simple element all the different forms
which the animal textures assume. In general, however,
these attempts have not been successful, and have led to
generalisations too great to be just, and more fanciful than
to be founded in careful observation.
In the year 1773 William Hewson communicated to the
Royal Society his account of the Red Particles ot the Blood,
making known among other points the fact of the existence
in them of an opaque central spot, and of an opaque body
in the globules of the oviparous vertebrated animals. The
application of this fact it was not easy at that time, per¬
haps not possible, to discover. After the lapse ot sixty
years, in 1833, Robert Brown, well known as a skilful bo¬
tanist, in Observations on the family of the Orchulece, in
the Transactions of the Linncean Society, made known the
existence of a vesicular or celluliform body containing a
solid, to which he gave the name of Areola or Nucleus of
the cell. The signification, however, of this structure was
little or not understood. At length in 1838, J. M. Schlei-
den, professor of Botany in the university of Jena, made
known the fact, that when a slice from the succulent part
of certain plants is examined under the microscope, part of
it appears to consist of an infinite number of minute vesicles,
rounded or polygonal, generally flattened, cohering by the
margins, and containing in their interior matters coloured
or colourless. This appearance is most perceptible in va¬
rious monocotyledonous orders, as Orchideee, Commelinece,
and Asphodeleoe, and many dicotyledonous orders, as the
Cactece, Balanophorece, &c. But it is also found in different
degrees of distinctness in the greater part of the vegetable
world. This close vesicle generally contains a fluid, some¬
times jelly-like ; but it also contains a body more or less
rounded, to which Schleiden applied the name of Cell-Kernel General
and Cytoblastus. It is attached on one side to the inner Anatomy,
surface of the vesicle, but on the other is free. When v'—
perfectly formed it is a flat, lenticular, sharply defined, trans- Cell-for-
parent, pale-yellow body, in which it is possible to distin-ination-
guish one or two, seldom three, hollow corpuscula. These
are called nucleoli.1
The Cytoblast is represented by Schleiden to be a nitro¬
genous body or proteine compound, perhaps in its simplest
state pure proteine. Its minuteness is almost inconceiv¬
able, being from 0-00009 to 0-0022 of one inch in circum¬
ference.1
The Cytoblast has been more generally known under the
name of Nucleus; and the vesicle containing it has been
called Nucleated Cell; {Cellulce Nucleated) ; Elementary
Cells; Primary Cells.
In 1839, the year following that in which Schleiden pub¬
lished his doctrines on Phytogenesis, or the formation of
plants, Schwann made known the fact, that in the animal
tissues the same structure exists which Schleiden had shown
is found in those of the vegetable world.2 The fact has been
stated in general terms by Henle in the following manner.
In most vegetable and animal tissues, there exist during
the whole period of life, or a certain time of the develop¬
ment of these tissues, microscopical corpuscula of peculiar
and very characteristic shape. These are minute bladders
or vesiculce, consisting of a fine enclosing membrane and
a fluid, occasionally something granular, content. In the
wall of these vesiculee lies a smaller darker body, namely,
the Kernel or Nucleus of the cell,—Cytoblast of Schleiden ;
and this is generally distinguished by one or two, rarely more,
darker and almost regularly round specks (Nucleoli).
It is here to be observed, that nucleated cells as thus
described are not perceptible in the tissues at all times of
their existence. It is chiefly in the early period, or that of
formation and development that they are observed. The
process of cell-formation is in truth progressive ; and this
circumstance has led Schwann, Henle, and others, to speak
of the life of the cell and of its youth or early period of ex¬
istence, though Henle himself makes an apology for the use
of the term youth in this manner.
The cells lie in a shapeless or amorphous matter, the Cyto-
blastema, in which they float when this is fluid, and are im¬
bedded when it is semi-solid or solid. The solid Cytoblas-
tema, in which the cells are more or less compressed, ap¬
pears like inter-cellular substance, and is also the connect¬
ing medium of the cells.3
What is now stated embraces almost all the points in
which observers are agreed. Upon all others minute but
real differences of opinion exist;—upon the nature and com¬
position of the cell, upon the mode in which cells are de¬
veloped and multiplied, and upon the transformations which
they undergo.
The covering or wall of the cell is allowed by most to be
an albuminoid or proteine substance. It is rendered trans¬
parent and indistinct, but not dissolved by acetic acid. The
contents of cells are semifluid, often granular, that is, con¬
sisting of small grains or bodies differently coloured, of fat
particles, and of a fine molecular substance, that is minute
atoms, the nature of which is unknown.
On the nature and general characters of the body called
1 On Phytogenesis, by J. M. Schleiden. Scientific Memoirs, translated by Richard Taylor, F.S.A., &c., volume second London, 1841.
From Muller’s Archiv, 1838. Also, Principles of Scientific Botany, or Botany as an Inductive Science, by Dr J. M. Schleiden. ira
lated by Edwin Lankester, M.D. Book second, Chapter I. London, 1849, 8vo. muwp 11TUi
2 Tin Schwann Mikroskopische Untersuchungen uber die Uebereinstimmung in der struktur und dem Wachsthum der Thiere und
1 flan3][jc^oscopic’al Researches into the Accordance in the Structure and Growth of Animals and Plants; translated from the German of
Dr Th. Schwann, by Henry Smith. London, 1847. Printed for the Lydenham Society, 8vo, p. 268.
3 Henle Allgemeine Anatomie, Leipzig, 1841. Seite 151.
784 A N A T
General the Nucleus, opinions are discordant. In some instances the
Anatomy, nucleus has the appearance of a granular body, more or less
solid, while in other instances it has that of a pale vesicle,
Cell-for- with a distinct cell-wall and fluid content. The pale yesi-
mation. cular form is the most general, and, according to Kolliker,
it is the constant form of the early stages of the life of the
cell. That the composition of the nucleus is different from
that of the cell, is shown by the fact, that many agents which
act upon the one, have no effect upon the other. Kolliker
is of opinion, that the membrane of the nucleus is composed^
of pyin, the clear content of albumen, and the nucleolus of
fat.
In the animal tissue cell, as in the vegetable cell, the nu¬
cleus is commonly situate on the wall of the cell, apparently
imbedded in its substance, but according to Schwann most
frequently attached to its inner surface. Occasionally the
nucleus is situate towards the centre of the cell, as is the
case in the cells of cylinder epithelium.
The phenomena now mentioned are most easily seen in
cartilage in its early or growing stage.
On the mode in which Elementary or Primary Cells are
themselves formed, different representations have been given
by different observers. In general a nucleus is first formed;
and even upon this process different views are given. Ac¬
cording to Schleiden and Schwann, in the Blastema or plastic
fluid nucleoli first appear ; and as new matter continues to
collect, round one or more of these, the nucleus is formed.
Afterwards, matter deposited on the nucleus forms the cell-
wall or vesicular membrane. Henle, on the other hand,
thinks, from various facts, that a Nucleus may be formed in¬
dependent of any Nucleolus. He supposes in the blastema
the existence of elementary particles or granules, which, he
says, are found wherever new formations are taking place;
for instance, in the yolk of the egg, in milk, in chyle, and in
lymph, in the delicate commencements of glands, and the
epithelium, when rapid regeneration takes place, and in pa¬
thological fluids.1
These elementary granules are for the most part, as far
as can be ascertained, composed of fat, and a membrane in¬
closing the fat-drops ; and he adduces, in proof of the cor¬
rectness of this view, the fact made known by Ascherson,
that when oil and albumen are allowed to unite in small
drops, there are formed minute corpuscula, consisting of fat,
inclosed in an albuminoid membrane.
It appears, in the second place, that, in certain circum¬
stances, cells are formed without the previous existence of
a nucleus. Thus, in addition to the fact, that in crypto-
gamic, and many higher plants, a minute spherule first ap¬
pears, soon becomes a vesicle, and is eventually formed into
a cell; in the chorda dorsalis of fishes and reptiles, cells
are formed without the previous formation of any nucleus.
It is to be remarked, however, that even in this instance,
nuclei appear after the cells have been formed.
In the third place, it is observed that cells and nuclei are
in certain circumstances formed simultaneously. Thus, in
the embryonic cartilage of the toad, the formation of both
bodies is so simultaneous, that Vogt never could detect nu¬
clei without a cell-wall, or cells which did not enclose a
nucleus.
On the mode in which cells are reproduced and multi¬
plied, several conjectures have been formed, but nothing
can be said to be ascertained. It is the opinion of Schwann,
for the subject cannot be said hitherto to admit of proof,
that the continued increase of cells is in most cases effected,
though he does not show how, in the plastic fluid or blas¬
tema. In other instances new cells are formed within cells
which had previously existed; and by these they are sur-
O M Y.
rounded, until they have attained, by growth, a certain size, General
when they escape, apparently by rupturing the original or Anatomy,
parent cell. This is supposed to be illustrated by the pro-
cess of what is called cleavage in the ovum, and by what Cell-for-
takes place in the cells of cartilage. But, excepting in these mation-
instances, this process of cell-multiplication, which has been
termed endogenous, though common in vegetable produc¬
tions, is rare in the textures of the animal world.
It was believed, with considerable confidence, when the Influence
discovery of the existence of elementary cells was madeof cells and
known that an easy and intelligible method was found of ex-
plaining the formation of all the textures which enter into the tissues
composition of the animal body. It is quite possible that
this belief is well-founded; and in a few instances probably
it may be said to be in a slight degree realised. But it
must not be concealed, that the whole theory is in a state
of imperfection and transition; and that it is far from pre¬
senting those clear, certain, and consistent phenomena, which
might be applied with any confidence in explaining the
growth and visible structure of the several tissues of which
the animal body is composed. It is manifest, that in order
that the cell and its nucleus should be the means of form¬
ing these tissues, they should undergo certain transfor¬
mations. Now, upon these transformations, and upon the
mode in which they are effected, observers are by no means
agreed. In some instances it appears that the cell is the
agent of transformation and creation, and in others it is the
nucleus that is believed to be the agent. Schwann sup¬
posed, that to form certain tissues, as the Cellular, that is the
Filamentous, the Tendinous, and the fibrous or Ligamentous,
the cells become elongated and were thus converted into
fibres. But though such elongation seems to take place in
certain circumstances, the doctrine has not been generally
admitted.
The tissues in which the agency of cells and their nuclei
are believed with least certainty to be seen, are cartilage
in its early state, bone in a certain degree, tooth, nerve-sub-
stance, arterial tissue, muscle, adipose membrane, and the
secreting glands, as the liver, the kidney, the pancreas, the
salivary glands, the female mamma.
The appearances observed during the growth of Nerve-
Fibres in the embryo, particularly by Schaffner and Kolli¬
ker, are thought to afford good examples of the influence,
if such it may be called, of the nucleated cell. In the
earliest period of its formation, nerve substance consists
almost entirely of round, mostly nucleated, cells, filled with
a fine granular material, and, with the exception of being
somewhat smaller, exactly similar to the nerve corpuscula,
found in the nervous centres of the adult animal. As de¬
velopment advances, many of these cells send forth fine tu¬
bular processes of a structure apparently homogeneous, which
unite with similar processes from other cells, and thus event¬
ually gave rise to continuous Nerve Tubules. Kolliker finds
that in young batrachoid reptiles, a complete net-work of
nerve tubules is formed by this junction and coalescence of
the processes from branching cells. A similar observation was
made by Schwann. In this particular instance, therefore, it
appears, that Nucleated Cells, by sending out some shoots,
and uniting with similar offsets from other cells, eventually
form tubulated structures. According to Schaffner, as the
nerve tubules coalesce and increase in size, the walls of the
cells from which they proceed are gradually drawn out, and
merge into the walls of the tubules, while the granular con¬
tent becomes continued and identified with the content of
the tubules.
Henle gives schemes or plans of the mode in which the
Allgemeine Anatomie, Seite 162,163, Erste theil.
ANATOMY.
785
General nuclei are transformed into the higher tissues;1 and Kol-
Anatomy. lilier subsequently gave his representations of the process.
v'—It was supposed by Schwann, that the nucleus disappears
Influence shortly after the cell is completely formed. But according
of cells and to Retzius, Henle, and Kolliker, the nucleus is a main agent
nuclei in Gf development in many tissues. The only parts in which,
crftissues1 according to Idenle, the nucleus disappears, are the blood-
0 " ’ globules, the cells of the epidermis and the nails, most of the
fat-cells, the tubules of the crystalline lens and of tooth-
enamel, and many of the cartilage corpuscula. But in all
fibres or fibriform tissues, supposed to be formed from coa¬
lescing cells, excepting those of the lens and of enamel, the
nuclei not only remain persistent, but they undergo, or are
the agents of, certain transformations.
First, they assume an oval shape, then gradually elon¬
gating and becoming narrow, they are converted into fine
dark streaks, which lie straight, angular, or curvilinear, or
for some space serpentine upon their proper cells. The Nu¬
cleus corpuscula then disappear. By reason of their sharp
outlines, these streaks look like fibrous tissues, and are
frequently taken for elongated cells, in which case the in¬
termediate substance is overlooked or considered as cellular
substance. At this stage, sometimes the absorption of the
Nucleus commences by being divided into a row of minute
dots, which constantly become paler and smaller. Simi¬
lar rows of minute dots are found in all fibrous tissues,
and most numerously in the cornea and in the organic
muscles.
In opposite cases the elongated Nuclei gradually form a
mutual connection by means of threads which each send
out, and which, at first delicate and pale, gradually acquire
the strength and firmness of the dark corpuscula from whence
they proceed.
In consequence of the representations now given, Henle
distinguishes two kinds of fibres;—namely, Cell-fibres and
iVwefee-fibres ; the former being those in which cells are
split or divided into fibres, and the latter into fibrils; the
latter those in which the nuclei are elongated, and by mu¬
tual union form fibres. The latter, again, he distinguishes
into two different types, according to the original position
of the nucleus on the surface, or on the edge of the flat nu¬
cleus-fibre ; and the position of the nucleus is regulated by
the form of the Cell-Fibre. Perfectly flat nuclei-fibres have
the nucleus on the surface ; cell-fibres, which approach the
cylindrical form have the nucleus on the edges. To the
latter order, he states, belong the fibres or filaments of the
cellular tissue {tela conjunctiva), the fibres of the cornea,
and those of tooth-bone.
The nuclei and WMc/e«-fibres are represented by the same
anatomist to be of much use in forming the texture of the
bloodvessels. In the development of these tissues, layers
of cytoblastema are deposited in the form of stuctureless
membrane; in these nuclei are formed, and undergo vari¬
ous changes. In the innermost layer, cells grow round the
nuclei, and form the epithelial coat of the vessel. In the
next layer, which forms what has been usually called the
inner coat of the vessel, the nuclei remain unchanged. In
the formation of the fibrous or elastic contractile coat, the
nuclei are elongated, and arrange themselves in rows or lines,
in the manner already mentioned.
Thesecond type of Nucleus-Fibres, which are arranged on
the surface of the flat Cell-Fibres, are distinguished by the
tendency which they manifest to shoot lateral branches, and
in this manner to form junctions with other lateral branches
and make a network which covers the layer of cell-fibres;
so that in the normal development they are situate between
two layers of cell-fibres. This mode of development may
be seen in the tissues of the bloodvessels, both arteries and General
veins, and in the muscular coat of the viscera. Anatomy.^
The whole of this doctrine, however, is yet in a state of
uncertainty and contradiction ; and it would be unprofitable
in this place to spend more time upon it. Whenever under
particular heads it is possible to state any well-authenticated
facts, this shall be done, so far as the limits and nature oi
this article admit.
The only subject which it is required further at present Relation
to notice, is the relation between the nucleated cells and between
the corpuscula of the blood. This subject is still, notwith-
standing the observations of several skilful inquirers^ Martin corpuscui^
Barry, Henlc, Vogt, Kollikor, Wharton Jones, Gulliver,
beset with contradictions and involved in a considerable
degree of uncertainty. Nor have these difficulties been
diminished by connecting with the relation between the
nucleated cells and the corpuscula, the question regarding
the formation of the latter.
One of the great sources of difficulty in the inquiry is
this, that the corpuscula of Man and the Mammalia, though
similar in several circumstances to those of the lower verte-
brated and the Aspondylous animals, do not present complete
resemblance to them.
According to the observations of Mr Wharton Jones, the
blood of Fishes, that is, of the lower vertebrated animals, pre¬
sents three kinds of cells, ls£, the granule blood-cell, con¬
taining a nucleus not at first visible, but discovered to be
so by addition of acetic acid, which dissolves the granules
and renders the nucleus evident; and, ‘Id, The nucleated
blood-cell, which is the red oval corpusculum, but with the
nucleus cellae-form; and M, The pale or colourless gra¬
nule cell. It appears further, that between the granule
blood-cell and the nucleated blood-cell there subsists this
relation, that they form two different phases of development
of the same body; the granule cell being the early stage, and
the nucleated cell the second or more advanced. It seems
also probable, from the observations of the same inquirer,
that the pale or colourless granule cells mentioned as the
third kind, form advanced stages of the dark looking granule
cell.
In the blood of the frog, which is taken as the repre¬
sentative of the reptile family, there are recognised two
forms of corpuscula: 1. Granule cells in coarse and fine
granular stages; and, 2. Nucleated cells in colourless and
coloured stages. The nucleated blood cell in its coloured
stage is the red oval corpuscle of the blood of the frog, that
is, the blood globule of the frog in its most complete form.
Regarding the blood corpusculum of the Mammalia and
Man, It appears to be certain that the central spot does not
correspond to the nucleus, though this has been imagined by
some observers.
In all the vertebrated animals hitherto examined, Ovipa¬
rous and Mammiferous, there are, first, blood corpuscula in
the first stage of development, or presenting the phase of
Granule Cell, either coarsely grained or finely granular.
Secondly, in all the animals examined there are blood cor¬
puscula, in the second stage of development, that is in the
phase of Nucleated Cell, which may be a in the colourless
stage, or b in the coloured stage.
Regarding the nucleated blood-cell in the coloured stage,
this occurs in its highest degree of development, and in great
numbers, only in the Oviparous Vertebrata, in which it con¬
stitutes the red corpusculum, and in the early mammiferous
embryon. In the fully formed blood of the Mammalia it
occurs in a comparatively low degree of development, an
in very small number.
5 G
VOL. II.
1 Allgemeine Anatomic, Seite 193, 194, 198.
786
ANATOMY.
General ln tiie Mammalia alone is the blood corpusculum found
Anatomy^ jn w]iat Mr W. Jones calls the third stage of development,
or the phase of free cellae-form nucleus. This is found in
both uncoloured and coloured stages. In the former stage
it is rare; in the latter it is the red corpuscle of the fully
formed blood of man and the mammalia. In short, it is the
opinion of Mr Jones, that the red corpusculum or globule of
the fully formed blood of man and the mammalia is the cel¬
lae-form Nucleus of the nucleated cell set free by the burst¬
ing of this cell itself, and become filled and red by the se¬
cretion of globuline and colouring matter into its interior.
For the facts and arguments establishing this inference,
we refer to the memoirs of Mr Wharton Jones.1
CHAP. II. THE COMMON TISSUES.
Filamentous or Cellular Tissue. {Tela Cellulosa,— Tissu
Cellulaire,— Tissu Muqueux of Bordeu,—Corpus Cri-
brosum Hippocratis,—Corps Crihleux of Fouquet,—Re¬
ticular Membrane of William Hunter.) Das Binde-
gewebe of Muller and Henle.
Under the name of Connecting Tissue, Henle describes
a tissue consisting in its final elements of long, very fine,
soft, transparent filaments, or cylinders or fibrils of uniform
strength, and of a diameter varying from 00003-00008 of
one line. This tissue he distinguishes into two general forms;
one the shapeless or unformed Connecting Web ; the other
the formed Connecting Web. The first of these corresponds
to what has been described by various authors under the
names of Cellular Tissue, Mucous Tissue, and Filamentous
Tissue. Under the second, which he divides into two
orders, the Non-contractile and the Contractile Joining
Web, he arranges a great number of textures in the follow¬
ing manner:—I. Non-contractile formed Web, including, 1.
Tendon ; 2. Ligament; 3. Fibrous Sheaths; 4. Fibrous
Membranes, as the fibrous covering of the Corpora Caver¬
nosa the Dura Mater, the Membrana Tympani, the Valves
of the veins, the Neurilema, the Fasciae, the Periosteum, and
the Perichondrium ; 5. The Tunica Nervea of the intestinal
canal; 6. The External Coat of the Bloodvessels ; 7. The
Serous Membranes; 8. The Pia Mater and the Choroid
Membrane ;—II. Formed Contractile Joining Web, includ¬
ing the Skin ; the Dartos ; the Investing membrane of the
Corpora Cavernosa; and the Contractile Web of the longi¬
tudinal and annular coat of the veins and lymphatic vessels.
Without pretending to offer any opinion upon the pro¬
priety of arranging all these different tissues under the head
of Connecting Web, it may be remarked, that it is not
very easy in this manner to communicate correct ideas of
the true anatomical and physical characters of these tissues;
and as the method already adopted in this article possesses
the advantage of being at once simple, free from hypothesis,
and serviceable to readers, it seems more prudent to adhere
to it, after the explanations now given.
The general distribution of the filamentous or cellular
tissue was first maintained by Haller and Charles Augustus
de Bergen, and afterwards made the subject of elaborate
discussion by William Hunter and Bordeu. It may be de¬
scribed as a substance consisting of very minute thready
lines, which follow no uniform or invariable direction, but
which, when gently raised by the forceps, present the ap¬
pearance of a confused and irregular network. As these
minute lines cross each other, they form between them spaces
of a figure not easily determined, and perhaps not uniform.
By some authors these spaces or intervals have been named
cells; but, accurately speaking, the term is not fortunately
applied. The component lines, which do not exceed the size General
of the silkworm threads, are so slender, that they do not Anatomy,
form those distinct partitions which the term cell implies ;
and though by forcible distension, such as takes place in
insufflation, or separation by forceps, cavities appear to be
formed, these, it will be found, are artificial, and result from
the separation of an infinity of the slender filaments of which
the part is composed. These interlinear spaces necessarily
communicate on every side with each other; and indeed
the most distinct way of forming a true idea of the structure
of the cellular tissue, is to suppose a certain space of the
animal body which is divided and intersected into an infinite
multitude of minute spaces {areolce) by slender thready
lines crossing each other. This description, derived from
personal observation, renders the name offilamentous more
appropriate to this tissue than that of cellular by which it is
generally known.
The interstitial spaces resulting from the interlacement
of these filaments do not exist as distinct cavities in the
healthy state, so that they cannot be said to contain any
substance solid or fluid. But when an incision is made into
this tissue in the living body, it is found, that if we except
those fluids which issue from divided vessels, nothing is ob¬
served to escape but a thin exhalation or vapour, which is
evidently of an aqueous nature. This is what some authors
have termed, from its resemblance to the serous part of the
blood, the cellular serosity (Bichat), and the quantity of
which has been greatly exaggerated. In the living body it
appears not to exist as a distinct fluid, but merely as a thin
vapour, which communicates to the tissue the moist appear¬
ance which it possesses.
This fluid is understood to be derived from the minute
colourless capillaries named exha,lards; and it is supposed
to be no sooner poured forth in an insensible manner, than
it is removed by the absorbing power of lymphatics, minute
veins, or both. It is further believed, that whatever serous
fluid is secreted into the interstitial spaces or cells of the fila¬
mentous tissue, is in the healthy state speedily removed;
so that exhalation implies absorption; and the filamentous
tissue is therefore represented as the seat of incessant ex¬
halation and absorption.
The serous fluid of the filamentous tissue varies in quan¬
tity in different regions. In the cellular tissue of those parts
which are free from fat, as in the eyelids, the prepuce, the
nymphce and labia, and the scrotum, it is said to be more
abundant than in others. The peculiar structure of those
parts, which is cellular, may render any excess of serous
fluid more conspicuous ; for it is matter of observation, that
in many persons otherwise healthy these parts are not un-
frequently distended with serous fluid. On the other hand,
it must be remarked that the submucous cellular tissue, and
that which surrounds arteries, veins, and excreting ducts,
which is delicate in substance and compact in structure, con¬
tains but a small proportion of serous fluid, and does not
readily admit its presence.
This fluid has been generally said to be of an albuminous
nature; and if it be identical with the serum of the blood,
from which it is believed to be secreted, this character is not
unjustly given it. Bichat, who maintained this opinion, in¬
jected alcohol into the filamentous tissue of an animal pre¬
viously rendered emphysematous, and found in various parts
whitish flocculi, which he regarded as coagulated albumen.
He also obtained the same result by immersing a portion of
the scrotum in weak nitric acid; and when a considerable
quantity of this tissue was boiled, it furnished much whitish
foam, which Bichat regarded as albuminous.2 These ex-
1 Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London for the year 1846, Part II., and Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal,
vol. sixty-third, 1847, p. 529, and vol. seventy-third, 1850, p. 395. 2 Anatomic QUlrale, tom. i. p. 50.
ANATOMY. 787
General periments, however, are liable to this objection, that the
Anatomy, effects in question may have arisen from coagulation of part
of the filamentous tissue itself, which contains a consider¬
able proportion of albuminous matter. The best mode of de¬
termining the point is to obtain the fluid apart, and to try the
effects of the usual tests on it when isolated from the tissue
in which it is lodged.
The description here given applies to the proper filamen¬
tous tissue. This substance was shown by Ruysch, and
afterwards by William Hunter and Mascagni, to be pene¬
trated by arteries and veins. Exhalants, absorbents, and
nerves, it is also said to receive. The arteries certainly
belong in the healthy state to the order of colourless capil¬
laries, which are nearly the same with exhalants. It does
not appear that the nervous twigs observed to pass through
this tissue are lost in it; for in general they have been traced
to some contiguous part.
Such are the general properties of this tissue, considered
as an elementary organic substance extensively diffused
through the body. In particular regions it undergoes some
modifications, which may be referred to the following heads :
—1. Beneath the skin, or rather under the adipose mem¬
brane,—the subcutaneous and intermuscular cellular tissue ;
2. Beneath the villous or mucous membranes,—the submu¬
cous cellular tissue; 3. Beneath the serous membranes,—
the subserous cellular tissue; 4. Round bloodvessels, excret¬
ing ducts, and other organs,—the inclosing tissue, vascular
sheaths, &c.; 5. In the substance of organs,—the penetrat¬
ing cellular tissue.
The situation of the subcutaneous filamentous tissue de¬
serves particular notice. Though generally represented as
below the skin, it is not immediately under this membran¬
ous covering. The skin rests on the adipose membrane,
beneath which again is placed the filamentous tissue, ex¬
tending like a web over the muscles and bloodvessels, pene¬
trating between the fibres and bundles of the former, sur¬
rounding the tendons and ligaments, and connected by these
productions with a deep-seated layer, on which the muscles
move, where they do not adhere to the periosteum and to
bones.
The extensive distribution of the subcutaneous filament¬
ous tissue, the mutual connection of its parts, and its ready
communication with the filamentous tissue of the mucous
and serous membranes, were demonstrated by Haller, Wil¬
liam Hunter, and Bordeu, and have been clearly explained
by Portal and Bichat. The principal points worthy of at¬
tention may be stated in the following manner.
The filamentous tissues of the head and face communi¬
cate freely with each other, and with that of the brain by
the cranial openings, and with the submucous tissue of the
eyelids, nostrils, lips, and the inner surface of the mouth and
cheeks. It communicates also with the subcutaneous tissue
of the neck all round; and at the angle of the jaw, in the
vicinity of the parotid gland, is the common point of re¬
union. To this anatomical fact is referred the frequency of
swellings and purulent collections in the region of the parotid
in the course of the various diseases of the head, face, and
neck.
The filamentous tissue of the neck may be viewed as the
connecting medium between that of the head and trunk.
From the former region it may be traced downwards along
the back, loins, breast, sides, flanks, and belly. At the cer¬
vical region, and between the shoulders, it is dense and
abundant; and, surrounding the dorsal part of the vertebral
column, it is connected with the mediastinal tissue, the sub¬
mucous tissue of the lungs, and the subserous tissue of the
costal pleura. At the fore part of the neck it is in like man¬
ner connected with the abundant tissue of the pectoral re¬
gion, and by means of that surrounding the larynx and tra¬
chea, 1st, with the submucous tissue of the bronchi; and, General
2d, with the anterior mediastinum. Passing downwards, Anatomy,
the same communication may be traced with the intermus-
cular tissue of the loins and belly, the tissue surrounding the
lumbar and sacral portion of the vertebral column, that con¬
necting the mesentery and large vessels to the vertebrae, and
extending all round under the muscular peritoneum, and
into the pelvis, where, by means of the tissue at the poste¬
rior surface of the abdominal muscles, at the anterior sur¬
face of the iliacus internus, and through the obturator hole
and ischiadic notch, it communicates with the filamentous
tissue of the lower extremities. From the rectum and
branches of the ischium it is continued along the perineum
by the urethra, and into the scrotum.
In the whole of this course, it is abundant in the space
before the vertebra;, round the psoce and iliacus internus
muscules, and round the bladder, rectum, prostate gland,
and womb. The tissue surrounding the vertebral column
communicates with that in the interior of the column by the
intervertebral holes.
The armpit may be considered as the point of union be¬
tween the filamentous tissue of the trunk and that of the
upper extremities, while the groin is the corresponding spot
for the lower extremities. These facts should be kept in
mind in observing the phenomena of diseases of this tissue.
Notwithstanding this general connection, however, cer¬
tain parts of the tissue are so dense and close as to dimi¬
nish greatly the facility of communication. Thus, along
the median line it is so firm, that air injected invariably
stops, unless impelled by a force adequate to tear open its
filaments; and water is rarely found effused in this situa¬
tion. In the neighbourhood of some parts of the skeleton
also, as at the crest of the ilium, over the great trochanter,
and on the shin, the filamentous tissue is very dense and
coherent.
In chemical composition it consists principally of gelatine,
but contains some albuminous matter.
Adipose Tissue. {Tela Adiposa,—Tissu Adipeux.—Tissu
Graisseux.) Tett-Gewebe (Henle).
The separate existence of an adipose membrane was
suspected by Malpighi, maintained by De Bergen and
Morgagni, and demonstrated by William Hunter. It was
however, confounded with the filamentous tissue, under the
general name of cellular membrane, adipose membrane, and
cellular fat, by Winslow, Portal, Bichat, and most of the
continental anatomists, till distinguished and described by
M. Beclard.
According to the dissections of De Bergen and Mor¬
gagni, the demonstrations of Hunter, and the observations
of Beclard, its structure consists of rounded packets or par¬
cels separated from each other by furrows of various depth,
of a figure irregularly oval, or rather spheroidal, varying in
diameter from a line to half an inch, according to the degree
of corpulence and the part submitted to examination. Each
packet is composed of small spheroidal particles, which may
be easily separated by dissection, and which are said to con¬
sist of a cluster of vesicles still more minute, and agglomer¬
ated together by delicate cellular tissue. The appearance
of these ultimate vesicles is minutely described by Wolff in
the subcutaneous fat, and by Clopton Havers and Monro,
in the marrow of bones, in which the last two authors
compared them to strings of minute pearls. If the fat
with which these vesicles are distended should disappear,
as happens in dropsy, the vesicles collapse, their cavity is
obliterated, and they are confounded with the contiguous
cellular tissue, without leaving any trace of their existence.
Hunter, however, asserts, that in such circumstances the
cellular tissue differs from the tissue of adipose vesicles, in
788
ANATOMY.
General containing no similar cavities ; and justly remarks that the
Anatomy, latter is much more fleshy and ligamentous than the fila-
mentous tissue, and contends, that though the adipose re¬
ceptacles are empty and collapsed, they still exist. When
the skin is dissected from the adipose membrane it is always
possible to distinguish the latter from the filamentous tissue,
even if it contain no fat by the toughness of its fibres, and
the coarseness of the web which they make.
The distinguishing characters between the cellular or fila¬
mentous and the adipose tissue may be stated in the follow¬
ing manner.—1st, The vesicles of the adipose membrane
are closed all round, and, unlike cellular tissue, they cannot
be generally penetrated by fluids which are made to enter
them. If the temperature of a portion of adipose membrane
be raised by means of warm water to the liquefying point
of the contents, they will remain unmoved so long as the
structure of the visicles is not injured by the heat. Ifj again,
an adipose packet be exposed to a heat of + 40 centigr.
= 104 F. though the fat be completely liquefied, not a drop
escapes until the vesicles are divided or otherwise opened,
when it appears in abundance. The adipose matter, there¬
fore, though fluid or semifluid in the living body, does not,
like dropsical infiltration, obey the impulse of gravity. 2d,
The adipose visicles do not form, like cellular tissue, a con¬
tinuous whole, but are simply in mutual contiguity. This
arrangement is demonstrated by actual inspection, but be¬
comes more conspicuous in the case of dropsical effusions,
when the filamentous tissue interposed between the adipose
molecules is completely infiltrated, while the latter are en¬
tirely unaffected. 3c?, The anatomical situation of the adi¬
pose tissue is different from that of the filamentous tissue.
The former is found, \st, in a considerable layer imme¬
diately beneath the skin; 2d, between the peritoneal folds
which form the omentum and mesentery; 3c?, between the
serous and muscular tissues of the heart; and, 4th, round
each kidney.
In each of these situations it varies in quantity and in
physical properties. In the least corpulent persons a por¬
tion of fat is deposited in the adipose membrane of the
cheeks, orbits, palms of the hand, soles of the feet, pulp of
the fingers and toes, flexures of the joints, round the kidney,
beneath the cardiac serous membrane, and between the
layers of the mesentery and omentum. In the more corpu¬
lent, and chiefly in females, it is found not merely in these
situations, but extended in a layer of some thickness almost
uniformly over the whole person; and is very abundant in
the neck, breasts, belly, morn veneris, and flexures of the
joints.
Besides the delicate cellular tissue by which the packets
and vesicles are united, the adipose tissue receives arterial
and venous branches, the arrangement of which has been
described by various authors, from Malpighi, who gave the
first accurate account, to Mascagni, to whom we are in¬
debted for the most recent. According to the latter, who
delineates these vessels, the furrow or space between each
packet contains an artery and vein, which, being sub-divided,
penetrate between the minute grains or particles of which
the packet is composed, and furnish each with a small artery
and vein. The effect of this arrangement is, that each in¬
dividual grain or adipose particle is supported by its artery
and vein as by a foot-stalk or peduncle, and that those of
the same packet are kept together, not only by contact, but
by the community of ramifications from the same vessel.
These grains are so closely attached, that Mascagni, who
examined them with a good lens, compares them to a clus¬
ter of fish-spawn. Grutzmacher found much the same ar¬
rangement in the grains and vesicles of the marrow of
bones.
It has been supposed that the adipose tissue receives
nervous filaments; and Mascagni conceives he has demon- General
strated its lymphatics. Both points, however, are so pro- Anatomy,
blematical, that of neither of these tissues is the distribution
known.
The substance contained in these vesicles is entirely in¬
organic. Always solid in the dead body, it has been repre¬
sented as fluid during life by Winslow, Haller, Portal,
Bichat, and most authors on anatomy. The last writer in¬
deed states, that under the skin it is more consistent, and
that in various living animals he never found it so fluid as
is represented. The truth is, that in the human body, and
in most mammiferous animals during life, the fat is neither
fluid nor semifluid. It is simply soft, yielding, and compres¬
sible, with a slight degree of transparency or rather trans-
lucence. This is easily established by observing it during
incisions through the adipose membrane, either in the hu¬
man body or in the lower animals.
The properties and composition of fat form a subject for
chemical rather than anatomical inquiry; and in this re¬
spect its nature has been particularly investigated by M. Chev-
reul. According to the researches of this chemist, fat con¬
sists essentially of two proximate principles, stearine (oreap,
sebum, sapo), and elaine (eXaiov, oleum). The former is a
solid substance, colourless, tasteless, and almost inodorous,
soluble in alcohol and ether, and preserving its solidity at
a temperature of 138° F., but fusible between 140° and 145°
F. Elaine, on the contrary, though colourless, or at most
of a yellow tint, and lighter than water, is fluid at a tem¬
perature of from 17° to 18° centigrade, = 63° to 64° F., and
is greatly more soluble in alcohol.
Of this substance marrow appears to be merely a modi¬
fication ; and the membranous cavities or medullary mem¬
brane in which it is contained may be viewed as an intra¬
osseous adipose tissue.
Little doubt can be entertained that animal fat is the re¬
sult of a process of secretion ; but it is no easy matter to
determine the mode in which this is effected. Malpighi,
departing, however, from strict observation, imagined a set
of ducts issuing from glands, in which he conceived the fat
to be elaborated and prepared. To this he appears to have
been led by his study of the lymphatic glands, and inability
to comprehend how the process of secretion could be per¬
formed by arteries only. This doctrine, however, was over¬
thrown by the strong arguments which Ruysch derived from
his injections ; and Malpighi himself afterwards acknow¬
ledged its weakness and renounced it. In short, neither the
glands nor the ducts of the adipose membrane have ever
been seen.
Winslow, though willing to adopt the notion of Malpighi,
admits, however, that the particular organ by which the fat
is separated from the blood is unknown. Haller, on the
contrary, aware of the permeability of the arteries, and their
direct communication with the cells of the adipose tissue,
and trusting to the testimony of Malpighi, Ruysch, Glisson,
and Morgagni, that it existed in the arterial blood, saw no
difficulty in the notion of secretion, or rather of a process of
separation ; and upon much the same grounds the opinion
is adopted by Portal and others. Bichat, again, contends
that no fat can be recognised in the arterial blood, and ad¬
duces the fact, that none can be distinguished in blood
drawn from the temporal artery.
All this, however, is more or less erroneous. It has been
ascertained by Babington, Gmelin, Denis, Boudet, and
Lecanu, that fat or oil exists in blood in the normal state ;
and there is no difficulty in understanding that from this
fluid it must be secreted and deposited in the adipose tissue.
The truth is, that fatty matter is found in the chyle, and is
conveyed into the blood by the chyliferous vessels; and that
it is found in the blood after meals of certain kinds of food.
ANATOMY.
789
General has been shown by the researches of Dr ft. D. Thomson
Anatomy, and others. From these facts, it may be inferred, that adi-
p0se matter or its elements are conveyed in minute quan¬
tities into the blood, and that the fat itself is deposited from
the vessels in various parts of the adipose tissue, and in the
medullary membrane of the bones, in which it is afterwards
found. From the phenomena of various diseases, and from
those manifested by hybernating animals, which retire in
the beginning of winter fat and heavy, and come out in
spring meagre and extenuated, there is reason to believe
that fat is absorbed by the veins and lymphatics.
There is little difficulty in understanding the sources from
which fat is derived in animal bodies. All amylaceous and
saccharine articles of food furnish the elements of fat; and
it is impossible to doubt that from these chiefly, together
with the oils found in the seeds and other parts of vege¬
tables, fat may be formed. In animals which live almost
entirely on grass and the seeds of grassy vegetables, as the
ox, sheep, horse, deer, and camel, the amylaceous and saccha¬
rine matters of their food are manifestly converted into fat
and marrow.
Insects abound in fat; and in the bee this substance is
prepared from sugar.
Artery, Arterial Tissue. {Arteria,—Tissu Arteriel.)
Most anatomical writers, previous to the time of Henle,
distinguished in the arterial tissue three tunics ; ls£, an in¬
ternal ; 2d, a middle or fibrous coat, consisting of annular
fibres; and Sd, an external or common covering of con¬
densed filamentous tissue.
Henle enumerates six different tunics; \st, the first or
inner coat, consisting of pavement epithelium ; 2d, the
striped or trellised coat; 2>d, the longitudinal fibrous coat;
4:th, the annular fibrous coat; 5th, an elastic tissue found
only in arteries of large calibre ; and Qth, the external, fila¬
mentous, or adventitious coat.
Of these six tissues, the first three correspond to the
inner coat; the fourth is the ordinary fibrous or elastic coat
of arteries ; the fifth is not present in all vessels; and the
sixth is the ordinary external coat of filamentous tissue.
The Epithelial coat is seen in the smallest vessels as a
simple granular membrane in which the cell-nuclei only
are deposited in a certain order. Frequently it has quite
the same structure as the Epithelium of the Serous Mem¬
branes ; in other instances the nuclei are oval, the cells ex
tremely pale, and so flat, that those standing on the edge ap¬
pear as thin filaments, something swollen in the centre, the
region of the nucleus. Henle allows that this arterial epider¬
mis may be wanting or transformed into the next tissue.
The second layer, the Striped or Tfellised coat, is a very
fine, transparent, moderately stiff, brittle membrane, the fila¬
ments of which divaricate and decussate each other.
The third layer, the best specimens of which are seen in
the valves of the veins, belongs only doubtfully to the ai-
tcricil tissue.
The two first-mentioned tissues correspond to the inner
coat described below. . .
Every arterial tube greater than one line in diametei is
visibly composed, of one adventitious and two essential sub¬
stances : the first, the sheath, reputed to consist of con¬
densed filamentous tissue ; the last two, the proper arterial
and internal tissues. {Tunica propria et membrana intima.)
1. The inner surface of the arterial tube is formed by a
very thin semitransparent polished membrane, which is said
to extend not only in the one direction over the inner sur¬
face of the left ventricle, auricle, and pulmonary veins, but
in the other to form the minute vascular terminations which
are distributed through the substance of the different organs.
This membrane is particularly described by Bichat under
the name of common membrane of the system of red blood, General
because he believed it to exist wherever red blood was mov- Anatomy.
—in the pulmonary veins, in the left side of the heart, ''
and over the entire arterial system.
The inner membrane may be demonstrated by cutting
open or inverting any artery of moderate size, when it may
be peeled off in the form of thin slips by the forceps. Or,
if the tube be fitted on a glass rod, by removing the layers
of the proper membrane in successive portions, the inner
one at length comes into view in the form of a thin trans¬
lucent pellicle, of uniform, homogeneous aspect, without
fibres or other obvious traces of organization. Under the
microscope, however, if we can trust the descriptions ol
Henle, this coat appears to be composed of the filaments
above mentioned. These filaments cannot be said, strict y
speaking, either to be transverse or longitudinal in relation
to the axis of the artery. Most of them are rather oblique ;
and they ramify at acute angles, and form anastomotic
unions with each other. The stripes formed by these fila¬
ments are extremely pale and difficult to be seen. Henle
further mentions as scattered between the fibres, holes va¬
riable in size, mostly round in shape, but here and there
regularly broad, as if the effect of laceration.
This membrane is supposed to be prolonged to form those
minute vessels in which the proper coat connot be traced.
It is very brittle, and is distinguished during life by a re¬
markable activity in forming the morbid states to which ar¬
teries are liable. In other respects it is deemed by Bichat
peculiar, and, though similar to the proper membrane, is to
be considered as unlike any other tissue. Its chemical com¬
position is not known.
2. Exterior to this common or inner membrane is placed
a dense strong tissue of considerable thickness, of a dun
yellowish colour, which is found to consist of fibres disposed
in concentric circles placed contiguous to each other round
the axis of the artery. If this substance be examined either
from without or in the opposite direction, it will be found
that, by proper use of forceps, its fibres can be separated to
an indefinite degree of minuteness, even to that of a hair,
and that they uniformly separate in the same direction.
Longitudinal fibres are visible neither in this nor any other
tissue of the arterial tube. This is the proper arterial tissue;
{tunica propria.) Its uniform dun yellow colour is perceived
through the semitransparent inner membrane, and is most
conspicuous either when this is removed, or when the outer
cellular envelope is detached and the component threads se¬
parated from each other; and if it be less distinct in the
smaller branches, it is because the tissue on which the co¬
lour depends is here considerably thinner. In this respect
it varies in different regions. Though in general less dense
and abundant as the arteries recede from the heart, it is
thicker, cceteris paribus, in those of the lower than in those
of the upper extremities. In the vertebral and internal caro¬
tid arteries, and in those distributed in the substance of the
liver, spleen, &c., it is thinner than in vessels of the same
size in the muscular interstices.
This is the tunic which Henle calls the Annular Coat. His
description includes both this proper or middle coat of the
Arteries and the proper coat of the Veins, and has thereby
been made less appropriate than it might otherwise have
been. He describes the arterial annular coat as present¬
ing fine dark streaks, or rows of dark-coloured punctula,
running across the axis of the artery ; and he thinks it cer¬
tain that these streaks proceed from the original transverse
oval Nuclei, and that therefore they give distinct evidence ot
the mode in which the annular coat is developed.
In acetic acid the annular arterial coat is resolved into line
vessels, so that the transversely oval nuclei float about free
in the mass. The peculiar fibres of the middle arterial coat
790
ANATOMY.
General become by acetic acid pale, transparent, yet not dissolved.
natomy^ "phe dark stripes and punctula remain unchanged.
^ In rare instances the proper fibres of the middle arterial
coat are curled as fasciculi of fibro-filamentous tissue.
Henle maintains that no proper filamentous tissue is found
in the annular coat, not even to connect the separate lay¬
ers of the coat, though this is frequently asserted. He has
occasionally met with shreds of the trellised coat itself in
the external layer of the annular coat. Rauschel saw on all
fine sections of the aorta, the layers of the proper fibres sepa¬
rated by means of transparent fine partitions, which conse¬
quently must perforate the proper fibres in all directions. If
the middle coat be stripped from an artery, after it has been
treated with wood vinegar, and again softened in water, it
is easily divided into layers which are not separated by
fibres, but by a white, fibreless transparent substance. Por¬
tions of this "are sometimes attached to the transverse fibres.
Henle thinks, in short, that the trellised coat forms not
only the internal layer of the annular coat, but also separates
the component layers of that coat. Rauschel counted in the
aorta forty-four layers, in the carotid artery twenty-eight, in
the axillary artery fifteen layers, separated by similar parti¬
tions. In the other arteries, these must be wanting.
The nature of this tissue has been the subject of much
controversy. It was long believed to be muscular, and to
possess the properties of muscular fibre. Bichat showed that
the arguments by which this opinion was supported are in¬
conclusive, and that the arterial tissue has very few qualities
in common with the muscular. The circumstances from
which he derived his proofs were its physical and physiolo¬
gical properties.
The arguments derived from the physical properties of
this tissue are chiefly the following:—The arterial tissue is
close, elastic, fragile, and easily divided by ligature ; muscu¬
lar fibre is more loose in structure, by no means elastic ; and,
instead of being divided or cut by ligature as artery is, un¬
dergoes a sort of strangulation. The action of alcohol, di¬
luted acids, and caloric, by means of hot fluids which are
not corrosive, affords a proof of the chemical difference of
these animal substances. All of them produce in the arte¬
rial tunic a species of shrivelling or crispation, which seems
to depend on more complete coagulation of one of the che¬
mical principles ; but no similar effect takes place in muscu¬
lar fibres. According to Berzelius, the proper arterial tunic
contains no fibrin.1 Beclard, however, asserts that he has
ascertained that it contains a portion of this principle ; but
nevertheless hesitates to consider it as a muscular or fibrin¬
ous tissue, and expresses his opinion that it would be with
greater propriety referred to that order of substances which
he has named yellow or tawny fibrous system.
The consideration of the physiological or organic proper¬
ties leads to similar results. Neither mechanical nor chemi¬
cal agents applied as stimulants produce any change or mo¬
tion in the living arterial membrane. 1. The arteries of an
amputated limb, exposed the moment after amputation, while
the muscles are in active motion, do not contract or move
when punctured by the scalpel. 2. The experiments of Bik-
ker and Van-den-Bos with the electric spark, and those of
Vassalli-Eandi, Giulio, and Rossi with the galvanic pile, may
be considered as disproved by the experiments of Nysten,2
who found no contraction in the human aorta after violent
death, while the heart and other muscles could still be ex¬
cited. In performing the same experiment with the artery
of the living dog, this physiologist was equally disappointed.
3. The circular contraction of the calibre of an artery either
partially or wholly divided, depends not on irritability, but General
either on its elasticity, or on that property which it possesses Anatomy,
of contracting strongly the instant the distending agent is
removed. This power is different from muscular contraction
or irritability, and must not be confounded with them ; but it
depends on the living state of the body and the individual ar¬
terial tube. 4. The contraction said to take place in living
arteries after the application of alcohol, acids, or alkalies, is
to be ascribed to the chemical crispation, and not to stimu¬
lant power. It does not relax. 5. These inferences are
not inconsistent with the experiments of Thomson, Philips,
Hastings, Wedemeyer, and Kaltenbrunner, on minute arte¬
rial tubes, which may be admitted to possess something like
irritability, or rather susceptibility of contraction, without
the necessity of supposing the same property in the large
branches and trunks. 6. This is so much more probable, as
in these minute arteries the proper arterial tunic is either
wanting, or is so much thinner and so modified, that it is im¬
possible to conceive its presence capable of affecting the re¬
sult of experiments made to determine the degree or kind of
arterial contraction.
On the other hand, Henle maintains that the outer layers
of the annular coat are muscular, and belong to the same
category to which are referred the muscular fibres of the
intestinal canal and those of excretory ducts.3
3. The outer surface of the proper arterial tissue is en¬
veloped, as above noticed, in a layer of dense filamentous or
cellular membrane, which is very firmly attached to it, and
which was formerly considered as part of the arterial tissue.
It is adventitious; a modification of filamentous or cellular
texture, which establishes a communication between the
artery and the contiguous parts, and is necessary to the nu¬
trition and healthy state of the vessel. It incloses and trans¬
mits the minute vessels anciently denominated vasa vasorum
(arteriolce arteriarum, Haller); and if detached even through
a trifling extent, the arterial portion thus divided is sure to
become dead, to be affected with inflammatory and slough¬
ing action, and ultimately to give way and discharge the con¬
tents of the vessel. M. Beclard considers it a fibro-cellular
membrane, which may in the larger arteries be divided into
two layers; one exterior, similar to the general filamentous
tissue; the other inside, between the outer layer and the
proper tissue, yellowish and firm, but still sufficiently distinct
from the proper tunic. In the cerebral arteries it is want¬
ing, and in most parts of the chest and belly its absence is
supplied by a portion of pericardium, pleura, or peritoneum.
Yet even there a thin layer of fine cellular tissue appears to
connect these membranes to the proper tunic. In the ex¬
tremities the cellular sheath is removed in dissecting arterial
preparations.
The internal filamentous tissue above-mentioned is what
Henle calls the fifth arterial coat. It occurs only in arteries
of large size. It is a coat of true elastic tissue; a white
membrane, which can be rent into fibres neither transversely
nor longitudinally, but always follows the tug of the forceps
in small shreds. This membrane possesses the firmness of
the elastic tissue, while the annular coat is slender and brittle.
When treated with acetic acid, this membrane retains com¬
pletely its white colour, while the annular coat becomes trans¬
parent ; though thinner, it has a much greater degree of elas¬
ticity than the annular coat; and it possesses the microsco¬
pical character of the elastic tissue in a remarkable degree.
At different periods several anatomists, as Willis, Douglas
and Delasone, have maintained the existence of longitudinal
fibres in arterial tissue ; and even at the present day this no-
1 A View of the Progress of Animal Chemistry, by J. J. Berzelius, M.D. &c &c. p 24 25 London 1813
2 Nouvelles Experiences Galvaniques, &c., par P. H. Nysten, &c., Pan 11, p. 235-6. Paris.' liec here he’s de Physiologic, 1811, p. 307.
* Adversaria Anatomica, tom. 11. p. 78.
Paris.
ANATOMY.
General tion is not entirely abandoned. Morgagni was the first who,
Anatomy, trusting to mere observation, doubted the existence of these
fibres, and stated that he was unable to perceive them.1
Upon the same ground Haller would not admit of their ex¬
istence ;2 and Bichat and Meckel positively denied them.
The longitudinal filaments mentioned by Henle are found
principally in the veins.
Though arterial tissue does not appear to be very vas¬
cular, it is furnished with arteries and veins (yasa vaso-
rum, arteriolce arteriarum), which do not come from the
artery or vein itself, but from the neighbouring vessels.3
Thus the aorta at its origin is supplied with minute arte¬
ries from the right and left coronary, and in some instances
with a proper vessel adjoining to the orifice of the right
coronary artery, which Haller regards as a third coronary.
The rest of the thoracic aorta derives its vessels from the
upper bronchials, from twigs of the internal mammary ar¬
teries, from the bronchials, from the cesophageals, and
from the phrenics. The abdominal portion is supplied
from the spermatics, the lumbar, and in some instances
the mesocolic artery. The same arrangement nearly is
observed with regard to the veins.
Few textures are more liberally supplied with nerves
than arteries are. Almost every considerable trunk or
vessel is surrounded by numerous plexiform filaments of
nerves, many of which may be traced into the tissue of
the artery. The anterior part of the arch of the aorta is
abundantly supplied with branches from the superficial
cardiac nerves, which Haller was unable to trace beyond
the artery. The cceliac, the mesenteric, and the mesoco¬
lic arteries are invested with numerous plexiform nervous
filaments derived from the large semilunar ganglion of the
splanchnic nerve. The renal arteries in like manner are
surrounded by numerous twigs of the renal plexus; and
each of the intercostal arteries at its origin receives nerv¬
ous threads from the intercostal nerves. This arrange¬
ment, which is observed chiefly in the blood-vessels going
to the internal organs, led Bichat to announce it as a ge¬
neral fact, that the arteries derive their nerves almost
exclusively from the ganglions and the gangliar nerves.4
The inference does not rest upon strict observation, and
evidently owes its birth to the hypothetical opinions of
this ingenious physiologist. All the arteries going to the
extremities, the axillary, and iliac, and their branches, re¬
ceive nerves from the neighbouring nervous trunks, which
are formed chiefly from cerebral or spinal nerves, and have
no immediate connection with the system of the ganglions.
In the internal carotid and the vertebral arteries, and their
branches, nerves cannot be distinctly traced.5
Organized in the manner now described, it is requisite
to take a short view of the anatomical connections of the
arterial system, or to consider it in its origin, its course,
and its termination.
The arterial system of the animal body may be viewed
as one large trunk divided into several branches, which
again are subdivided and ramified to a degree of minute¬
ness which exceeds all calculation. It is requisite, there¬
fore, to consider the origin, Is#, of the aorta, the large
trunk; 2dly, of the branches which arise from it; and,
3c//?/, of the small vessels into which these are divided.
Every one knows that the aorta is connected at its
origin with the upper and anterior part of the left ventri-
791
cle. The manner of this connection has been well exa- General
mined by Lancisi, by Ludwig, and particularly by Bichat. Anatomy.
It may be demonstrated by dissection, but is much morev^v"N‘y
distinctly shown by boiling the heart with the blood-ves¬
sels attached. In a heart so treated, the thin internal
membrane may be traced passing from the interior of the
ventricle along the margin of its orifice to the inside of
the arterial tube. Exactly at the point of union it is
doubled into three semicircular folds, forming semilunar
valves, and thence is continued along the whole course of
the artery. This membrane is entirely distinct from the
proper or fibrous coat. Of the latter, the cardiac extre¬
mity or beginning is notched into three semicircular sec¬
tions, each of which corresponds to the base or attached
margin of a semilunar valve. These sections are attached
to the aortic orifice of the ventricle by delicate filamen¬
tous tissue, but are not connected with the fleshy fibres of
the heart; and at the angle or point of attachment the
thin inner membrane is folded in so as to fill up a space
or interval which is left between the margin of the orifice
and the circumference of the proper arterial tissue, where
it is notched or trisected.
The aorta is soon divided into branches, which again
are subdivided into small vessels. With the mathemati¬
cal physiologists it was a favourite problem to ascertain
the number of branches into which any vessel might be
subdivided. Keill made them from forty to fifty. Haller
states that, counting the minutest ramifications, he has
found scarcely twenty. The inquiry is vain, and cannot
be subjected to accurate calculation. In no two subjects
is the same artery found to be subdivided the same num¬
ber of times ; and in no two subjects are the same branches
found to arise from the same trunk.
A branch issuing from a trunk generally forms with it
a particular angle. Most generally, perhaps, these angles
are acute; but in particular situations they approach
nearly to a right angle. Thus the innominata, left caro¬
tid, and left subclavian, issue from the arch of the aorta
nearly at a right angle, at least to the tangent of the arch.
The intercostals form a right angle with the thoracic
aorta; the renal and lumbar arteries form a large acute
angle, approaching to right, with the abdominal; and the
cceliac comes off nearly in the same manner from the an¬
terior part of the vessel. The internal and external ca¬
rotids, again, the external and internal iliacs, the branches
of the humeral, and those of the femoral, form angles
more or less acute with each other. The angle which the
spermatics make is, generally speaking, the most acute
in the arterial system.
I have already alluded to the structure of the arterial
tissue at the divarications. These changes relate both to
the inner and to the proper membrane. In the inside of
the vessel the inner membrane is folded somewhat so as
to form a prominent or elevated point, the disposition of
which varies according to the angle of divarication. Is#,
When this is rectangular, the prominence of the inner
membrane is circular, and is equally distinct all round.
2d, When the angle is obtuse, as in the mesenteric artery,
the prominence is distinct, and resembles a semicircular
ridge between the continuation of the trunk and the
branch given off, but indistinct on the opposite side where
the angle is obtuse. Sd, If the angle is acute, and that
1 Allgemeine Anatomie, seite 575.
2 “ Verum anatome et microscopium omnino fibras longitudinem sequentes nunquam demonstravit, aut mihi, aut aliis ante me scrip-
toribus, quorum auctoritate meam tueor.” (Elementa Physiologice, lib. ii. sect. 1, § 7.) 3 Hunter, sect. iv. p. 131.
4 Le grand arbre a sang rouge ou l’art6riel est presque exclusivement embrasse par la premiere classe des nerves.” (Anatomie Gene-
rale, tom. i. p. 302.)
5 H. A. Wrisberg, lie Nervis Arterias Venasque comitantibus, apud Haller, Disput. Anatom. Select, tom. iii.
792 ANATOMY.
General formed by the branch with the continuation of the trunk
Anatomy. js obtuse, the beginning of the artery presents an oblique
circle, the elevated half of which is near the heart, the
other more remote.
The arrangement of the fibres of the proper tissue is
described by Ludwig from the divarication of the iliac
arteries, and may be seen in any part of the arterial sys¬
tem where the vessels are large. The circular fibres se¬
parating form on each side a half-ring, from which is pi o-
duced a complete ring, which incloses the smaller rings
formed by the circular fibres of the vessel given off.
These circular fibres proceed to the prominence of the
internal membrane already described, and are arranged
round it much in the same manner in which those of the
large vessel surround its inner membrane. In this, how¬
ever, no continuity between the rings of the large vessel
and those of the small one can be recognised. The latter
are inserted as it were into the former, and they are con¬
nected by the continuity of the inner membrane only.
In observing the course or transit of arterial tubes, the
principal point deserving notice is the sheltered situation
which they generally occupy, their tortuous course, and
their mutual communications. In the extremities they
are always found towards the interior or least exposed
part of the limb, generally deep between muscles, and
sometimes lying along bones. When they are minutely
subdivided, they enter into the interior of organs, without,
however, sinking at once into their intimate substance.
In the muscles they are lodged between the fibres ; in
the brain, in the convolutions; in glands, between their
component lobes. In such situations they are generally
observed to be more or less tortuous in the course which
they follow. On the reasons of this much difference of
opinion still prevails. (Bichat and Magendie.)
In the course of the arteries, no circumstance is of
greater moment than their mutual communications or
inosculations {anastomoses). Of this there may be two
forms, the first when two equal trunks unite, the second
when a large vessel unites with a smaller one. Of the
first, three varieties have been mentioned. Is?, Two
equal trunks may unite at an acute angle to form one ves¬
sel. Thus, in the foetus, the ductus arteriosus and the
aorta are conjoined; and the two vertebral arteries unite
to form the basilar trunk. 2c?, Two trunks may commu¬
nicate by a transverse branch, as the two anterior cere¬
bral arteries do in forming the anterior segment of the
circle of Willis. 3c?, Two trunks may, by mutual union,
form an arch, from the convexity of which the minute
vessels arise, as is seen in the branches of the mesenteric
arteries. (Plate XXIX. fig. 4.)
The second mode of inosculation is frequent in the
extremities, especially round the joints. The multiplied
communications of the arterial system in these regions,
though well known to anatomists, and enumerated by
Haller, were first clearly and systematically explained by
Scarpa, and afterwards by Cooper and Hodgson. The
importance of this arrangement, in facilitating the motions
of the circulation,—in obviating the effects of local impe¬
diment in any vessel or set of vessels,—and in enabling the
surgeon to tie an arterial trunk when wounded, affected
with aneurism or any other disease,—has been clearly esta¬
blished by these authors. Their researches have shown,
that there is not a single vessel which may not be tied with
full ccyifidence in the powers of the collateral circulation.
Even the aorta has in seventeen instances been found nar¬
rowed or obstructed in the human subject, and a ligature
has been put on its abdominal portion. (Cooper.)
To ascertain the several modes in which arteries termi¬
nate has been a problem of much interest to the physio¬
logist, and of no small difficulty to the anatomist. The General
alleged terminations, as believed to be established, are^^^
minutely and elaborately enumerated by Haller, who,
however, multiplied them too much according to the mo¬
dern acceptation of the term.
1. The first undoubted termination of arteries is imme¬
diately in veins. It is unnecessary to adduce in support
of this fact the long list of observers enumerated by Hal¬
ler. It is sufficient to say that it was clearly established
by the microscopical observations of Leeuwenhoeck, Cow-
per, and Baker, by Haller himself, and by Spallanzani in
his beautiful experiments on the circulation of the blood.
2. The second termination which may be mentioned
here is that into the colourless artery, (arteria non rubra).
This is sufficiently well established by the phenomena of
injections.
3. A third termination which is supposed to exist, but
of which no sensible proofs can be given, is that into
colourless vessels supposed to open by minute orifices on
various membranous surfaces, and therefore termed exha-
lants. The nature of these vessels shall be considered
afterwards.
Haller admits a termination in, or communication with,
lymphatic vessels, but allows that it is highly problemati¬
cal. Partial communications have been traced between
arteries and lymphatics by several anatomists; but the
point requires to be again submitted to accurate researches.
Another mode of termination, that namely into excret¬
ing ducts, admitted by Haller, scarcely requires particular
mention. So far as an artery can be said to terminate in
such a manner, it would come under the head of that into
exhalant vessels. Many of the proofs mentioned by Hal¬
ler, however, may be shown to be examples of a morbid
state of the mucous membranes of these ducts, in which
their capillary vessels are disorganized.
In considering the several terminations of arteries, it is
not unimportant to advert to the distribution of these
vessels. Injections show that they penetrate into every
texture and organ of the animal body, excepting one or
two substances in which they have never yet been traced.
But in different textures they are found in different de¬
grees; and they may vary in extent even in the same
texture in two different conditions. 4 he parts which re¬
ceive the largest and most numerous vascular ramifications
are the brain and spinal chord, the glandular organs, the
muscles voluntary and involuntary, the mucous mem¬
branes, and the skin. In bones, on the contrary, in the
fibrous membranes, and their modifications, tendons, and
ligaments, and in the serous membranes, few arteries are
seen to penetrate; and these are generally minute, some¬
times only colourless capillaries. In some textures arteries
cannot be traced, though their properties indicate that
they must receive vessels of some kind. Such are carti¬
lage and the arachnoid membrane. (Ruysch and Haller.)
Lastly, arteries are not found in the scarf-skin, in nails,
the enamel of the teeth, the hair, nor in the membranes
of the umbilical chord. In early life bones are much more
vascular than in adult age; and in the bones of young
subjects arteries may be traced going out through the
epiphyses into the cartilages, in which they cannot at a
later period of life be demonstrated. {Phil. Trans. No.
470.)
Vein, Venous Tissue. (^Xe^,— Vena,—Tissu Veneux.)
The structure of the tubular canals, termed veins, has ^ e;ns.
been much less examined by anatomists than that of the
arteries. Some incidental observations in the writings of
Willis, Glass, and Clifton Wintringham, comprise all that
was published regarding them previous to the short ac-
A N A 1
General count of Haller. Since that time they have been described
Anatomy, with various degrees of minuteness and accuracy by John
Hunter, Bichat, Magendie, Gordon, Marx,1 and Meckel.
In the following account, the facts collected by these ob¬
servers have been compared with the appearance and
visible organization presented by veins in different parts
of the human body.
Veins. The veins are membranous tubes extending between
the right side or pulmonary division of the heart and the
different organs in which their minute branches are rami¬
fied.
Every venous tube greater than one line in diameter
consists of three kinds of distinct substance. The outer¬
most is a modification of the filamentous tissue (rnembra-
na cellulosa), and though less compact and less thick than
the arterial filamentous envelope, is in every other respect
quite similar, and is in general intimately connected with
it. The innermost {membrana intima) is a smooth very
thin membrane. Between these is found a tunic some¬
what thicker, which is termed the proper venous tissue
{tunica propria vence). The structure and aspect of this
proper membrane shall be first considered.
ls£, When the loose filamentous tissue in which the
blood-vessels are inclosed, and the more delicate and firm
layer immediately contiguous to the veins, are removed,
the observer recognises a red or brown-coloured mem¬
brane, not thick or strong, but somewhat tough, which is
the outer surface of the proper venous tunic. If dissected
clean it is tolerably smooth; but however much so it can
be made, a glass of moderate powers, or even a good eye,
will perceive numerous filaments adhering to it, which
appear to be the residue of the cellular envelope.
According to Bichat, parallel longitudinal fibres, form¬
ing a very thin layer, may be distinguished in the larger
veins; but he admits, although they are quite real, that
they are always difficult to be seen at the first glance. In
the trunk of the inferior great vein {vena cava inferior),
they are always seen, he observes, more distinctly than
in that of the superior; and they are always more obvious
in the divisions of the former than in those of the latter
vessel, and also in the superficial than in the deep-seated
veins. These longitudinal fibres, he asserts, are more
distinct in the saphena than in the crural vein, which ac¬
companies the artery. Lastly, he remarks, these fibres
are proportionally more conspicuous in branches than in
trunks. {Anatomie Generate, tom. i. p. 399.)
Notwithstanding the apparent correctness of this de¬
scription, Magendie informs us he has sought in vain for
the fibres of the proper venous membrane; and he re¬
marks that, though he has observed very numerous fila¬
ments interlacing in all directions, yet these assume the
longitudinal and parallel appearance only when the tube
is folded longitudinally,—a disposition often seen in the
larger veins.
By Meckel, on the contrary, the accuracy of the obser¬
vation of Bichat is maintained. This anatomist states
that he has, by the most minute dissections, assured him¬
self that these fibres are longitudinal; but he admits that
they are not uniformly present in all parts of the venous
system, and that in degree and abundance they are liable
to great variation. He follows Bichat also in represent¬
ing these fibres as thicker and more distinct in the system
of ithe inferior than in that of the superior cava, and in
the superficial than in the deep veins.
In the inferior cava of the human subject, certainly,
filaments or fibres may be recognised. But instead of
1 O M Y. 793
being longitudinal, they may be made to assume any di- General
rection, according to the manner in which the filament-
ous tissue is removed. For this reason probably these
fibres are to be viewed as part of the filamentous sheatli
In the saphena vein of the leg oblique fibres may be seen
decussating each other; but it is doubtful whether these
belong to the proper venous tissue or to the filamentous
covering.
The nature of this proper membrane, or venous fibre, as
it is sometimes named (Bichat), is not at all known. Its
great extensibility, its softness, its want of elasticity in
the circular direction, or fragility, its colour and general
aspect, distinguish it from the arterial tunic. It possesses
some elasticity in the longitudinal direction, and is re¬
tracted vigorously when stretched. It possesses consider¬
able resistance, or in common language is tough. The
experiments of Clifton W intringham show that it sustains
a considerable weight without breaking, and that this
toughness is greater in early life, or in the veins of the
young subject, than at a later period.2 In short, it may
be stated as a general fact, that venous tissue, though
thinner, possesses greater elasticity and tenacity than ar¬
terial tissue. According to the experiments of the same
inquirer, this property depends on that of the superior
density of the venous tissue; the specific gravity of the
matter of the vena cava being invariably greater than that
of the aorta in the same subject, both in man and in brute
animals.
From some experiments Magendie is disposed to con¬
sider it of a fibrinous character. But it exhibits in the
living body no proof of muscular structure or irritable
power. When punctured by a sharp instrument, or ex¬
posed to the electric or galvanic action, it undergoes no
change or sensible motion.
This tunic is wanting in those divisions of the venous
system termed sinuses, in which its place is supplied by
portions of the hard membrane {dura meninx).
2dly, The inner surface of any vein which has been laid
open and well washed is found to be smooth, highly po¬
lished, and of a bluish or blue-white colour. This is the
inner or free surface of the inner venous membrane
{membrana intima). It is exceedingly thin, much more
so than the corresponding arterial membrane, much more
distensible and less fragile. It bears a very tight ligature
without giving way as the arterial does; but it also sus¬
tains considerable weight, which shows that it is tough
and resisting. This is the membrane termed by Bichat
common membrane of dark or modena blood. According
to the views of this anatomist, it forms the inner or free
surface, not only of all the venous twigs, branches, and
trunks composing this sj^stem of vessels, but it is extend¬
ed from the superior and inferior great veins over the in¬
ner surface of the right auricle and ventricle, and thence
over that of the pulmonary artery and its divisions; and
through this whole tract it is the same in structure and
properties.
This doctrine has not yet been controverted. But
perhaps it may be doubted, both with regard to the inner
arterial membrane, that the inner tunic of the aorta ami
of the pulmonary veins is quite the same; and in regard
to this inner venous membrane, whether that of the veins
in general is quite the same with that of the pulmonary
artery. The subject demands further research. Mean
while strong confirmation is found in the interesting re¬
mark of Bichat, that the osseous or calcareous depositions
which are common in various spots of the inner arterial
5 H
VOL. IT.
1 Diatribe Anatomico-physiologica de Structura atque Vita Venarum. Caroliruhae, 1819.
* Experimental Inquiry on some parts of the Animal Structure. London, 1740.
7f)4
ANATOMY.
General membrane, and especially at the mitral and aortic valves,
Anatomy. are never found in the inner venous membrane, or at the
tricuspid valve, or in the semilunar valves of the pulmo¬
nary artery. Have these depositions been found inside
the pulmonary veins, and not inside the pulmonary artery ?
Ossific deposit in the valves of the pulmonary artery was
seen by Bransby Cooper.
The inner or common venous membrane is, however,
the most extensive and the most uniform of all the venous
tissues. It is the only one which is found in the substance
of organs, and is present where the cellular and proper
membranes are wanting. This is the case not only with
venous branches and minute canals as they issue from the
substance of muscles, bones, and such organs as the liver,
kidneys, spleen, &c., but is also very remarkably observed
with regard to the venous canals of the brain. I have al¬
ready noticed the absence of the cellular and proper tis¬
sues in these tubes; and I have now to remark, that the
cerebral veins consist solely of the inner membrane while
in the brain or membranes, and when in the sinuses, of
this inner membrane, placed between two folds of the
dura mater. When the jugular vein reaches the temporo-
occipital sinuosity, it loses its proper membrane, while its
common or inner membrane passes into the hollow of the
dura mater, called sinus, and thus forms the venous canal.
This fact is readily demonstrated by slitting open either
the lateral or the superior longitudinal sinus, when a thin
delicate membrane, quite distinct from the fibrous appear¬
ance of the dura mater, will be found to line the interior
of these canals.
' alves. The inner surface of many veins presents membranous
folds projecting obliquely into the cavity of the vessel.
These folds, which, from their mechanical office, have been
named valves (valvulce), are parabolic in shape, have two
margins, an attached and free,—and two surfaces, a con¬
cave turned to the cardiac end of the vein, and a convex
turned in the opposite direction. The attached margin
is not straight, as may be imagined, but circular, and ad¬
heres to the inner surface of the vessel. The free margin
resembles in shape an oblong parabola; and the direction
of the valve is such, that a force applied to its convex sur¬
face would urge it more closely to the vein, whereas a
force applied to the concave surface would either oblite¬
rate the circular area of the vessel, tear the valve from
the vein, or otherwise meet with resistance.
The size of the valves is variable. In some instances
they are sufficiently large to fill the canal of the vessel,
and in others they are too small to produce this effect.
The obliteration of the circular area of the vessel is most
perfect when there are two or three at the same point.
Bichat ascribed the variable state of this quality to the
dilated or contracted condition of the veins at the moment
of death. Ihis, however, is denied by Magendie.
In structure these valvular or parabolic folds are said
to consist of a doubling, or two-fold layer of the inner
membrane; and with this statement no fact of which we
are aware is at variance. A hard prominent line, which
geneially marks tne attachment ot their fixed margin to
the vein, is asserted by Bichat to consist of the proper ven¬
ous tissue, the fibres of which, he says, alter their direc¬
tion for this purpose; and when the common or inner
membrane reaches this line, it doubles or folds itself to
form the valve, which thus consists of two layers of the
inner or common membrane. This, however, is denied by
Hunter,1 who considers them of a tendinous nature, and
by Gordon, who made several unsuccessful attempts to General
split these two layers.2 Anatomy.
Valves are not uniformly present in all veins. They are^^r^^
found, L<tf, in the following branches of the superior great Vein*
vein—the internal jugular, the azygos, the facial veins,
those of the arms, &c.; 2c?, in the following branches of
the inferior great vein—the divisions of the posterior iliac,
of the femoral, tibial, internal and external saphena, and
in the spermatic veins of the male.
They are wanting in the trunk of the inferior great vein
{cava inferior), in the renal, mesenteric, and other abdo¬
minal veins, in the portal vein, in the cerebral sinuses, in
the veins of the brain and spinal chord, in the veins of the
heart, of the womb generally, and of the ovaries, and per¬
haps in all other veins less than a line in diameter.3 In
the cerebral sinuses the transverse chords are supposed to
supply their place.
In the lungs they were supposed to be wanting, till their
presence was established by Mayer of Bonn.
In situation the valves vary considerably. In general
they are found in those parts of venous canals at which a
small vein opens into a larger. But even from this ar¬
rangement there are deviations. The only valve which is
definite and invariable in its situation is the Eustachian
{valvula Eustachiana, valvula nobilis), which is always
placed at the cardiac end or beginning of the inferior
cava, where that vessel is attached to the sinus of the
right auricle. Shaped in general like a crescent, the at¬
tached margin of which is the arch of a large circle, and
the free that of a small one, it proceeds from the left ex¬
tremity of the sinus downwards, forwards, and towards
the left side, where it is insensibly lost on the membrane
of the auricular septum. At its lower end it generally
covers the orifice of the large coronary vein. This mem¬
branous production is always larger, more perfect, and
more distinct in the foetus and in the infant, than in the
adult. In the latter it is almost always reticulated; and
sometimes the only vestige of its existence is a thin chord
or two representing its anterior margin. I have seen it
reticulated even at the age of sixteen or seventeen, and
almost destroyed beyond thirty. Haller was much per¬
plexed to account for the use of this membranous fold.4
The conjecture of Bichat, that it is connected with some
purpose in the foetal circulation, is entitled to regard.
Dr Gordon mentions a third partial substance, which
is occasionally found in local patches at various parts
of veins. This I believe to be the deposit found at the
union of two veins to form one trunk.
Besides the cellular or filamentous envelope, veins re¬
ceive capillary arteries, to which there are corresponding
veins. The arteries rise from the nearest small ramifying
arteries ; and the corresponding veins do not terminate in
the cavity of the vein to which they belong, but pass oft'
from its body, and join some others from different parts;
and at last terminate in the common trunk somewhere
higher.3 Nervous branches, or rather filaments, are ob¬
served in the pulmonary artery and great veins only. Are
they derived from the great sympathetic, as is generally
said ?
In the veins, as in the arteries, the anatomist recog¬
nises two extremities, the cardiac or collected, and the
organic or the ramified. Examined physiologically, how¬
ever, the terms origin and termination are not of the same
import as when applied to the arteries. In reference to
the veins, they become convertible terms; and it is the
1 x. Of Veins, p. 182.
4 Haller de Valvula Eustachii.
v _ 3 Anatomy, p. 66, 67.
Ji.xtat in Disput. Anatomic. Select, tom. ii. p. 18S
3 Haller, lib. ii. sect. 2.
4 Hunter, x. Of Veins, p. 181.
ANATOMY.
795
Vein.
General usage even of writers on anatomy to represent the veins
Anatomy. as arising where the arteries terminate, and terminating
' at the organ from which the latter arise. This distinc¬
tion must be kept in view in the following observations.
The cardiac extremity or termination of the veins is so
well known as to render any minute explanation unne¬
cessary.
The organic extremity or origin of the venous system
is more obscure and difficult to be understood. It is in¬
deed impossible to trace the origin of the small venous ves¬
sels, unless in the manner in which Leeuwenhoeck,1 Wil¬
liam Cowper,2 Henry Baker,3 Haller, and Spallanzani,4 did
in their observations on the transparent parts of animals
in general cold-blooded. From the experiments of these
observers, we know that a very small vessel, evidently
tending and conveying blood towards a larger, connected
with a venous branch, may be seen passing directly from
a similar small vessel, as evidently conveying blood from
a larger, which is connected with the arterial system. All
that we know from this, however, is, that a vein contain¬
ing red blood may rise from an artery conveying red
blood. This is matter of observation; ail beyond is little
more than conjectural.
Haller, indeed, admits origins of veins as manifold as
the terminations of the arterial system, a view in which he
has been followed by almost all subsequent authors; and
Bichat states it as a leading proposition, that the veins
arise from the general capillary system. Neither conclu¬
sion is founded on strict observation; and while that of
the former physiologist is derived chiefly from uncertain
facts and loose analogies, the statement of the latter is too
hypothetical and general to be either entirely true or
wholly false.
Of one fact only are we certain. The blood which is
conveyed into the small vessels and the substance of the
tissues and organs is brought back by the veins. We have
seen that the only origin which is strictly susceptible of
demonstration is that of the red vein from the red artery.
The point then to be ascertained is, whether colourless
veins and absorbent veins arise from the several textures,
as colourless and exhalant arteries terminate in them.
The proper place for the further examination of this ques¬
tion is the subsequent section.
I must not omit to mention, nevertheless, that the
veins have been shown to be connected at their ramified
extremities with the lymphatics.
When the veins become distinct vessels, branches, and
trunks, they become once more objects of sensible exami¬
nation. In their course from their organic to their cardiac
extremities they present various circumstances which
merit attention.
1. In general every artery is accompanied by a venous
tube, which is divided in the same manner, and furnishes
or receives an equal number of branches. Thus the de¬
scending aorta is accompanied by the vena cava inferior ;
the common iliac arteries by common iliac veins ; the an¬
terior iliac, femoral, and popliteal, by anterior iliac, femoral
and popliteal veins. These veins are deep-seated, and are
generally named the concomitant veins (venae comites vel
venae satellites). In some situations an artery may be ac¬
companied either in its trunk or in its branches by two
veins of equal size. Thus in general the brachial artery,
Vein.
and its branches the radial and ulnar, are each accom- General
panied by two veins. The only situations in which the Anatomy-
number of veins can be said to be exactly equal to that ofv
the arteries, are in the stomach, in the intestinal canal,
in the spleen, in the kidneys, in the testicles, and in the
ovaries.
2. In the extremities and in the external regions of the
trunk we find, in addition to the concomitant veins, an
external layer of venous tubes immediately beneath the
skin, (venae subter cutem dispersce, Pliny). These subcuta¬
neous or superficial veins do not correspond to any ar¬
tery ; but as they are chiefly destined to convey the
blood from the skin and other superficial parts, they open
into the deep-seated veins. Thus in the case of the ba¬
silic and cephalic, two superficial veins of the arm, the
former, after passing the bicipital fascia, forms in the
sheath the brachial vein; and becoming the axillary in
the axilla, receives the latter vessel. In the same manner
the saphena vena manifesto), or superfi¬
cial vein of the leg, passes through the falciform process
of the fascia lata to join the femoral vein.
From this it results that the venous canals are on the
whole more numerous than the arterial. In a few situa¬
tions only a single vein corresponds to two arteries, as in
the penis, the clitoris, the gall-bladder, and the umbilical
chord. Often also in the renal capsules and the kidneys
two or more arteries have only one corresponding vein.
In such circumstances the vein is always large and capa¬
cious.
It has been generally stated that the calibre and area
of the venous tubes are much larger than those of the
corresponding arteries, and consequently that the capaci¬
ty of the venous system is much greater than that of the
arterial. I acknowledge that I know not on what exact
^evidence the former of these propositions, the only one
with which the anatomist is concerned, is made to rest.
If it be mere inspection in the dead subject, or the effects
of injection, little doubt can be entertained that the al¬
leged greater calibre depends chiefly on the laxity and dis¬
tensible nature of the venous fibre. The arterial tubes ap¬
pear small in consequence of annular contraction, or the ten¬
dency which they have to collapse, when the distending
force has ceased to operate. The venous canals appear
large by reason of their distension and distensibility dur¬
ing life, from the tendency to accumulation in their
branches in most kinds of death, except that by hemor¬
rhage, and from a smaller degree of the physical property
of shrinking and annular contraction when empty.
When a vascular sheath is exposed in the human sub¬
ject, as in the operation for aneurism, or in the lower ani¬
mals in the way of experiment, the vein generally ap¬
pears larger than the corresponding artery. This, how¬
ever, is never so considerable as it is represented by
most authors, and certainly cannot afford grounds for
the estimates which Keill, Jurin, and other mathematical
physiologists have assigned to the relative capacity of the
arteries and veins. It is also to be observed that some¬
thing of this greater size depends on the increase of dila¬
tation resulting from removing the pressure of incumbent
parts. In young animals also the difference between the
size of the veins and their corresponding arteries is so
trifling as to be scarcely discernible. This shows that
1 Arcana 'Naturae Detecta: Opera Omnia, tom. ii. p. 160, 168.
3 Philosophical Transactions, No. 280, p. 1179. Cowper saw this communication of arteries and veins not only in cold-blooded ani¬
mals, as the lizard, tadpole, and fishes, but in the omentum of a young cat and a dog.
* On Microscopes, and the discoveries made thereby. London, 1785, 2 vols. 8vo.
4 Experiments on the Circulation of the Blood, by Lazaro Spallanzani; translated by W. Hall. London, 1801.
796 ANATOMY.
General something is to be ascribed to the incessant operation
Anatomy. 0f a dilating force increasing uniformly with the duration
of life.
Upon the whole, it is chiefly on the ground of their
larger numerical arrangement that the veins collectively
can be said to be more capacious than the arteries. On
this subject some observations of Bichat are entitled to
attention.1
3. The veins in general accompany the arteries. The
venous trunk placed contiguous to the arterial in the same
sheath, is divided into branches at the same points, and is
distributed into the substance of organs much in the same
manner. From this arrangement, however, certain devi¬
ations are observed in particular regions. Thus, in the
brain, neither the internal carotid, nor the basilar artery,
nor their large branches, are accompanied with veins.
The small branches only have corresponding veins, which,
as they unite to form large ones, pour their blood into the
venous canals termed sinuses, the arrangement of which
is unlike any other part of the venous system. In the
chest also a different disposition of the venous from the
arterial tubes is observed. The vence cavce, though con¬
veying the blood to the pulmonic division of the heart, as
the aorta conveys it from it, do not, however, correspond
with the latter either in situation or in dependent branch¬
es. The azygos and the demiazygos veins, in like manner,
which receive the intercostal veins, have no concomitant
artery, but open into the superior cava, to which they
may be viewed as appendages. Lastly, The portal vein,
which is formed of the united trunks of the splenic, su¬
perior mesenteric and inferior mesenteric veins, corre¬
sponds to no individual arterial trunk, and forms of itself
a peculiar arrangement in the venous system.
Some anatomists have dwelt much on the more super¬
ficial and less sheltered situation of the veins than of*
the arteries. On this point no positive inferences can
be established. In the extremities the former are in ge¬
neral most superficial; but in the interior of the body,
especially in the chest, the venous trunks are quite as
deep-seated as the arterial.
The course of the venous canals is in general more rec¬
tilineal and less tortuous than that of the arteries. In no
part of the venous system is such an inflection presented
as that which the internal carotid makes in the carotic
canal. The general result of this is, that a set of venous
tubes is shorter than a corresponding set of arterial ones.
The trunks also are less inflected than the branches.
4. The mutual communications of the venous system
{anastomoses, inoscidationes,) are more numerous and fre¬
quent than those of the arterial. 1. The minute veins
communicate so freely as to form a perfect net-work. 2.
In the twigs, though more rare, these communications are
still frequent. 3. In the branches, though less numerous,
they are nevertheless observed ; and in this respect alone
the venous must be greatly more numerous than the arte¬
rial inosculations, which are confined chiefly to the small¬
er and more remote parts of the system. These inoscu¬
lations, indeed, between the venous branches constitute
one of the most peculiar and important characters of
their arrangement, in so far as by their means the com-
munication is maintained between the superficial and
deep-seated vessels of the system. Thus the emissary
veins are the channel of communication between the cere¬
bral sinuses and the temporal, occipital, and other exter¬
nal veins. The external and internal jugulars communi¬
cate by one or two considerable vessels; and the free
communication between the basilic and cephalic by the General
median veins, that between them and the deep brachial Anatomy,
vessel, and that between the saphena and its branches
and the femoral vein, are sufficiently well known. TheCa;11 ancs‘
application of these anatomical facts to the ready motion
of the venous blood is obvious.
But of all the communications between the branches
or large vessels of the venous system, the most important,
both anatomically and physiologically, is that maintained
by means of the vena azygos between the superior and
inferior cavce. The azygos itself is connected at its up¬
per or bronchial extremity with the superior cava, and at
its lower extremity it is in some subjects connected di¬
rectly with the inferior cava, in others by means of the
right renal vein, and in most by the first lumbar veins.
By means of the demiazygos, again, it is connected with
the left renal vein, or the lumbars of the same side, and
in some instances directly with the inferior cava. To the
azygos and demiazygos, therefore, belongs the remarkable
property of connecting not only the venous canals of the
upper and lower divisions, but those of the right and left
halves of the body.
System of Capillary Vessels,— Terminations of Arteries,—
Origins of Veins.
Though we can scarcely, with propriety, speak of the
capillary tissue, or the tissue of capillary vessels, we find
it requisite to introduce in this place the general facts of
the anatomical peculiarities of this important part of the
human body.
The term capillary system, though much spoken of in
physiological and pathological writings, is perhaps not al¬
ways precisely defined or distinctly understood. Accord¬
ing to Bichat, it is not only the common intermediate
system between the arteries and veins, but the origin of
all the exhalant and excreting vessels.2 If we consider
the modes in which arteries have been said to terminate,
and veins to take their origin, we find, that in this view
of the capillary system there are some things which are
doubtful, and some which are inconsistent with the rest.
Haller, and most of the physiological authorities since
his time, concluded, chiefly from the phenomena of in¬
jections, sometimes from microscopical observation, and,
where these failed, from the obscure and uncertain
evidence of analogy, that an artery traced to its last or
minute divisions will be found to terminate in one or other
of the following modes. Hi, Either directly in a red
vein or veins; 2d, in excreting ducts, as in the lacrymal
and salivary glands, the kidney, liver, and pancreas, the
female breast, and the testicle of the male; 3c?, in exha-
lants, as in the skin, in the membranes of cavities (serous
membranes), the cavities of the brain, the chambers of
the eye, the filamentous tissue, the adipose cells, the pul¬
monary vesicles, and mucous surfaces and their follicular
glands; ^th, in smaller vessels, for instance lymphatics;
and, oth, in the colourless artery {arteria non rubra)?
A similar application of the same facts has assigned
to the veins a mode of origin not unlike. If, therefore,
we admit the definition given by Bichat, it follows that
the capillary system consists, ls£, of minute arteries com¬
municating with veins; 2d, of excreting ducts; 3c?, of
exhalants; and, Ath, of minute arteries or veins contain¬
ing a colourless portion of the blood. It is obvious, how¬
ever, that it is absurd to say that the system of capillary
vessels at once comprehends and gives origin to the ex-
cretories and exhalants. In other respects the whole of
Anatomie Gtneralc, tome i. p. 378.
Ibid. vol. i. p. 471.
Elementa Physiologiaz, lib. i. sect. 1, p. 22-29.
Systeme Capillaire, article 1.
ANATOMY.
797
/ wO'-£Ff y-^Y 'O'i-'C-nfo'Z
yMrnmk
Peneral this theory, for little of it is matter of strict observation, rests
Anatomy. 0n very hypothetical grounds.
Of the different kinds of terminations assigned to arteries,
Capillaries, and of origins assigned to veins, one only admits of sensible
demonstration. Arteries, when they have so much dimi¬
nished as to become capillary, are seen by the microscope,
in some instances by the naked eye, to pass directly into cor¬
responding capillary veins, or to end abruptly
in some organ or membrane unconnected with
any other vessel.1 It is likewise certain that the
microscope shows every capillary vein to arise
from a capillary artery; and if there be any
other mode of origin, it has not yet been de¬
monstrated.2 Only one other circumstance re¬
quires to be taken into account in this inquiry.
This is, that the capillary artery and vein may
contain either red or colourless blood; for, ac¬
cording to the size of the vessels, and the na-
* ture of the organs or tissues in which they are
distributed, the blood which flows through
them will be coloured or colourless. This
view of the communication of minute arteries 1
and veins, which is perfectly consistent with l
the known facts, affords the only explanation
which it is possible to give of the singular
division of the capillary system which Bichat
has chosen.
Tills author considers the capillary system
under three general heads: 1^, In organs in
which it contains blood only, for instance, in
the muscles, the spleen, some parts of the
mucous membranes; 2cZ, In organs in which
it contains blood and other fluids, for example,
in bone, cellular tissue, serous membrane, part
of the fibrous system, the skin, the vascular
parietes, glands, &c.; and 3c?, In organs in
which it contains no blood, the instances of
which are, tendon, cartilage, ligament, hair, &c.
Now, it is of little consequence to say that
the tissues of the last two divisions contain other fluids
than blood, when we are also told that the phenomena of
injections, which prove that their capillaries communicate
directly with arteries conveying red blood, the effect of
irritating applications, mechanical or chemical, and the phe¬
nomena of acute or chronic inflammation, show' that they
may receive and convey red blood. The conclusion of this
in common language is, that the capillary arteries and veins
of the second order of tissues do not all contain red blood, but
that many of them contain a colourless part of that fluid $
and that all the capillary arteries and veins of the third order
of tissues convey in the natural state colourless blood only.
What, then, is the precise idea which ought to be formed of
the intermediate system which Bichat conceived to exist be¬
tween the minute arteries and veins, or what have been
termed the venous radiculce ?
From the present state of facts it results that nothing more
can be admitted to constitute the capillary system than those
minute vessels, whether conveying coloured or colourless
blood, in which inspection, microscopic observation, and in¬
jections show that arterial branches at once terminate, and
minute veins {radiculce venosce) have their origin. It is clear
that, physiologically speaking, these vessels can neither be
regarded as arteries nor as veins strictly; for the characters
00°which this distinction is founded are necessarily oblite¬
rated in this system of vessels. There is no precise point at
which the arterial tissue can be said to terminate, and none
at which the venous structure can be said to commence.
One of the first distinct and intelligible descriptions of the General
physical characters and arrangement of the capillary vessels Anatomy,
was given in 1831 by Dr Marshall Hall, from microscopical
observations made on the vessels of the fin and tail of the Physical
stickle-back, the web of the frog’s foot, the mesentery of the an.d -Vnatt>
toad, and the lungs of the salamander, frog, and toad.
racters of
the capil¬
lary ves¬
sels.
Wu 
^4
THE ARTERIES, VEINS, AND INTERVENING CAPILLARY VESSELS AS SEEN IN THE
LUNG OF THE TOAD, HIGHLY MAGNIFIED.
In the web of the foot of the frog, the minute arteries are
characterized by their straight course and small size, by the
light colour and rapid motion of their contents, and by a
distinct pulsatory movement, which extends not to the capil¬
laries. The arteries are nearly equal in number to the veins.
CAPILLARIES IN THE WEB OF THE FOOT OF THE FROG (A. THOMSON).
The latter, which first strike the eye, are tortuous, red, and
present the most distinct view of the blood moving within
their canals in single globules or successive rows. Though
Dr Hall could in no instance detect any anastomosis or m-
1 Gordon, p. 56.
2 Ibid. p. 26.
798 ANATOMY.
General osculation between the minute arteries, except in the mesen-
Anatomy. tery 0f the toad, this arrangement was frequent among the
veins, and in the anastomosing branches of two apparent
Physical veins a double and contrary current of blood is sometimes
and Anato- observed. In no instance could Dr Hall observe a distinct
meters of" termination of an artery or a vein, and the medium of com-
the capil- niunication between these two orders of tubes is generally,
lary ves- if not invariably, Capillary Vessels.
sets. The manner in which arteries pass into capillary vessels is
the following.—The large arteries first divide into branches.
These subdivide into smaller branches, which by successive
subdivision terminate in tubes, which are successively smaller
than those from which they issue. At a certain point of this
subdivision, a small artery is observed to terminate in two,
each of which is equally large as itself; and these vessels fur¬
ther traced are observed not to terminate in smaller tubes,
but to communicate with others of the same size as them¬
selves. At this point the course of the blood becomes of only
half its former velocity ; and the globules, instead of moving
too rapidly to be seen, become distinctly visible. To this
order of vessels, which open into, and communicate exclu¬
sively with others of the same calibre, and in which the blood
is observed moving so much more slowly than they did in the
decreasing vessels, that the motion of individual globules may
be observed, the author restricts the denomination of Capil¬
lary System. The object of the uniform diameter, and its
concomitant phenomenon, retarded motion, he thinks is ob¬
vious, since by this arrangement the blood is retained in the
vessels of organs, a sufficient time for the accomplishment of
the functions of nutrition and secretion. The capillaries,
therefore, are situate intermediate between the arteries and
veins, and their character is that they form minute cylinders,
and have a uniform diameter, while the arteries and veins are
conical.1
Alcohol applied to these vessels has the effect of inter¬
rupting the motion of blood within them ; and by applying
this fluid to the web of the frog’s foot, two layers of capil¬
laries are brought into view ; one superficial, in which the
motion of the blood is suspended, the other deep-seated, in
which it is still moving.
Of the pulmonary capillaries, the arrangement is slightly
modified. The division of the minute arteries into capilla¬
ries is more immediate, and without those successive sub¬
divisions observed in the arteries of the systemic circulation.
On the other hand, the capillaries open into the veins vrith
equal abruptness, and without the gradual reunion observed
in the minute veins of the systemic order. These ultimate
arteries also give off capillaries, not only from their extremi¬
ties but from their sides, by minute pores; and the veins
receive capillaries in the same manner. The arteries and
veins in no case communicate by direct anastomosis, at least
in the lung of the salamander. The intermediate vessels,
on the contrary, which constitute the capillaries, inosculate
in every possible manner, and infinitely more frequently than
in the systemic order, and hence constitute an extensive
network of cylindrical tubes, of uniform diameter. Through
this network the blood flows with extreme rapidity in a uni¬
form current; and as each artery communicates with seve¬
ral capillaries, the blood appears to run like diverging rays
from a, point or line, and to converge in the same manner,
when it proceeds from the capillaries opening into the pul¬
monary veins. It may be inferred, that one effect of this
arrangement is to distribute the moving globules over a
surface as extensive as possible, and thus to expose the
greatest possible number of them, in a given time, to the
inspired air.
This is the distribution of the Capillary Vessels in the
lung of the salamander. In the frog and toad, the lungs of
which combine the vesicular and cellular arrangement, it is General
much the same, with this exception, however, that the ar- Anatomy,
teries, previous to their termination in capillaries, follow the
external margins of the vertical meshes of which the vesicles
consist, while the veins run along their internal margins.
This account applies of course to the capillaries of the
Saurial and Batrachoid Reptiles. But there is every rea¬
son to believe, that the same arrangement takes place in the
Mammiferous class of animals.
The difference of the capillary network depends on three
circumstances: 1. The calibre of the tubes ; 2. the diameter
of the interposed spaces between these tubes; and 3. on
the shape of these spaces.
1. The calibre of the tubes varies in different tissues and
organs. The smallest are still large enough to allow the blood
corpuscula to pass one after the other; consequently, in man,
the smallest capillaries are not much below 0-003 of one line.
This rate is also given by the measurements of Weber from
preparations injected and dried in the method of Lieberkuhn.
In some parts they vary between 0-004 and 0-003 of one
line; and Valentin estimates the smallest vessels of the sto¬
mach at 0-0057 in diameter, and in the ileum at 0’0048.
Muller represents those of the kidney to range between
0*0037 and 0*0069 of one line.
2. The dimensions of the intervening spaces depend in
some measure on the fulness of the tubes. The fuller these
are, the smaller are the interstitial spaces. The spaces in
the vascular network of the white substance of the brain
are, according to C. H. Weber, 0-0142 broad, and 0-025
long ; in length, consequently, from eight to ten times, and
in breadth from four to six times larger than the diameter of
the capillary vessels. In the capillary network of the mucous
membranes and the external skin, the meshes are often only
between three and four times larger than the diameter of
the vessels—often of the same width, or even narrower.
In the kidneys, Muller found the diameter of the capillary
vessels, in relation to the intervascular spaces, as 1 to be¬
tween 3 and 4.
3. As to figure, Henle distinguishes two principal shapes;
the roundish and the oblong. But besides these, some as¬
sume the square figure, others the polygonal, and some are
irregular.
Bichat describes two great capillary systems in the hu¬
man body: 1^, The general one, or that which consists of
the minute terminations of the aortic divisions, and the ori¬
gins of the superior and inferior great veins; and, 2d, the
pulmonary capillary system, or that which consists of the
minute terminations of the pulmonary artery, and the origins
of the pulmonary veins. The general capillary system fur¬
ther consists of an individual capillary system, not only for
every organ, but in some instances for every tissue. The
brain possesses an individual capillary system ; and that of
the membranes is evidently distinct from that belonging to
the organ itself. The heart and the kidneys possess each
an individual capillary system ; and the liver may be said to
have two, one formed by the communication of the hepatic
artery and veins, and another consisting of the divisions of
the portal vein, with the branches of the hepatic hollow vein ;
(Vena cava hepatica).
The organic properties of the capillary vessels are as
little known as their structure. Many physiological and
pathological writers, especially experimentalists, have
ascribed to them a power which has at different times
been called muscular, tonic, irritable, contractile; and
have asserted that, because the larger arteries are pro¬
vided with a fibrous membrane, which they have called
muscular, and to which they have ascribed irritability, or
the power of contraction when stimulated, their minute or
1 A Critical and Experimental Essay on the Circulation of the Blood, p. 29.
ANATOMY.
799
General capillary terminations must have the same property. This
Anatomy, conclusion is completely unfounded for two reasons. ls£,
^ I have already shown that the proper arterial tunic is not
Capillaries. muscu]ar ;n structure, and, according to the best experi¬
ments, possesses no property of contraction when stimu¬
lated. 2rf, Although it be admitted that the proper arte¬
rial tissue is muscular and irritable, it is quite certain that
observation has not hitherto shown that this tunic can be
recognised in arteries smaller than a line in diameter;
and in the capillaries properly so called, that is, in vessels
which partake of the nature of artery and vein, no such
structure has yet been observed.
It is not improbable, however, that the capillaries pos¬
sess certain organic or vital properties; but all that has
been taught on this subject is either hypothetical or de¬
rived from an insufficient and imperfect collection of facts.
It is certain that the blood which moves through them is
beyond the direct influence of the action of the heart,
and can be affected by this only so far as it keeps the
larger vessels constantly distended with a column of blood
which cannot retrograde, and must therefore move forward
in the only direction left to it. It has been therefore
argued that the capillaries must have an inherent power
of contraction, by which this motion is favoured. Is it not
sufficient to say that they act merely as resisting canals,
to prevent their contents from escaping, and to minister
to the various tissues and organs those supplies of blood
which the several processes of nutrition, secretion, &c. re-
quire ?
The effects which the application of mechanical irri¬
tants, or chemical substances, as alcohol, acids, and alka¬
lies, produced in the experiments of Hunter, Wilson Philip,
Thomson, and Hastings, have been supposed to demon¬
strate the irritable nature of the capillary vessels. The
conclusion is illegitimate, in so far as the results of these
experiments are open to several sources of fallacy. In
some instances these effects are to be ascribed to incipient
inflammation, in others to shrivelling of the capillary struc¬
ture, or crispation by chemical action, in others to actual
coagulation of the blood of the capillaries; but none of
them prove satisfactorily any peculiar properties in the
vessels of which the capillary system is composed.
While the views of Reuss, and the experiments of Du-
trochet, Wedemeyer, and Kaltenbrunner, render it proba¬
ble that the capillaries possess some contractile power, they
by no means prove that this is adequate to impel the blood
through them, independently of the impulse of the heart.
According to the hypothesis of Reuss, the arterial system
is in a state of positive, and the venous in that of negative,
electricity ; and by the operation of this agent the blood
is made to move from the former class of vessels through
the capillaries into the latter. From the experiments of
Dutrochet, again, on the transmission of fluids through
organic membranes, that author infers that, by means of
the inward and outward impulse, or that property which
he denominates Endosmose and Exosmose, the blood flows
through the capillaries into the veins. Lastly, Wedemeyer,
who further maintains that the impulsive force of the
heart is propagated to the capillary system, concludes,
from the effects of injecting fluids, both mild and irrita¬
tive, and from microscopic observation, combined with the
effects of mechanical and chemical irritants, that the ca¬
pillaries possess considerable contractile power, the ope¬
ration of which is under the influence of galvanism, or General
nervous energy, or both; but that this, instead of pro- Anatomy.,
moting, ought to resist the motion of the blood through
them.
Erectile Tissue. ( Vasa Erigentia,— Vascula Erectilia,—
Tissu Erectile.)
The system of capillary arteries and veins does notpre-Erectile
sent the same arrangement in all situations and in all the
tissues of the human body. A peculiar arrangement of these
vessels was early recognised by our countryman W ilham
Cowper, who states that he demonstrated the direct com¬
munication of arterial and venous canals, not only in the
lungs, but in the spleen and penis, “ in which, says he,
“ I have found these communications more open than in
other parts.”1 This fact, however, was long overlooked
by subsequent anatomists.
Among the terminations of arteries enumerated by Hal¬
ler, one which he referred to the head of exhalants was
that of a red artery or arteries pouring their blood into
the spongy or cellular structure of the cavernous bodies
of the nipple, the clitoris, and the penis, that of the wat¬
tles of the turkey, and the comb of the cock.2 His detail¬
ed examination of those parts shows, that, with a correct
knowledge of their anatomical structure, he had not a
very distinct conception of the manner in which their ves¬
sels are disposed. It was afterwards observed, however,
by John Hunter, that the spongy structure of the urethra
and glans consists of a plexus of veins.
Bichat remarked that the spleen, and the cavernous
body of the penis, instead of presenting, as the serous
surfaces, a vascular or capillary net-work, in which the
blood oscillates in different directions according to the im¬
pulse which it receives, exhibit only spongy or lamellar
tissues, still little known in their structure, in which the
blood appears often to stagnate instead of moving. As
this peculiar structure was known in the cavernous body
to be the seat of a motion long known by the name of
erection, MM. Dupuytren and Richerand distinguished
this arrangement of arteries and veins as a peculiar tissue,
under the name of erectile,—a distinction which, though
partly understood before, has only now been admitted as
well founded in the writings of anatomical authors.
cording to the recent arrangements of M. Beclard this
tissue comprehends not only the structure of the cavernous
body, but that of the spongy substance (corpus spongiosum),
which incloses the urethra, and forms its two extiemities,
the bulb and gland, the clitoris, the nymphai, and the nip¬
ple of the female, the structure of the spleen in both
sexes, and even that of the lips.3 *
It is unfortunate that the researches of anatomists on
this erectile tissue have been restricted chiefly to the
spongy body of the urethra and the cavernous body of the
penis; and it is rather by analogy than direct proof that
similarity of structure between them and the other parts
referred to the same head is maintained. I shall here
state what is ascertained.
The cavernous body of the urethra, or what is now
termed its spongy body,x is represented by Haller to con¬
sist of fibres and plates issuing from the inner surface of
the containing membrane, and mutually interlacing, so as
to form a series of communicating cells,5 into which the
1 Philosophical Transactions, No. 285, p. 1386. * Elementa Physiologic, lib. ii. sect. 1, § 24.
3 Additions a VAnatomic Generate deXav. Bichat, par P. A. Beclard, p. 118. __ . (
4 Haller applies the name of cavernous body not onlv to the structure of the penis, but to that of the urethra. (Elementa Physiologic
hb. xxvii. sect. 1.) ' 5 T>id. lib. xxvii. sect. 1, § 33.
ANATOMY.
800
General proper urethral arteries pour their blood directly during
Anatomy. the state of erection.1
cavernous body of the penis is in like manner re-
veTsels6 presented to be a part of a spongy nature, or to consist of
C ’ innumerable sacs or cells separated by plates and fibres,
which at the moment of erection are distended with blood
poured from the arteries, and which is afterwards removed
by some absorbing power of the veins.
This opinion, which was that of many subsequent ana¬
tomists, even Bichat himself,2 was derived apparently from
the facility with which the blood so deposited escapes,
not, as it was believed, from divided vessels, but from
areolce, or interlaminar spaces. It appears, however, to
have been at variance with what had been anciently
taught by Vesalius, Ingrassias, and Malpighi, and posi¬
tively stated regarding these vessels by Hunter; and
modern researches have shown it to be completely erro¬
neous. Cuvier and Ribes in France, Mascagni, Paul
Farnese, Moreschi in Italy, and Tiedemann in Germany,
have shown that there are no cells or spongiform structure
in the erectile tissue of the cavernous body.
The first correct view of the structure of parts of this
description in the human subject was given by Mascagni
in his account of the arterial and venous communications
in the spongy body of the urethra. In 1787 he announced
in his work on the Lymphatics, that the parts called ca¬
vernous bodies, both in the penis and in the clitoris, are
simply fasciculi, or accumulations of arterial and venous
vessels without interruption of canal; but that between
the arteries and veins of the spongy bodies a dilated ca¬
vity or minute cell is interposed. In 1795 repeated
minute injections led him to doubt the existence of this
sort of cell; and about the close of 1805 he publicly de¬
monstrated the fact, that many veins of considerable cali¬
bre, collected in the manner of a plexus, with correspond¬
ing arteries, but small and less numerous, really form the
outer and inner membranes of the urethra, the whole of
the glans penis, and the whole substance of the spongy
body. In each of these parts, and also in the spongy
structure inclosing the orifice of the vagina, he ascertain¬
ed by repeated injections that there are no cells, as was
imagined, and that the arteries, reflected as it were, give
origin to numerous veins,3 which, forming an intimate
plexiform net-work, constitute the v/hole glans, and the
entire vascular body which surrounds the urethra and the
entrance of the vagina.
In the cavernous bodies of the penis and clitoris he
had not sufficient facts to ascertain the existence of the
same structure, as he had never succeeded in injecting
these parts so completely as the glans and the spongy part
of the urethra. Eventually, however, he succeeded, es¬
pecially in children, in injecting fully these cavernous
bodies of the penis and clitoris. He found in their inte¬
rior nothing but fasciculi of veins, with corresponding arte¬
ries, but rather smaller. He inferred, therefore, that these
vessels, collected and ramified in various directions, consti¬
tute a vascular texture capable of expanding and shrink-
ing, according to the quantity of blood conveyed to it.4
The general accuracy of this description has been since General
confirmed by the researches of Paul Farnese and Mores- Anatomy,
chi. The latter, especially, has shown, ls£, that the glans
consists of arteries and a very great number of minute ^6
veins, which pour their blood into the cutaneous dorsal
vein; 2c?, that the urethra, and especially its posterior
part, may in like manner be shown to consist of numerous
minute veins, which terminate in a posterior branch of
the dorsal vein, and communicate with the veins of the
bulbous portion of the urethra; and, 3c?, that in the ca¬
vernous bodies, though also receiving blood-vessels, these
are much less numerous, and are chiefly derived from the
urethral vessels.5
The same arrangement was recognised by Cuvier in the
penis of the elephant, by Tiedemann in that of the horse,
by Shaw in the human subject and in the horse,6 and by
Mr Houston in the tongue of the chameleon.7
Upon the whole, the facts collected by different anato¬
mists on this subject furnish the following results.
If the arteries, on the one hand, be injected, they are
found to terminate in very fine ramifications, the disposi¬
tion of which is exactly the same as in other parts. If,
on the other, the veins be injected, it is easy to perceive
the two following circumstances: Is?, That they are much
dilated at their origin, that is, that the venous radiculce are
really more dilated than might be anticipated from the
other characters of these vessels ; 2c?, That the tubular
dilatations to which they are accessory form very nu¬
merous inosculations or anastomoses, precisely as the
capillary system of which they constitute a part. The
effect of this arrangement is to give these vessels the
appearance of being penetrated with sieve-like open¬
ings, resembling areolce, or interlaminar spaces mutually
communicating. As the whole difference, therefore, be¬
tween the capillary vessels of this and other parts of the
human frame consists in the minute veins (radiculce veno-
sce) being dilated or distended in a peculiar manner, Be¬
dard concludes that the erectile tissue of the cavernous
body consists simply of minute arteries and dilatable veins
interwoven in the manner of capillary nets. These dis¬
tended venous cavities are indeed so remote from being
cells, that they are truly continuous with veins, the inner
membrane of which may be easily recognised among them.8
During erection the blood accumulates in this tissue;
but the cause and mechanism of this accumulation are
completely unknown.
Since these observations were made, Johann Muller of
Berlin has, by injecting the arteries of the penis, been en¬
abled to give an account of the characters of Erectile vessels,
something more detailed and specific.
By injecting the principal artery of the penis before its
subdivision, and dividing longitudinally one of the corpora
cavernosa, the ramifications of the nutrient arteries are seen
upon the inner side of the venous spaces, the arteries be¬
coming gradually smaller, until they pass into the capillary
net-work, where their divisions cannot be seen by the naked
eye. Besides these nutrient ramified arteries there is seen,
on careful inspection, another set of arterial branches, of
1 “ Sed et in pene, et in clitoride, et in papilla mammae, et in collo galli indici, nimis manifastum est, verum sanguinem effundi,
neque unquam ejus color totus de iis partibus evanescit, quae ab effuso sanguine turgere solent.” (Elementa, lib. xxvii. sect. 3, § 10.)
2 Systeme Absorbant, sect. 3, p. 598. °
_3 “ Le arterie vi si ritorcono, e danno origine alle vene, e queste formano in seguito alcuni plessi, i quali accumulati in varia ma
niera, costituiscono tutto il glande, e tutta quella massa vascolare, che trovasi intorno al canale dell’ uretra, e all’ ingresso della va¬
gina.” (Prodrome della Grande Anatomia di Paolo Mascagni, capitolo ii. p. 01. Firenze, 1819, folio.)
'* Prodrome del Paolo Mascagni, loco citato, p. 61.
4 Commentarium de Urethras Corporis Glandisque Structure Gto idus Decembris 1810 detecta, Alexandri Moreschii, Eq. Coron. Fer-
rese, in Ticinensi primum, turn Bononiensi Archigymnasio Anatomes Professoris. Mediolani, 1817.
6 Medico-Chirnrg. Trans, vol. x. p. 338, 353. London, 1819.
T Trans, of Royal Irish Academy, 1828.
8 Additions, p. 119.
ANATOMY.
80 i
General different size, shape, and disposition, which are given off
Anatomy, nearly at right angles, from both the large and small trunks.
These arterial processes are about one-hundredth part of
Erectile one inch in diameter, and one-twelfth long, and are clearly
vessels, seen by the naked eye. They project into the cavities of
the spongy substance, and terminate either in blunt extre¬
mities or in dilated extremities, without undergoing any di¬
vision or ramification. These short arterial processes are
turned round at their extremities into a semicircle or more,
and present a spiral appearance like the end of a cork-screw.
This disposition suggested to M. Muller the name of Heli-
cine, or Spiral or Screw-like Arteries {Arteries Helicince).1
The helicine arteries of the penis are more easily seen in
man than in any other animal examined by Professor Mul¬
ler. He found them in all the animals in which he sought
for them ; they are to be seen at the posterior part only of
the penis in the stallion, but in the dog exist throughout
the whole organ.
In man the helicine twigs of the penal arteries sometimes
come off singly ; at other times they form tufts or clusters,
consisting of from three to ten branches, and having in ge¬
neral one very short common stem. The swelling at the
extremity, when present, is gradual, and is greatest a little
way from the end. The helicine branchlets given off from
large arteries are not of greater size than those coming from
small ones ; and even the smallest capillary arteries of the
Profunda Penis, which can be seen with the aid of a glass
alone, give oft’ helicine twigs of a much greater size than
themselves.
Each helicine branchlet projecting into a venous cavity
is covered by a thin membrane, which Professor Muller re¬
gards as the inner coat of the dilated vein ; and when there
is a tuft of helicine twigs, the whole tuft is covered with
one envelope of a gauze-like membrane. This covering
is considerably thicker on the helicine arteries in the pos¬
terior part of the Corpus Spongiosum Urethrce, than in the
Corpus Cavernosum ; but it is possible that this is in some
measure connected with the state of repletion of the arte¬
ries; for when the injection has gone well, it becomes diffi¬
cult to distinguish the external covering.
Professor Muller could not discover any apertures either
on the sides or on the ends of the helicine arteries. But he
seems to regard it as probable that there are minute aper¬
tures, which may be of that nature that they allow the pas¬
sage of the blood in certain states and not in others.
The helicine arteries are not, as some may suppose, loops
of vessels which have been incompletely filled, and which, after
forming a coil, pass into venous spaces, as E. H. Weber
found to be the case with the arteries of the maternal por¬
tion of the placenta. Muller, it is seen, distinguishes in the
branches from the Arteria Profunda, p. 800, two orders of
vessels ; one Rami Nutritii, corresponding to the arteries
of other organs which serve the purpose of nutrition, and
pass continuously into the veins ; the others, Rami Helicini,
with shut ends, forming processes or shoots from the Ar¬
teria Profunda, bent in the manner of tendrils which project
into the cells or spaces of the Corpora Cavernosa, and, ac¬
cording to the conjecture of Muller, pour the blood during
erection through openings in their ends immediately into
the spaces of the Corpora Cavernosa. Their diameter is
between 007 and 0*08 of one line.
The helicine arteries are more numerous towards the root
than near the point of the penis. They are observed in the
Corpus Spongiosum Urethrce, especially towards its bulb;
but they are not there so easily seen as in the Corpora
Cavernosa. They have not hitherto been observed in the General
Gians. Anatomy.
Their structure is nearly the same in all the animals in ^
which they have been examined. The helicine arteries of Erectile
the ape bear the nearest resemblance to those of man ; and vessels,
in most animals they are less obvious than in the human sub¬
ject. In the horse and dog, they give off from their sides
small nutrient twigs, which render them more difficult to be
seen in these animals than in man.
Fig. 1. One single Helicine Artery (Muller).
... 2. A portion of the ArUria Profunda Penis in Man, with the
Helicine Arteries magnified.
... 3. Individual Helicine Arteries from the posterior part of the
Corpus Cavernosum Urethrce in man ; greatly magnified.
These helicine arteries, on the other hand, Valentin re¬
gards as artificial, that is, resulting from the mode of injec¬
tion.2 It is impossible here to enter into the details of his
arguments. It is sufficient to say that Muller, after repeated
researches, adheres to his original views; that Krause con¬
firms his inference;3 and that Hyrtl saw helicine arteries
not only in the penis of man and the horse, but also an
analogous formation in the wattles of the throat and head of
the turkey-cock.4 Henle thinks it undoubted that the
greatest part of the tendril-shaped appendages of arteries,
which at first sight appear entirely like the helicine arteries
delineated by Miiller, are artificial products. He makes,
however, an admission that there may be some genuine or
true helicine arteries.5
The spleen, M. Bedard thinks, may be said to resem¬
ble the cavernous body both in structure and phenomena;
and he considers it as at once consisting of erectile tissue,
and to be the seat of a species of erection more or less si¬
milar to that of the cavernous body. This organ, he
argues, becomes the occasional seat of a motion of expan¬
sion and contraction; and he adduces the three following
conditions in which it takes place. Isf, In experiments;
when in a living animal the course of the blood in the
splenic vein is arrested, the spleen swells, but returns to
its former dimensions as soon as the circulation is restored.
2d, In diseases; the paroxysms of intermittent fever are
1 Ueber die Arteria; Helicinse, von Johann Muller. Archiv fur Anatomic und Physiologie, Heft II., 1835.
2 Muller’s Archiv fur Anatomic und Physiologie, 1838. Seite 182. 3 Muller’s Archiv, 1837. Seite 31.
4 Oesterreichen Jahrbucb, 1838, xix. 349. 6 Allgemeine Anatomic. Seite 486. Leipzig, 1841.
vol. n. 5 i
802
ANATOMY.
General accompanied with obvious enlargement of this organ,
Anatomy. which subsides at the conclusion of the paroxysm. 3c?, It
appears that the same phenomenon takes place during di¬
gestion.
Sir Everard Home, with the assistance of the microsco¬
pic inspection of M. Bauer, has made many observations
on the structure of this organ. But his purpose appears
to have been more particularly directed to ascertain the
phenomena of its function and uses; and I cannot dis¬
cover that his ideas on its intimate structure, and the
arrangement of its capillary system, are precise or dis¬
tinct.
The most distinct examples, therefore, of erectile tissue
are to be found in the spongy texture which surrounds the
urethra, in the cavernous body of the ferns, in the vessels
of the clitoris, the vascular structure of the nympho;, and
in the nipple of the female. The structure of the lips in
both sexes is not unlike. The veins of these parts may
be shown to be well marked and largely dilated at their
origin, so as to give the appearance of cellular net-work.
The same disposition is observed in the pulp of the
fingers. It has been attempted to explain the motions of
the iris by supposing it to be formed of this erectile tis¬
sue ; but the justice of this conjecture seems doubtful.
In the tissue now described it is manifest that the phy¬
siologist ought to place the phenomena of the process dis¬
tinguished by the name of vital turgescence {turgor vitalis)
by Hebenstreit,1 Reil,2 Ackermann,3 and Schlosser.4 5
Though these authors suppose vital turgescence in differ¬
ent degrees in almost all the textures of the animal body,
their most distinct examples are taken from those parts
which consist of erectile vessels. After the explanation
of the anatomical structure above given, it is superfluous
to seek for any other cause except the arrangement of
the minute vessels, and especially that of the veins.
System of Exhalants, Exhalant System. ( Vasa Exhalan-
tia,—Systeme Exhalant.')
Exhalants. Are there such vessels as the exhalants described by
physiological authors ? Is their existence proved by ob¬
servation or inspection ? If not, what are the proofs from
which their existence has been inferred ?
The existence of minute arteries, the open extremities
of which are believed to pour out various fluids in different
tissues of the human body, has long been a favourite spe¬
culation with physiological anatomists. The decreasing
vessels (vasculorum continuo decrescentium multi sibique
succedentes ordine^), and exhalant orifices of Boerhaave,
must be known to almost all* Haller ascribes to the
skin, membranes of cavities (serous membranes'), ven¬
tricles of the brain, the chambers of the eye, the cells of
the adipose membrane, the vesicles of the lung, the cavity
of the stomach and intestines, an abundant supply of these
exhalant arteries or canals, which, according to him, pour
out a thin, aqueous, jelly-like fluid, which in disease, or
after death, is converted into a watery fluid susceptible
of coagulation. The existence of these vessels, he con¬
ceives, is established by the watery exudation which ap¬
pears in these several parts after a good injection of the
arteries.6
As these minute canals, however, through which this General
injected fluid is believed to percolate, have never been Anatomy
seen, or rendered capable of actual inspection, their exist-
ence was denied by Mascagni, who ascribed the pheno- x
mena of exhalation to the presence of inorganic pores
in the arterial parietes, through which, he imagined, the
fluids transuded to the membranes or organs in which they
were found. This mechanism, which was equally invisible
with the Hallerian, was, for obvious reasons, denied by
Bichat, who resolved to reject every opinion not founded
on anatomical observation, and to determine the existence
of the exhalants by this evidence alone. Obliged, how¬
ever, to avow the difficulty of forming a distinct idea of
a system of vessels, the extreme tenuity of which prevents
them from being seen, he undertook to attain his object by
what he terms a rigorous train of reasoning.
This consists in the effects observed to result from suc¬
cessful injections of watery fluids, or of spirit of turpentine
containing some finely levigated colouring matter; from
the phenomena of active hemorrhage, which Bichat consi¬
ders merely as exhalation of blood instead of serous fluid ;
and from numerous considerations unfolded in the further
prosecution of the subject. In this manner he concludes,
that the only points ascertained are, Is?, the existence of
exhalants; 2d, their origin in the capillary system of
the part in which they are distributed; and, 3c?, their
termination on the surfaces of serous and mucous mem¬
branes, and the outer surface of the corion or true skin.
The exhalant vessels, the existence, origin, and termi¬
nation of which he thus proved, he distinguished into
three classes. The first contains those exhalants which
are concerned in the production of the fluids which are
immediately removed from the body,—the cutaneous and
the mucous exhalants ; the second contains those exhal¬
ants which are employed in the formation of fluids which,
continuing a given time on various membranous surfaces,
are believed to be finally taken again into the circulation
by means of absorption; and the third class consists ol
the exhalants concerned in the process of depositing nu¬
tritious matter in the different tissues and organs of the
human frame. This arrangement is more distinctly seen
in the following table.
' 1. Exterior, opening on natural surfaces or f Cutaneous,
canals   \ Mucous.
f Serous.
2. Interior, opening on membranes, or within I Synovial.
cellular textures 1 Cellular.
L Medullary.
t3. Nutritious.
Each organic tissue is in this system supposed to have
its appropriate exhalant arteries, from which it derives the
material requisite for its nutrition.
The clearness and regularity of this arrangement would
render it desirable that the existence of these vessels
were demonstrated with certainty. It is evident, how¬
ever, that the regularity of arrangement is the only ad¬
vantage which it possesses over the views of those authors
whose method and opinions Bichat professed not to
follow. The existence of exhalants is as little proved
1 Brevis Expositio Doctrines Physiologicae de Turgore Vitali, 1795. Ab Ernesto B. G. Hebenstreit, M.D. &c. Extat in Brera Sylloge
Opusculorum, vol. ii. opusc. vi.
2 Archiv.fur die Physiologic, i. band, 2. heft, s. 172.
3 Ackermann, Physische Darstellung der Lebenscraft, 1797, i. band, s. 11.
4 Georgii Eduardi Schlosser Dissertatio de Turgore Vitali. Extat in Brera Sylloge, vol. vii. opusc. ii.
5 Haller, Elementa, lib. ii. sect. 1, and his notes on Boerhaave, Prcelectiones, tom" ii. p. 245.
6 “ Aqueum humorem de arteriis perinde exhalare, olei terebinthinae aliorumve pigmentorum, et vivi argenti iter persviadet, quod
anatomica manu impulsum, aut omnino vivo in homine a consuetis naturae viribus eo deductum, in ejus humoris, quam vocant, came-
ram depluit.” {Elementa, lib. vii. sect. 2, § 1.)
anatomy.
803
General in the rigorous reasoning of Bichat as in the fanciful
Anatomy, theories of Boerhaave, the generalizing conclusions ot
Haller, or the bold supposition of lateral porosities by
Exhalants. Mascagnj. This defect in his system has therefore been
recognised both by Magendie and Beclard, the first of whom,
though he admits the existence of exhalation as a process
of the living body, allows that no explanation of its me¬
chanism or material cause has been given, and asserts that
Bichat has created the system of vessels termed exhalants;
while the second thinks that anatomical observation fui-
nishes no evidence of their existence.
The colourless capillaries, he observes, which are admit¬
ted by all, and the existence of which is satisfactorily esta¬
blished by the well-known experiment of Bleuland, proves
nothing whatever concerning the existence of exhalant
vessels; for these colourless arteries are observed to ter¬
minate in colourless veins, and there is no proof hitherto
adduced of their proceeding further, or terminating by
open mouths. He admits that the fact of exhalations in
the living body, of nutrition, of transudation by arterial
extremities, shows that these extremities possess openings
through which the fluids of exhalation, the materials ot
nutrition, and the matter of injection, escape. But whe¬
ther these openings are found at the point at which the
capillary arteries are continuous with veins, or belong to
a distinct order of vessels continued beyond these arte¬
ries, is a question which observation has not yet deter¬
mined, and which it perhaps is unable to determine.
Such is the present state of knowledge in relation to the
existence of exhalant arteries. While the process of ex¬
halation is admitted, we must avow, as Crmkshank did
long ago, that we are unable to prove satisfactorily the
existence of any set of vessels, or any mechanism by
which it might be accomplished.
Lymphatic System. ( Vasa Lymphatica, Vasa Lymphfera,
Lymphce-Ductus of Glisson and Mytte—System* Ah-
sorbant,—Die Saugadern.)
Lympha- In most situations of the human body, and especially
tics* in the vicinity of arterial and venous trunks, there are
found long, slender, hollow tubes, pellucid or reddish,
which present numerous knots, joints, or swellings in their
course, and to which the name of lymphatics or absorb¬
ents has been given. It is most expedient to employ the
former appellation only, as the latter implies the perform¬
ance of a function, the reality of which has been much
questioned of late years. . . .
Though Eustachius had seen the thoracic duct in the
horse, and some slight traces of a knowledge of vascular
tubes, different either from arteries or veins, are found in
the writings of Nicolaus Massa, Fallopius, and Veslin-
crius, the merit of establishing their existence is generally
ascribed to Caspar Asellius, a physician of Pavia. I his
anatomist, who had in 1622 seen the white-coloured
tubes, then first named lacteals, issuing from the intestines
of the dog, observed also a cluster of vessels less opaque
near the portal eminences of the liver,—an observation
which he afterwards repeated in the horse and
quadrupeds. The same vessels were also described and
delineated by Highmore. .
Passing over the uncertain and obscure hints given by
Walaeus and Van Horne, the first exact information after Gmerry
Asellius is that which relates toOlaus Rudbeck,who, in
1650, is said to have seen them in a calf, and to fiave de-Lympha-
monstrated the thoracic duct, and the dilated sac, after-ticg
w G"trrtrtS^ haa™ ^—
to him the knowledge of a set of vessels different from
arteries and veins; and it appears, from the testimony o
Wharton, that Jolyffe had demonstrated these ves.e s
1650.1 In short, the discovery of lymphatics, and the
correction of some errors of Asellius, are ascribed to the
English anatomist, not only by Wharton and Ghsson, hi
by Charleton, Plott, W otton, and Boyle.
The existence of these vessels, thiis partially demon¬
strated, was afterwards more fully established by t le re¬
searches of Bartholin, Pecquet, Bilsius, Nuck, the secon
Monro, and Haller. It is chiefly to exertions of
William Hunter, and his pupils Hewson, Sheldon, an 1
Cruikshank,4 in this country, and to those of Mascagni m
Italy, that the anatomical world are indebted for the com¬
plete examination and history of this system of vessels.
The lymphatic vessels consist, in the members, of two
layers, a superficial and a deep-seated one. The first is
situate in the subcutaneous cellular tissue, between the
skin and the aponeurotic sheaths, and accompanies the
subcutaneous veins, or creeps in the intervals between
them. A successful injection of these superficial lym¬
phatics will show an extensive net-work of mercurial tubes
surrounding the whole limb. , . i v- a
The deep-seated layer of lymphatics is found chiefly
in the intervals between the muscles, and along the
course of the arterial and venous trunks. In tracing both
layers of lymphatics to the upper, fixed, or attached end of
the members, we find they increase in volume and dimm^h
in number. At the connection of the members with the
trunk, they are observed to pass through certain spheroidal
or spherical bodies, termed lymphatic glands or ganglions.
The lymphatics of the upper extremity, after passing
through the glands of the armpit, terminate in trunks,
which open into the subclavio-jugular veins, one on each
side of the neck. Those of the lower extremity, after
passing through the glands of the groin, proceed with the
common iliac vein into the abdomen, where they unite
with other lymphatics. . . ...
The lymphatics of the trunk consist in like manner
of two layers, a subcutaneous and deeper seated one, dis¬
tributed in the chest between the muscles and pleura,
and in the abdomen between the muscles and peritoneum.
In the chest and belly, each organ possesses a superficial
layer of lymphatics distributed over its surface, and per¬
taining to its membranous envelope; the other ramifying
through its surface, and pertaining to the peculiar tissue
of the organ. This twofold arrangement is most easily
seen in the lungs, the heart, the liver, spleen, and kidneys.
In a similar manner are arranged the lymphatics in the
external parts of the scull; on the face, where they are
very numerous ; in the spaces between the muscles ; and
on the neck, in which they pass through numerous glands.
No lymphatics, however, have been found in the brain,
the spinal chord, their membranous envelopes, the eye,
or the ear.
‘ Francisci Glissonii Amtomia Hepatis, cap. xxxi.; Thomae Wharton cap. •
* Experimental Inquiries, Part the Second ; by William Hewson, F. lb S. Lon o , 77 ^8 _ folio.
3 The History of the Absorbent System, &c. by John Sheldon, surgeon, ER.S.&c. London, lono
‘ The Anatomy of the Absorbing Vessels of the Human Body, by William Cruiks • - ’ 7 ’ f ]io. See also Prodr a mo, &c.
* Pauli Mascagni Vasorum Lymphuticorum Corporis Humam Histona ct Ichnographia. Pans, 17»L
capitolo i.
804
ANATOMY.
General All the lymphatics hitherto known terminate in two
Anatomy, principal trunks. One of these, termed from its site
thoracic duct {ductus thoracicus, die Milchbrustrohre, le ca-
^ia" na^ thoracique), is situate on the left side of the dorsal
vertebra;. It receives the lymphatics of the lower extre¬
mities, of the belly, and the parts contained in it; those
of great part of the chest, and those of the left side of
the head, neck, and trunk, and left upper extremity.
The other lymphatic trunk, which is situate on the right
side of the upper dorsal vertebras, is formed by the union
of the lymphatics of the right side of the head, neck, right
upper extremity, and some of those of the chest. Both
of these trunks open into the subclavio-jugular vein of
each side.
That lymphatics terminate in branches of the venous
system, has been asserted on the authority of various ob¬
servers. Steno, for instance, states that he traced the
lymphatics from the right side of the head, the chest, and
pectoral extremity, in animals, into the right axillary vein ;
and he gives delineations of anastomotic connections of
several lymphatics with the axillary and jugular veins.
Similar facts have been reported by Nuck, Richard Hale,
Bartholin, and Hartmann. Ruysch traced the lymphatics
of the lung into the subclavian and axillary veins; Dre-
lincourt those of the thymus gland in animals into the
subclavians; and Hebenstreit saw those of the loins pass
into the vena azygos.
Haller, though unwilling to deny the testimony of these
observers, considers it liable to various sources of fallacy,
and doubts the direct communication of the lymphatic and
venous systems. By John F. Meckel the grandfather,
nevertheless, this communication was maintained, from
the circumstance that he found mercury injected into the
lymphatics pass into the veins without any traces of ex¬
travasation. From injecting the lymphatics also he found
the inferior cava full of mercury, not a particle of which had
passed by the thoracic duct into the superior cava. In¬
jecting afterwards an indurated lumbar gland from a pel¬
vic lymphatic, when he found its lower half only was
filled, he increased the pressure, with the view of'filling
the minute vessels of the gland. When this was con¬
tinued a little, he observed the fluid metal pass into the
inferior cava, and thus traced the minute lymphatics into
the venous system.1
These facts have received too little attention, from the
circumstance that Hewson, though not doubting them as
stated by the author, regarded them as liable to consi¬
derable fallacy, and, along with William Hunter, imputed
the effect in question entirely to extravasation. Both
Hunter and Hewson, indeed, appear to have injected veins
from lymphatics in the same manner in which Meckel
did; but both saw reason to infer that extravasation had
taken place. Cruikshank,. again, states that he never
saw a lymphatic vessel inserted into any other red veins
than the subclavians and jugulars. The termination re¬
marked by Steno and his successors constitutes in truth
the common trunk or lymphatic vein admitted by Cruik¬
shank,—a thoracic duct of the right side.
Recently this mode of termination has been revived by
liedemann and Fohmann,2 who state that, in the seal, the
lactiferous vessels communicate with veins arising from
the mesenteric glands, and pass thence into the venous
trunks without proceeding through the thoracic duct. General
M. Lauth junior, of Strasburg, again, conceives that he Anatomy,
has demonstrated that lymphatics communicate with veins
within the substance of organs, and in the interior of the tj£3[npha*
lymphatic glands ;3 an inference which at present requires
further verification. The statements of Lippi of Florence,4
that every lymphatic almost communicates freely with ve¬
nous tubes, is still more improbable, and has been rendered
exceedingly doubtful by the recent researches of Rossi.5
The connections of the ends of lymphatics with the or¬
gans and tissues from which they arise, termed their ori¬
gins, are completely unknown. In some favourable in¬
stances the lymphatics of the intestinal canal are so filled
with a reddish or whitish fluid after the process of diges¬
tion has continued for some time, that not only are their
larger branches easily seen, but by the aid of the micro¬
scope some of the smaller may be traced to their com¬
mencement. This, which was ascertained by Cruikshank
(p. 55 and 58), and confirmed by Hewson, Bleuland, and
Hedwig, has been contradicted by the observations of Ru-
dolphi and Albert Meckel. In all other parts, however,
though a successful injection may show the course and
distribution of many of* the smallest lymphatics, yet no ori¬
fices are perceptible at the point at which they seem to stop,
and we are uncertain whether these points are their ori¬
gins. (Cruikshank.) Mere observation is here as un¬
availing as in regard to the termination of exhalants.
The continuation of lymphatics with arteries, unless in
the case of those which arise from the interior of arterial
tubes (Lauth), is not satisfactorily established. It has been
conjectured, however, that their ends or imperceptible
origins are connected to the tissues to which they are
traced, and that the lymphatics arise in this manner from
these tissues.
The lymphatics are distinguished by being in general
cylindrical in figure, and by varying in calibre at short
spaces. In this respect they differ from the arteries and
veins. It has been further justly remarked by Gordon,
that the middle-sized lymphatics are remarkably distin¬
guished from the corresponding parts of the arterial and
venous system by three peculiarities: ls£, When two
lymphatics unite to form a third, the trunk thus formed is
seldom or never larger than either of them separately;
2<%, their anastomoses with each other are continual;
and, Mly, they seldom go a great space without first di¬
viding into branches, and then reuniting into trunks.
The outer surface of a lymphatic is filamentous and
rough, the inner smooth and polished, like that of small
veins. It is impossible to observe the structure of these
tubes in the middle-sized, or even in the large lympha¬
tics; and anatomists have generally been satisfied with
supposing that the structure of all of them is similar to
that of the thoracic duct, or some other large vessels
equally susceptible of examination. According to the ob¬
servations of Cruikshank (chap, xii.), which have been
verified by Bichat, the thoracic duct presents, 1st, a layer
of dense, firm, filamentous or cellular tissue, exactly simi¬
lar to that found inclosing arterial and venous tubes,
which the latter regards as foreign to the vessel, but giv¬
ing it a great degree of support and protection; 2dly, a
proper membrane, delicate, transparent, and moistened
inside by an unctuous fluid, which he seems inclined to
> Nova Experimenta d Observationes dc finibus Venarum ac Vasorum Lymphaticorum, sect. 1, p. 4. Luffd. Bat. 1772.
Amtomische Untersuchungen uber die Verbindung der Saugadern mit den Ventn. Heidelberg, 1821.
* Essai sur les Vaisseaux Lymphatiques. Strasbourg, 1824. ”
mediante la sc°Perta di un Sran numcro di communicazioni di esso col
IS^G^voLxxxHLp!1^111^10116 ^ VaS1 lin,fatici Colle vene* dl Giovanni Rossi, Doctore, &c. . Annali Universali di Medicina, anno
ANATOMY.
805
Genera! ascribe to transudation. Muscular fibres, of which Shel-
Anatomy. Jon speaks positively, Cruikshank represents, though
seen in some instances (chap, xii.), yet to be more gene-
tics^P a* ra^ n0t ^emonstrable. Their existence, though admit¬
ted by Schreger and Soemmering, is denied by Mascagni,
Rudolphi, and J. F. Meckel, and, I may add, by Bichat
and Beclard. This account differs not much from that of
Dr Gordon, who could not recognise distinctly more than
one coat, similar to the inner coat of veins. The fila¬
mentous layer noticed by Bichat, and considered by Mas¬
cagni as an external coat, is of course excluded.
The knotted or jointed appearance of lymphatics is oc¬
casioned chiefly by short membranous folds in their ca¬
vity, called valves. These folds are thinner than the ve¬
nous valves; but they are equally strong, and have the
same shape and mode of attachment to the inside of the
vessel. They are generally found in pairs, but never
three at the same point. A single valve is sometimes
found at the junction of a large branch with a trunk, or of
a trunk with a vein. According to Cruikshank, there is
considerable variety in the distribution of valves; but in
general a pair of valves will be found at every one-twentieth
of an inch in lymphatics of middling size. In the larger
lymphatics they are less numerous than in the small.
The structure of these valvular folds is as little known as
that of the inner membrane, of which they appear to be
prolongations. According to Mascagni, they sometimes
contain a small portion of fine adipose substance.
The tissue which forms the lymphatic tubes is strong,
dense, and resisting; and from the weight of mercury
which they bear without rupture, it has been generally
concluded that they are stronger in proportion to their
size than veins. This tissue also possesses considerable
elasticity.
The opposite states of lymphatics during digestion and
after long fasting, and the phenomena of mercurial injec¬
tions, prove that the tissue of which they consist is dis¬
tensible and contractile. Though it does not exhibit ap¬
pearances of muscular structure, it has been long sup¬
posed to be endowed with a property analogous to irrita¬
bility. Such is the inference which Hunter, Hewson,
Cruikshank, and others, have derived from various phe¬
nomena in the living and recently dead tissue.
Though Bichat doubts what he terms organic sen¬
sible contractility, yet he admits insensible contractility
as necessary to the functions ascribed to lymphatics.
Previous to his time Schreger, in different experiments,
observed the first of these qualities, in consequence of
the application not only of acids, butter of antimony, and
alcohol, but even of hot water and cold air. Similar con¬
tractions and relaxations have been induced by mechani¬
cal irritation. Such phenomena are observed not only
during life, but even after death ; and if to this we add,
that the thoracic duct is often after death large and
flaccid, though empty, but in the living body is almost
always contracted and scarcely visible, and that a por¬
tion of it included between two ligatures, and punctured,
quickly expels its contents, it may be inferred that the
lymphatic tissue possesses a considerable degree of this
organic property.
Lymphatic Gland or Ganglion, Kernel. ( Glandulce Lym-
phaticce,— Glandidce Conglobatce,—Die Saugader-Dru-
sen.)
Lymphatic This is the proper place to consider the structure of those
Klands. bodies which are in common language termed kernels, to
which anatomists have applied the name of lymphatic
glands, and the French anatomists have more recently
given that of lymphatic ganglions. The usual appear¬
ance, figure, and situation of these bodies are well known. General
In general they are spheroidal, seldom quite globular, and Anatomy,
most commonly their shape is that of a flattened spheroid.
In different subjects, and in subjects at different ages, Lymphatic
they vary from two or three lines to an inch in diameter.^ ai s"
The medium rate is about half an inch. Their surface is
smooth; their colour grayish-pink, sometimes pale red,
bluish, or of a peach-blossom tinge,—varieties which seem
to depend on degrees of bloody transudation; for, when
washed and slightly macerated, they assume the gray or
whitish-blue colour. In a few instances they are jet
black,—a peculiarity which seems to depend on a degree
of black infiltration, or on the incipient stage of that
change which has been termed melanosis, or melanotic de¬
position. The idea that it may be derived from the car¬
bonaceous matter suspended in the atmosphere of great
cities, has been shown by Cruikshank to be absurd. Its
anatomical possibility may be justly questioned.
They are always situate in the celluloso-adipose tissue
found in the flexures of the joints. They are found in
small number at the bend of the ham, and that of the el¬
bow ; in the armpit and groin they are more numerous;
in considerable number in the cellular tissue of the lum¬
bar region, before the psoas and iliacus muscles; and they
are most abundant round the neck. The posterior me¬
diastinum, and the cellular tissue between the mesentery
and vertebral column, abound with lymphatic glands mu¬
tually connected in clusters.
Each gland may be said to consist of a peculiar sub¬
stance, inclosed in a thin membrane like a capsule. The
capsule is a thin, pellucid, colourless substance, which is
resolved by maceration into fine whitish fibres. It is very
vascular; and Mascagni appears to have detected absorb¬
ents in it. It is connected to the proper substance by
fine filamentous or cellular tissue. The capsule is consi¬
dered by Beclard as a fibro-cellular membrane. The pro¬
per substance of lymphatic glands consists of a homoge¬
neous pulp, in which injections have shown numerous ra¬
mifications of minute vessels. As these vessels are in¬
jected from the lymphatics which are seen to enter the
body of the gland, they are believed to be continuous with
them, and to be lymphatics arranged in a peculiar man¬
ner. These vessels are of two kinds, one entering the
gland, called vasa afferentia or inferentia, entrant lympha¬
tics ; the other quitting, are called vasa efferentia, egredient
lymphatics. This distinction is founded on the direction
of the valves. In the vasa inferentia the free margins of
the valves are turned towards the gland; in the vasa effe¬
rentia they are turned from it.
The number of entrant lymphatics varies from one to
thirty, and, what is more remarkable, very rarely corre¬
sponds with that of the egredient lymphatics, which are
in general much fewer. Cruikshank states that he has in¬
jected fourteen entrant lymphatics to one gland, to which
only one egredient vessel corresponded. When the entrant
lymphatic reaches the gland, it splits into many radiated
branches, which immediately sink into its substance.
The egredient lymphatics are generally larger than the
entrants.
The arrangement of these vessels in the interior of the
glands is best described by Mascagni, whose observations
are confirmed by Gordon. To see this well, it is requisite
to inject the entrant lymphatics of two glands in two dif¬
ferent modes; one with mercury, the other with wax,
glue, or gypsum. After a successful mercurial injection,
the entrants are seen, before sinking in the gland, to di¬
vide into two orders of branches. One of them, which
belongs chiefly to the surface or circumference of the
gland, consists of large vessels, bent, convoluted, and in-
806 ANATOMY.
General terwoven in every direction, communicating with each
Anatomy, other, and swelling out into dilated cells at certain parts;
and of smaller vessels, which form a minute net-work on
lands13tlC the surfece? and which seem to terminate in the cells or
k ‘ ’ distended parts of the larger vessels.
From these distended parts or cells, again, arise many
minute vessels, which, after winding about on the surface
of the gland, unite gradually, and form the egredient ves¬
sels of the gland.
The wax, glue, or gypsum injection is employed to
show the deep-seated or central vessels of the gland.
The distribution of these is found to be quite the same as
that of the superficial vessels.
The cells delineated by Cruikshank I am disposed to
regard as mere dilated parts of the lymphatic vessels
which constitute the intimate structure of the gland.
These minute tubes are connected by delicate filament¬
ous tissue, which is more abundant in early life than af¬
terwards.
Injections show the existence of blood-vessels which
accompany the convolutions of the lymphatics in the
glands; but no nerves have been found either in the
glands or their capsules.
The white matter described by Haller and Bichat is
not contained in the cellular substance, but in the cells of
the lymphatic vessels themselves.
The three orders of tubes or canals, the anatomical
characters of which have now been completed, constitute
what has been termed the Vascular System; (Vasa;
Systema Vasorum; Das Gefass System; Le Systems
Vasculaire.) The great extent of its distribution, and the
part which it performs in all the processes of the living
body, both in health and during disease, must be easily
understood. In every texture and organ arteries and
veins are found; and in all, except a few, the art of the
anatomist has demonstrated those colourless valvular tubes
denominated lymphatics. The arrangement of the former,
especially in the substance of the several textures, essen¬
tially constitutes what is termed the organization of these
textures. Many anatomists have imagined that each tex¬
ture has a proper matter, or parenchyma, by which it was
supposed to be particularly distinguished, and which was
conceived to consist of minute, inorganic, solid atoms.
Whether this opinion be well founded or not, it is perhaps
of little moment to inquire. At present it is certain that
it is not susceptible of demonstration.
The phenomena of injections, in which he was emi¬
nently successful, led Ruysch to entertain the opinion,
that every substance of the animal frame consists of
nothing but vessels. This idea, though opposed by Al¬
binos,1 on the same grounds on which it was advanced,
was nevertheless revived by William Hunter, who believed
that the inorganic parts of animal bodies are too minute
for sensible, or even microscopical examination. In every
part, however minute, always excepting nails, hair, tooth
enamel, &c. vessels may be traced; and even a cicatrix,
he demonstrated, is vascular to its centre.2
By the aid of the microscope the researches of Lieber-
kuhn tended still more powerfully to favour this opinion.3
But repeated observation of the effects of injection in
every part and texture almost of the body, by Barth and General
Prochaska, has led the latter to conclude that this opinion, Anatomy,
understood in the ordinary mode, is not tenable. Pro-v'^~v~v^
chaska, who has investigated this subject with much at¬
tention, thinks he is justified in dividing all the substances
of the animal frame into two,—those which may be in¬
jected, and those which cannot. In this manner he re¬
gards skin, especially its outer surface, muscle, various
parts of the mucous membranes, the pia mater, the lungs,
the muscular part of the heart, the spleen, the liver, kid¬
neys, and other glands, as very injectible; but tendon,
ligament, cartilage, &c. as not injectible.4 Without en¬
tering minutely into the merits of this distinction, or
the inferences which Prochaska deduces from it, it is
sufficient, so far as all useful knowledge is concerned, to
infer that blood-vessels are an essential constituent of
every organic texture, however different; and if there be
any other matter inherent in such textures, it must be
derived from these as a secretion. Nerve, brain, muscle,
osseous matter, and cartilage, are depositions or the pro¬
duct of nutritious secretion from the respective arteries
of these organized substances.
Nerve, Nervous Tissue. (Nsugov,—Nervus,— Tissu Ner-
veux,—Systems Nerveux.')
The nervous system of the animal body includes two Nerves,
general divisions. The first of these, named Brain and
spinal Chord, is collected in a single and indivisible mass,
and contained in a peculiar cavity, formed by part of the
osseous system of the animal,—the vertebral column, and
cranium, in the Vertebrated animals generally. The second
division of the nervous system, with which alone we are at
present concerned, is found in the form of long chords or
threads mutually connected, and running in various direc¬
tions through the body in the mode of ramification. To
these the name of nervous trunks or chords, or simply nerves,
has been long applied.
The structure of the nerves has been examined with dif¬
ferent degrees of accuracy and minuteness by a great num¬
ber of anatomists. The more ancient authors, who wrote at
a period when observation was much corrupted by fancy, and
most of those who gave descriptions in general systems, may
be without much injustice passed over in silence. It is suffi¬
cient to say that some good facts are given in the works of
Willis, Vieussens, Morgagni, and Mayer; that Prochaska,
Pfeffinger, the second Monro, and Fontana, are the first
who professedly wrote on the structure of the nerves; that
the works of Reil,5 Bichat, and Gordon, contain the most
accurate information on the nervous chords in general; and
that the treatises of Scarpa6 and Wutzer7 contain the best
descriptions of the arrangement of those parts named gan¬
glions and plexuses.
Lastly, by the microscopic researches of Ehrenberg,
Treviranus, Berres, Muller, Purkinje, Valentin, Weber,
Burdach, Remak, and Pappenheim, some facts, though
rather discordant, have been communicated on the minute
structure of the microscopic filaments.
All the nervous chords of the animal body may be dis¬
tinguished in physical characters into two different orders,
which, though frequently mingled with each other, neverthe-
1 Annotationum Acadcmicantm \\h. iii. 2 Medical Observations and Inquiries, vol. ii. 3 Dc Villis Intestinorum.
* Georgii Prochaska Disquisitio Anatomico-Physiologica Organismi Corporis Humani ejusque Processus Vitalis. Viennse, 1812, 4to.
* J. C. .Reil, Exercitationes Anatomicce de Structura Nervorum. Raise 1797.
6 Anatomicarum Annotalionum liber primus de Nervorum Gangliis et Plexibus. Auctore Antonio Scarpa. Ticini, 1792.
7 De Corporis Humani Gangliorum Fabrica atque Usu Monographia. Auctore Carolo Gulielmo Wutzer, Med. Chirurg. Doct. &c.
Berolini, 1817*
ANATOMY.
807
General less possess sufficiently different properties to enable the
Anatomy, observer to distinguish them, independent of knowledge of
their intimate structure.
Nerves. The first order of nerves are firm, glistening white, marked
by cross-stripes, and are distributed principally to the muscles
of the trunk and the skin. The second order are soft, red¬
dish-gray in colour, flat, much interwoven with each other,
and belong more to the viscera, and accompany the blood¬
vessels. The former have knotty swellings only at their
origins, and at spots where they form connections with nerves
of the second sort; the latter are in all parts occupied by
small knots. The white nerves of the first order are named
animator Cerebro-spinal nerves; the gray nerves of the se¬
cond are known as soft, entrophic, sympathetic, vegetative,
or organic, also as vascular or Gangliar nerves.
The following description applies to the nerves of the first
order, unless where the contrary is expressly stated.
Each nerve forms connections in three different ways. ls£,
A nerve must be connected to some part of the central mass
by one of its extremities,—the cerebral or spinal end; 2d,
it must be connected to some texture or organ, or part of an
organ, by the other extremity,—the organic end; and, 2>d,
it may be connected to other nerves by a species of junc¬
tion called anastomosis {ansa), anastomosing or uniting point.
By means of the first two connections, it is supposed to
maintain a communication between the central mass and the
several organs ; and by the latter it is understood to be sub¬
servient to a more general and extensive intercourse, which
is believed to be necessary in various functions and actions
of the animal system.
Every nerve consists essentially of two parts; one exte¬
rior, protecting,and containing; the other interior, contained,
and dynamic,1 forming the indispensable part of the nervous
structure*
The first of these, which has been known since the time
at least of Red by the name neurilema (vevpo elXew dXrj/ia,
nervi involucruTfi), or nerve-coat (Acvvenhaut, Red; ISev-
venhulle, Meckel), has the form and nature of a dense mem¬
brane, not quite transparent, which is found on the outside
of the nervous chord or filament, and invests the proper
nervous substance. It must not, however, be imagined that
the neurilema forms a cylindrical tube, in the inteiior of
which the nervous matter is contained. 1 he latter dispo¬
sition, if it actually exists, applies to the smaller nerves only,
and to some of those which go to the organs of sensation,
a peculiarity which we shall notice subsequently.
Any large nervous trunk, for example the spiral or median
of the arm, or the sciatic nerve of the thigh, is found to be
composed of several small nervous chords placed in juxta¬
position, and each of which, consisting of appropriate neuri¬
lema and nervous substance, is connected to the other by
delicate filamentous tissue. These, however, do not through
their entire course maintain the parallel disposition in respect
to each other, but are observed to cross and penetiate each
other, so as to form an intimate interlacement of nervous
chords and filaments, each of which, however minute, is ac¬
companied with its investing neurilema. The neurilema, in
short, may be represented as a cylindrical membranous tube,
giving from its inner surface many productions forming smaller
tubes {canaliculi; die Nervenrbhre; primitive cylinders of
Fontana2), in which the proper nervous matter is contained.
Of this arrangement the consequence is, that each nerve
or nervous trunk, enveloped in its general neurilema, is com¬
posed nevertheless, of a number, more or less considerable, General
of smaller chord-like nervous threads {funiculi nervei, Pro- Ana omy^
chaska ; chordae, funes, Nervenstranc/e, Reil), into which the
nerve, by maceration and suitable preparation, may be re- Nerves,
solved. Each chord, again, or nerve-string, as Reil terms it,
though invested with a proper neurilem, may be further re¬
solved into an infinite number of minute filiform or capillary
filaments {jila,fihrill(e, Nervenfasern, Reil), which, invested
in a delicate covering, are understood to constitute the ulti¬
mate texture of the nerve. .
This threefold division may be easily observed in the
brachial and spiral nerves of the arm, and still more distinct y
in the sciatic in the thigh. The utility of understanding the
internal arrangement from which it results will appear forth¬
with, when the structure of those parts termed ganglions
and plexuses comes under examination.
Of this arrangement in different nerves, and in different
regions, this membrane undergoes great modification ; and
all opinions on its nature derived from thickness or trans¬
parency are liable to considerably fallacy. Scarpa seems to
view it as connected, in anatomical origin and character, with
the hard membrane {meninx dura, dura mater). Reil, who
devoted more care and time to the examination of its nature
and structure than any other inquirer, represents it as con¬
sisting of cellular substance, many bloodvessels, and some
lymphatics.3 Bichat thinks it resembles the soft membrane
of the brain {pia meninx, pia mater), and is derived from
it.4 The neurilema of the cerebral nerves may be regarded
as consisting of soft membrane {pia mater) at their origin,
but in all other situations as a species of filamento-fibrous
membrane.
The connection supposed by Mayer to exist between the
neurilema and the pia mater was disproved by Reil; and
though its analogy with the denticulated ligament were esta¬
blished, it would prove nothing regarding the neurilema.
Upon the whole, the idea of Reil is the most probable. J‘^c'
cording to the observations of this anatomist, who examined
the neurilema after fine and successful injection, it is libe¬
rally supplied with bloodvessels. These proceeding from
the neighbouring arteries penetrate the filamentous sheath of
the nerve; and, immediately on reaching the neurilema, diva¬
ricating at right angles, generally run along the nervous
threads {funes), parallel to them, forming numerous anasto¬
motic communications, and divide into innumerable mi¬
nute vessels, which penetrate between them into the minute
neurilematic canals. So manifold is the ramification, and so
minute the distribution, that in these canals not a particle of
nervous substance is found which is not supplied with a ves¬
sel.5 The arrangement of the veins is analogous.
It appears, therefore, that the neurilema is a tissue of
membranous form, with a multiplied mechanical surface,
liberally supplied with bloodvessels, from which the nervous
matter is secreted and nourished. It is impossible, indeed,
to doubt that, of the two parts which compose the nervous
chord, it is the most perfectly organized ; and that, though
it may not be similar in structure to the pia mater, it is quite
analogous in the use to which it is subservient. Like that
membrane, it sustains the vessels of the nerve; it presents
a multiplied surface, over which the vessels are distributed ;
and, by penetrating deep into the body of the nerve, it con¬
veys the nutritious vessels in the most capillary form to the
inmost recesses of the nervous substance.6
The arrangement which has been above described is the
1 The term dynamic is used to denote in a general sense the properties of animal substances.
2 Observations sur la Structure des Nerfs, &c. apud Traite sur le_ Venin, &c, par M. Felix Fontana, ^ence IJSL &c.
3 Upil Erercitation.es Anatomicce de Structura Nervorum, cap. i. p. 3. Anatomic , f
» m ».P. v. p. 19. ^ « Reil, Exereitatioiw '•
808
ANATOMY.
Nerves.
General only one which can be regarded as general. It varies in par-
v nat<™y; ticular regions ; and these varieties in the neurilematic dis¬
position occur principally in the nerves which are distributed
to the proper organs of sensation.1 \st, The olfactory nerve
is soft, pulpy, and destitute of neurilema, from its origin in
the Sylvian fissure, to the gray bulbous enlargement which
terminates its passage in the cranium; but as soon as it
reaches the canalicuti or grooves of the ethmoid bone, and
begins to be distributed through the nasal anfractuosities, it
is distinctly neurilematic. 2d, The optic nerve is still more
peculiar in this respect. The instant it quits the optic com¬
missure {commissura tractuum), it begins to be invested by
a firm general neurilema, which sends into the interior sub¬
stance of the nerve various membranous septa or partitions,
forming separate canals, in which the nervous matter is con¬
tained. These partitions, however, are so thin, that at first
sight the optic nerve seems to consist merely of one exte¬
rior membranous cylinder inclosing the proper membranous
substance. 3c?, Lastly, we may remark, that the auditory
nerve, or the soft portion of the seventh pair of most anato¬
mical writers, is the only nerve in which this covering can¬
not be traced.
The neurilema is much thinner and more delicate in the
nerves which are distributed to the internal organs, as the
lungs, heart, stomach, &c., (nerves of the organic life, great
sympathetic and pneumogastric nerves par vagum), than in
those belonging to the muscular system.
The second component part of the nervous chord or fila¬
ment is the proper nervous matter which occupies the cavity
of the neurilematic canals. Little is known concerning the
nature or organization of this substance. It is whitish, some¬
what soft, and pulpy; but whether it consists of aggregated
globules, as was attempted to be established by Della Torre
and Sir Everard Home, or of linear tracts disposed in a situ¬
ation parallel to each other, as appears to be the result of the
inquiries of Monro, Reil, and others, or of capillary cylin¬
ders containing a transparent gelatinous fluid, as Fontana re¬
presents, seems quite uncertain. It has been presumed,
rather than demonstrated, that it resembles cerebral sub¬
stance. But this analogy, though admitted, would throw
little light on the subject; for at present it is almost impos¬
sible to find two anatomical observers who have the same
views of the intimate nature of cerebral substance itself,
vv hatever be its intimate arrangement, it appears to be a
secretion from the neurilematic vessels. (Reil.)
The structure of the nervous chord may be demonstrated
m the following manner. When a portion of nerve is placed
in an alkaline solution, the whole, or nearly the whole, of the
nervous matter is softened and dissolved, or may be washed
out of the neurilematic canals, which are not affected by this
agent, and the disposition of which may be then examined
and demonstrated.-* Aqueous maceration may likewise be
advantageously employed to unfold this structure; for it
separates and decomposes the cellular tissue by which the
neurilematic canals are united, and subsequently occasions
decomposition of the nervous substance, while it leaves, at
least for some time, the neurilema not much affected. When
however, the maceration is too long continued, it is sepa¬
rated and detached like other macerated textures.
Lastly, If a large nerve be placed in diluted acid for the
space of one or two weeks, the neurilema is gradually dis¬
solved, and the nervous matter becomes so much indurated
and consolidated, that it may be separated from the contiguous General
chords in filaments with great facility.3 In undergoing this Anatomy,
change, the portion of nerve becomes much shorter and con- ^
siderably contracted, is subjected, in short, to the process Nerves,
of crispation so that unless a large nerve like the sciatic be
employed for the experiment, it may be impossible to obtain
the result in the most satisfactory form. These experiments,
with many others of the same nature, were first performed
by Professor Reil, and afterwards repeated and varied by
Bichat and Gordon.
The minute structure of the nerves has been examined
by Fontana, Prochaska, Bauer, Ehrenberg, Valentin, Muller,
Wagner, Remak, and Purkinje. But the results at which
they have arrived are far from agreeing with each other; and
either from the difficulty of the subject, and the minuteness
of the objects, or from imperfections in the observations, it
is next to impossible to present an account consistent and
intelligible.
M. Bauer found the optic nerve to consist of many bun¬
dles of very delicate fibres, connected together by means of
a jelly-like, transparent, semi-fluid, viscid substance, easily
soluble in water. These fibres consist of rows of globules,
which are from ^gVo^h to 4oVo^h part of one inch in dia¬
meter, with a few at ooVoth part of one inch in diameter;
the latter being the size of the red globules of the blood,
when deprived of colouring matter. The Retina appeared
like a continuation of the bundles composing the optic
Nerve, consisting of the same sized globules connected into
fibrous lines, and forming bundles radiating from the end of
the nerve to the circumference of the Retina, where they
disappear, terminating in smooth membrane.4
Before noticing the observations of Ehrenberg, it may be
proper to state that he distinguishes the following forms of
organic structure, as visible by the microscope in the Brain
or its parts, the Spinal Chord, and Nerves.
1. A series of tubes which present, at definite intervals,
globular or spheroidal expansions, so as to resemble a string
of beads which do not touch each other, but have a short
communicating space interposed between each bead. To
these tubes Ehrenberg gives the name of Varicose, from
their resemblance to the Varices of a vein, and Jointed or
Articulated tubes, because of the slight resemblance to a set
of joints. T he best name for them is Moniliform, or bead¬
like, when they really resemble a string of beads. These
tubes, which present to the microscope the appearance of
parallel fibres, he shows by various proofs to have an inter¬
nal cavity, and to contain a peculiar matter, to which he
assigns the name and qualities of nervous fluid. They are
confined chiefly to the white matter of the brain ; but occur
also in several of the sensiferous nerves.
2. A set of tubes, straight and uniform, without the al¬
ternate spheroidal enlargements, also hollow, and to which
he applies the name of Simple Cylindrical Tubes. These
are found chiefly in the nervous trunks and chords. These
are generally larger and coarser than the Articulated Tubes ;
but in certain points the latter are found to pass into the
former by gradually losing their bead-like enlargements.
These tubes he further represents to be distinguished from
the Cerebral Jointed Tubes, by containing in their interior
a viscid, white, but less transparent matter, to which he ap¬
plies the name of Medullary.
3. Besides the two now mentioned, Ehrenberg mentions
in the System rm pr0per orSans of sensatlon are understood those of sight, hearing, smell, and taste, which are confined to a fixed spot
2 Reil, de Structura Nervorum, cap. i. p. 3 and 5.
in effecting solution anYerS Muriatic acid> thou£h equal or even superior
(l)e Structura Nervorum, cap. iii, p. 16.) U to° much> and separates the component filaments too completely.
4 Philosophical Transactions, 1821 and 1824.
ANATOMY.
809
General a substance consisting partly of very minute fine grains,
Anatomy. with some coarser-grained matter disseminated, as is said in
the language of mineralogy, through the fine-grained mat-
Nerves. ter. The latter is confined entirely to the gray matter of
the convoluted surface of the Brain, and the laminated sur¬
face of the Cerebellum.
The olfactory, optic, and auditory nerves, Ehrenberg
found to consist of varicose or moniliform medullary tubules,
directly continued from the moniliform tubes of the white
cerebral matter. The moniliform tubules of the olfactory
nerves are the thickest known, and vary from t0 o'^1
part of one line in diameter. Those of the optic nerve are
smaller, being from ^^th to ^^^-th part of one line in dia¬
meter ; and tubules of the same dimensions are observed in
the Chiasma or Decussation, in which the tubules are re¬
presented as crossing each other; while the Retina consists
of articulated tubules -s oWth Part of one inch in diameter,
traversing medullary grains about ■g-Jo'th part of one line in
diameter. It contains also mace-like or club-shaped bodies,
that is, bodies terminating in thick round ends.
The structure of the Auditory Nerve is peculiar. The
simple tubules of tins nerve Ehrenberg found considerably
thicker than those of the others, and the spheroidal enlarge¬
ments or ampidlulai flatter, and less permanent, yet every¬
where distinctly seen. In other respects it was similar to
the olfactory and optic nerves.
The great Sympathetic Nerve, in like manner, consists
of articulated cerebral tubules; but there is at each ex¬
tremity a mixture of simple cylindrical tubules.
The nerves now specified, the Olfactory, Optic, Auditory,
and Great Sympathetic, are Articulated or Moniliform
Nerves.
All the other nerves consist not of Articulated or Monili¬
form tubules, but of simple cylindrical tubules somewhat
larger, being from to xitfth Part °f one line in diame¬
ter. These tubules are surrounded and enclosed by vascu¬
lar networks, and contained within ligamentous or neurile-
matic partitions; and they contain a medullary substance,
semifluid, but capable of expression from them, and of coa¬
gulation within their interior. These are Tubulated Nerves.
The ganglia vary in structure. All consist of articulated
or bead-like cerebral tubules, which, either alone, as in the
Chiasma, form the knot, or, as in all the ganglia of the
sympathetic examined, are mingled with large cylindrical
nervous tubules, enclosed within a close slender vascular
network, between the meshes of which are deposited gra¬
nules similar to those observed in the Retina.
The tubules and cylinders now specified, which correspond
with the primitive cylinders of Fontana, are merely in juxta¬
position, and do not intermingle in substance with each other.
Neither Ehrenberg nor Muller were able to recognise in
the roots of the sensiferous and motiferous nerves any essen¬
tial difference in microscopic structure.
In the hypoglossal and glossopharyngeal Nerves are seen
only cylindrical tubes.
It is a remarkable proof of the difficulty of microscopical
observation, that much, if not the whole, of this varicose or
moniliform appearance in the nervous matter is called in
question by other observers. Valentin, for instance, regards
it as the effect of pressure or some similar force ; and Henle
is disposed to regard the appearances as probably chiefly de¬
pendent on chemical changes.
The nervous content or medulla, he remarks, is a tough,
soft substance, which may be squeezed out by pressure, and
must therefore be regarded as in some degree fluid. In the
recent nerve, it appears to be quite homogeneous, and takes
its peculiar form under particular circumstances.
As no good analysis of nervous matter has been given,
Henle takes as equivalent the analyses of cerebral matter made
VOL. II.
by John, Vauquelin, Denis, and Couerbe. The essential re- General
suit of all these researches is, that a saponaceous and a free Anatomy,
fatty substance is found in connection with albumen andwater
in the nervous medulla. During life, and at the tempera- Nerves,
ture of the body, this is an actual solution, not an emulsion ;
because in an emulsion the fat is only in a state of minute
division, and contained in microscopical globules. But the
nervous matter is only separated into globules after death ;
and even then not pure fat globules are formed, but only
fat-like globules ; and this probably is caused by the separa¬
tion of the fat and albuminoid constituents.
Under the microscope this nervous matter forms globules
which run together in irregular figures. The dark edge is
thus rendered broader, and advances on all sides towards
the axis of the nervous chord, and at length fills the whole
tube. This is covered by granules and irregular lines, which
gradually increase, and thereby give the nervous medulla a
fine granulated aspect. Similar changes take place, though
more quickly, in the nervous matter, when it springs from
a wound or lacerated opening in the sheath ; there are then
formed irregular granular masses, or it retains the cylindri¬
cal shape which it had in the sheath. The same process is
observed in the fine nerves, though less distinctly.
When the nervous tubules are subjected to pressure or
stretching, previous to the action of chemical coagulating
agents, there are formed oval swellings, and between these
shrivelled puckerings, often with great regularity. By con¬
tinuing the force, the oval swellings are converted into glo¬
bules which are connected by thinner cylindrical portions. In
this manner, says Henle, are formed the varicose swellings,
that is the bead-like figures of the nerve fibres, which have
been much mentioned since the descriptions given by Ehren¬
berg. He adds, that from any tough viscid matter, from mu¬
cilage, saliva, or albumen, it is possible to manufacture simi¬
lar varicose fibres, by drawing the substances to a thread
between the tips of two fingers. There is even an instant at
which the thread is changed into a row or string of globules,
and so remains until it is torn asunder.
It thus appears that the moniliform aspect and arrange¬
ment is the conjoined result of the physical and chemical
properties of the nervous tubular content, and of certain me¬
chanical treatment.
Muller, on the other hand, allows that the nervous mat¬
ter and the cerebral matter has a great tendency to assume
the varicose and moniliform arrangement.
From the statements now made only one conclusion can
be deduced. This is, either that the minute atomical ar¬
rangement of nervous matter is such that it eludes micro¬
scopical research, and is placed beyond the boundary at which
correct representations can be obtained; or that hitherto
microscopical research has presented results so variable, and
so discordant, that they convey little useful information.
The greater part of microscopic anatomy is still in a state
of great imperfection.
Soon after death, and particularly soon after treatment
with cold water, there is formed in large nerves, along each
edge, a second parallel-running dark line, which first arises
quite close to the outer margin, and gradually turns inward
from the same. Each fibre is therefore bounded by two
dark outlines on each side; at the same time transverse
streaks and wrinkles appear on the fibre, by which it has
the aspect of a ligament. The two dark lines on each side
are not quite continuous ; they are often in one single point,
below which, within or without, arises a new point, which
is quickly split into two parallel lines, or meet with each
other, forming, by inclosure, round or oval figures. I his
twofold outline is seen only in nerves of a certain size. In
fine nervous fibres wbich swell only at certain points, this is
seen only at tire swellings.
5 k
810 A N A T
General Very frequently, it may be said according to Henle, nor-
Anatomy. mally) coagulation, beginning from the margins, does not
reach the axis of the nerve tube ; and there is left in the
Nerves, middle a clear stripe which looks like a cylinder drawn along
the length of the nerve-tube. This is sometimes straight,^
sometimes tortuous, and follows not exactly the outline of
the outer margin. Often it lies closer to the one margin,
or it draws near to it at one part of its course. This is seen
equally in thick and in delicate tubules ; in the former
more distinctly ; it is particularly remarkable when the ex--
ternal nervous medulla is coagulated uniformly, and in fine
grains. This streak is the Cylinder Axis of Purkinje, who
considered it to be the same with a structure previously de¬
scribed by Remak under the name of Primitive Band. Its
diameter is variable; but often it is seen very much the
same in nervous fibres of like diameter, that is, about one-
fourth to one-half the size of the diameter of the whole tube.
When the cut section of a nerve is turned to the eye, this
clear streak appears in general round or oval, often irregular,
triangular, or quadrangular. This streak is seen also to be
bent like a hook or a shepherd’s crook, and upon pressure
it may be made straight. In some instances the coagulated
parts are dissolved, and the clear substance remains with its
dark outline as a pale soft isolated thread.
From all these circumstances, Henle concludes that the
Nervous fibre consists of a cortical or outer and a medullary
substance, which are chemically different.
It appears, however, doubtful whether the central streak
{Cylinder Axis of Purkinje) is always present, and is always
to be considered as a substantive and real formation; at
least, Henle allows, that similar illusive formations arise from
quite a different source.
The Cylinder Axis is notin all instances so regular as it is
represented in the examples selected. Sometimes it is seen
swelled in certain points, sometimes very much attenuated,
often altogether interrupted, consisting only of a row of ob¬
long drops, which after being discharged assume a globular
shape. Often the coagulated substance extends far beyond
the middle of the tubule; the central stripe is then quite
irregular, jagged, corresponding to the outline of the coagu¬
lated substance. In short, Henle is inclined to the opinion,
that this alleged cylinder axis of Purkinje, is a fluid which
has becnme coagulated either after death or by reason of
chemical changes. He remarks, that in nerves which have
been stretched but not subjected to coagulating agents, the
medullary matter is frequently formed into individual oval
necklace-like globules connected with each other in rows,
and which are thus connected throughout the whole streak.
This, he thinks, would not be possible, were the medulla a
solid cylinder. If a part of the medulla, he adds, escape
through a lateral rent, often, also, there takes place in the
matter protruded a discoloration of the central stripe, which
is gradually lengthened, and often at its apex is parted into
individual globules; a sure proof, he thinks, that the cylinder
axis is in this instance fluid. Other similar proofs he adds.
It seems to us doubtful whether the point is of sufficient
importance to enter into further detail. It is enough for
readers to know that this Cylinder Axis, or central portion of
the nerve tube, is a sort of hypothetical part inferred to
exist from certain microscopical phenomena, but the exist¬
ence of which, as a fluid or as a solid, the result of certain
changes, is at present problematical. Henle allows that
amidst so many sources of illusion, it is difficult to arrive at
any certain results regarding the cylinder axis.1
Kolliker is of opinion that the Cylinder Axis is not an
artificial formation, but a substantive part of the nervous
O M Y.
chord ; and adduces various reasons in proof of his opinion. General
These, however, it is unnecessary here to consider. Anatomy.
The Gray, Soft, or Organic Nerves, evince their peculiar
characters most distinctly in the roots of the Sympathetic Nerves.
Nerve, especially in those branches which, accompanying the
internal carotid artery, proceed from the superior cervical
ganglion to the fifth and sixth pairs of cervical nerves ; and
on the branches which proceed downwards from the same
ganglion upon the carotid artery.
These nerves are reddish gray in colour, gelatinous, trans¬
parent, but tolerably firm. The transverse stripes are not
wanting in them ; but they are not easily distinguished, are
close, and proceed only from the inflections of the Neu-
rilema.
According to Henle, this Neurilema has an external layer
of longitudinal filamentous tissue, like that of the White
Nerves. But upon the external layer follows a very dense
layer of annular fibres, which resemble the filamentous fibres
of the embryo, taken during the period of development. These
are very clear, apparently homogeneous, flat fibres, from
0002 to 0003 of one line in breadth, with numerous round
and oval cell-nuclei placed mostly on the flat surface, and ar¬
ranged at intervals, many of which show the regular nucleus-
corpuscula, and not a few are drawn out at both poles into
apices. The oval nuclei are in the longest diameter 0-003
of one line. When the nuclei are oval or are elongated
into fusiform corpuscula, their long diameter lies parallel to
the long axis of the Nervous Fibre, and consequently at
right angles to the long axis of the Nervous Bundle. The
more the nuclei are elongated and attenuated, the weaker
is the connection with the bundles, the more easily is it dis¬
solved, especially after employing acetic acid, from the bun¬
dles ; and then they roll together or are twined in a ser¬
pentine manner. This is best seen in the smallest branches
of the Nervi Molles, which can be placed without injury upon
the object-holder and observed by a powerful lens.
In the Gray Nerves are observed two sorts of longitudi¬
nal fibres. The one set differ in no respect from the primi¬
tive tubules of the White Nerves; they belong, however,
for the most part, to the finest nerves, and are accordingly
slightly varicose or moniliform. The other set resemble the
fibres of the annular layer of the Neurilema ; and in them
a division of the fibres into fine fibrils occasionally takes
place.
On the relative proportion of the two sorts of fibres de¬
pends, according to Henle, the external appearance of the
gray nerves. The greater the number of the peculiar nerve-
tubules, the closer is their likeness to the animal nerves. In
the roots of the Sympathetic Nerve, the nerve tubules are
present in proportionally small number. They lie detached
and at distances of from 0-013 to 0-018 of one line, so that at
between every four and six of the nucleus-covered fibres a
nerve-tube follows. In this manner every nerve-fibre ap¬
pears to be surrounded by fibres of the second sort, because
the nerve presents upon every longitudinal section nearly
the same figure. But in what relation the nucleus-covered
fibres with their surfaces stand to the nerve-tubes is, to
Henle, not clear.
More numerous than in the roots of the great Sympa¬
thetic are the Nerve Tubes in the greater part of the Nerves
of the Viscera, in the branches which proceed from the Cce-
liac Ganglion, from the hypogastric plexus, and similar
foci. In these we easily find within the gray branches, the
primitive, several beside each other, forming secondary
bundles. Nevertheless, their number is more considerable
in the chord of the Sympathetic and in the Splanchnic
1 Henle, Allgemeine Anatomie, selte 629.
ANATOMY.
811
General Nerves. The Nerves of the heart have scarcely any but
Anatomy. Nerve-tubes. These, as all those proceeding from the Sym-
pathetic Nerve, are distinguished from those of the volun-
Nerves. tary muscles by their tenuity only.
Nervous tissue, like all others, receives a proportion of
what may be denominated the systems of distribution,—
cellular tissue and bloodvessels. In the substance of the
former, the disposition of which we have already remarked,
we find the more conspicuous branches of the latter distri¬
buted. In a more minute and divided form they penetrate
the neurilema and nervous substance. Reil, who derived
his conclusions from the result of delicate and successful in¬
jections, perhaps overrated the quantity of blood which in
the sound state they convey; for it is quite certain that, in
the healthy state, hardly any red blood enters the nervous
tissue, as may be easily shown by exposing the sciatic nerve
of a dog or rabbit.
No good chemical analysis of nervous matter has yet been
published. Every chemical examination of it has been con¬
ducted on the assumption that it is analogous to cerebral
matter. Of this, however, there is no direct proof. In the
analysis by Vauquelin, the neurilematic covering appears
not to have been detached,—a proceeding always necessary
to obtain correct results in this inquiry. The effects of acids
and alcohol show that it contains albuminous matter; but
beyond this it is impossible at present to make any precise
statements.
This description may communicate an idea of the structure
of the nervous chord in general. In particular situations this
structure is considerably modified. The modifications to
which we allude occur under two forms—ganglions (die
Knoten), and plexuses (die Nervengeflechte).
Nervous Every ganglion consists essentially of three parts,—
ganglions. an exterior covering; 2d, a collection of minute nervous
filament; and, 2>d, a quantity of peculiar cellular or filamen¬
tous texture, by which these filaments are connected, and
which constitutes the great mass of the ganglion.
The ganglions are of two kinds, the spinal or simple, and
the non-spinal or compound. These two kinds of bodies
differ from each other,—1^, in the situation which they re¬
spectively occupy; 2d, in the kind of envelope with which
they are invested; 3c?, in the mode in which the nervous
filaments pass through them and from them. By Wutzer,
who considers the ganglion of Gasserius, the ciliary and the
maxillary of Meckel, as cerebral ganglions, they are divided
into three sets, those of the cerebral system, the spinal sys¬
tem, and the vegetative, or those connected with the organs
of involuntary motion.1
Void of the dense strong coat with which the others are
invested, the cerebral ganglions consist of soft secondary mat¬
ter, connected to the filaments of one, or at most two branches,
and are arranged with less complexity (Wutzer).
The spinal ganglions are said to possess two coverings,
one of which resembles the hard cerebral membrane [meninx
dura), the other the soft cerebral membrane {meninx tenuis,
pia mater). The non-spinal or compound ganglions have
also two coverings, which are merely different modifications
of filamentous tissue, less dense and compact than in the
former. Both these sets of ganglions being by maceration
stripped of their tunic^ and deprived of the soft, pulpy, cel¬
lular matter, are resolved into an innumerable series of ner¬
vous threads, most of which are minute and scarcely percep¬
tible : all are continuous with the nerve or nerves above and
below the ganglion. It appears that the nervous chord,
when it enters the one apex of the ganglion, begins to be
separated into its component threads, which diverge and
form intervals, between which the delicate cellular tissue is General
interposed; and that these filaments are subsequently col- Anatomy,
lected at the opposite extremity of the ganglion, where they
are connected with the other nerve or nerves. Scarpa, to Nervous
whom we are indebted for most of the knowledge we possess San&ll0D8-
on this subject,2 compares the arrangement to a rope, the
component cords of which are untwisted and teased out at
a certain part. Lastly, In the simple ganglions, the fila¬
ments of which they consist invariably follow the axis of the
ganglion ; but in the compound ones they are found to rise
towards the sides and emerge from them; and upon this
variety in the direction and course of these filaments depends
the variety of figure for which these two orders of ganglions
are remarkable. These nervous threads {stamina s. fila
nerved), described by Scarpa, correspond to the medullary
filaments {jda medullaria) of Wutzer. According to this
anatomist, these filaments, when about to enter the ganglion,
lay aside their neurilem: yet they are sufficiently tough to
resist a certain degree of tension.
Wutzer mentions a cluster of vesicles or cells {cancelli)
in the filamentous tissue of the ganglion ; but he was not
enabled by any means, mechanical or chemical, to ascertain
their exact nature.
Probably the explanation of the nature of these vesicles
or cells is to be found in the structure described by Henle.
According to this anatomist, if, by means of two needles, a
portion of a ganglion be torn and pulled to pieces, we find in
the water in which the preparation is washed, a quantity of
very peculiarly shaped corpuscula, which have received the
name of gangliar globules, though only rarely are they glo-Gangliar
bular. More frequently they are ovoidal, triangular, quad- globules,
rangular, prismatic, kidney-shaped, wedge-shaped, often even
quite irregular. In size these bodies are equally variable.
The largest are seen in the ganglions of the cerebral nerves.
In the Gasserian ganglion of the calf, Henle found some
0*033 of one line in diameter; the greatest part between
0*022 and 0*027 of one line. In the superior cervical gan¬
glion of the same animal, the majority were from 0*009 of a
line and less.
These bodies are distinguished by their reddish-yellow
colour and soft consistence.
In all, or almost all, there is seen an exactly round corpus-
culum, which shines like a drop of fat, and in large and small
gangliar globules, has pretty uniformly a diameter from 0*001
to 0*0015 of one line. Concentric with this is observed a
very fine-drawn and exactly circular line-
In all the rolling movements of the gangliar globules, the
small glistening somation remains in the centre of the clear
circle, and both continue perfectly round,—a circumstance
which shows that both are vesivulce, or globules inclosed
within each other. The external one is transparent as water,
and its diameter is from 0*006 to 0*008 of one line. Their
size bears a proportion to the size of the globules.
If we compare the Gangliar Globules with other cells, the
outer substance of the same might appear to correspond to
the Cell, the clear vesicular part to the Cytoblast, and the
glistening somation to the nucleus-corpuscle. One circum¬
stance, however, which contradicts this interpretation, is, that
the whole globule, consequently not only the cell, but also
the Nucleus and the nucleus-corpusculum, is instantaneously
completely dissolved by acetic acid.
On the deposited gangliar globules depends the yellowish
colour and the swelling or enlargement of the nerves in the
ganglion. These globules lie together in dense heaps; the
most regular and rounded at the surface, the polyhedral in the
substance of the ganglion.
1 I)e Corporis liumatii Gangliorum Fdbrica, &c., cap. i. ii. sect. 41, p. 52.
2 Anatomicarum Annotationum liber primus de Nervorum Gangliis et Flexibus. Auct. Ant. Scarpa.
812
ANATOMY.
Genpi-al Between these globules pass the nervous threads or fila-
Anatomy. ments to their destination, part of them unchanged and un-
interrupted; while part of them are resolved into their pri-
Gangliar niitive constituent filaments, and wind in multiplied bendings
globules. ancj turnings round the individual globules and heaps of glo¬
bules.
Further, the extended nerve-fasciculi approach each other
and form plexuses, in the meshes of which globules are re¬
ceived. Normally, the nerve-fibres keep mostly together in
the axis of the ganglion, and are dissociated and follow the
winding course more at the surface; because one cential
nerve- bundle is on all sides surrounded by gangliar globules.
In other instances, the globules are in a greater degree ac-«
cumulated on one side, form an eminence on the nerve in
which they are seated, or the nerve-fibres are principally dis¬
posed at the surface, while the nucleus of the ganglion con¬
sists chiefly of gangliar globules. Henle thinks it probable
that in the axis of the ganglion lie those nerve-fibres, which
only break through the ganglion in order to run still far¬
ther away in the nervous chord; that, on the other hand, the
external enclosing filaments of each separate ganglion for
separation are fixed.
In the ganglion of the sympathetic nerve with the proper
nerve-fibres of the gray nerves the gelatinous fibres are
united, and these stand to the gangliar globules in a particular
relation. This is, that the fibres of one bundle are expanded
in a funnel-shaped fashion, in order to receive a gangliar glo¬
bule or a row of these globules; then they are united in
order to be again implaited. Thus it is often possible to
extract a whole string of gelatinous fibres from one ganglion,
which are enlarged like the pearls of a necklace, and contain
globules in these enlargements.
For further details on this point, readers are referred to the
General Anatomy of Henle, and the fourth book of the se¬
cond volume of Kolliker, who, in figure 161, page 524, gives
a delineation of the gangliar globules and the nerve-fibres
in the first thoracic ganglion of the great sympathetic.1
The ganglions are well supplied with bloodvessels, de¬
rived in general from the neighbouring arteries. The inti¬
mate distribution is represented by Wutzer to be the fol¬
lowing. The artery proceeding to a ganglion gives vessels
to the filamentous tissue, and, perforating the proper coat,
is immediately ramified into innumerable minute canals, the
first order of which forms vascular nets on the inner surface
of the tunic, while the residual twigs penetrate the floccu-
lent texture, and the individual vesicles of the secondary or
filamentous matter of the ganglion.2
This short exposition of the structure of the ganglions
shows the mistaken notions of Johnstone, Unzer, Bichat,
and others, on the structure and uses of these bodies. ls£,
The idea, first advanced by Johnstone and Unzer, adopted
by Metzger, Hufeland, Prochaska, Sue, and Harless, and
afterwards applied with so much ingenuity by Bichat, that
the ganglions are so many nervous centres or minute brains,
is disproved by strict anatomical observation. 2d, That
they are connected with the order of involuntary actions,
and influence these actions, is not improbable ; and has ac¬
quired a certain amount of verisimilitude from the facts and
arguments adduced by Bellingeri, Charles Bell, Herbert
Mayo, Longet, and other inquirers. Ganglions are not ob¬
served in any of the nerves proceeding to organs of volun¬
tary motion. Sensation, circulation, nutrition, and secretion,
are the functions over which they preside, or at least with
which they are associated ; and they seem to have consider¬
able relation with, if not influence over, the involuntary mo¬
tions. By some physiologists again this doctrine is limited General
and modified ; and the sympathetic especially has been seve- Anatomy,
ral times represented as a nerve pertaining solely and exclu-
sively to the nutritious nerves. This, however, leads to the Gangliar
question of the exact functions of the gray or soft nerves, and globules,
cannot be considered in this place. 2>d, Lastly, we remark,
as a circumstance of some importance, that the only differ¬
ence between a ganglion and any other part of a nervous
chord is, that in the former the minute nervous filaments ap¬
pear to be uncovered with neurilema, and lodged in a mass
of cellular tissue, which is inclosed in the neurilematic cap¬
sule ; while in the latter each nervous filament has its ap¬
propriate neurilema, and the cellular tissue, instead of being
within, is on its exterior, and connects it to the contiguous
filaments.
In various situations two, three, or more nervous trunks Nervous
or chords mutually unite by means of some of their com- plexuses,
ponent threads, and after proceeding in this manner for a
short space, again separate, but not in the same number of
original trunks, or preserving the same appearance. In
general, the number of chords into which they finally sepa¬
rate is greater than that of which they consisted before
union. Three or four nervous trunks, for example, after
uniting in this manner, will form on their final separation five
or six nerves or nervous chords ; and it is quite impossible
to determine which of the latter order w7as derived from any
one or two of the former, or what number of individual
chords it has received from each. Between the two points,
also, the first point of union and the last of separation, many
of the more component threads are detached from two or
more of their trunks, and, after first uniting with each other
in an indistinct network, are again united to two or more
of the nervous chords near the point at which they finally
separate from the further end of union. This arrangement
has been termed a plexus, plait, or weaving, in consequence
of the manner in which the nervous chords are interlaced
or plaited together. The arrangement which we have no¬
ticed as consisting of the more minute nervous threads has
been called a smaller plexus (plexus minor). It is a sub¬
ordinate plexus within a larger one.
The best and most distinct example of a plexus is that
commonly named the brachial or axillary. This, as is well
known, is situate in the space contained between the broad
dorsal muscle (latissimus dorsi) behind, and the great pec¬
toral muscle before, and is formed in the following manner.
The fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth cervical nerves, and
the first dorsal, after following the usual connections (ansa;),
pass downwards from the vicinity of the vertebrae between
the middle and anterior scaleni muscles, and, nearly oppo¬
site the lower margin of the seventh cervical vertebra, or
about the level of the first rib, begin to be united by the
component threads of each nerve. Threads of the fifth and
sixth cervical unite, sometimes to form a single chord, in
other instances to be connected a short space onward with
threads of the seventh cervical in a similar manner. The
seventh and eighth form two kinds of union. When the
seventh is large, it divides almost equally into two chords
or branches, one of which is connected first with the fifth
and sixth, afterwards with the eighth, and with the first dor¬
sal by interlacement of minute nervous threads. The other
either passes downward to form one of the separate brachial
nerves, or is also connected with the eighth cervical and first
dorsal in a plexiform manner.
From this arrangement immediately arise the individual
1 Mikroscopische Anatomie oder Gewebelehre des Menschen. Yon Dr A. Kdlliker, Professor der Anatoxnie und Physiologic in Wurz¬
burg. Zweiter band. Leipzig, 1850. Large 8vo, § 124, seite 544.
2 Be Corporis Humani Qangliorum Fabrica, &c., cap. ii. sect 41.
ANATOMY.
General
Anatomy,
Nervous
plexuses.
nervous branches which form the nerves of the arm, and
which are named brachial nerves. The interlacement of
minute nervous threads between the seventh and eighth
cervical and the first dorsal, is what Scarpa has termed the
plexus minor. He says it is peculiar, in being quite uni¬
form, and in connecting those nervous branches which, from
their subsequent destination, are called median and ulnar.
This description, though not generally applicable, will
communicate some faint idea of the nervous unions and in¬
terlacements termed plexus or webs. For more minute
information on the distribution, arrangement, and configura¬
tion of this part of the nervous system, we refer to the work
of Scarpa already quoted.1
Henle thinks that we may distinguish the Plexuses into
two orders ; the first, those in which the nervous trunks send
mutually branches to each other; the second, those in which,
simply placed beside each other, they lie for a long tract in¬
closed in one common sheath, and then divide again into dif¬
ferent branches. The first kind Kronenberg names Plexus
per anastomosin', the second, Plexus per decussationem.
The last author adds a third; that, namely, in which both
modes of arrangement are united, Plexus Compositi.
Plexiform arrangements are not confined to the exterior
regions of the body. They are more numerous internally ;
and almost all the organs of the chest and belly have each
a plexus, sometimes two, from which they derive their ner¬
vous chords.
Plexiform arrangements are generally situate in the neigh¬
bourhood of bloodvessels, and in some instances inclosing
considerable arterial trunks more or less accurately. Thus
the axillary plexus surrounds the axillary artery. The cce-
liac artery is surrounded with the solar plexus; and the co¬
ronary, hepatic, splenic, superior mesenteric, and renal, are
also surrounded with plexiform nervous filaments. In some
instances these nervous filaments are so intimately connected
with the arterial tubes as to lead some anatomists to consi¬
der them as forming a peculiar network surrounding the
vessel, and to exercise great influence on the circulation
(Wrisberg, Ludwig, and Haase).
It is remarkable that the structure of the nervous chords
which form a plexus has either appeared so simple as not to
demand particular attention, or is so obscure as to be never
noticed. Have the nervous chords and threads in such situ¬
ations their usual envelope ? Is tire nervous matter in the
chords quite the same as in other situations ? Are there
any other means of union, save the nervous substance itself?
We believe there is no doubt that every chord in a plexus
is provided with its neurilema, as in other places ; but this neu-
rilema is generally thinner and more delicate, and the general
neurilema seems to be wanting. Its mechanical properties
of cohesion and resistance have not been examined.
The view now given of the structure and arrangement of
the nervous plexus leads Scarpa to consider them as nearly
allied to ganglions. The same separation of the component
threads or filaments of the nerve or nerves, the same inter¬
lacement, and the same or similar formation of new chords,
appear to take place in both orders of structure. A gan¬
glion, indeed, he conceives, is a condensed or contracted
plexus ; and a plexus is an expanded or unfolded ganglion.
The anatomical purpose of both appears to be simply anew
arrangement or disposition of nervous branches, previous to
their ultimate distribution in the tissues or organs to which
they are destined. This is nothing but the expression of a
fact,—the interpretation in intelligible terms of an arrange¬
ment of organized parts, without reference to any supposed
I have already shown what is meant by the organic end
or termination of a nerve. Although the nervous trunks are
distributed in every direction through the animal body, they
do not terminate in all the tissues or organs indiscriminately,
and have been observed to be lost in the following only:
1^, The proper organs of sensation, the eye, ear, nose, pa¬
late, and tongue ; 2dip, the muscles, whether subservient
to voluntary or to involuntary motion, as the heart, stomach,
intestines, &c.; Zdly, the mucous surfaces ; Athly, the skin ;
5thly, glands, salivary, liver, kidneys, &c.; 6thly, bones.
Nerves, therefore, are not organs of general distribution.
According to Bichat, they have never been traced to the fol¬
lowing tissues:—the cartilages, both articular and of the ca¬
vities ; fibrous textures, viz. periosteum, dura meninx, cap¬
sular ligaments, aponeurotic sheaths, aponeurosis in general,
tendon, and ligament; fibro-cartilaginous textures—those of
the external ear, nose, trachea, and eyelids (cartilages of
other authors) ; the semilunar cartilages of the knee-joint;
those of the temporo-maxillary articulation ; those of the in¬
tervertebral spaces ; marrow ; the lymphatic glands.
To this we may add the testimony of Walter of Berlin,
who, after several laborious researches, came to the conclu¬
sion that the pleura, the pericardium, the thoracic duct, and
the peritoneum, receive no nerves, and that, contrary to the
opinions of the most eminent recent anatomists, no nerves
terminate in the lymphatic or conglobate glands. Some¬
times, indeed, these organs are perforated by one or two
twigs, as he often had occasion to observe; but they in¬
stantly proceed to the next place assigned to them, and in
which they are finally lost.2 If, after this conclusion of
Walter, personal testimony can be of any use, I may add,
that I have examined the dura mater, the periosteum, and
most of the synovial membranes repeatedly, to discover ner¬
vous filaments in them, and always without success; and 1
may say the same regarding the absence or non-appearance
of nerves in the peritoneum and pleura.
The nerves have different uses in the different organs and
tissues to which they are distributed. 1. In the organs of
sensation they receive the material impressions made on the
mechanical part of the organ. In the mucous membrane of
the nasal passages, the filaments of the olfactory nerve are
affected by aromatic particles, dissolved or suspended in the
air. In the eye the retina receives the last image formed by
the transmitting powers of the transparent parts. In the
ear the terminations of the auditory nerve are affected by
the oscillations or minute changes in the fluid of the la¬
byrinth, occasioned by the motions of the tympanal bones.
In the palate, tongue, and throat, the gustatory nerves are
affected by sapid bodies dissolved in the mouth, or applied
in a fluid state to the mucous membrane of that cavity. 2.
In the system of voluntary muscles, the nerves retain the
action of the muscular fibres in a state of uniformity and
equality, and keep them obedient to the will. In the invo¬
luntary muscles they appear merely to keep their action
equable, regular, and uniform ; and in both they maintain a
communication, consent, or harmony of action between dif¬
ferent parts of the same system of organs, or even between
organs concurring to the same function. 3. In the glandular
organs the nerves certainly exercise some influence over the
process of secretion ; but what is the exact nature ot this
influence, or in what degree it takes place, is quite uncertain.
When we observe the nerves distributed to organs of sen¬
sation and organs of motion, it is a natural thought to inquire
whether the nerves minister to both functions, and whether
different nerves or different sorts of nerves minister to each
function. It seems to have been an idea of considerable an-
813
General
Anatomy.
Nerves.
1 Annotation. Anatom, cap. iii. sect 9, p. 94, 95.
2 Prcefat. Tab. Nerv. Thorcuii el Abdominis, J. G. Walter. Berolnn, 1783.
814
ANATOMY.
General tiquity, that one set of nerves are sensiferous, and another set
Anatomy. motiferous. Erasistratus derives the nerves of motion from
the brain and cerebellum, and those of sensation from the
Nerves, membranes; and Galen distinguishes the nerves into Nen/oa
Alcrderum and Nenpa Kiv^tiko., the former soft, from the
brain, the latter hard, from the spinal marrow. This dis¬
tinction was not altogether lost sight of among the anato¬
mists and physiologists of the eighteenth century; but it was
rather maintained as a probable speculation, than elucidated
and enforced as an established doctrine, pregnant with im¬
portant results. It was recognised by Glisson, and taught
by Boerhaave,1 and received and promulgated by his pupils,
Tissot and Van Eems ;2 but opposed by Haller3 and Cullen.
The distinction was, nevertheless, maintained by Lecat,
Morin, and Pouteau, the last of whom was led from various
examples of persons, who, after injuries, had lost sensation,
but retained the power of movement, to espouse it with con¬
siderable energy.4
In 1784 George Prochaska, Professor of Anatomy at
Vienna, published on the functions of the nerves a commen¬
tary, in which he gave, after Haller, Caldani, Whytt, and
Unzer, a more precise and correct view of the uses, proper¬
ties, and powers of these organs, than had hitherto been
formed. In this commentary he fully recognises the distinc¬
tion between sensorial nerves, or those devoted to sensation,
and motific nerves, or those ministering to motion; he shows
that sensorial impressions, or impressions made on the sen¬
sitive nerves, are reflected or transmitted in a reflex direc¬
tion to the motific nerves ; that the latter nerves are thereby
excited to action ; that the purpose of this reflex operation
is the preservation of the individual; and that the whole are
under the influence of the Sensorium Commune. He dis¬
tinctly states, that this reflected action is not regulated by
physical laws, where the angle of reflexion is ecpial to the
angle of incidence, but obeys peculiar laws impressed by
nature, as it were, on the sensorium, and which laws we can
understand from their effects alone. This reflex action fur¬
ther takes place either without or with the consciousness of
the soul. The motion of the heart, stomach, and intestines,
is independent of the cognizance of the soul; and in many
other instances of sensorial impressions being transmitted
to motific nerves, though the soul is conscious, it can neither
prevent them nor promote them.5
The commentary of Prochaska is the first precise view of
functions of the nervous system in modern times; and the
first in which the automatic and instinctive phenomena enu¬
merated by Whytt are referred to a reflex operation.
In 1811, Sir Charles Bell, in a tract containing the Idea
of a New Anatomy of the Brain, stated that he had proved
experimentally that “the fasciculus of spinal nerves,
which are gangliophorous, might be detached from its origin
without convulsing the muscles of the back; whereas, on
touching the smtevior fasciculus with the point of the knife,
these muscles vrere immediately convulsed.” From this it General
seemed a probable inference that gangliophorous nerves had Anatomy,
no concern in motion, and that nerves void of ganglion
ministered in some way to that function. Nerves.
In 1818, Charles Francis Bellingeri published at Turin,6
a Dissertation treating, among other subjects, of the anatomy
and physiology of the fifth and seventh pairs of nerves. In
this he showed that the great portion of the fifth pair or tri¬
facial nerve, which forms the large semilunar plexus called
Gasserian ganglion, is a nerve not of motion but of sensa¬
tion ; that its three branches are distributed to certain parts
of the eye, the nasal cavities, the palate and tongue ; minis¬
tering in these parts not to motion, but to sensation, and
probably to circulation, nutrition, and secretion; and that
the small branch of that nerve (nervus masticatorius) is
distributed to muscles {temporalis, masseter, pterygoideus,
buccinator ins'), and is a nerve of motion. He also showed
that the seventh pair, or lateral facial, presides over sensa¬
tion and motion in the functions of the head, face, and neck,
but mostly over motion.
In 1821, Sir Charles Bell undertook to establish the prin¬
ciple, that of the two nervous trunks distributed to the face,
viz., the trigeminus, or fifth cerebral nerve, and the portio
dura, or seventh cerebral nerve, the lateral facial, the former
presides over the sensations or common sensibility of the
head and face; that it also possesses branches going to the
muscles of mastication ; whereas the latter nerve regulates
the muscular motions of the lips, nostrils, and velumpalati,
and especially in associated action with the motions of re¬
spiration.
About the same time Magendie claimed the merit of show¬
ing experimentally the fact of the distinction between nerves
ministering to sensation and nerves ministering to motion,
and of proving that, of the double row of nervous roots issu¬
ing in parallel lines from the lateral regions of the spinal
chord, the anterior are destined for motion, and the posterior
for sensation.
Lastly, Mr Mayo, partly by dissection, partly by experi¬
mental inquiry and reasoning, ai’rived at the conclusion that
almost all the branches of the large or gangliophorous por¬
tion of the trifacial nerves are nerves of sensation, while those
of the small fasciculus, which is void of ganglion, are nerves
of motion.
In this manner, by successive steps, has been established
one of the most important doctrines on the functions of the
nervous chords in modern physiology; and its justice has
been confirmed by the labours of many observers. The
distinction is most clearly proved by the original experiment
of Sir Charles Bell. If the spine be laid open, especially in
a cold-blooded animal, as a frog, and the posterior or gan¬
gliophorous x'oots alone be irritated, no movement is pro¬
duced; but the moment the anterior roots are touched, the
extremities are agitated by active convulsive motions.
ti^—8 Academicae ^ proprias Institutiones liei Medic®, Edit® et Not is Auct®, ab. Alb. Haller. VII. Tomi. 12mo. Goet-
curavIt^cobus^Vn^^Pm®13 &Ci Pr^lectiones Academic® de Morbis Nervorum, Quas ex Manuscriptis collectas edi
fa^mlalrtur0sensu^ns^e^n, ^jeyden8j8* Tome I. and II. Lugduni Batavor. 1761. ‘‘Omnes (nervi) insel-viunt motui vel
motui inserviunt abeunt -id mns^'i1 C°+ •’ ^ ™oni’ hepaH. aliisque partibus vitalibus destinati sunt, sensus non deprehenditur. Qui
in insis orrranis mollitie fere difHm nt’ ° f1” ^ f ^ mollescunt> ufc in verum quasi cerebrum degenerent. Hamuli, qui sensibus famulantur,
labyrinthof” p. 26l! f dlffluunt, uti patet in expansione nervi optici, olfactorii, ubi se applicat ad os ethmoides, et acoustic! in
3 Elementa Physiologi®, Liber X Sect. VIII. § xxii., Tomus Quartus, p. 389.
observations sur cette esnece rare de mraWslo 1 1 du sentlment et les nerfs du mouvement, a I’occasion de quelques
Postumes de M Pouteau Docteur en MedLine pt Prive .un men>bre de tout sentiment, sans lui oter Pusage du mouvement. ffiuvres
I ostumes de M. Pouteau Docteur en Medm.ne et Chirurgien en Chef de PHotel-dieu de Lyon. Tome II. p^SO Paris 1789
6 Georgn Prochaska, M.l)., Professons Anatomi®, Phvsiolorrijp pt n i • tt- •/ i Sr- VX .’i
rum Pars II Vienna 1800 8vn remmopt +• a t/ et AIor':)orum Oculorum in Universitate Vindobonensi, Operum Mino-
rum. 1 ars 11. Vienn® 1800. 8vo. Commentatio de Eunctionibus Systematis Nervosi.
rails ,“»m puWtadefMdXt! In AthenU EegloTnno MDCCCXVin M«^' C»1IeeU
1818. Ex Anatomej De „er,is Facie.; Ex PhAologla; “ A«gwt» Tunoomm.
ANATOMY.
815
General Of the cerebral nerves, the first or olfactory, the second
Anatomy, or optic, and the eightli or auditory, are pure nerves of pro-
per sensation, and are distributed to the sensitive parts of
Nerves, the eye, the nasal cavities, and the cochlea and labyrinth,
respectively. The third, fourth, and part of the sixth, or
abducent, are motific nerves connected with the movements
of the eye. The fifth or trifacial is a very peculiar nerve.
The gangliophorous, or rather plexiform part of it, com¬
municates with all the organs of proper sensation,—the eye,
the ear in a small degree, the nasal cavities largely, and the
palate, mouth, and tongue largely; and it is distributed ex¬
tensively along with the minute arteries of the face. Of this
arrangement the result is, that it is a nerve neither of vision
nor of hearing, of smell nor of taste, or deglutition nor of
touch, or physiognomical expression, exclusively ; but over
the whole of these faculties and their proper organs exercises
a general modulating power. It maintains between them a
mutual consent or harmony of action, absolutely necessary
to the due separate exercise of each and the conjoined ex¬
ercise of all. Lastly, by accompanying the arteries of the
face, it regulates the circulation of that region, and may be
the means of maintaining between the brain and the facial
circulation those conditions and expressions which arise from
various mental emotions; as paleness, blushing, indignation,
the sense of joy, triumph, the sublime, and similar emotions.
Not less peculiar is the seventh, the small sympathetic of
Winslow. Though mostly a motiferous nerve, yet it minis¬
ters to motions of a particular order. It is, however, as a
nerve distributed to the skin of the face, a nerve contributing
to, if not regulating animal sensation and involuntary motion.
It is, in fact, as shown by Wrisberg, a double nerve, the
large portion of which is devoted to the purposes of animal
life, and the small one to those of organic life. It is a mus-
cido-cutaneous nerve of the head and face.
In proceeding further in explaining the respective func¬
tions of the nerves, it is requisite to keep in view not only
their gangliophorous character and the reverse, but their po¬
sition as anterior and as posterior nerves, and nerves consist¬
ing of anterior and posterior roots.
The ninth pair (nervus glosso-pharynganw), consists of
two parts, one large, completing sensation to the root of the
tongue and pharynx, the other smaller, moving the pharynx,
and connected, notwithstanding, with the tenth pair, pneu-
mogastric, and the great sympathetic.
The tenth pair {nervus vagus), or pneumogastric nerve,
is chiefly a sensiferous nerve, regulating the sensations of
the larynx, the (esophagus and stomach, and the lungs, and
placing these organs in harmony as to function. One parti¬
cularly, the recurrent branches, appear to be motiferous. All
the other branches appear to regulate circulation and secre¬
tion.
To the accessory nerve, or eleventh pair, seems to belong
the function of placing the pulmonary and laryngeal divisions
of the pneumogastric in harmony and relation with the ex¬
ternal muscles of the back and lateral regions of the neck.
Lastly, the hypoglossal, or twelfth pair, having mostly an
anterior origin, are motiferous. They form the motiferous
nerves of the muscles of the tongue.
It is to be observed, nevertheless, that though this distinc¬
tion in functions belongs to particular nerves, yet nerves
ministering to sensation, and regulating organic or involun¬
tary functions, and nerves ministering to motion, and regu¬
lating either voluntary motions, instinctive motions, or in¬
voluntary but associated and necessary motions, are often General
closely connected, and proceed together in the same sheath, Anatomy,
or in close apposition, to the same organ. This, which is ob-
served in the fifth, the seventh, the ninth, tenth, and eleventh, Nerves,
is rendered necessary by the offices wdiich the organs have
to perform. The impulse or impression is communicated to
the organ, and received by its sensiferous nerves. By these
the proper sensation is transmitted, and the motiferous nerves
are excited to action. This appears to be the mode in which
such actions as sneezing, coughing, yawning, deglutition, and
numerous other instinctive and associated actions are called
into operation.
Of the spinal nerves it is almost superfluous to speak, after
the explanations now given. The splanchnic or great sym¬
pathetic appears to be a nerve of organic sensibility and im¬
pression, and as such regulates the circulation of the abdo¬
minal organs, and transmits their impressions to the central
connections. The further continuance of these by its spinal
connections establishes a harmonic action with the spinal
marrow, always for good purposes, but often under disease
producing painful and destructive effects.1 *
The doctrine of reflected action in the nervous chords, as
proposed by Prochaska, was either overlooked, and more or
less disregarded; or it was thought that the phenomena re¬
ferred to it were explained, as far as was practicable, by the
doctrines of Robert Whytt and Haller. At the same time it
was taught by Prevost and Dumas in 1823, that in what is
called nervous action, or the operation of nervous influence,
there must be, as in galvanism, two currents, an ascend¬
ing and a descending one; the former proceeding from
the ramified to the central end of the nerve, the latter from
the central to the ramified or distributed end. In 1826, Sir
Charles Bell, in a paper read to the Royal Society, promul¬
gated the general proposition, that, between the Brain and
the Muscle, there is a circle of nerves ; one nerve conveys
the influence from the Brain to the Muscle ; another gives
the sense of the condition of the Muscle to the Brain?
In 1833, Dr Marshall Hall communicated to the Royal
Society a paper on the Reflex Function of the Medulla Ob¬
longata and Medulla Spinalis, in which he undertakes to
demonstrate the existence of reflected or retrograding ner¬
vous influence, that is, one which proceeds from the ramified,
or distributed to the cerebral or cerebro-spinal extremity of
the nerve. According to the hypothesis here propounded,
the spinal chord is the seat and centre, as it were, of two pro¬
cesses taking place in living animals. It receives sensations
caused by impressions on the extreme points of the nerves;
and, in consequence of this, it induces or stops actions on cer¬
tain muscles and muscular organs. An impression acts upon
the distributed extremity or extremities of a nerve ; this is
instantly conveyed by the nerve to the spinal marrow; and
in the same instant, the spinal marrow either causes move¬
ment, or retains in a fixed state certain muscular organs. As
this action or process consists of two parts, an incident im¬
pression, and a reflected one causing motion, it was denomi¬
nated the Reflex Function of the Spinal Marrow ; and as it
consists in impression supposed to excite or cause movement,
it was named by its proposer, excito-motory, and the nerves
by the agency of which these movements were induced he
denominates Excito-Motory Nerves.3
According to Dr Marshall Hall, there are two orders of
Nerves. Incident Nerves, proceeding principally from the
Cutaneous surface, and the surface of the Mucous Mem-
1 For further information and illustrations of the principles now stated, I refer the reader to Arnold’s Illustrations of the Nerves of
the Head and Face—(Heidelberg, 1834. Folio)—and an account of the same work in the forty-third volume of the Edinburgh Medical
and Surgical Journal, January 1835, p. 225.
- Philosophical Transactions, 1826. Read 25th January 1826.
3 Philosophical Transactions for 1833. Part II.
ANATOMY.
816
General branes to the Spinal Marrow ; and Reflex Nerves passing
Anatomy. from the Spinal Marrow to a series of muscles destined to be
moved simultaneously ; and he thinks that he has proved the
Nerves, existence of, an incident motor action, and, 2d, an inci¬
dent motor nerve.1
The incident motor branches are those of, I. the Trifacial
nerve ; II. The Pneumogastric; III. The Glossopharyn¬
geal ; and, IV. The Posterior Spinal nerves. To these there
are corresponding reflex branches; and in the centre be¬
tween the two, according to the doctrine, is placed the Me¬
dulla Oblongata and the Spinal Marrow, as the recipient of
impressions and the generator of movements.
Under this system of nerves and nervous movements are
placed all the great functions of the animal body; respiration;
the acts of ingestion and egestion; the action of the uterus
during parturition, and all those movements the object of
which is the preservation of the individual from injury, whe¬
ther arising within the system, or approaching from without.
It is unnecessary here to express upon the merits of this
hypothesis any opinion. Its true character is that of placing
facts long known and observed, under the head of a doctrine,
new, and, it may be, more intelligible and tangible than the
former. It is, nevertheless, still in the condition of a hypo¬
thesis, though a probable and convenient hypothesis. The
further consideration of the subject belongs to the depart¬
ment of physiology.
It may have been observed, that, in speaking of the pro¬
perties and uses of the nerves, as living and organized tex¬
tures, we have been obliged to employ various terms which
are in common use when speaking of the properties and uses
of the nervous system; for instance, Sensibility, Impressions,
Sympathy, Irritability, and similar denominations. These
terms it would have been desirable to define with as much
precision as the imperfections of language and the nature of
the subject allow. This part of the subject, however, pro¬
perly belongs to the doctrine of the functions of the living
body, and as such it shall be considered under the head of
Physiology.
In the foetus the nerves are developed with remarkable
perfection. I cannot speak from personal observation much
earlier than the sixth month, when I have found the nerves
of the extremities and voluntary muscles large and distinct.
At the eighth month they are still more conspicuous. The
anterior crural nerves are in the form of flat white cords,
one and a half line broad, and their branches like good-sized
threads. The sciatic is still more distinct. In the form of
a thick cylindrical cord, fully a line in diameter, and not un¬
like a piece of whipcord, it is tough, stringy, and resists ten¬
sion ; and its constituent threads are well marked. I im¬
mersed a portion of this nerve, three and a half inches long,
in aqua potasses, when it first became much firmer and
denser than before, assumed in two days the satin fibrous
appearance first described by Fontana, and at length by so¬
lution of the nervous matter, was separated into chords and
neurilematic canals. In this state, preserved in spirit of tur¬
pentine, it conveys a tolerably correct idea of the arrange¬
ment of the neurilematic canals.
The nerves of the involuntary muscles are equally distinct
in proportion. Those of the lung, heart, and splanchnic sys¬
tem are distinct and manifest at the eighth month.
The neurilem is much more vascular in the foetus than
in the adult. In the same foetus of about eight months I
found the neurilem of the sciatic nerve, from the ischiatic
notch to its divarication in the ham, covered with a thick General
network of minute vessels, all injected with dark blood. Anatomy.
The Nervous Papillce of Vater.—The Corpuscula of
Pacini.
The limits assigned to this article permit not to consider Nervous
in detail all the modes in which the nervous extremities ter- Papilla:,
minate in the organs, and the membranous surfaces to which
they are distributed. But one mode of termination has, since
the year 1834, attracted so much the attention of anatomists,
that it would be improper entirely to omit the mention of it.
This is what are called the Corpuscula of Pacini.
In the year 1741, Abraham Vater, Professor at Wittem-
berg, made known the fact that the nerves of the thumb ter¬
minate, wdien traced to their extremities, in round or sphe¬
roidal bodies, to which he gives the name of Papillce Nervece,
and Papillce Cutanece. This discovery of the peculiar mode
in which the digital nerves terminate, was made known in
an inaugural dissection by J. G. Lehmann, one of the pupils
of Vater; and the preparation from which the description
by Lehmann was formed, has been preserved in the Anato¬
mical Collection of Wittemberg to the present time.
The description given by Lehmann, which must be re¬
garded as virtually that of Abraham Vater, is not very minute.
Vater, or Lehmann for him, states that he found in the body
of a man who had been affected by a spasmodic attack in
the right arm and the middle and ring fingers, the nerves
distributed to the thumb terminated in numerous small emi¬
nences or papillce, which required to be carefully and labo¬
riously dissected from the fat in which they were inclosed.
These bodies he compares to the ears of corn. Vater found
papillce of the same sort, in small number, attached to the
extremities of two branches of the posterior crural nerve, dis¬
tributed over the dorsum of the foot. This occurrence took
place several years previously to the time, 2d November
1741, at which it was made known.2 On the exact nature
of these bodies Vater gives no opinion, further than is to
be collected from his calling them Nervous Papillce, and
Cutaneous Papillce, and mentioning them in connection with
the consensus of the parts of the human body. It may be
doubted whether he was aware of the signification of these
bodies even in an anatomical point of view.
The fact now mentioned has been overlooked and ne¬
glected for an entire century; and no one seems to have
thought it of sufficient importance after the dissertation of
Lehmann to deserve mention. At length, in February 1834,
M. Camus, in a minute account of the distribution and ter¬
mination of the nerves of the hand, described, as existing in
the palmar and anterior half of the lateral aspect of the fin¬
gers, certain minute bodies, opaque, pearl white, not larger
than a grain of mustard-seed, attached to the extremities of
the digital nerves. Similar minute opaque pearly-looking
bodies, M. Camus found attached to the nerves in the plantar
aspect of the foot, most numerous towards the roots of the
toes, and in general smaller than those found terminating
the nerves of the hands.3
It further appears that Philip Pacini, a physician in Pis- Pacinian
toja, had seen these minute bodies in 1831, gave an account corpuscula.
of them in 1835 to the Medical Society of Florence, de¬
scribed them in the Nuovo Giornale of Pisa, gave a second
oral communication on them, and demonstrated their exis¬
tence at the Scientific Congress held at Pisa in October 1839.
From this circumstance, and Pacini publishing an enlarged
1 The Diseases and Derangements of the Nervous System. By Marshall Hall, M.D., &c. London 1841. Page 48-50.
2 Dissertatio de Consensu Partium Corporis Ilumani. Expositio simul Nervorum Brachialium et Cruralium Coalitu et Papillarum Ner-
vearum in Digitis Dispositione. Quam P. Abrahamo Vatero pro G. Doctoris Exponet. J. Gottlob. Lehmannus Vitembergse, die
2 Novembris 1741. Apud Haller Dissertationes Anatomicae Selects. Vol. ii. Gottingen, 1747. Page 953.
3 Archives Generales de Medicine. Eevrier 1834. And Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, vol. xli’i, 1834, p. 225.
• ANATOMY.
817
General account of these corpuscula in 1840, these bodies have been
Anatomy, usually designated as the corpuscula of Pacini, and the Pa-
cinian bodies.
Pacinian In 1836, they were mentioned by Cruveilhier, though not
corpuscula. as essential parts of the nervous system ; and they were again
described by A. G. Andral.
In October 1843, M. Lacauchie announced to the Aca¬
demy of Sciences at Paris, that he had found in the mesen¬
tery and mesorectum of various animals, especially the com¬
mon cat, minute bodies which are manifestly the same as
those seen by Pacini in the fingers. According to Lacauchie,
they are ovoidal transparent bodies, with the long diameter
somewhat more than one millimetre. With the aid of the
microscope he distinguished a peripheral part formed of from
15 to 20 concentric layers, and a central hollow portion, which
extends the whole length of the body, terminates at one apex
in a shut end, and at the other communicates by means of a
serpentine canal with the nearest lymphatic canals. These
bodies have since been described more or less minutely by
Mayer of Bonn, Pappenheim, and most of all by Henle and
Kolliker, in a monograph in 1844, and by Strahl in 1848.
The Pacinian corpuscula, which must have been often
noticed by observers who studied the chyliferous vessels in
the cat, were seen by Pacini first in man, and afterwards in
cattle. They are seen normally without exception in adults
as in the foetus and new-born infants. Usually they are
numerous in the nerves of the hand and foot, in the palm
and sole. They are besides observed in the sacral plexus,
in the crural nerve, in some cutaneous nerves of the upper
arm and fore-arm, in the epigastric plexus and nerves issu¬
ing from it, and in the neighbouring plexuses. Their num¬
ber in the whole body must be considerable ; and in a single
hand from 60 to 200 have been numbered. They are either
detached or accumulated in small heaps. In all cases they
are attached by one end by a stem variable in length to an
adjoining nerve. They are for the most part distinctly visible
to the naked eye ; elliptical or long-oval bodies of opal lustre ;
and through the more translucent middle, in the long direc¬
tion, are observed slightly tortuous streaks. In adults their
average length is from It? to 2 millimetres. In the foetus
they are often so small that either they cannot be seen, or
they are seen by the naked eye with great difficulty. At the
point of division of the median nerve, and ulnar nerve, in the
fingers, and the plantar nerve in the branches going to the
toes, they are largest; at the tips of the fingers they are
smallest. The stems or peduncles by which these bodies
are attached to the nerves join the nerves either at a right
angle, or so that they are inclined sometimes more to the
central, sometimes more to the peripheral end of the nerve.
Not unfrequently two bodies are attached by means of a bi¬
furcated stem. The stems or peduncles appear to be con¬
tinued backwards in a conical fashion into the corpuscula, by
which they are easily distinguished by their transparency
from the substance of the rest of the corpuscula. This pro¬
longation amounts sometimes to one-fourth part and more of
the entire length of the Pacinian body.
When the corpusculum is examined under the microscope,
it presents numerous fine dark lines, which proceed on the
outside or along the periphery of the corpusculum by the
edges, and within, run parallel to the long axis of the cor-
pusculum, and are separated from each other by clear, broader
intervals. At the stalk-end of the capsule (a), the concentric
lines incline to each other, and are continued then, as is ob¬
served in large Pacinian bodies, in fine dark lines, which may
be seen compressed parallel and closely to the stalk. At the
free end, on the other hand, the concentric and parallel lines
of the corpuscle are united on both sides ; yet here there is
also often observed a white line penetrating into the interior
of the corpusculum, (ligamentum intercapsulare,) which ap-
vol. n.
pears to correspond with the prolongation of the stalk on the General
other side. The fine, closely compressed, parallel lines of the Anatomy,
proper stalk become towards the nerve progressively more ^
subtile, and in most cases vanish altogether from the eye be- Pacinian
fore they sink into the nerve. In the middle of a corpuscle corPuscula*
there is observed a longitudinal space, more or less transpa¬
rent, which follows in like manner the longitudinal axis of
the corpusculum. The dark lines lying next to it are more
numerous, more closely compressed on each other, and run
almost entirely straight. These concentric dark lines ap¬
peared to the observer as the outlines of so many capsules
placed in layers on each other; and this view was confirmed
by careful dissection. In short, when the apex of one cor¬
pusculum is cut off, there is observed close to the opening
a small quantity of fluid, the corpusculum collapses, and from
the interior proceeds a new corpusculum, more sharply de¬
fined, and smaller and more pointed than the former. This
operation maybe repeated several times, always with the same
phenomena, except that the size of the corpusculum dimin¬
ishes, and the oval form passes more and more to the cylin¬
drical.
Fig. 1. Nerves of one Finger
with the Pacinian Corpuscula at¬
tached. Fig. 2. A Pacinian Cor¬
pusculum from the human body,
magnified three hundred and fifty
times, a. Stalk or Peduncle, b.
Nervous fibre in stalk, c. Exter¬
nal layers of capsule, d. Inner
layers, e. Pale nerve-fibre in the
central cavity. /. Divisions and
terminations of nerve-fibre. From
A. Kollikek.
A Pacinian body consists, therefore, of a greater or smaller
number of capsules inclosing each other, which are separated
5 l
818
A N A T O M Y.
General from each other by a greater or less quantity of fluid, easily
Anatomy. m;scibie by water/ The spaces between the capsules filled
with fluid are named by Pacini intercapsular spaces.
Pacinian The dark parallel lines of the stalk correspond to tubes
corpuscula. encasec| within each other of the sections of the membranes,
which tubes are continued into the capsules, yet contain no
fluid. The conical prolongation of the stalk within the cor-
pusculum is formed in such a manner that the stalk ot t ie
inner capsule penetrates further into the same than the outei.
The innermost tube of the stalk proceeds without expansion
into the innermost capsule forming the central cavity.
The internal central cylinder Henle and Kolhker compare
to the primitive nervous fibre. Henle discovered a ner¬
vous fibre in the central canal of the corpusculurn.
The accuracy of these observations has been in general
confirmed by Strahl, who proposes to restore the original
merit of discovery to Vater by calling the bodies Vatenan
Corpuscula.
The Capsules which give the Vaterian Corpuscula their
peculiar shape vary much in number and width. Usually
there exists, as the early observers represent, a system of
internal capsules ; but this does not always contain the
same number of capsules ; and the latter are not in all cases
smaller than the outer, but often interrupted in consequence
of their width.
The capsule walls consist of structureless filamentous
tissue, in which are imbedded Nuclei. Fibrous structure
Strahl did not recognize even with strong magnifying powers;
and at most he only observed a difference of longitudinal
and transverse fibres.
Most commonly only one particular nerve-fibre runs into
each Yaterian body.
Anatomists are not agreed as to the nature or the uses of
these bodies. All that is known is what is now stated; that
by one extremity or pole they are connected with the ner¬
vous system, and by another with the lymphatic system. As
to uses, it seems reasonable to think that in some manner
they are concerned in the functions performed by the ex¬
tremities of the nerve. But on this point there is great un¬
certainty. They appear not to be particularly connected
either with sensation or with the sense of 1 act as possessed
by the fingers. In the extremities they are observed in spots
in which these functions are not expressed with particular
energy. They are generally in greatest number in the ball
of the thumb ; and they are situate in the toes, in parts at
which neither sensibility nor Tact can be said to be consi¬
derable.
Pacini entertained the idea that they are connected with
the development of electricity ; and Henle and Kolliker
were disposed to favour this opinion. Strahl subjected the
opinion to the test of experiment, and arrived at the con¬
clusion that in the Yaterian Papillae no electricity or elec¬
tro-magnetism can be demonstrated.1
CHAP. II. THE PARTICULAR TISSUES.
Cerebral System,—Brain. {Cerebrum?)
Brain. The brain or central part of the nervous system may be
regarded as a continuous organ, consisting of three divisions,
—the convoluted, the laminated, and the smooth or funicu¬
lar portions. Of these divisions, which are distinguished
according to the peculiar external configuration of each, the
first part corresponds to what is named the brain proper {ce¬
rebrum) ; the second to the small brain {cerebellum); and
the third to the oblong production contained in the verte¬
bral column, and known under the name of the spinal General
chord. , Anatomy.
The convoluted portion presents two surfaces, an outer
or convoluted, and an inner or figurate. The laminated por- Brain,
tion in like manner presents two surfaces;—an outer or la¬
minated, and an inner or central. The third has only one
surface, which is exterior. These different surfaces, and their
mutual relations, will be more minutely explained after¬
wards. At present we shall examine its physical and ana¬
tomical characters as an organic substance.
The three divisions of the central part of the nervous
system are composed of a peculiar substance which may be
denominated cerebral matter, inclosed in delicate vascular
membi'anes. To exhibit the external characters of this sub¬
stance, these membranes must be removed by careful dis¬
section. When this is done, and the brain is inspected on
its surface and after sections, the cerebral matter is observed
to vary in colour, consistence, and intimate structure, in dif¬
ferent parts of the organ. These varieties of cerebral mat¬
ter are most easily distinguished, according to their colour,
into white and gray or cinereous.
The white cerebral matter is of different shades in differ¬
ent parts of the brain. Its most usual hue is orange-white,
or orange-white inclining to reddish-white, or purplish-white.
This is"most distinctly recognized in the mesolobe {corpus
callosum), and in the body named hippocampus major. The
consistence of the white cerebral matter is considerable. It
is in general more tenacious and cohesive than the gray
matter, and when indurated is less brittle.
A section made by a sharp scalpel appears smooth and of
a uniform colour, traversed by reddish points and streaks.
It presents nevertheless different appearances in different
directions. In certain parts, for example the mesolobe, it
presents the appearance of minute capillary lines, arranged
in parallel juxtaposition, and giving what is named a fibrous
appearance. In other regions, however, as in the white mat¬
ter of the optic chambers, this cannot be recognized.
White cerebral matter has been examined microscopically
by Della Torre, Prochaska, the Wenzels, Sir Everard Home,
and M. Bauer.
If we trust the observations of Father Della Torre, the
white and gray substance of the brain, cerebellum, medulla
oblongata, and spinal chord, consist of an aggregation of in¬
finite transparent globules, floating in a pellucid, crystalline
and somewhat viscid fluid. The only difference which he
admits among the matter of these several parts is, that he
represents the globules to be largest in the brain, smaller
in the cerebellum, and still more minute in the medulla ob¬
longata and spinal chord. The arrangement of these glo¬
bules in the central portion of the nervous system he further
represents to be promiscuous.
Prochaska placed on a thin plate of glass minute slices of
cerebral matter, so thin that they were translucent; and in
this state he found it consist of innumerable globular parti¬
cles, united by delicate, pellucid, flocculent matter, like fila¬
mentous tissue. These globules varied in size even in the
same part of the brain. In general, however, he found them
both in the brain and cerebellum to be rather more than
eight times smaller than the globules of theblood. He was un¬
able to ascertain anything regarding their intimate structure.
The Wenzels found the white cerebral matter to consist
of very minute globules, or roundish atoms, resembling sphe¬
rical cells containing proper medullary or white cerebral sub¬
stance. The dimensions of these globules they did not at¬
tempt to estimate ; but represent them in general as ex¬
ceedingly minute, and all of the same size. 1 hey could not
1 Zu den Pacinischen Korperchen (Papillae. Yon A. Vater.) Von Dr J. Carl Strahl. Muller’s Archiv, 1848. Seite 165.
Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal. Volume seventy-third, p. 118, 1850.
ANATOMY.
819
General
Anatomy.
Grain.
recognize any connecting medium. The globular appearance
was retained in portions of brain exposed to the action of
alcohol and muriatic acid, and in those even which had been
dried after induration in alcohol.
M. Bauer placed a thin slice of white cerebral matter on
a plate of glass previously moistened, and allowing a drop of
water to fall on it, held obliquely, and thereby to diminish
its cohesion, brought into distinct view innumerable loose
globules, many fragments of fibres of single rows of globules,
and bundles of fibres, some of considerable length.
The use of water in this mode of examination is to dis¬
solve and remove a viscid, gelatinous, semifluid substance,
on which the adhesive properties of the white matter seem
to depend. If water is not used, the brain adheres to the
glass, and the globular appearance cannot be recognized.
These globules vary in size from •g-^Vs'th to ^oWth of an
inch in diameter; the general or average size being -jaVoB1-
Those of the white matter are largest, that is ^Voth- They
are translucent, whitish, and arranged in lines or rows of single
globules, which are attached to each other by the viscid semi¬
fluid mucus. The strings or rows of globules are connected
into bundles or fasciculi by the same medium. There is
reason to believe that the translucency of the globules de¬
pends on an albuminous fluid, which on immersion in alco¬
hol or acids is coagulated, and thereby rendered opaque.
When a portion of white cerebral matter is immersed in
boiling oil, or is steeped for a few days in alcohol, dilute
nitric or muriatic acid, or in a solution of corrosive subli¬
mate, it acquires great firmness and solidity, and may be
torn or broken like a piece of cheese, which it could not be
before, in consequence of its tenacity. Certain parts, for
example the mesolobe, appear then to be distinctly fibrous,
or to consist of long capillary lines placed in close juxta¬
position. On the length of these filaments or fibrils, how¬
ever, nothing is ascertained. It is also undetermined whe¬
ther the white cerebral matter is in all parts arranged in the
fibrous manner.
White cerebral matter is well supplied with bloodvessels.
These, indeed, are minute ; but they consist both of vessels
containing red and colourless blood. The division of these
vessels gives rise to the appearance of red points (punctula)
and streaks, which are exhibited on the surface of sections.
It is believed to be less vascular than the gray cerebral
matter.
On the chemical constitution of white cerebral matter we
possess no accurate information ; all the chemical analyses
hitherto made having been directed to bi’ain, without dis¬
tinction of its different varieties. From the circumstance,
however, of its becoming indurated on immersion in alcohol,
acids, and solutions of corrosive sublimate, it is manifest
that it contains much albumen. It is rendered yellow by
nitric acid. If a portion of indurated brain be placed in the
sun, or in a warm atmosphere, an oily or unctuous fluid
exudes from its surface, which shows that it contains fatty
matter ; and if brain be immersed in ether, this fatty mat¬
ter is partially removed.
The analysis of Vauquelin, which is probably very near
the truth, shows that 100 parts of cerebral substance, not
distinguishing between white and gray matter, consist of 80
parts of water, 7 of albumen, 4*43 of white adipose matter,
0’70 of red adipose matter, 1T2 of osmazome, F5 of phos¬
phorus, and S’l 5 of acids, salts, and sulphur. Upon the pre¬
sence of the albuminous matter depends the solidification
which the brain undergoes, when immersed in alcohol, acids,
or solutions of the metallic salts, by which albumen is coagu¬
lated. Upon the presence of the white adipose matter de¬
pends the formation of those brilliant white crystalline plates, General
resembling cholesterine, observed by M. Gmelin, in the Anatomy,
brains preserved in the Anatomical Cabinet at Heidelberg.
The opinion of this chemist, that it pre-exists in the brain Brain,
in the form of adipocerous or cholesterine matter, is to a cer¬
tain extent probable. The elements, at least, of this matter,
that is elaine and stearine, must exist in the brain.
Couerbe distinguishes in brain four fatty principles, Cere-
brot, Eleencephol, Cephalot, and Stearokonot.1
The first is the solid white adipose matter of Vauquelin,
the brain wax of Gmelin. Eleencephol is a yellow red oil
disagreeable odour. Cephalot is a saponifiable article.
Stearokonot, also saponifiable, is hard and pulverizable.
The gray or cinereous cerebral matter, though variable
in colour like the white, is in general a mixture of ash-gray
and wood-brown, darker than the former, but lighter than
the latter. The colour varies at different ages. It is light
in early life, and deeper as life advances.
The gray cerebral matter is softer and less viscid and te¬
nacious than white cerebral matter. It is distinctly granu¬
lar, both in the external surface and when torn or broken.
This appearance, however, is most distinctly recognized
after induration in alcohol or acidulous liquors. In the con¬
voluted part of the brain, where it is most abundant, it does
not present the fibrous or parallel linear arrangement, and
is merely an aggregated mass of numerous minute granules.
It is uncertain whether it presents the fibrous arrangement
in other parts of the brain. An appearance of this kind is
recognized in the unciform bundle at the inner end of the
fissure of Sylvius, and also in the streaked bodies and the
annular protuberance. But the appearance alluded to seems
to depend not on the genuine fibrous arrangement of the
granules of the gray matter, but merely on the gray matter
being deposited in streaks and lines between the white.
Meckel nevertheless maintains that the gray matter is also
fibrous.
According to the observation of Sir Everard Home and
M. Bauer, the gray cerebral matter consists of minute glo¬
bular atoms, smaller than those of the white matter, or
varying from t0 o^h of an inch in diameter. These
globules appear to be united, though more loosely, by a
sero-albuminous fluid of a yellower tint than that of the
white matter. Home supposes this albuminous fluid to be
less abundant in the gray matter.
Gray cerebral matter is well supplied with bloodvessels,
which are large and numerous. It must not be imagined,
however, that all the vessels which are observed to enter this
substance are therefore distributed to it. These large ves¬
sels necessarily penetrate the gray matter of the convoluted
surface before they reach the white matter in the centre ;
and though they send branches to the former, they are ulti¬
mately distributed to the latter. The gray cerebral matter,
nevertheless, is generally represented to be more vascular
than the white; but the circumstance now stated renders
this doubtful. The statement of Sir Everard Home, that
“ the finest and most delicate branches of the arteries and
veins are only found in the cortical, i. e., the gray substance,”
is contradicted by observation ; for the vessels are certainly
in general larger and more distinct in this than in the white
matter. But if they are larger in the former, they are more
numerous in the latter. On the whole, perhaps, there is little
difference between the vascularity of the white and gray sub¬
stance of the brain.
The chemical constitution of gray cerebral substance has
not been accurately examined. The results of analysis show,
nevertheless, that it contains albuminous matter to the
Du Cerveau, considere sous le point de vue Chemique et Physiologique. Paris, 1834. 8vo.
820
ANATOMY.
General amount of about 7 per cent., with O’70 of a peculiar red adi-
Anatomy. p0se majterj which is probably the cause of the peculiar
colour.
Brain. These two varieties of cerebral matter are combined in
various modes and proportions in the brain. In general the
gray matter is found on the exterior, for instance on the con¬
voluted surface of the brain, and on the laminated surface ol
the cerebellum ; while the white matter is arranged in the
central parts. Gray matter, nevertheless, is found in the in¬
terior, in the streaked bodies and optic thalamus, and in the
moriform bodies {corpora dentata) of the cerebellum and
olivary eminences.
Besides the two varieties of substances now mentioned, a
third, of a deeper shade, is found in the brain. Thus, in the
centre of the cerebral limbs is a quantity of cerebral matter
of a dark or ink-spotted tint, which Vicq d’Azyr therefore
named the black spot {locus niger) of the limbs of the brain.
The nature of this black spot, which is quite uniform, is en¬
tirely unknown. It appears merely to be a modification of
the gray matter.
A yellow-coloured substance has also been supposed to
exist in the centrum semicirculare geminum, a narrow band
between the striated body and optic thalamus. This sub¬
stance is certainly firmer than the adjoining white and gray
matter, and it is further peculiar in possessing a sort of tint
between wax-yellow and wine-yellow. It is highly vascu¬
lar. Of its other peculiarities, however, we know nothing;
and we must be satisfied with regarding it as an anomalous
species of animal substance, approaching to gray cerebral
matter in colour, but infinitely firmer and more tenacious.
The microscopical observations made by Ehrenberg agree
in some points with those made by Prochaska and Bauer;
and in others they differ a little.
According to Ehrenberg, the substance of the circumfer¬
ence, or the convoluted part of the brain, consists of a thick,
very delicate, vascular network, conveying often numerous
blood-globules, and traversed by serpentine tendinous fibres.
Besides the thick delicate vascular net of the first substance,
Ehrenberg saw in the same, near its utmost edge and its
remotest circumference, a very fine-grained soft substance,
in which here and there are imbedded larger grains or nuclei.
These large grains are free, and consist of granules or
nucleoli, which are connected in rows by means of slender
threads to the fine small threads of the substance singly. In
the neighbourhood of the medullary substance, the fibrous
character of the cortical matter always appears more dis¬
tinctly ; and in the same substance the bloodvessels are
larger and less numerous.
The white or medullary matter of the brain shows more
distinctly the arrangement of fibres, which proceed in the
form of direct and enlarging continuations of the delicate
cortical fibres, from certain eminences, that is, the linear or
band-like origins of the convoluted surface, in a radiated
manner, towards the brain. These are not simple cylindri¬
cal fibres; but resemble hollow strings of pearls, the com¬
ponent parts of which are not in contact, but are connected
by a canal for a small space; or they resemble tubes or cy¬
lindrical canals dilated at intervals into minute bladders.
These bladders or ampullulce of the tubes were known to
Leeuwenhoeck, who regarded them as globules of fat, which
constituted the greatest part of the brain. The connecting
canals also he has obscurely indicated. These tubes, uni¬
formly straight, are generally parallel in direction, sometimes,
however, crossing each other. Pour times Ehrenberg re¬
cognized ramification in such individual canals; but anas¬
tomoses he never observed. These tubes vary in diameter
from -g-Tg-th to aoVo’tli one l|ne>
In the neighbourhood of the base of the brain, and in the
matter surrounding the ventricles, there are always seen, be¬
tween these bundles of nodulated or jointed tubes, individual
tubes much thicker than the rest. In these thick tubes it
is often possible to recognize in their walls an external and
internal boundary; or they present, besides their two exter¬
nal boundary lines, other two inner lines, which enable the
observer to distinguish the width of the area of the internal
cavity of the tubes. These nodulated linear parts of the
brain are varicose articulated tubes or canals.
The large cerebral tubules of the cerebral matter con¬
verge towards and pass into those parts of the base of the
brain, where the peripheral nerves arise. Some of the large
jointed-tube matter appears to terminate in or be connected
with the cerebral cavities, in the walls of which it is well deve¬
loped. Many jointed or varicose tubes pass into the spinal
marrow, and thence immediately proceed to the spinal nerves.
In the spinal marrow the arrangement now described is
in some respects reversed. In the brain the most vascular
and delicate structure is placed at the exterior ; while the
least vascular, but perhaps more organized, viz., the varicose
tubular structure, is placed at the interior. In the spinal
chord the most vascular and delicate part lies in the centre;
while it is covered externally by the coarse medullary matter.
Both substances are quite like those in the brain. From
the externa] medullary matter, consisting of large varicose
or moniliform tubes, the spinal nerves immediately proceed;
and these varicose or jointed tubes, as they emerge from the
investing dura mater, assume suddenly the form of nerve-
tubes, becoming thicker and passing into the pure cylindri¬
cal form. These transitions are easily recognized in the
posterior part of the spinal marrow.
The optic, the auditory, and the olfactory nerves are im¬
mediate continuations of, or productions from, the varicose
medullary tubes of the brain. All the other nerves, except¬
ing the sympathetic in the middle of its course, differ from
the cerebral matter.
All the other nerves also consist only of cylindrical pa¬
rallel-lying tubes, about yl^th part of a line in diameter,
normally never anastomosing. These are the elementary
nerve-tubes, which, united in fasciculi or bundles, again form
larger bundles, which constitute the nerve-chords.
These are the chief facts ascertained by Ehrenberg re¬
garding the minute structure of the brain and spinal chord.
These have been mostly confirmed by Berres and Muller.
By others, again, the accuracy of these results has been called
in question. Thus the observations of Treviranus, Valentin,
and Weber tend to show that all the primitive cerebral fibres
or tubes are cylindrical, and that the varicose or moniliform
appearance is an effect of compression, or the violence em¬
ployed in subjecting them to microscopic observation. Mul¬
ler, nevertheless, admits that the primitive cerebral tubes
have great proneness to become varicose or beaded.1
General
Anatomy.
Brain.
I
1 C. G. Ehrenberg in PoggendorfFs Annalen der Physik und Chemie, Jahrg. 1833. Band XXVIIL § 449-65, und 1834. Band
XXXIV. § 76, 80. Also Beobachtung einer bisher unbekannten auffallenden structur des Seelenorgan bei Menschen und Thieren. Von
C. G. Ehrenberg. Gelesen in der Akademie der Wissenschaften am 24 October 1833. Gedruckt im, Feb. 1836. Abbandlungen; seite
665. Translated, with Additions and Notes. By David Craigie, M.D. Edin, Med. and Surg. Journal, Vol. XLVIII. p. 257. Oct. 1837.
G. Valentin uber die Dicke der varicosen Faden in dem Gehirn und dem liuckenmark des Menschen. In Muller’s Archiv. 1834.
§ 401-410.
G. R. Treviranus Beitrage zur Aufklarung der Erscheinungen und Gesetze der Organischen Lebens Band I. Heft II. 1836-8, § 24.
H. und Heft. IV. 1836.
E. H. Weber in Schmidt’s Jahrbuchern der in-und-auslandischen Medicin. Bd. XX. § 5. und Henle ebendaselbst. § 339.
ANATOMY.
General The only points which, amidst the discordance of the re-
Anatomy. suits of different microscopical observers, from Leeuwenhoeck
and Fontana to Ehrenberg, Berres, Treviranus, and Muller,
Brain, can be regarded as established, are the following: that the
convoluted portion of the brain consists of very minute gra-
nules or nucleoli arranged in rows so as to form fibres, which
radiate from the periphery to the inner boundary of the con¬
voluted portion ; that near the inner boundary, and as they
approach the white cerebral matter, this fibrous arrangement
becomes more distinct; and that the white cerebral matter
forming the walls of the ventricles and the base of the brain,
is composed of tubular cylinders, mostly of large size, and
having a cylindrical cavity; but whether these are varicose
or not seems undetermined.
The parts named pituitary and pineal glands present seve¬
ral peculiarities deserving attention; but these more properly
come under the head of Special than of General Anatomy.
Flesh, Muscle. (Mus,—Mues,—Musculus,—Lacertus,—
Tori.) Muscular Tissue. {Tissu Musculaire.)
Muscle. The ordinary appearance of the substance named flesh
or muscle is familiar; and it is unnecessary to enumerate
those obvious characters which are easily recognized by
the most careless observer. A portion of muscle, when
carefully examined, is found to consist of several ani¬
mal substances. It is traversed by arteries and veins of va¬
rious size ; nervous twigs are observed to pass into it; it is
often covered by dense whitish membranous folds (fascice),
or by serous or mucous membranes, all which shall be ex¬
amined afterwards ; and it is found to contain a large pro¬
portion of filamentous tissue. But it is distinguished by con¬
sisting of numerous fibres disposed parallel to each other, and
which may be separated in the same manner by proper
means. The appearance, arrangement, and characters of
these fibres demand particular notice.
Muscular According to Prochaska, muscle in all parts of the body
t Uament. may resolved, by careful dissection, into fibres of great
delicacy, as minute as silk filaments, but pretty uniform in
shape, general appearance, and dimensions. Their diameter
appears not to exceed the J^th part of an inch, whatever
be their length. They seem all more or less flattened or an¬
gular, and appear to be solid diaphanous filaments. Pro¬
chaska, not doubting that these muscular threads (fila car-
nea) are incapable of further division, terms them primary
muscular fibres.
The microscopical examination of the atomic constitution
of the muscular filament, which was first attempted by Leeu¬
wenhoeck, and afterwards prosecuted by Della Torre, Fon-
tano, Monro, and Prochaska, was resumed by Sir E. Home
and M. Bauer, and subsequently by Hodgkin and Lister, Mr
Skey, M. Mandl, Mr Bowman, Schwann, Henle, Remak, and
Kolliker. According to the observations of M. Bauer, each
muscular filament appears to consist of a series of globular
or oblong spheroidal atoms, disposed in a linear direction,
and connected by a transparent, elastic, jelly-like matter.
(Phil. Trans. 1818, 1826.)
The primary muscular fibres are placed close and parallel
to each other, and are united in every species of muscle into
bundles (fasciculi, lacerti) of different but determinate size ;
and according as these bundles are large or small, the ap¬
pearance of the muscle is coarse or delicate. In the deltoid
the bundles are the largest. In the vasti, glutcei, and large
pectoral muscles the bundles are greatly larger than in the
psoce. In the muscles of the face, of the ball of the eye, of
the hyoid bone, and especially in those of the perinaeum, these
bundles are very minute, and almost incapable of being dis-
821
tinguished. The number of ultimate filaments which com- General
pose a bundle varies in different muscles, and probably in Anatomy,
different animals. In a muscular fibre of moderate size in
the human subject, Prochaska estimates them to vary from Muscular
100 to 200; and, in animals with larger fibres, at double, Filanient-
triple, or even four times that number. There is reason to
conclude, from correct microscopic observation, that the
largest do not exceed the eighth part of one inch, and that
the smallest are not less than one-sixteenth.
According to Mr Skey, a single muscular filament has a
diameter of Part °f one inc^* According to Mr Bow¬
man, who has given the diameter of the primitive fibre in
many animals, both of the Vertebrated classes and the
Aspondyrous tribes, the diameter varies from ^|-2-th part
to ^£g-th in the male, and from to Part °f one
inch in the female of the human race. In the Mammalia
and Birds, they are in general smaller. In the horse, from
ttW^1 to sA^th ; in the cow, from g-f o^1 to '•> in the
sheep, from ei^th to -g-^oth- In the owl, the diameter of
these primitive filaments are from xoWth to -g^oth; in the
turkey, from yjg-th to g£oth Part °f one inch.
When the muscular fibre is examined by the microscope,
it is found to present transverse or cross lines, of great mi¬
nuteness. These transverse streaks (strife) are conceived
to indicate circular annular markings going all round the
fibre. They are placed closely together, but varying much
in thickness and in number ; a portion of the length of the
fibre, equal to its diameter, containing, according to Mr
Skey, from sixteen to twenty-five streaks.
These transverse lines are not seen with equal distinctness
in all the muscular fibres of the voluntary muscles. When
distinct, they present themselves in the form of rings, pretty
well defined, the extremities of which may be distinctly
traced, encircling the fibre, equidistant from each other,
uniform in diameter, and apparently raised from the surface
into ridges, having depressions between them. Mr Skey in¬
fers, as in certain lights light-coloured lines are seen, and
dark intervening lines, that the light lines are the elevated
strife, and the dark-coloured lines are the intermediate de¬
pressions.
These alternate light and dark-coloured transverse lines
are characteristic of voluntary muscles in all parts of the body,
and in all animals. They are not observed in the muscles
of organic life, or those of the involuntary organs, the heart
excepted ; for instance, the muscular fibres of the stomach,
of the intestinal canal, and the bladder.1
The muscles which present these cross-lines are some¬
times named Striped muscles; and as the aspect remotely
imitates a string of beads, they are occasionally called Beaded
muscles. In consequence of the stripes being found solely
in the voluntary muscles, the latter are often called Striped
and Beaded muscles.
The nature of these transverse lines and markings is not
perfectly known. Prochaska appears to have believed that
they were produced by minute flexuosities of fibrils, and con¬
nected in some manner with the filamentous tissues. Fon¬
tana believed that they were caused by small diaphragms
or partitions of the primary filaments. Mr Skey remarks,
that the strife are invariably large as the fibre is small, while
the broad fibres exceeding the average diameter of T^th
part of one inch, exhibit the most delicate and minute pen¬
cilling possible. He infers that these strife are ridges or
elevations on the longitudinal fibre, leaving between them
depressions considerably smaller than the globules of the
blood; that each fibre is divisible into fibrillce, which are com¬
posed of many ultimate filaments, and which are arranged in
1 On the Elementary Structure of Muscular Fibre of Animal and Organic Life. By E. C. Skey, F.Tt.S. Phil. Trans., Loud. 1837.
Vol. xxi. p. 371. On the Minute Structure and Movement of Voluntary Muscle. By W. Bowman. Ibid. 1840, Art. xxi. p. 457.
822 A N A T
General parallel lines round the axis of the fibre ; that the muscular
Anatomy. fi]aments have a diameter of about the third part of a glo-
bule of the blood; that they are tubular, and contain a so-
Muscle. luble glutinous substance; and that this structure belongs
to all the external muscles, and all the internal muscles con¬
nected to any form of tendinous matter.
According to Mr Bowman, several of these views of Mr
Skey are not susceptible of strict proof. Mr Bowman repre¬
sents the primitiveof the fibre of voluntary muscles
to consist of elongated polygonal masses of primitive com¬
ponent particles, or what he calls Sarkous elements, arranged
and united together both by their ends and by their sides,
so as to constitute in these directions respectively fibrillce.
Ultimate and disks, both of which exist together in the perfect un-
Filaments. mutilated muscular filament, and either of which may, in
certain cases, be detached separately. According to the
same observer, the dark longitudinal striae are shadows be¬
tween fibril Ice; the dark transverse streaks are shadows be¬
tween disks. The primitive fasciculus consists of primitive
component segments or particles, arranged so as to form in
one sense fibrillce, in another disks; and which of these two
present themselves to the observer, depends upon the amount
of adhesion. Generally, in a recent fasciculus, there are
transverse since or stripes, showing the division into disks, and
longitudinal lines marking the division into fibrillse. These
strice, in short, are the edges or focal sections of plates or disks
arranged vertically to the course of the fasciculi, and each of
which is composed of a single segment from each fibrilla.
The fasciculi are not tubular and hollow, but consist of a
true bundle offibrillce. That this is the fact, Mr Bowman
argues, is proved by making a ti’ansverse section, which pre¬
sents no appearance of any cavity.
By cutting a muscle across, these bundles are observed
to differ, not only in size, but in shape. Some are oblong
and rhomboidal, others present a triangular or quadrangular
section, and in some even the irregular pentagon or polygon
may be recognized.
According to the observations of Kolliker, the form most
usual is that of the hexagon, not quite regular; and when
two sides run into one, it assumes the shape of the penta¬
gon. Bowman merely says, that they are in all animals po¬
lygonal, though in some instances they make a near ap¬
proach to the cylindrical form. This is easily understood.
If the angles be rounded, the filament that might be poly¬
gonal or hexagonal becomes cylindrical.
Sarko- These bundles ox fasciculi are united by filamentous tis-
lemma. sue of great delicacy. Each filament or fibril is inclosed
in a sheath of peculiar matter, described by Schwann, and
afterwards by Bowman, under the name of Sarkolemma, or
Flesh Coat. This structure is entirely different, according
to the last author, from filamentous tissue, either penetrat¬
ing or generally investing. It may be discovered in un¬
broken fasciculi, in the form of a straight linear margin, quite
unconnected with and independent of the strice. The sar¬
kolemma is tougher and firmer than the muscular filament.
1 he fibrils and fibres thus inclosed in Sarkolemma are
united into Fasciculi, which are inclosed by filamentous
tissue, and are penetrated by arteries, veins, and nerves.
The whole are surrounded by filamentous tissue, which often
contains fat; in many instances covered by fasciae; in all
attached by tendons.
This fascicular arrangement appears to be confined to
the muscles of voluntary motion. It is not very distinct
in the heart or diaphragm; and in the urinary bladder
and intestinal canal it is not recognised. Nor is the pa¬
rallel arrangement of the ultimate filaments always strict¬
ly observed in the involuntary muscles. The component
fibres of this order of muscles are often observed to change
direction, and unite at angles with each other. This fact,
O M Y.
which was observed by Leeuwenhoeck, has been verified by General
Prochaska. Anatomy.
The colour of muscle varies. In man and the mammi-'v^rv-V/
ferous animals, at least adult, it is more or less red; in Jvlusc e‘
many birds and fishes it is known to be whitish ; in young
animals it is grayish or cream-coloured ; and the slender
fibres which form the middle coat of the intestines in all
animals are almost colourless. The colour of the muscles
of voluntary motion in man is red or fawn ; but repeated
washing or maceration in alcohol or alkaline fluids renders
them much paler.
The examination of the physical properties of muscle
has occupied the industry of Muschenbroek, Croone,
Browne Fangrish, Wintringham, and others of the iatro-
mathematical school. I cannot perceive that minute
knowledge of these properties is of much moment to the
elucidation either of its sound or its morbid states. Amidst
the variable results obtained in such an inquiry, the only
certain point is, that muscular fibre has less tenacity and
mutual aggregation than most other tissues. It sustains
much less weight and force of tension without giving
way.
Chemical analysis has not yet furnished any satisfac¬
tory results on the nature of muscular tissue ; but the gene¬
ral results of the numerous experiments already instituted
show that muscle contains fibrin, albumen, gelatine, ex
tractive matter (osmazome), and saline substances. It is
difficult to say how far the gelatine is to be regarded as
proper to muscle, or derived from the filamentous tissue
in which it certainly exists. The saline matters are com¬
mon to muscle with most other organic substances. There
is reason to believe that fibrin in considerable quantity
and albumen and osmazome in smaller proportion, are the
proper proximate principles of muscle. Though the vari¬
ous proportions of these principles have been stated in
numbers by chemists, it is impossible in the present con¬
dition of animal chemistry to place any reliance on them.
It is also to be remembered that the relative proportion
of the proximate principles varies at different periods of
life. In early life the muscular fibre contains a large pro¬
portion of gelatine, and very little albumen, fibrin, or os¬
mazome. In adult age, however, the gelatine is very
scanty, and the fibrin is abundant. The albumen and
gelatine found in muscle seem to be derived chiefly from
the filamentous tissue and the aponeurotic intersections.
During life the muscular fibre possesses the property of
shortening itself or contracting under certain conditions.
These may be referred to the following heads: Is#, The
will in the voluntary muscles; 2d, proper fluids in the
involuntary muscles, as the blood to the heart, articles of
food or drink in the stomach, chyme in the small intes¬
tines, excrement in the large intestines, urine in the blad¬
der, &c.; 3d, mechanical irritants in all muscles ; ith,
chemical irritants; and, 5th, morbid products generated
in the course of disease.
This property of contracting has received various names:
contractility, vis contractilis of L. Bellini; irritability of
Glisson; vis vitalis of De Gorter and Gaubius ; excita¬
bility, mobility, vis insita, vis propria of Haller; and the
organic contractility of Bichat. It is peculiar to muscular
fibre, and is found in no other living tissue.
The inquiry into the properties peculiar to muscles, and
the influence of the brain and nerves over muscular con¬
traction, forms an interesting subject of investigation, on
which many facts have been communicated since the time
of Haller and Whytt, and within the last forty years by
Nysten, Fe Gallois, Wilson Philip, Bell, Magendie, Flou-
rens, Fodera, Rolando, and Fonget. But it is too exten¬
sive to be considered in this place; and, for information
anatomy.
823
Muscle.
Tendon.
General on the subject, I refer to the ordinary physiological
Anatomy, works, and to those journals in which these researches are
detailed.1
The muscles have been divided, according to the man¬
ner in which the phenomena of contraction take place,
into, ls£, muscles obedient to the will, or voluntary; 2d,
muscles not under the influence of the will, or involuntary;
and, 3tf, muscles of a mixed character, the motions of
which are neither entirely dependent nor independent on
the will.
The first order comprehends all the muscles of the
skeleton; the second includes the hollow muscles, as the
heart, stomach, and intestinal canal; and in the third
are contained such muscular organs as the diaphragm, in¬
tercostal muscles, bladder, rectum, &c.
The muscles have also been distinguished, according to
their mechanical shapes, into long muscles (musculi longi,
vel teretes), broad muscles (musculi lati), and irregular
muscles, or those of mixed form. Hie long muscles are
found chiefly in the extremities; the broad muscles in
the trunk ; and those of irregular shape either in the trunk,
or passing from this to the extremities. From the direc¬
tion of their fibres, several of them are distinguished into
penniform and semipenniform.
Sinew, Tendon. (Tendod)
Sinew or tendon was united by Bichat with ligament,
fascia, aponeurosis, and periosteum, under the general
name of Jibrous system ; and the substance of thisanange-
ment has been adopted by Gordon, Meckel, anti Beclai d.
From personal observation, however, I am inclined to re¬
gard tendon as essentially distinct, at least in the piesent
state of knowledge, from these substances. Examined ana¬
tomically, it does not bear a very close resemblance to any
of them; and in its known chemical properties it is con¬
siderably different.
The appearance of this substance must be familiar.
Almost cylindrical in shape, but flattened at the muscular
end, and tapering where inserted, a tendon consists of
numerous white lines as minute as hairs, of satin-like
glistening appearance, placed parallel and close to each
other. A tendon is easily divided, and torn into longitu¬
dinal or parallel portions ; and by the forceps very minute
fibres may be detached and removed with ease, its whole
length. These facts show the great tenacity of this tissue,
ami the regular parallelism with which the component
fibres are united. The last circumstance distinguishes
them completely from ligaments and periosteum, in which
the fibres cross in all directions, and in consequence of
which these tissues cannot be so easily split or separated.
These fibres are united by filamentous tissue.
Tendon is softened and more easily separable by ma¬
ceration in water or alkaline fluids; it is crisped by ac-d
fluids, and rendered translucent by immersion in oil of tur¬
pentine. It has not been injected, but it is presumed to
have blood-vessels and absorbents. No nerves have been
traced into it.
Tendon when boiled becomes soft and large, assumes
the appearance of a transparent gelatinous substance, and
finally, if the boiling be continued, is dissolved and con¬
verted into gelatine. This fact, which is well known to
cooks, who prepare jellies from tendinous parts of young
animals, shows that tendon consists principally of gelatine,
disposed in an organized form.
A species of flattened tendons, to which the name of
aponeurosis has been given, may justly be united with this General
tissue. The best examples are in the aponeurotic or ten- Anatomy,
dinous expansion of the external oblique muscle of the Tendon>
abdomen, the aponeurotic part of the occipito-frontal
muscle of the head, and the upper or broad end of the
tendo Achillis. The anatomical structure and the chemi¬
cal properties of each of these varieties of animal substance
are quite similar, and somewhat different from that which
has been termed/ascfa.
White Fibrous System. Ligament. (Aed/xog, 0/ Ascr/xoi.)
Periosteum,—Dura Mater,—Fascia.
Against the formation of this order of tissues fewer ob- Ligament;
jections can be urged, though ligament and periosteum periosteum,
undoubtedly furnish its most perfect examples; and it
may be doubted whether/ama ought to be referred to it,
or arranged with tendon and aponeurosis. The dura
mater, the tunica albuginea, and the fibro-synovial sheaths,
are to be regarded as compound membranes.
Ligament and periosteum are easily shown to consist of
strong whitish or gray fibres, as minute as threads or hairs,
interwoven together in various directions, and thus form¬
ing an animal substance which is not to be split or torn
asunder as tendon ; but when ruptured by extreme force
presents an irregular ragged surface or margin. Macera¬
tion in water or alkaline fluids separates the component
fibres, and shows their irregular disposition more distinct¬
ly. They are crisped by affusion of boiling water, or im¬
mersion in acids ; and they become translucent by immer¬
sion in oil of turpentine.
The properties of this tissue are chiefly physical.
Those which are vital are referable to its organization and
nutrition. That it is powerfully resisting, and is one of
the toughest and strongest tissues in the animal body, is
evinced not only by the numerous experiments recorded
in the writings of the iatro-mathematical physiologists,
but by the barbarous mode of punishment by rending the
limbs asunder by horses. It is supposed to possess the
exhaling ends of arteries and colourless veins. No nerves
have been recognised ; and Bichat expresses his ignorance
of absorbents being traced into it.
Ligament when boiled yields a small portion of gelatine,
but obstinately resists the action of boiling water, and re¬
tains both its shape and tenacity or cohesion. The cris-
pation which it undergoes in boiling water, alcohol, and
diluted acids, seems to indicate that albuminous matter
forms its chief chemical principle.
As to their mechanical shape, the ligaments are divided
by Bichat into two sorts; those in regular and those in
irregular bundles. The former comprehends all the dis¬
tinct clusters of ligamentous structure, which, sometimes
in a cylindrical, sometimes in a flattened shape, connect
the articulating ends of bones, and form the lateral liga¬
ments of the various articulations. The latter consists of
those loose parcels of ligamentous fibres which are found
in various regions of the skeleton, not in regular cylindri¬
cal or longitudinal bands, but irregularly connecting bones
not admitting of articular motion; for instance, at the
and the sacro-iliac junction. rIhe division
of Beclard into articular, non-articular, and mixed, is more
comprehensive and more natural. The first are those which
connect the articular extremities of different bones. Ihe
second are those which, attached to different parts of the
same bone, convert notches into foramina, as in the orbital
arch and the supra-scapular hollow, or close openings, and
1 Elemcnta Physiologies, tom. iv. lib. xi. sect. 2 ; Whytt on the Vital and Involuntary Motions : Journal de Physiologic, tom. 1. u. &c.
Archives Gait rales, passim. Muller’s Archiv fur Anatomic und Physiologic, passim.
824
ANATOMY.
give attachment to muscles, as the obturator ligament.
The last are those which, like the sacro-ischiatic or the
interosseous ligaments of the fore-arm and leg, connect
penosteuni. ^)ones susceptible of little or no motion, and especially
give attachment to muscles. The two latter species of
ligaments approach closely in their characters, physical
and anatomical, to periosteum, and are probably to be re¬
garded as modifications of this membrane.
The articular or perfect ligaments are naturally divisible
into two subgenera,—the capsular and the funicular.
The capsular ligaments, or the fibrous capsules (Bichat),
consist of cylindrical ligamentous sheaths attached all
round to the ends of the articulating bones, and intimate¬
ly interwoven with the periosteal tissue. Consisting
essentially of fibro-albuminous matter strongly compacted,
they are surrounded by cellular tissue, or rather celluloso-
adipose tissue, and are lined internally by synovial mem¬
brane. Though the most perfect examples of the capsu¬
lar form of ligament are presented in the scapulo-humeral
and coxo-femoral articulations, less complete ones, never¬
theless, are seen in the other joints. In those of the knee
and elbow, an arrangement of this kind may be demon¬
strated ; and minute capsules may be shown to connect
the oblique articular surfaces of the vertebrae with each
other.
The funicular ligaments, which consist of round chords
or flat bands, are employed in connecting the articular
ends of bones either without or within the cavity of the
joint. Of those of the former description, the best ex¬
amples are seen in the elbow and knee joints, and in the
wrist and ankle, where they are termed lateral ligaments
(l. lateralia, accessoria). Of the latter instances are the
round ligaments (ligamenta teretia) of the shoulder and hip
joints, and the crucial ligaments of the knee-joint. These
receive an investment of synovial membrane.
Faacia. Of the white fibrous tissues, one of the most important
is that denominated /bscz'o. Consisting in intimate struc¬
ture of long fibrous threads placed in parallel juxtaposi¬
tion, sometimes obliquely interwoven and closely connect¬
ed by filamentous tissue, it forms a whitish membranous
web, variable in breadth, of some thickness and great
strength. Fascia is perhaps, not excepting the skin, the
most extensively distributed texture of membranous form
in the animal body. It not only covers, if not the whole,
at least by far the greatest part of the muscles of the
trunk and each limb, but it sends round each muscle pro¬
ductions by which it is invested and supported, and even
penetrates by minute slips into the substance of individual
muscles. Of several of the large muscles it connects the
component parts, as is seen in the recti abdominis ; to many
it affords points of origin or insertion; and to all it fur¬
nishes more or less investment and support. Most of the
tendons, especially the flexor and extensor tendons, are
inclosed by it; and their synovial sheaths derive from it
their exterior covering. At the extremities of the bones
it is connected with the ligaments and periosteum, with
which it is closely interwoven; and it forms a general in¬
vestment to the articular apparatus.
Though fascia may thus be viewed as one membranous
web consisting of many parts all directly connected with
each other, it is the practice of anatomists to distinguish
its divisions according to the region which they occupy.
Thus, in the fore-part of the neck and chest is found a
fascia, the relations and uses of which have been well de¬
scribed by Mr Allan Burns. In the cervical region we
find a firm fascia descending from the occipital bone along
the vertebras, covering and connecting the muscles of each
side till it reaches the loins, where, in the form of a thick
strong membrane, it forms the lumbar fascia (fascia lum-
borum). It may further be traced over and between the General
glutcei muscles, connected afterwards with the broad fe- Anatomy,
moral fascia (fascia lata), and thence over the knee and
leg to the foot. Much in the same manner a membranous I,1Sa"ient ">
web, thinner and more delicate, but of the same structure,P ^
may be traced from the chest along the upper extremity,
till at the wrist it is identified with the annular ligament,
and in the hand with the palmar fascia. In all these si¬
tuations the general fascial envelope sends slips or pro¬
ductions (fascia: intermusculares) between the muscles,
and into their substance.
Yellow Fibrous System. Elastic Ligaments of John Hunter.
(Ligamenta Flava,—JJgamentum Nucha,— Tissu Fi-
breux Jaune, Beclard.)
The yellow ligaments (ligamenta flava) which connect Elastic
the spinous processes of the vertebrae to each other differ ligaments,
considerably from the articular ligaments and the perios¬
teum, and suggested to Beclard the necessity of establish¬
ing a particular order of fibrous tissues, to which he ap¬
plies the denomination of yellow or tawny fibrous system.
Under this he includes also the proper membrane of the
arteries ; that of the veins and of the lymphatic vessels ;
the membranes which form excretory ducts; that of the
air-passages; the fibrous covering of the cavernous body
of the urethra, and perhaps that of the spleen. The ac¬
tions and occasional distensions of which these parts are
the seat require, it is said, a tissue, the resistance and
elasticity of which may at once counteract any extraordi¬
nary effort, and cause them to resume their original state,
when the distending cause ceases to operate. In the
lower animals this purpose is more conspicuous than in
the human subject. The posterior cervical ligament (li-
gamentum nucha, Arab.; cervicis, Lat.) in the camel,
giraffe, deer, and ox, counteracts the tendency to incli¬
nation of the head; and a similar membrane strengthens
the abdominal parietes, and resists the weight and dis¬
tending power of the viscera. In the feline tribe an elas¬
tic ligament inserted into the unguinal phalanges retains
them extended so long as the muscles do not alter their
direction. The shells of the bivalve molluscous animals,
as oysters, mussels, &c., are opened by a similar fibrous
tissue as soon as the muscles which close them are relaxed.
The disposition of the component fibres is the same in
the elastic as in the common white fibrous system. Their
colour, which is yellow or tawny, is generally more dis¬
tinct in the dead subject. They are said to be less tena¬
cious, but more elastic, than those of any other tissue. In
respect to chemical composition, they appear to contain
a considerable quantity of fibrin in a peculiar condition,
combined with some albumen and a little gelatine. Their
other properties are not very conspicuous.
Bone. ( Ocsnov,— Ossa,—Tissu Osseux,—Die Knochen.)
Bone, which is the hardest and most durable of the Bone,
animal solids, may be defined to be an organized sub¬
stance, consisting of a combination of animal and calca¬
reous matter, and constituting by its solidity the chief
support of the soft parts generally.
In the vertebrated animals it is moulded into pieces of
definite shape and size, which are connected either by li¬
gaments, cartilage, or fibro-cartilage, and which constitute
the skeleton of the animal. In the mammalia and birds
these pieces appear in their most perfect characters, as
to solidity, mechanical shape, and numerical extent. In
the human subject, though in these respects they partake
of the characters common to the bones of the mammalia,
in several senses these characters are more conspicuous
than in the lower animals.
ANATOMY.
General 1. The bones of the human skeleton are distinguished,
Anatomy, according to the varieties of mechanical figure, into long
and cylindrical bones (ossa longa sive cylindrical), flat bones
, (ossa lata sive plana), and short or irregular bones (ossa
form'. brevia sive mixta).
The long bones are confined to the extremities, where
they are subservient to the locomotive apparatus, by act¬
ing alternately as points of support and as levers movable
by the muscles in different directions. Placed in the
centre, they are surrounded almost entirely by muscles;
and are observed to diminish in length, but increase in
number, the farther they recede from their attachment to
the trunk. From this inverse arrangement it results that
near the trunk the members are distinguished for extent,
and remote from it for variety and multiplicity of mo-
tion.
The long bones agree in presenting cylindrical or pris¬
matic shafts (diaphyses) terminated by large, bulky, and
extensive extremities (epiphyses). The former are gene¬
rally small and slender compared with the latter and with
the size of the limb, and thus afford room for the bellies
of muscles attached to them. The large size of the lat¬
ter is well suited for the extent of the articular surfaces;
and being covered by slender tendons and the taper ex¬
tremities of muscles, they do not in general add to the
bulk of the member.
The shafts of the long bones are in general marked by
longitudinal rough lines, to which muscles or fasciae are
attached, and between which are found plane or hollow
surfaces for lodging the bellies of the muscles. These
lines are rarely straight; and the slight obliquity which
they observe gives the bone the appearance of being
twisted. This is well seen in the humerus and tibia.
The extremities of the long bones are marked in gene¬
ral by eminences and hollows, or processes (apophyses) and
depressions (fovece ; fossce). These inequalities, if tipped
with cartilage and synovial membrane, are for the pur¬
pose of articulation with other bones. When they are
simply formed of bone, they are for the attachment either
of ligaments or tendons.
The shafts of the long bones consist chiefly of dense com¬
pact bone, containing in the adult a longitudinal cavity,
which is easily exposed by a longitudinal section of the
bone. This cavity is not cyl indrical, but tapers considerably
at each end; nor is it in all instances equally complete.
Largest and most capacious about the middle, where it is
bounded by the solid, compact, bony walls of the diaphy-
sis, as the latter diminish in density they increase in bulk
by the formation of numerous minute intersecting columns
of bone, which progressively increasing in number towards
the end of the shaft, contract the cavity, until at length it
is obliterated in the lattice-work and cells (cancelli) formed
by their mutual intersection. This cavity is the medullary
canal. It is seen in its most perfect form in the humerus
and femur, in the tibia and fibula, and in the radius and
ulna. In the phalanges it can scarcely be said to exist.
The two forms of bony structure demonstrated in such a
section are distinguished as the dense or compact, and the
loose, reticular, or cancellated.
The medullary cavity is lined by a vascular filamentous
membrane, with numerous cells, containing the variety of
animal fat denominated marrow. The effect of this ar¬
rangement is to render the bone lighter than if perfectly
solid, without any diminution of strength. This cavity is
wanting in the original formation of the bone; and it be¬
gins to be formed when the matter of the diaphyses be¬
comes dense and compact. It is again obliterated in con¬
sequence of fracture or other injuries, succeeded by ad¬
hesive or depository inflammation, when it is filled by ge-
VOL. II.
825
latinous animal matter; and it is once more excavated as General
the walls of the diaphysis acquire solidity. Anatomy.
The flat bones are in general less connected with the
locomotive apparatus than with the protecting part of thejg"®^
skeleton. By mechanical configuration they serve toformSt,
contain various organs essential to the economy; and
when they admit of motion, this is rarely locomotive, but
connected with the purposes of the contained organs.
The bones of the cranium and pelvis furnish the best ex¬
amples of bones destined solely to protect, and as loco¬
motive agents affording only points of support. The ribs,
again, which are to be viewed as flat bones, not only form
the protecting walls of the chest, and furnish support to
the muscles of the upper extremities, but further under¬
go a slight motion, by means of which the dimensions of
the chest are alternately enlarged and diminished. The
vertebrae combine the characters of flat bones and irre¬
gular bones, approaching by their spinal plates to the for¬
mer class, and by their bodies to the latter.
In number the flat bones vary according to the purpose
to which they are applied, and the nature of the cavities
which they form. In the cranium and pelvis their nume¬
rical extent appears to bear relation chiefly to the facilit3r
of ossification,—a process which advances with equal
rapidity in each individual piece. In the chest, again, this
property is regulated by the kind of motion which the
ribs are destined to undergo. The vital organs of circu¬
lation and respiration would no doubt have been more se¬
curely protected had they been inclosed, like the brain,
in a continuous and complete osseous case ; but by this
arrangement the motions of inspiration and expiration
must have been very limited.
The flat bones agree in being convex and concave in
opposite directions ; in possessing two surfaces, an exter¬
nal and an internal, and a circumference; and in con¬
sisting of an external and internal table or thin plate of
bone, with loose cancellated structure interposed. This
arrangement is most conspicuous in those of the cranium,
in which the cancellated structure is distinguished by the
name of diploe. It is nevertheless equally distinct in the
ribs, the scapula, and the pelvic bones. In some instan¬
ces in the latter, the diploe is obliterated, and the two
tables approach each other so closely, that they form one
bone; and occasionally this is destroyed, and the bone
appears perforated. These effects are the result of long-
continued muscular action.
The cancellated structure of the flat bones is lined by a
vascular filamentous membrane, containing a smal.1 pro¬
portion of marrow, less oleaginous than that of the long
bones, and entirely resembling those of the cancellated
structure of their epiphyses.
The short bones are situate in parts requiring the com¬
bination of mobility and solidity; for example, the verte¬
bral column, the carpus and metacarpus, the tarsus and
metatarsus. Considerable extent of surface, numerous arti¬
cular and ligamentous connections, with few muscular or
tendinous insertions, are their leading external charac¬
ters.
They consist of a single thin external plate of bone,
inclosing a large proportion of cancellated structure,
lined by vascular filamentous tissue, containing semifluid
marrow, without much oil. While this arrangement com¬
bines very small specific gravity with sufficient firmness
and solidity, it renders them more liaWe to derangements
of organization than other parts of the osseous system.
Though the bones are thus distinguished according to
general characters, it is often impossible to apply them
accurately. The same bone may unite the characters of
long and short bone, or flat and short bone, or long and
5 M
826
ANATOMY.
General flat bone. All the long bones indeed are in their epiphy-
Anatomy. ses similar to the short bones.
In external figure the bones present certain eminences or
External Processes (apophyses), and pits or cavities (fovece; fossce).
forms. Tta eminences are either articular or non-articular. The
former, which are covered with cartilage or fibro-cartilage,
belong to the subject of the connections of bones. The
latter may be referred to three heads: Is#, eminences of
insertion for ligaments, tendons, or aponeuroses; 2d, emi¬
nences of reflection for the transit of tendons round a
pulley; and, 3d, eminences of impression, or those which
correspond to various soft parts in contact with the bones.
The eminences of insertion appear in various shapes,
and are distinguished into tuberosities and tubercles
(tubera), spines (spinee) or spinous processes, styloid pro¬
cesses (styli), crests (crista), and lines (linece), which are
generally rough and elevated. These impressions are al¬
ways more conspicuous in the male than in the female, in
the old than in the young, in the robust and muscular
than in the delicate and feeble, and in carnivorous than
in herbivorous animals. In some instances, as in the case of
the ischial tuberosity, the great trochanter and anterior tu¬
berosity of the humerus, the eminences present individual
facettes for the attachment of each tendon or muscle.
Of the eminences of reflection, the best examples are
in the unciform process of the pterygoid process of the
sphenoid bone, and the lower extremity of the fibula.
The depressions are either articular or non-articular.
The latter consist of cavities of insertion, reception,
transmission and motion, impression and nutrition.
The first, which give attachment to ligaments, tendons,
or aponeuroses, are useful in augmenting the extent
without increasing the size of bones. The pterygoid ca¬
vities, the digastricand that at the base of the great
trochanter, afford examples of these cavities.
Of the cavities of reception, examples are seen in the
cerebral and cerebellic fossa, and in the grooves for arteries
or nerves; for instance, that at the lower margin of the
ribs, and the various openings in the cranium for the
transit of vessels and nerves.
Cavities of motion are those over which tendons play
in the contraction of muscles; the bicipital groove, the
hollow between the ischial spine and tuberosity, and that
in the fibula for the peronai, are examples.
The cavities of impression alternate with the eminences,
and are to be regarded as in general the cause of these emi¬
nences.
The cavities of nutrition are those minute orifices through
which vessels convey to the substance of the bone, or the
medullary membrane, the materials of its nutrition. Each
long bone has one considerable hole of this kind in its
shaft, and numerous minute ones in its extremities. The
former is the orifice of a canal to the medullary cavity.
The latter are supposed to belong chiefly to the cancellat¬
ed structure.
Internal 2. Several attempts have at different times been made to
Structure, ascertain the atomic constitution of bone, but without
much success. Malpighi, though he corrected the extra¬
vagant fiction of Gagliardi regarding the osseous plates
and nails, fancied bones to be composed of filaments,
which Leeuwenhoeck represented as minute tubes (tu-
buli). By Clopton Havers, again, the ultimate parti¬
cles of bones were imagined to be fibres aggregated into General
plates (lamina) placed on each other, and traversed by Anatomy,
longitudinal and transverse pores (pori)^ This view
was adopted by Courtial, Winslow, Palfyn, Monro, and®one- ,
Reichel, who was at some pains to demonstrate this ar- structure,
rangement of plates and minute tubes by microscopical
observation. These notions were first questioned by
Scarpa, who, in 1799, undertook to show by examinations
of bone deprived of its earth by acid, and long macerated
in pure water, that it consists, both externally and inter¬
nally, of reticular or cellular structure. So far as I un¬
derstand what idea this eminent anatomist attaches to the
terms reticular and cellular, I doubt whether this opinion
is better founded than any of the previous ones. After
repeating his experiment of immersing in oil of turpen¬
tine bone macerated in acid, I cannot perceive the reti¬
cular arrangement which Scarpa describes. Recently bone
has been submitted to microscopic examination by Mr
Howship, who revives the opinion of the existence of mi¬
nute longitudinal canals, as taught by Leeuwenhoeck,
Havers, and Reichel, but with Scarpa maintains the ulti¬
mate texture not to be laminated, but reticulated. Lastly,
the existence of fibres and plates, which is admitted by
Blumenbach, Bichat, and Meckel, apparently on insuffi¬
cient grounds, is to be viewed as an appearance produced
by the physical, and perhaps the chemical qualities of the
proper animal-organic matter of which bone consists.
Though it does not demonstrate, it depends on, the inti¬
mate structure of this body.
The minute structure or atomic constitution of bone is
probably the same in all the pieces of the skeleton, and is
varied only in mechanical arrangement. When a cylin¬
drical bone is broken, and its surfaces are examined with
a good magnifying glass, or when minute splinters are in¬
spected in a powerful microscope, it appears to be a uni¬
form substance without fibres, plates, or cells, penetrated
everywhere by minute blood-vessels. Its fracture is un¬
even, passing to splintery. In the recent state its colour
is bluish-white; but in advanced age the blue tinge dis¬
appears. Delicate injection, or feeding an animal with
madder, shows the vascularity of this substance.
To have a clearer and more accurate idea of the minute
structure of bone, it is requisite to break transversely a
long bone, and examine its fractured surface by a good
glass, or to examine in the same manner the transverse
fracture of a long bone which has been burnt white in a
charcoal fire. The broken surface presents a multitude
of minute holes, generally round or oval, which are larger
towards the medullary cavity, but become exceedingly
minute towards the outer surface of the bone. Of these
minute holes no part of the bone, however compact in ap¬
pearance, is destitute; and the only difference is, that
they are more minute, and more regularly circular towards
the outer than towards the medullary surface. These
circular holes are transverse sections of the tubuli of
Leeuwenhoeck, the longitudinal pores of Havers ( Osteolo-
gia, p. 43 and 46), the pores and tubuli of Reichel, and the
longitudinal canals of Howship. They communicate with
each other by means of their great multiplicity and slight
obliquity and tortuosity. They contain not blood-vessels
exclusively, but divisions of the vascular filamentous tis¬
sue, which secretes the marrow. They are seen very dis¬
tinctly in bones which have been burnt. After many care-
■»T , Lhe principal authors on the structure of bone are, Dominici Gagliardi Anatome Ossium, novis inventis illustrata. Itomae, 1689.
Maipighi, Dc Ossium Siructura : Op- Post. _ Clopton Havers, Osteologia Nova. London, 1691. Delasone, Memoire sur VOrganisation des
7 n ^ Reichel He Ossium Ortn atque Structure. Lips. 1760. Ext. in Sandifort Thesaur. vol. ii. p. 171.
6 e,rfW. rl. fllfn ruc uru omment. Lips. 1799. Republished in De Anatome et Pathologia Ossium Commentarii,
Auctore A. Scarpa. Ticim, 1827. Papers by Mr Howship in the 6th and 7th volumes of the Medico-Chirurgical Transactions.
ANATOMY.
General ful examinations, I have never been able to observe holes
Anatomy. in longitudinal fractures of bones; and I therefore infer
that there are no transverse pores.
Bone. These capillary pores are seen in the flat bones of the
structure scu^- I them in the compact matter of the outer and
inner tables of the occipital bone when well burnt, in
which they seem to pass gradually from the lattice-work
of the diploe to the distinct pores of the tables. I doubt,
however, whether these pores can be said, as in the long
bones, to indicate canals. They seem rather to belong to
a very delicate cancellated structure. The pores are most
numerous and distinct in the bones of young subjects.
Though these circular pores are most distinct in cal¬
cined bones, and might therefore be thought to be the re¬
sult of the burning, yet that they are not, I infer from the
circumstance that they are seen by a good glass in the
transverse fracture of splinters of the femur and other
large bones.
If a portion of bone be immersed in sulphuric, nitric,
muriatic, or acetic acid properly diluted, it becomes soft
and pliable, and when dried, is found to be lighter than
before; yet it is impossible to discover that any particle
of its substance has been removed, or that its mechanical
shape and appearance are changed.
If a portion of bone be placed in a charcoal fire, and the
heat be gradually raised to whiteness, it burns first with
flame, and at length becomes quite red. If then it be re¬
moved carefully and slowly cooled, it appears as white as
chalk, is found to be very brittle, and to have lost some¬
thing of its weight. Yet neither in this case does any
part of its substance appear to be removed, nor is its me¬
chanical figure or appearance altered.
Chemical examination, however, informs us that in the
first case a portion of earthy matter (phosphate of lime) is
removed by the agency of the acid, and held suspended in
the fluid, while the pliant but otherwise identical piece of
bone consists chiefly, if not entirely, of animal matter;
and that, in the second case, this animal matter is removed
by destructive decomposition, while the earthy matter is
left little changed by the action of fire. Every particle of
bone, therefore, however minute, consists of animal or or¬
ganic, and earthy or inorganic matter, intimately united;
and it is impossible to touch, with the point of the smallest
needle, any part of bone which is not thus constituted.
A piece of bone consists not of cartilaginous fibres var¬
nished over, as Herissant imagined, with earthy matter,
but of a substance in which every atom consists of animal
and earthy matter intimately combined.
There is therefore no ground for dividing osseous tissue
into compact and spongy, as the old anatomists did; for
though the middle parts of long bones are denser and
heavier than their ends, or the bodies of the vertebrae, the
difference consists not in chemical composition, but in
mechanical arrangement. On dividing the head of a long
bone, the lattice-work, or cancelli, as they are named, are
formed by many minute threads of bone, crossing and
interlacing with each other. But each thread is equally
dense, and consists of the same quantity of animal and
earthy matter, as the most solid part of the centre of the
same bone. These threads, however, instead of being dis¬
posed compactly so as to take a small space, are so arranged
that they occupy a large one, and present considerable
bulk.
Though bone has been submitted to analysis by many
eminent chemists, the results hitherto obtained cannot be
said to be quite satisfactory. The most recent is that of
Berzelius, who, in 100 parts of bone from the thigh of an
adult, gives the following proportions : of gelatine 32-17,
blood-vessels M3, phosphate of lime 51-04, carbonate of
827
lime 11-30, fluate of lime 2-00, phosphate of magnesia General
1-16, hydrochlorate of soda and water T20. Anatomy.
These results by no means agree with those obtained
by Fourcroy and Vauquelin, who found neither fluoric
acid nor phosphate of magnesia, but discovered oxides ofstructure
iron and manganese, silica, and alumina, in bone. Sul¬
phate of lime, which was found in the experiments of
Hatchett, was shown by Berzelius to be formed during
calcination. It is, however, obvious that a little more
than a third part of bone consists of animal matter, which
appears to be either gelatine, or a modification of that prin¬
ciple ; and that the remainder, nearly equal to two thirds,
consists of earthy matter, which is chiefly phosphoric acid
combined with lime. The carbonic acid said to be united
with lime may result from the decomposition of the animal
matter. The other saline substances are not peculiar to
bone, but, being common to it and the other animal tissues,
and even the fluids, may be supposed to be derived from the
blood left in the bone at the moment of death.
The animal matter of bones was at one time presumed
to be cartilage; but this appears to be an assumption,
derived from the superficial resemblance which it bears
to this substance. It does not appear to be mere gelatine ;
for though this principle is obtained from bone, and bones
are economically used in manufacturing glue, they do not
furnish the same proportion of jelly as tendon, nor are they
so useful in making soups, as was once paradoxically
maintained by some chemists. It is probable that the gela¬
tine is under a peculiar modification, or combined with
some principle which is not well understood. The sulphur
formed during calcination seems to show that this animal
matter contains albumen. There is no fat in bones ; and
in the experiments in which this substance was found,
it is evident that marrow had been mingled with the bones
employed.
Though bones were arranged by the ancients among the Orgaruzn-
bloodless organic substances, they receive a considerable tion.
proportion of this fluid, and injection shows them to be
highly vascular. In early life especially these vessels are
numerous; and even in the grown adult, when death takes
place by strangulation or by drowning, the bones are found
to be naturally well injected. In old age the vessels are
less numerous, but they are larger. From the capillary
vessels distributed through their substance, bones derive
the pale blue or light pink colour by which the healthy
bone is characterized. When this tint becomes intense,
it indicates inflammation or some morbid state of the ves¬
sels of the bone. When it is lost, and the bone assumes
a white or yellow colour, the part so changed is dead.
Anatomists distinguish three orders of vessels which
enter the substance of bones ; the first, those which pene¬
trate the bodies of long bones to the medullary cavity
(arterice nutritice, arterice medullares); the second, those
which go to the cellular structure of the bone; and the
third, those which go to the compact or dense matter of
the bone. The view is only partially correct. The large
vessels termed nutritious certainly proceed chiefly to the
cavity of the bone, and are distributed in the medullary
membrane. These, however, are not the only vessels
which proceed to this part of the bone. First, I have
often traced several large vessels, entering not by the
middle, but the ends of the long bones, into the loose can¬
cellated texture, and actually distributed on the medulla
in this part of the bone. In dried bones also the canals
of these vessels may be demonstrated, extending from the
surface to the body of the bone. Secondly, the nutritious
vessels are not constant; and when they are wanting,
those of the ends of the bone, or of the cancelli, are much
larger and more numerous than in ordinary circumstances.
ANATOMY.
828
General The communication between these and the branches of
Anatomy, the nutritious vessels, which is admitted by Bichat, may
be easily demonstrated. The third order of vessels are
Omaniza- ^ose which may be termed periosteal, in so far as they
lion. consist of an infinite number of minute capillaries, some
red, some colourless, proceeding from the periosteum to
the bone, and contributing to maintain the connection
between the two. The short bones and the flat bones,
which are destitute of nutritious arteries, receive blood
from the two latter orders, but principally from the pe¬
riosteal vessels. In the scull these vessels are often
highly injected in apoplectic subjects, and in persons
killed by drowning or strangulation.
The veins of bones are peculiar in their arrangement.
The nutritious artery is accompanied by a social vein ; the
articular and periosteal vessels are said to be destitute of
corresponding venous vessels. According to Dupuytren,
however, minute venous capillaries arise from the substance
of the osseous tissue, precisely as in other tissues, and,
uniting in the same manner, form twigs, branches, and
trunks, which finally terminate in the neighbouring veins.
Lymphatics are not found in bones, nor have nerves been
traced into their substance.
Marrow, To complete the anatomical history of bone, it is requi¬
site to examine shortly the marrow. The interior of the
long bones contains a quantity of fat, oleaginous matter,
which has been long known under the name of marrow
([ivikog o67irr\i, medulla)’, and a similar substance, though
in smaller quantity, is found in the loose cancellated tissue
of the flat and short bones. It is in the first situation only
that it is possible to examine the anatomical characters of
this substance. It is sufficiently similar to fat or animal oil
in other parts of the body, to lead us to refer it to that head.
In other respects its chemical qualities have not been much
examined ; but an analysis by Berzelius shows that it con¬
sists chiefly of an oily matter, not unlike butter in general
properties. The filaments, blood-vessels, albumen, gela¬
tine, and osmazome found by this chemist in marrow, and
which did not exceed 4 parts in the 100, are derived from
the filamentous tissue, in which the medullary particles
are deposited.
Medullary medullary membrane, which has been considered as
mem rane.an internai periosteum, is imperfectly known. There can
be no doubt, however, of its existence, which is demon¬
strated by opening transversely or longitudinally the
medullary canal of a long bone, and boiling it for about
two hours. The marrow then drops out; and it will be
found to be deposited in the interstices of a filamentous
net-work of animal matter, like fine cellular tissue, which
may be traced not only into the lattice-work of the ex¬
tremities, but into the longitudinal canals of the cylindrical
bones. It is traversed by blood-vessels, which are observ¬
ed to bleed during amputation. No nerves have been found
in it. The medullary membrane, in short, may be regarded
as an extensive net-work of very minute capillaries united
by delicate filamentous tissue. From these capillaries
the marrow is deposited as a secretion. (Mascagni,
Howship.)
Develope- 3. The progressive formation of the osseous system has
ment. given rise to many researches by Kerckringius, Vater,
Baster, Duhamel, Nesbitt, Haller, Dethleef, Reichel,
Albinus, John Hunter, Scarpa, Senff, Troja, Meckel,
Howship, Medici, Serres, Lebel, Schultze, Bedard, and
Hutrochet; and it is a proof of the complicated nature of
the subject, that it continues to give rise to fresh investi¬
gation. The inquiry resolves itself into two parts,—the
history of the process of ossification as it takes place ori¬
ginally in the feetus and infant, and the history of its pro¬
gress as a process of repair when bones are divided, broken, General
or otherwise destroyed or removed. Anatomy.
From the first formation of the embryo to the termina-^^^^
tion of foetal existence, and thenceforth to the completion
of growth, the bones undergo changes in which various menl> 1
stages may be distinguished. In the first weeks of foetal
existence it is impossible to recognise any thing like bone ;
and the points in which the bones are afterwards to be
developed consist of a soft homogeneous mass of animal
matter, which has been designated under the general name
of mucus. Some time between the fifth and the seventh
week, in the situation of the extremities, may be recog¬
nised dark opaque spots, which are firmer and more solid
than the surrounding animal matter. About the eighth
week, the extremities may be seen to consist of their com¬
ponent parts, in the centre of each of which is a cylindrical
piece of bony matter. Dark solid specks are also seen in the
spine, corresponding to the bodies of the vertebrae; and even
the rudiments of spinous processes are observed in the
shape of minute dark points. In the hands and feet rings of
bone are seen in the site of the metacarpal and metatarsal
bones. All the joints consist of a semi-consistent jelly-
like matter, liberally supplied by blood-vessels. At ten
weeks the cylinders and rings are increased in length,
and are observed to approach the jelly-like extremities,
which are acquiring the consistence of cartilage, and when
divided present irregular cavities. At the same time the
parts forming the head are highly vascular; and between
the membranes are deposited minute points of bony matter,
proceeding in rays from a centre, which, however, is thin¬
ner and more transparent than the margin. (Howship.)
Between thirteen weeks and four months the cavities
in the jelly-like cartilaginous matter receive injection.
The membranes of the head are highly vascular, transmit¬
ting their vessels through the intervals of the osseous rays,
which are occupied abundantly by stiff, glairy, colourless,
mucilaginous fluid.
In the seventh month the bony cylinder of the thigh¬
bone and its epiphyses contain canals perceptible to the
microscope. In the head the bones are proceeding to
completion; the pericranium and dura mater are highly
vascular; and a quantity of reddish semitransparent jelly
between the scalp and the scull, which contain nume¬
rous minute vessels, Mr Howship regards as the loose cel¬
lular state of the foetal pericranium. This is, however,
doubtful. The cylindrical bones have at this period no
medullary cavity, but present in their interior a loose
bony texture.
Between the seventh and eighth months, in a feetus
ten inches long, the humerus consists of a cylinder of bone
placed between two brownish, firm, jelly-like masses, which
correspond to the epiphyses, inclosed by periosteum,
which adheres loosely by means of filamentous and vascu¬
lar productions. The radius is a thin bony rod, also be tween
two jelly-like epiphyses. The ulna is still thinner, more
slender and flexible, and even compressible. The interos¬
seous ligament is a continuous duplicature of the perios¬
teum. The metacarpal bones are much as before, only
larger. The hands and fingers are complete; but the
phalanges consist of minute semi-hard grains, inclosed in
periosteum, which forms a general sac to them, and to the
intermediate connecting parts. The middle and unguinal
phalanges can scarcely be called osseous. The femur, like
the humerus, is an osseous cylinder between two jelly-like
epiphyses, enveloped in loosely adhering periosteum. The
tibia andfibula are like the radius and ulna. The metatarsal
bones are cylindrical pieces, firm, but not very hard. The
first phalanx of the toes is complete: the other two,
though the toes are fully formed, are much of the consist-
ANATOMY.
829
General ence of cartilage. The carpal and tarsal bones are in the
Anatomy, state of the epiphyses, but of a gray colour.
In this state of the osseous system, the periosteum,
5°nej which is continuous, and appears to make one membrane
ment. ^ with the capsular ligaments and the deep-seated portions
of the fascia, adheres to the bone chiefly by arteries and
filamentous productions; and so loose is this connection,
that a probe may be inserted beneath it, and carried round
or inwards, unless where these connections are situate.
Another point where the periosteum adheres firmly is at
muscular insertions, to the humerus at the insertion of the
deltoid, and to femur at that of the glutceus.
In the vertebral column the bodies of the vertebrae and
the spinous plates are formed; and minute specks are be¬
ginning in the site of the transverse processes.
In the scull the parietal bones are well-formed shells
of bone, though very deficient at the mesial plane, the an¬
terior margin, and the upper anterior angle. The peri¬
cranium is distinctly membranous and vascular; and the
red jelly-like fluid noticed by Mr Howship is exterior to
this membrane.
At the period of birth the cylindrical bones contain
tubular canals filled with a colourless glairy fluid, and ter¬
minating in the surface of ossification. As the bones
previous to this period are homogeneous, and contain no
distinct medullary cavity, but present in their interior a
soft or loose bony texture, it is reasonable to suppose that
the developement of the longitudinal canals is connected
with the formation of the medullary cavity. At birth, in
the femur may be distinguished a medullary cavity begin¬
ning to be formed, about half a line broad, but still very
imperfect.
After birth, the two processes of the formation of tubu¬
lar canals and medullary cavity go on simultaneously;
and at the same rate nearly, the outer part of the cylin¬
drical bones acquires a more dense and compact appear¬
ance. The epiphyses, also, which are in the shape of
grayish jelly-like masses, begin to present grains and
points of bone. Previously to this, Mr Howship repre¬
sents them, while still cartilaginous, as penetrated by canals
or tubes, which gradually disappear as ossification pro¬
ceeds. The carpal and tarsal bones appear to observe
the same course in the process of ossification.
In the bones of the scull, however, a different law is
observed. The osseous matter is originally deposited in
linear tracts or fibres, radiating or diverging from certain
points termed centres of ossification. Each bone is com¬
pleted in one shell without diploe or distinguishable table.
Afterwards, when they are completed laterally, or in the
radiating direction, the cancellated arrangement of the
diploe begins to take place apparently in the same manner
in which the medullary cavity and compact parts of the
long bones are formed.
In the process now described, it is important to observe
that the bony matter is deposited round the soft parts,
and that the cavities, holes, and canals of bones are
merely parts in which the previous existence of vessels,
nerves, ligaments or tendons, prevents the subsequent
formation of bone.
It has been generally supposed that the formation of
cartilage is a preliminary step to that of bone. This,
however, seems to be a mistake, arising from the circum¬
stance that cartilage is often observed to be converted in
the living body into bone. Neither in the long nor in the
flat bones is any thing like cartilage at any time observed.
The epiphyses, indeed, present something of the consist¬
ence of cartilage, but it has neither the firmness nor the
elasticity of that substance. It is a concrete jelly, after¬
wards to be penetrated by calcareous matter. The flat
bones are from the first osseous; and though their mar- General
gins are soft and flexible, in consequence of their recent Anatomy,
formation and moist state, they have still a distinct osse-^-^^^
ous appearance and arrangement, and bear no resemblance 5onej
to cartilage. In short, true bone seems never at any pe- °I,e‘
riod of its growth to be cartilaginous.
The progressive growth of bones is effected by accre¬
tion of new matter to their extremities. The cylindrical
bones elongate by the addition of new matter to the ex¬
tremities of their diaphyses, and the flat bones by the en¬
largement of their margins. The latter fact is establish¬
ed by simple inspection during the process of ossification
of the cranial bones. In proof of the former, the expe¬
riment of John Hunter is decisive. In the tibia of a pig
he bored two holes, one near the upper, the other near
the lower end, with an interval of two inches exactly, and
inserted into each hole a small leaden shot. After some
time, when the animal had grown, and the length of the
bone was increased, on killing it, the space between the
leaden shots was found, as at first, to be exactly two inch¬
es,—thereby showing that no elongation had taken place
between the perforations. The experiment was often re¬
peated with the same result.
The period at which ossification is completed varies in
different individuals. It may be said to be indicated by
the completion of the medullary canal, by the ossification
of the epiphyses, and their perfect union with the osseous
cylinder (diaphysis). The first circumstance is indefinite.
The two latter, though more fixed, are still liable to great
variation. The epiphyses are rarely united before the age
of 14 or 15 ; and they may continue detached to the 20th
or 21st year. In general, however, they begin to unite or
to be knit, as is said, between the 15th and 20th years.
That the main agents of original ossification are the pe¬
riosteum and its arteries, the proofs are manifest. The
formation of bone can be ascribed to the vessels of two
agents only,—the periosteum and the medullary mem¬
brane. That the latter is not concerned in the pro¬
duction of bone in the foetus, must be inferred from the
fact that at that period it cannot be said to exist. To
the periosteum, therefore, and its vessels must be as¬
cribed the process of foetal ossification. Of this a cu¬
mulative proof is found in the circumstance, that the pe¬
riosteum adheres more firmly at the ends than the mid¬
dle of the bones ; and that the pericranium and dura mater,
which perform the part of periosteum to the bones of the
scull, are visibly concerned in the formation and succes¬
sive enlargement of these bones. But though the peri¬
osteal vessels are the main agents of ossification original¬
ly, there is reason to believe that the medullary vessels
contribute to its growth and nutrition after it is formed.
This may be inferred from the phenomena of fractures,
of diseases of the bones, and of those experiments in
which the medullary membrane is injured. The perios¬
teum, however, does not act by ossification of its inner
layers, as Duhamel, misled by a false analogy between
the growth of trees and bones, laboured to establish.
A peculiar form of the osseous system requiring notice
are the sesamoid bones. These, which derive their name
from their minuteness, (rfrjoa/Ajj, a grain), most of them,
excepting the knee-pan, being of the size of a grain
or pea, are confined to the extremities, and are situate
chiefly in positions in which they give points of sup¬
port to the tendons of the flexor muscles. (Tendons
of the gemelli, tibialis posticus, peronceus longus, &c.)
The peculiarity of these bones is, that they are formed
invariably in the substance of fibrous organs, as tendons in
the case of the knee-pan and the sesamoid bones of the
gemelli, tibialis posticus, and peronceus longus ; or ligaments
830
ANATOMY.
General in the case of those situate between the chiro-phalan-
Anatomy\ geai an(j podo-phalangeal articulations. With this pe-
culiarity their mode of ossification corresponds. At
Develope- ^rst a^buminous or fibro-albuminous, in process of time
ment. are penetrated by calcareous matter, and present an
osseous texture, which, however, is much less firm than
that of genuine bone. The period at which this deposi¬
tion commences and is completed varies in different in¬
dividuals ; and hence scarcely in any two persons of the
same age is the number of sesamoid bones the same.
Though the patella may be ossified at the 20th year, the
minute sesamoid bones are sometimes not formed before
the 30th or even the 40th. In the patella, when ossified,
we find a medullary organ; but it is uncertain whether
the others acquire this mark of osseous character. These
bones resemble the epiphyses in uniting, when divided, by
fibro-albuminous matter.
Junctions. 4. The bones of which the skeleton consists are united
in two modes; ls£, by movable junction (diarthrosis);
2dly, by immovable junction (synarthrosis). Both modes
of union bear the general name of articulation, though
this term would with greater propriety be confined to the
first or movable union. By this are connected all the
bones concerned in locomotion, and some of those devot¬
ed to the organic functions, as the ribs and the lower jaw.
The second is employed in the union of bones forming the
walls of cavities.
In the movable union, the articular surfaces are unit¬
ed in two modes. In the first, in which one bone moves
on the other with different degrees of freedom, the arti¬
cular surfaces are covered by cartilage and synovial mem¬
brane, and the bones are united by ligaments and tendons.
In the second (amphiarthrosis), in which the motion is
confined to a species of torsion or imperfect rotation, the
bones are united without articular surface by fibro-carti-
lage. The first is exemplified in the articulations of the
extremities; the second is seen in the union of the bodies
of the vertebrce and the bones of the pelvis.
The several forms of movable union with free motion,
or articulations proper, may be referred to four heads, ac¬
cording to the nature of the motions performed. The first is
the motion of radio-central opposition, or pivot-motion in
every direction, in which the bone moves in its articular
cavity, not only backwards and forwards, or by flexion and
extension, but by abduction and adduction, and, by the
succession of these motions, may describe a cone with the
apex at the joint, or what is termed circumduction. This
most extensive form of motion is found in the scapulo¬
humeral and coxo-femoral articulations only. The second
form of articular motion is antero-posterior opposition, or
cardinal motion (cardo, a hinge), in which the bones
move on each other by flexion and extension, as a gate
on its hinges. This, which is sometimes named limited
opposition, is found in the femoro-tibial and humero-cu-
bital joints, and all those which undergo flexion and ex¬
tension. The third form of motion is that of rotation, in
which the bone revolves on its axis,—an infrequent vari¬
ety, confined chiefly to the humerus and femur. The
fourth, which is the gliding motion, though common to all
articular surfaces, is nevertheless the peculiar motion of
the carpal and tarsal bones.
In the immovable union the surfaces are united in
three modes. The first is by mutual indentation, or what
is named suture (sutura vera), in which the margin of
one bone is dovetailed by alternate serrated teeth and
notches, into that of another. The second is by juxta¬
position (harmonia), in which the margin of one bone is
simply fitted to that of another. A peculiar variety of
this is, when the acute margin of one bone is received be¬
tween the bifid margin of another, as the azygos pro- General
cess of the sphenoid bone is received by the plates of Anatomy,
the vomer ; (schindylesis.) The third mode of immov-
able union is by implantation or insertion (gomphosis), as?one\
the teeth are inserted into the alveolar cavities of the su- U C l0n9‘
perior and inferior maxillary bones.
The following table exhibits a view of these modes of
junction, with their appropriate appellations.
JUNCTIONS OF BONES.
I. IMMOVABLE ; (SYNARTHROSIS.)
Continuous Bony Surfaces, united by Bone and Membrane.
' a S. Serrata, sive \ Coronal, Sagittal, and
Mutual In-
dentation. } ^utura“ "I
Juxtaposition.
Implantation.
Dentata. ) Lambdoidal Sutures.
/3 Sutura Lim- ) c< , . . . „ ^
>• Spheno-parietal Suture.
y Sutura Squa- j m . , , „ ,
mosa > lemporo-panetal Suture.
Harmonia.
Gomphosis.
H- Simplex. H. Schindylesis.
The Teeth in the alveoli.
ir. semimovable; (amphiarthrosis.)
Continuous Surfaces, united by Fibro-CartiJage.
Kotation and ) * n *
Torsion. [ A' Rotatl°-
Cardinal 1 . r ^
Opposition. }
The Bodies of the Vertebrae.
f Symphysis. )
-< Synchondrosis. >
(Synneurosis. J
Bones of the
Pelvis.
III. MOVABLE ; (DIARTHROSIS.)
Contiguous, Cartilaginous Surfaces, united by Ligaments.
Unlimited Opposition, ■
Circumduction, and -j ,
notation. '
Unlimited Opposition,
and Circumduction.
r!. TTnlimitmt rWoUion f (Arthrodia). TheScapulo-humeral
Articulation.
(Enarthrosis). Cup and Ball-joint,
f The Ilio-femond.
({Arthrodia). Temporo-maxillary,
(and Stemo-clavicular.
(Enarthrosis), Cup and Ball-joint.
Radio-carpal, Chiro-phalan-
geal, &c.
3. Limited Opposition, J (Ginglymus). Cardinal Joint. Fe-
Flexion, and Extension. ( moro-tibial, Phalangeal.
1 (Diarthrosis Trochoides). (Lateral
Ginglymus). Radius and Ulna,
Atlas and Axis.
((Diarthrosis Planijbrmis). Amphi-
j arthrosis of some authors. The
j Carpal and Tarsal Bones; the
Oblique Processes of the Ver-
I tebrse.
4. Rotation.
5. Gliding.
Teeth. (Dentes.)
Every tooth consists of two hard parts; one external, Teeth,
white, uniform, somewhat like ivory; the other internal,
similar to the compact structure of bone.
The first, which is named enamel, is seen only at the
crown of the tooth, the upper and outer part of which
consists of this substance. It is white, very close in tex¬
ture, perfectly uniform and homogeneous, yet presenting
a fibrous arrangement. Extending across the summit of
the tooth in the manner of an incrustation, it is thick
above, and diminishes gradually to the root, where it dis¬
appears. This fact is demonstrated by macerating a tooth
in dilute nitric acid, when the bony root becomes yellow,
while the crown remains white.
The enamel is not injectible, and is therefore believed
to be inorganic. It is also filed and broken without being
reproduced; nor does it present any of the usual proper¬
ties which distinguish organized bodies. The piercing
sensation which is communicated through the tooth from
the impression of acids seems to depend on the mere che¬
mical operation, and not on the physiological effect. On
ANATOM Y.
831
Teeth.
General the whole, the enamel is to be viewed as the inorganic
Anatomy. result of a process of secretion or deposition.
1 ^ The bony part of the tooth is the root and that internal
part which is covered on the sides and above by the ena¬
mel. It consists of close-grained bony matter, as dense
as the compact walls of the long bones, or the petrous
portion of the temporal bone. The fibres which are said
to be seen in it are exactly of the same nature as those
in bone. .
In the interior of the bony part of each tooth is a ca¬
vity which descends into the root, and communicates at
its extremity with the outer surface by openings corre¬
sponding with the number of branches into which the root
is divided. This cavity, which is large in young or new¬
ly formed teeth, and small in those which are old, contains
a delicate vascular membrane, which has been named the
pulp of the tooth. It is best seen by breaking a recent
tooth by a smart blow with a hammer, when the soft
pulpy membrane may be picked out of the fragments by
the forceps. It then appears to be a membranous web
with two surfaces, an exterior adhering to the bony sur¬
face of the dental cavity by minute vessels; the other in¬
terior, free, and, so far as can be determined of a body so
minute, resembling a closed sac.
The developement and growth of the teeth is a process
of much interest.
At what time the first rudiments of teeth appear seems
not to be determined with accuracy. In the fcetus, be¬
tween the seventh and eighth month, I can merely dis¬
tinguish in the centre of the vascular membrane of the al¬
veolar cavity a minute firm body like a seed. I have,
however, seen the crowns of teeth formed in foetuses
which, I have reason to believe, had not attained the
seventh month. But whatever may be the exact period,
the process is nearly as follows.
While the bones of the upper and lower jaw are in
the process of formation between the third and fourth
months, (fourth and fifth, Bichat, tom. iii. p. 93,) a series
of soft, membranous, vascular sacs inclosed within the
general cavity of the periosteum, may be recognised at
tbeir lower and upper margins, which are still without
those osseous plates which afterwards constitute the al¬
veoli. Each of the sacs now mentioned consists, like a
serous membrane, of two divisions,—one external, attached
to the periosteum, the other folded within it, and forming
a closed cavity. The outer or periosteal deposits in the in¬
tervals between each sac, bone, which eventually consti¬
tutes the transverse septa of the alveoli. From the inside
of the inflected portion the process of dentition commences
some time between the fifth and seventh month, by the de¬
position of matter from the vessels at the lowest point of
the alveolar division of the sac. This matter is to consti¬
tute the crown of the tooth, which is invariably formed
first. After the deposition of the first portions, these are
pushed upwards by the addition of successive layers below
them, and necessarily carry the inflected part of the sac
before them. As this process of deposition advances, the
tooth gradually fills the sac, and rises till it reaches the
level of the alveolar margins. If a tooth be examined in
situ, near the period of birth, it is found to consist of the
crown, with portions of enamel descending on every side,
and forming a cavity in which a cluster of blood-vessels
proceeding from the sac is lodged. In the mean time,
bone is deposited from the periosteal division all round
each sac, so as to form the alveoli.
After the enamel has been deposited the bone begins
to be formed; and as this process advances, the tooth is
still forcibly thrust upwards by the addition of matter to
its root. When the latter is well completed, the vessels
become smaller and less abundant, until, when the tooth Geneva,
is perfect, they shrink to a mere membrane, which lines
the cavity of the tooth, and still maintains its original Teeth,
connection with the alveolar membrane, by the minute
vascular production which enters the oiifice or orifices of
the root. . .
Physiological authors have thought it important to
mark the period at which the teeth appear at the gums ;
and in general this takes place about the sixth or seventh
month after birth. This mode of viewing the process of
dentition, however, gives rise to numberless mistakes on
the period of teething. The process, as we see, commences
in the early period of foetal existence; and the time at
which they appear above the gums varies according to t e
progress made in the womb. In some the process is ra¬
pid, in others it is tardy; and even the stories of Richard
III. and Louis XIV. receive confirmation from the fact of
19 examples cited by Haller, of infants born with one or
more teeth above the gum. Generally speaking, the
crown is completed at the period of birth ; and, according
as the formation of the root advances with rapidity or slow¬
ly, dentition is early or late.
What is here described is the process of the formation
of the first or temporary set of teeth, which consist, it is
well known, of twenty. In that of the second set the
same course is observed. In the same manner is observed
a row of follicular sacs, though not exactly in the original
alveoli, yet attached to the sacs of the temporary teeth
by vascular membranes; in the same manner deposition
begins at the bottom of the free surface of the sac by the
formation of the crown ; and in the same manner the crown
is forcibly raised by the successive accretion of new matter
to its base. The moment this process commences, a new
train of phenomena takes place with the primary teeth. The
follicular sacs of the new or permanent teeth^ are liberally
supplied with vessels for the purpose of nutiition; and as
these blood-vessels increase in size, those of the tempo¬
rary teeth diminish; and the supply of blood being thus
cut off, the latter undergo a sort of natural death. The
roots which, as being last formed, are not unfrequently
incomplete, now undergo a process of absorption; and the
tooth drops out in consequence of the destruction of its
nutritious vessels. Some authors have ascribed this ex¬
pulsion to pressure, exercised by the new tooth. They
forget, however, that before the new tooth can exert any
pressure, it must be in some degree formed; and to this a
vascular system is indispensable.
The increased number of the teeth when permanent,
the enlargement of the jaws, and the consequent expansion
of the face, though interesting, are foreign to the present
inquiry.
Gristle, Cartilage. (Cartilago,— Tissu Cartilagineux.)
The cartilaginous system or tissue is found at least in Cartilage,
three different situations of the human body; ls£, on the
articular extremities of the movable bones; 2d, on the
connecting surfaces or margins of immovable bones ; 3c/,
in the parietes of certain cavities, the motions and uses of
which require bodies of this elastic substance.
The organization of gristle is obscure and indistinct.
On examination by the microscope, its surface is pearl-
white, uniform and homogeneous, firm and glistening,
with numerous minute pores. William Hunter represents
the articular cartilages as consisting of longitudinal and
transverse fibres. (Phil. Trans, vol. xlii.) Herissant le-
presents those of the ribs as composed of minute fibres
mutually aggregated into bundles connected by short ^’Ps>
and twisted in a spiral or serpentine direction. [ Mem.
de l'Acad. 1748.) By Delasone, the articular cartilages
832 ANATOMY.
General are said to consist of a multitude of minute threads,
mutually connected and placed at right angles to the
Cartilatrp P^ane °f the bone, but so as to radiate from the centre to
^ ' the circumference. (Ibid. 1752.) The general fact of
fibrous structure is confirmed by Bichat, who states that
it is possible to recognise longitudinal fibres, which
are intersected by others, oblique or transverse, but
without determinate order. In its purest form no blood¬
vessels are seen in it, nor can they be demonstrated by
the finest injections. In the margins of those pieces
of gristle, however, which are attached to the extre¬
mities of growing bones, blood-vessels of considerable
size may often be seen, even without the aid of injection.
In young subjects a net-work of arteries and veins, which
is described by Hunter under the name of circulus articuli
vasculosus, may be demonstrated all round the margin of
the cartilage at the line between the epiphysis and it.
They terminate so abruptly, however, that they cannot be
traced into the substance of the latter. The most certain
proofs, however, of the organic structure of this substance
are the serous exudation which appears in a few seconds
on the surface of a piece of cartilage after division by the
knife; and the fact that it becomes yellow during jaun¬
dice, and derives colour from substances found in the
blood. Neither absorbents nor nerves have been found
in it. The cellular texture said by Bichat to form the
mould for the proper cartilaginous matter appears to be
imaginary.
The articular cartilages adhere to the epiphyses by one
surface, which consists of short perpendicular fibres placed
parallel to each other, and forming a structure like the pile
of velvet. This is easily demonstrated by maceration,
first in nitric acid, and then in water. The free or smooth
surface is covered by a thin fold of synovial membrane,
which comes off in pieces during maceration. The exist¬
ence of this, though recently denied by Gordon, was ad¬
mitted by William Hunter, and may be demonstrated
either by boiling, maceration, or the phenomena of inflam¬
mation, under which it is sensibly thickened. All other
cartilages are enveloped, unless where they are attached
to bones, by a fibrous membrane, which has been there¬
fore namedi perichondrium. The existence of this maybe
demonstrated by dissection, and also by boiling, which
makes it peel off in crisped flakes.
The chemical properties of cartilage have not been ac¬
curately examined. Boiling shows that it contains gela¬
tine ; but as much of the matter is undissolved, it may be
inferred that it is under some modification, or united with
some other principle, perhaps albumen. Immersion in
nitric acid or boiling fluids induces crispation, and it dries
hard and semitransparent like horn.
Fibro-Cartilage, Chondro-Desmoid Texture. (Cartilago
Fibrosa,— Tissu Fibro- Cartilagineux.')
Fibro-car- Intermediate between the cartilaginous and the fibrous
t4'a8e* tissues, Bichat ranks that of the fibro-cartilages, which
comprehends three subdivisions: ls£, the membranous
fibro-cartilages, as those of the ears, nose, windpipe, eye¬
lids, &c.; 2e?, the inter-articular fibro-cartilages, as those
found in the temporo-maxillary and femoro-tibial articula¬
tions, the intervertebral substances, and the cartilaginous
bodies uniting the bones of the pelvis ; 3t/, certain portions
of the periosteum, in which, when a tendinous sheath is
formed, the peculiar nature of the fibrous system disap¬
pears, and is succeeded by a substance belonging to the
order of fibro-cartilages.
Beclard follows Meckel in rejecting the first subdivi¬
sion, the individuals of which are quite similar to ordinary
cartilage, in wanting the distinct fibrous structure, and being
covered by perichondrium, the fibres of which have caused General
them to be regarded as fibro-cartilages. On this principle Anatomy.
Beclard gives the following view of the fibro-cartilages.
Is#, Fibro-cartilages free at both surfaces; those in the ^
form of menisci, which are placed between the articular “ age’
surfaces of two bones (fibro-cartilagines inter-articulares).
These are seen in the temporo-maxillary, sterno-clavicular,
and femoro-tibial articulations, and occasionally in the
acromio-clavicular and the ulno-carpal joints. These liga¬
ments are attached either by their margins or their ex¬
tremities, and are enveloped in a thin fold of synovial
membrane. '2d, Fibro-cartilages attached by one surface.
Of this description are those employed as pulleys or
grooves for the easy motion of tendons ; for instance, the
chondro-desmoid eminences attached to the margin of the
glenoid cavity for the long head of the biceps, and at the
sinuosity of the ischium for the tendons of the obturatores.
3d, Fibro-cartilages, which establish a connection between
bones susceptible of little individual motion, as the inter¬
vertebral bodies; or which unite bones intended to remain
fixed, unless under very peculiar circumstances, as those
which form the junction of the pelvic bones. (Symphysis
pubis ; sacro-iliac synchondrosis.)
The peculiarities of these substances consist in their
partaking in different proportions of the nature of carti¬
lage and white fibrous tissue, and, consequently, in possess¬
ing the toughness and resistance of the latter with the
elasticity and flexibility of the former. The structure of
the fibro-cartilaginous tissue is easily seen in the interver¬
tebral bodies, and in the cartilages uniting the pelvic bones.
In the former, white concentric layers, consisting of cir¬
cular fibres placed in juxtaposition, constitute the outer
part, while the interior contains a semifluid jelly. The
concentric fibrous layers are cartilage in a fibrous shape.
In the latter situation the fibrous structure is equally dis¬
tinct, while the cartilaginous consistence shows the con¬
nection with that organic substance. A similar arrange¬
ment is remarked in the inter-articular cartilage of the
temporo-maxillary articulation, and in the semilunar car¬
tilages of the knee-joint. In all, the fibrous is said to pre¬
dominate over the cartilaginous structure. Their physical
properties are distensibility and elasticity. Though they
are at all times subjected to considerable pressure, they
speedily recover their former size. Though their chemi¬
cal composition is not exactly known, they evidently con¬
tain much gelatine.
Gland. Glandular System. (Glandulce.)
The name gland, though rather vaguely used, may be Gland,
properly restricted to designate organs of a definite
structure, consisting of arteries, veins, and excretory
tubes, arranged in a peculiar manner, and destined to
separate from the blood a fluid of peculiar chemical and
physiological properties. The organs of this description
may be arranged in two general divisions,—the follicular
glands, or those which occur in an isolated form ; and the
conglomerate glands, or those which, being of larger
volume, are understood to consist of numerous small
glands combined in one general organ. The former em¬
braces the sebaceous glands of the skin and the muci¬
parous glands of mucous membranes; in the latter are
comprehended the lacrymal and salivary glands, with
the tonsils, the pancreas, the liver, the kidneys, the tes¬
ticles of the male, and mammae of the female, and per¬
haps the prostate gland. To a third head, denominat¬
ed that of imperfect glands, Meckel refers such organs
as the thymus, the suprarenal capsules, the thyroid,
and the spleen. But since the term imperfect implies
here a contradiction, and since it is by no means ascer-
ANATOMY.
833
General tained, either that these organs secrete, or that their
Anatomy, secretions ate removed by the lymphatics, it is manifest
that they cannot be justly associated with the organs above
Gland, (jgftned as examples of glands.
The follicular glands, though most minute, are never¬
theless distinguished by the most simple and intelligible
structure. They consist of small hollow spherical sacs, or
minute membranes moulded into the saccular form, in
the attached surface of which are distributed numerous
minute arteries and veins, and the free surface of which
is smooth and covered with the fluid secreted. The
quantity of vascular substance with filamentous tissue
surrounding the attached surface of these glands, makes
them occasionally project from the surface of the mem¬
brane to which they are attached. In ordinary circum¬
stances, however, they cause no elevation, and appear
in the form of simple sacs with a narrow orifice. Ihese
glands belong to two textures only of the animal body,—
the skin and the mucous membrane. In the former they
are named sebaceous glands, from the fluid which they se¬
crete containing a small portion of fatty matter. In the
latter they are named follicles, crypts, or muciparous glands.
In certain regions of the mucous membranes, for in¬
stance in the male urethra, the crypts are arranged in
such a manner that they constitute large sinuous cavities,
the free surface of which secretes serous mucus copious¬
ly. These cavities, which have the further effect of in¬
creasing much the superficial extent of the membrane,
are denominated lacunce. The peculiarity of this form of
mucous gland appears to consist in its membranous sac
having unusual extent, and consequently in the glandular
vessels being more expanded than in the ordinary glands.
The structure of the conglomerate glands is more com¬
plicated. Each gland consists of numerous minute por¬
tions of definite figure, named lobules; and each lobule
may be resolved into granules, also of definite shape, in¬
timately connected by filamentous tissue. These granules,
which have since the time of Malpighi been denominated
acini, are found to consist of clusters of minute arteries
and veins aggregated together, with minute tubes for con¬
veying away the secreted fluid. On these points anato¬
mists are agreed. They are seen most distinctly in the
liver and kidney, and may be demonstrated in the pan¬
creas, testicles, and female breast, by injection. Every
acinus, in short, may be said to consist of two parts, a vas¬
cular or supplying, and a tubular or excreting.
On the manner in which these two parts of the acinus
communicate, however, there is less certainty and preci¬
sion. In this difficulty, as the point is scarcely a matter
of observation, conjecture has been resorted to; and the
opinions of anatomists have been divided between two
parties. According to one, at the head of which may be
placed Ruysch, Haller, William Hunter, and Hewson, the
minute arteries terminate directly in the excretory ducts,
without intermediate substance. According to the other
opinion, which is that of Malpighi, between the arteries
and the excretory tubes there are placed minute mem¬
branous vesiculce or pouches, in the substance of which
the arteries, still more minutely divided, are distributed,
and from the free surface of which the process of secre¬
tion goes on. In short, each acinus, according to Mal¬
pighi, is a separate follicle, and the conglomerate glands
consist merely of numerous follicles, combined so as to
form a large general secreting organ.
Between these two views of the intimate nature of the
glandular tissue there is less difference than at first sight
might be imagined. The chief difference is in the ulti¬
mate arrangement of the glandular capillaries. According
to the view of Malpighi, these capillaries are arranged in
clusters, as it were, round the beginning of the excretory General
pore, so that even in this condition the termination of the
former class of vessels is the commencement of the latter. Glan(U
Conversely, it may be said, that since the delicate mem¬
brane in which the secreted fluid first appears neces¬
sarily receives the capillary terminations, the latter can¬
not be said to communicate directly with the excretory
tubes. The correct view of the matter is, that by the
term vesicles are not to be understood large sacs, but
merely the rounded recess of the membrane which forms
the excretory tubes. Further, since the researches of
Hewson and Monro show that in the kidney and the tes¬
ticle the arteries are convoluted, it may be inferred that
this is the character of the capillary arrangement of
the glands; and that it is requisite to the performance of
the process of secretion that the vessels be disposed in
such a tortuous manner as to prevent too rapid motion
of the blood.
The conglomerate glands, we have seen, consist chiefly
of minute vascular ramifications infinitely subdivided. In
all the glands, excepting the liver, these vessels consist of
arteries to convey blood to the organ, and veins to re¬
turn it to the system ; and in all the glands, excepting the
liver, it is a peculiar circumstance that the same arterial
trunk conveys blood for nourishing the gland, and for sup¬
plying the materials of the secretion. All the secretions,
therefore, excepting that of the liver, are derived from
arterial blood. The liver alone, besides receiving a con¬
siderable artery, derived from the cceliac trunk, is remark¬
able for being chiefly supplied with blood from a large
venous trunk, formed by the union of the veins of the
stomach and spleen, and the mesenteric and mesocolic
branches, and which after this union is again subdivided
into ramifications in the substance of the gland. Injection
shows that the branches and twigs of this vein anastomose
freely with those of the hepatic artery; and though it
might be imagined that the latter is intended chiefly to
nourish the gland, and the former to supply the materials
for secretion, this circumstance, with the fact that in some
rare instances the vena portce is not distributed in the
liver, shows that at present this opinion must be adopted
with caution.
Besides arteries, veins, and excretory tubes, glands are
supplied with lymphatic vessels, which are arranged in two
sets, superficial and deep. The former are confined to
the surface of the organ, over which they may be seen
creeping in every direction, and belong chiefly to the
membranous coverings of the glands. The deep-seated
lymphatics are those which penetrate the substance of
the glands, and in general accompany the large blood¬
vessels.
Every gland receives a proportion of nervous branches,
generally from the nerves of the sympathetic system.
These branches accompany the blood-vessels in penetrat¬
ing the substance of the glands, and are distributed much
in the same manner as the arteries before their ultimate
division. They exercise some influence over the process
of secretion ; but the nature and extent of this influence
are still undetermined.
Each gland contains a quantity of filamentous tissue,
which envelopes the blood-vessels, tubes, lymphatics, and
nerves, and constitutes a large proportion of the mass of
the gland. The simple tissues, thus united, are inclosed
in a general membranous covering, which also partly con¬
tributes with these tissues to retain it in its situation.
These membranous coverings vary in different glands. In
the liver and pancreas it is the peritoneum ; the kidneys
are inclosed in a peculiar tunic; the testes are contain¬
ed in a fibrous membrane; and the acini of the lacrymal
5 N
VOL. II.
834 ANA
General and mammary glands appear to be covered by a form of
condensed filamentous tissue.
CHAP. III. ENVELOPING TISSUES.
Skin. (Cutis, Pettis.) Cutaneous Tissue, Dermal Tissue.
(La Peau, Tissu Dermoide,—Die Haut, Das Fell.)
Fell, old English; with its appendages, Scarf-skin or
Cuticle, Nail, Hair. (Cuticula, Epidermis,—Tissu Epi-
dermoide et Tissu Pileux.)
Skin. Skin has been said to consist of three parts, true skin
(cutis vera), mucous net (rete mucosum), and scarf-skin or
cuticle. Haller, Camper, and Blumenbach, are inclined
to deny the existence of the mucous net in the skin of the
white, and to admit it in that of the negro only; and in
point of fact, indeed, its existence has been demonstrated
in the negro race only, and inferred by analogy to exist
in the white. “ When a blister has been applied to the
skin of a negro,” says Cruikshank, “ if it has not been
very stimulating, in twelve hours after a thin transparent
grayish membrane is raised, under which we find a fluid.
This membrane is the cuticle or scarf-skin. When this
with the fluid is removed, the surface under these appears
black; but if the blister had been very stimulating,
another membrane, in which this black colour resides,
would also have been raised with the cuticle. This is
rete mucosum, which is itself double, consisting of another
gray transparent membrane, and of a black web very much
resembling the pigmentum nigrum of the eye. When this
membrane is removed, the surface of the true skin, as has
been hitherto believed, comes in view, and is white like
that of a European. The rete mucosum gives the colour
to the skin; is black in the negro; white, brown, or yel¬
lowish in the European.” (Experiments on the Insensible
Perspiration, &c. London, 1795.)
Bichat denies the existence of a mucous varnish (corpus
mucosum) such as Malpighi describes it, and regards the
vascular surface of the corion as the only mucous net.
According to Chaussier the skin consists of two parts
only, the derma (begfia, cutis vera) or corion, and the epi¬
dermis, cuticle, or scarf-skin; the first embracing the or¬
ganic elements of this tissue ; the second being an inorganic
substance prepared by the organic, and deposited on its
surface. This opinion is adopted by Gordon, according
to whom the skin consists of two substances placed above
each other, like layers or plates (lamince), the inner of
which is the true skin, the outer the cuticle or scarf-skin.
Beclard, on the contrary, thinks that a peculiar matter,
which occasions the colour by which the several races are
distinguished, is found between the outer surface of the
corion and the cuticle; and that no fair race is destitute
of it except the albino, the peculiar appearance of whom
he ascribes to the absence of the mucous net of the skin.
The corion of the human skin (pellis, corium, derma,
cutis vera) seems to consist chiefly of very small dense
fibres, not unlike those of the proper arterial coat, closely
interwoven with each other, and more firmly compacted
the nearer they are to its outer or cuticular surface. The
inner surface of the corion is of a gray colour; and in al¬
most all parts of the body presents a number of depres¬
sions varying in size from -j^th to joth of an inch, and
consequently forming spaces or intervals between them.
These depressions, which correspond to eminences in the
subjacent adipose tissue, have been termed areolce. They
are wanting in the corion of the back of the hand and foot
only.
The outer or cuticular surface of the corion is smooth,
of a pale or flesh-red tinge, and is much more vascular
than its inner surface. It presents further a number of
O M Y.
minute conical eminences (papillce), which, according to General
the recent observations of Gaultier and Dutrochet, are Anatomy,
liberally supplied with blood-vessels, and are the most vas-
cular part of this membrane. In the ordinary state of cir- 1
culation and temperature during life these eminences are
on a level with the surrounding corion ; but when the sur¬
face is chilled, this membrane shrinks, while the papillae
either continue unchanged or shrink less proportionally,
and give rise to the appearance described under the name
of goose skin (cutis anserina). This surface was said by the
older anatomists to present numerous orifices or pores;
but according to Gordon, if we trust to observation, no
openings of this kind can be recognised, either by the eye
or the microscope, except those of the sebaceous follicles.
The hairs, indeed, are found to issue from holes in the
corion, but they fill them completely.
In certain situations, for instance at the entrance of
the external auditory hole, at the tip of the nose, on the
margins of the eyelids, in the armpits, at the nipple, at
the skin of the pubes, round the anus and the female pu¬
dendum, are placed minute orifices, from which exudes
an oleaginous fluid, which is quickly indurated. These
openings lead into the cavities of small sacs called follicles
(folliculi) or sebaceous glands ( glandulce sebacece). These
sacs, the structure of which is noticed above, consist of
hollow surfaces secreting an oleaginous fluid, which is
progressively propelled to the orifice, where it soon un¬
dergoes that partial inspissation which gives it the seba¬
ceous or suet-like aspect and consistence.
The corion is liberally supplied with blood-vessels,
nerves, and absorbents. After a successful injection, its
outer surface appears to consist of a uniform net-work of
minute vessels, subdivided to an infinite degree of deli¬
cacy, and containing during life blood coloured and co¬
lourless. It can scarcely be doubted that this vascular
net-work (rete vasculosum) is the only texture correspond¬
ing to the reticular body of the older anatomists.
It is well known that this membrane, when boiled suf¬
ficiently long, is converted into a viscid glutinous liquor,
which consists chiefly of gelatine (Chaptal, Seguin, Hat¬
chett, Vauquelin, &c.), and that glue is obtained from it
for the purposes of art. As, however, in these operations
a portion of matter is left undissolved, and as glue is com¬
pletely soluble in water, while skin resists it for an inde¬
finite time, it may be concluded, that though the chief
constituent of the corion is gelatine, it is under some pe¬
culiar modification not perfectly understood. Ihe union
of this organized gelatine with the vegetable principle
denominated tannin forms leather, which is insoluble in
water.
Cuticle or scarf-skin (epidermis, cuticula) is a semi- Cuticle,
transparent, or rather translucent layer of thin light-
coloured matter, extended continuously over the outer
surface of the corion. Its thickness varies, being thinnest
in those parts least exposed to pressure and friction, but
thickest in the palms and soles. It is destitute of blood¬
vessels, nerves, and absorbents; and there is reason to
believe, from observing the phenomena of its reproduc¬
tion, that it is originally secreted in the form of a semi¬
fluid viscid matter by the outer surface of the corion; and
that, as it is successively worn or removed by attrition^
it is in like manner replaced by a constant process of
secretory deposition. This semifluid viscid matter, which
in truth is found between the outer surface of the corion
and the firm cuticle, is the substance mentioned by Mal¬
pighi, and so often spoken of as the mucous net (corpus
mucosum). It is inorganic; and it is impossible to ex¬
plain its production otherwise than by ascribing it to the
outer vascular surface of the corion.
ANATOMY. 83o
General Cuticle is rendered yellow and finally dissolved by im-
Anatomy. mersion in nitric acid. It is also dissolved by sulphuric
acid in the form of a deep brown pulp. These, and some
®*in' other experiments performed by Hatchett, show that it
consists chiefly of modified albuminous matter.
This description shows, that if strict observation be
trusted, the mucous net has no existence, at least in the
European. In the Negro, Caffre, and Malay, however, a
black membrane is said to be interposed between the co-
rion and cuticle, and to be the cause of the dark com¬
plexion of these races. On this subject I refer to the de¬
scription given by Cruikshank, which is the best (£x-
periments, &c. p. 31, 41, and 43); the Essay of M. Gaul¬
tier, already quoted; and the observations of Beclard.
What is found in the skin of the mixed or half-caste races,
i. e. the offspring of an African and a European, or of a
mulatto and European ? and how is the transition be¬
tween this colouring layer and its insensible diminution
effected ?
Nail. Nail is a substance familiarly known. On its nature
and structure we find many conjectures, but few or no
facts, in the writings of anatomists; and almost all that
has been written is the result of analogical inference ra¬
ther than of direct observation. It is known that the nails
drop off with the scarf-skin in the dead body; that they
are diseased or destroyed by causes which act on the
outer surface of the corion, and produce disease of the
cuticle; and that, if forcibly torn out, the surface of the
corion to which they were attached bleeds profusely and
inflames. In other respects they are inorganic ; but these
facts warrant the conclusion that the root of the nail is
connected with the organic substance of the corion, and
that the whole substance is the result of a process of se¬
cretion similar to that by which the cuticle is formed.
According to the experiments of Hatchett, they con¬
sist of a substance which possesses the properties of coa¬
gulated albumen, with a small trace of phosphate of lime.
Hair. The root of a hair is not only that part which is con¬
tained in the bulb, but the portion which is lodged in the
skin. The middle part and the point are those which
project beyond the surface of the skin. The bidb is a
small sac fixed in the inner surface of the corion, in the
contiguous filamentous tissue, and in which the root is
implanted.
Every hair is cylindrical, tapering regularly from the
root to the point, and solid, but containing its proper co¬
louring matter in its substance. The colour varies, but
the root is always whitish and transparent, and softer
than the rest; the fixed or adhering part of the root is
almost fluid. When hair is decolorized, it becomes trans¬
parent and brittle, and presents a peculiar silvery-white
colour; and as hairs of this kind are few or abundant, it
gives the aspect of gray, hoary, or white hair.
The bulb, though visible in a hair plucked out by the
root, is too small in human hair to be minutely examined ;
and Chirac, Gaultier, and Gordon, have therefore de¬
scribed its structure and appearances from the bulbs of
the whiskers of large animals, the seal for example, in
which it is much more distinct. According to researches
of this kind, every bulb forms a sort of sac or follicle,
which consists of two tunics, an inner one, tender, vascu¬
lar, and embracing closely the root of the hair; and an
outer, which is firmer and less vascular, and surrounds
the inner one, while it adheres to the filamentous tissue
and the inner surface of the corion. When the hair is¬
sues from the bulb, it passes through an appropriate canal
of the corion, which is always more or less oblique, but
which, as has been already said, it fills completely; and General
it afterwards passes in a similar manner through the scarf- Anatomy,
skin. Nervous filaments have been traced into the bulbs
of the whiskers of the seal by Rudolphi and the younger air#
Andral. The bulb or follicle, in short, is organic, and
forms by secretion the inorganic hair.
The structure of hair appears to be either so simple,
or so incapable of being further elucidated, that anato¬
mists have not given any facts of consequence regarding
it. Its outer surface is believed to be covered with im¬
bricated scales, because in moving a single hair between
the finger and thumb it follows one direction only.
Hair is believed to be utterly inorganic, though the
phenomena of its growth, decoloration, and especially of
the disease termed Polish plait (plica Polonica), have led
various authors to regard it as possessed of some degree
of vitality. These phenomena, however, may be explain¬
ed by the occurrence of disease in the bulbs or generat¬
ing follicles. Hair is insoluble in boiling water ; but Vau-
quelin succeeded in dissolving it by the aid of Papin s
digester. From the experiments of this chemist, and
those of Hatchett, it may be inferred that hair consists
of an animal matter, which appears to be a modification
of albumen, a colouring oil, and some saline substances.
Mucous Membrane, Villous Membrane. (Membrana Mu¬
cosa, M. Mucipara, M. Villosa,— Tissu Muqueux, Bi¬
chat.)
The organic tissue or membrane to which the name of Mucous
mucous or villoxts has been applied, consists of two great
divisions, the gastro-pulmonary and genito-urinary.
The first or gastro-pulmonary division comprehends
that membranous surface which commences at the vari¬
ous orifices of the face at which it is contiguous with
the skin, and is continued through the lacrymal and na¬
sal passages, and even the Eustachian tube, by the larynx
on the one hand to the windpipe and bronchial mem¬
brane, and by the oesophagus on the other through the
entire tract of the alimentary canal, at the opposite ex¬
tremity of which it is again identified with the skin.
The distribution of the second division, or the genito¬
urinary mucous membrane, is slightly varied according to
the differences of sex. In the male it is connected with
the skin at the orifice of the urethra, from which it pro¬
ceeds inwards toward the bladder, sending previously
small prolongations through ducts on each side of the
veru montanum, from which it is believed to be continued
through the vasa deferentia, to the vasa efferentia of the
testicle. Continued over the inner surface of the urinary
bladder, it is prolonged through the ureters to the pelvis
and infundibula of the kidney. In the female, besides
passing in this direction, it ascends into the womb, and
passes through the Fallopian or uterine tubes, at the up¬
per extremity of which it terminates in an abrupt opening
into the sac of the peritoneum—the only instance in the
whole body in which a mucous and serous surface com¬
municate freely and directly.
These two orders of membranous tissue have each two
surfaces, an attached or adherent, and a free one. The
adherent surface is attached, ls£, to muscles, as in the
tongue, most of the mouth and fauces, oesophagus, and
whole alimentary canal, and the bladder; 2d, to fibrous
membranes, as in the nasal cavities and part of the la¬
rynx, in which it is attached to periosteum or perichon¬
drium, the palate, ureter, and pelvis of the kidney; 3<Z, to
fibro-cartilages, as in the windpipe (trachea), and bronchial
tubes.
The free surface is not uniform or similar throughout*
The appearance of the pituitary or Schneiderian mem-
836 A N A 1
General brane is different from that of the stomach or intestines;
Anatomy, the surface of the tongue and mouth is different from that
of the trachea ; and the free surface of the urethra is un-
membrane t^ie bladder. These variations depend on
mem lai e. ^j£perence 0f structure, and are connected with a differ¬
ence in properties; yet anatomists have improperly ap¬
plied to the whole what was peculiar to certain parts only,
and have thus created a system in which some truth is
blended with much misrepresentation.
Mucous membrane consists, like skin, of a corion or
derma, and an epidermis or cuticle.
The mucous corion is a firm, dense, gray substance,
which forms the ground-work of the membrane in most
regions of the body, but which is evidently represented
by the fibrous system, e. g. the periosteum or perichon¬
drium, in some other situations. It is most distinctly
seen in the mouth and throat, and in various parts of the
alimentary canal. In the first situation it is more vascu¬
lar, less gray and dense, than in the intestinal mucous
membrane.
It possesses two surfaces, an inner, adherent to the
submucous filamentous tissue, and an outer or proper mu¬
cous surface. In the stomach, the mucous corion is in
the form of a soft but firm membranous substance, about
£th or ^th of a line thick, tough, of a dun-gray or fawn
colour (intermediate between Sienna-yellow and ochre-
yellow, Syme), slightly translucent, and sinking in water.
The attached or inner surface is flocculent and tomentose,
and a shade lighter than the outer, which presents a sort
of shag or velvet, consisting of very minute piles. This,
when examined by a good lens at oblique light, appears
to consist of an infinite number of very minute roundish
bodies closely set, but separated by equally minute linear
pits, and occasionally circular depressions. In the ileum
it presents much the same characters; but the minute
bodies of its shaggy surface are still larger and more dis¬
tinct, and may be seen by the naked eye. In the wind¬
pipe, again, it is rather thinner and lighter coloured; and
while its outer surface presents numerous minute pores,
it is much smoother than in the alimentary canal, and en¬
tirely destitute of those minute bodies seen in the latter.
It nowhere presents any appearance of fibres.
The mucous corion rests on a layer of filamentous tis¬
sue, firm and dense, and of a bluish-white colour,—a cha¬
racter by which it is distinguished from the soft fawn-
coloured mucous membrane. This submucous filamentous
tissue is what is erroneously termed the nervous coat by
Ruysch, Albinus, and some of the older anatomists.
In certain parts the mucous corion is covered by a thin
transparent membrane, named the epidermis or cuticle,
which is most easily shown by boiling or scalding a por¬
tion of mucous membrane, and then peeling off with care
the outer pellicle. This experiment succeeds best in the
mucous membrane of the mouth and palate, in which,
therefore, the existence of mucous epidermis cannot be
doubted. The observations of Wepfer, Haller, and Ni-
cholls, and especially of Bleuland (Observationes Anato-
mico-Medicce de Sana et Morbosa (Esophagi Structura,
Lug. Bat. 1785), are sufficient to prove its existence in
the oesophagus. Bichat admits that, though it may be
demonstrated at the cutaneous junctions of the mucous
surfaces, it cannot be recognised in the stomach, intes¬
tines, bladder, &c. From the numerous dissections of
Home {Phil. Trans. 1807, 1810, 1813), it results that the
mucous epidermis, both in the human subject and in most
mammalia and birds, terminates abruptly at the cardiac
orifice of the stomach. In ruminant animals the mucous
epidermis is continued over the first two stomachs, but
cannot be traced in the third and fourth. In the whale
O M Y.
tribe, in which the stomach is also quadruple, the epider- General
mis is confined to the first cavity. In birds of the graz- Anatomy,
ing tribe, the mucous epidermis is continued over the giz-Vj^^^^
zard, but terminates at the opening into the st°mach*
This conclusion as to the human subject is confirmed by
Beclard, who further adds, that in the genito-urinary sys¬
tem it cannot be traced beyond the neck of the womb
and that of the bladder.
In most mucous membranes are found minute oval or
spheroidal bodies, slightly elevated, and presenting an
orifice leading to a blind or shut cavity. As they are be¬
lieved to secrete a fluid analogous to or identical with
mucus, they are named mucous glands; and from their
shape and situation they are also denominated follicles
(folliculi) and cryptce. Though more or less abundant in
all the mucous membranes, they have been most fre¬
quently examined in those of the alimentary canal, where
they were first accurately described by Brunner and Pey-
er. {Glandulce Peyeriancc.) In this situation they are
situate in the substance of the mucous corion. Their
structure is simple. The orifice leads into a saccular
cavity, with a smooth, uniform surface, which secretes
the fluid which oozes from them. This membranous
sac is lodged in a reddish-coloured, dense, anormal mat¬
ter, which is probably filamentous tissue enveloping mi¬
nute blood-vessels ; but of the minute structure of which
nothing is accurately known. In the state of health
these bodies are so minute that it is very difficult to re¬
cognise them. I have seen them, nevertheless, in the
tracheo-bronchial membrane by the eye and by a lens.
When the membranes are inflamed they become larger
and more distinct. In the bladder, the womb, the gall¬
bladder, and the seminal vesicles, they are not distinctly
seen, and cannot be satisfactorily demonstrated. It is
unnecessary, however, to follow the example of Bichat
in trusting to analogy to prove their existence; for they
are not necessary to the secretion of mucous fluid, as he
seems to imagine. Those in the urethra, first well de¬
scribed by William Cowper, are distinct examples of fol¬
licles in the genito-urinary surface. The sinuosities
(lacunce'), first accurately described, if not discovered, by
Morgagni {Adversaria Anatomica, iv. 8, 9, &c.), though
not exactly the same in conformation and structure, seem
to be very slightly different.
In certain regions of the mucous membranes, espe¬
cially at their connections with the skin, are found mi¬
nute conical eminences denominated papillce. They are
distinctly seen in the mucous membrane of the tongue,
where they vary in size and shape, and in the body named
clitoris. They are elevations belonging to the mucous co¬
rion, covered by epidermis, and they are liberally supplied
by blood-vessels, the veins of which present an erectile
arrangement, and with minute nervous filaments.
In the stomach, duodenum, and ileum, this membrane
is collected into folds or plaits, which have received in the
former situation the name of rugae, or wrinkles; and in
the latter the name of plicae, or folds, and valvulce conni-
ventes, or winking valves. In the vagina also are trans¬
verse rugae, which in like manner are folds or duplicatures
of its mucous membrane. Those of the oesophagus, which
have been described by Bleuland, are longitudinal. In
the tracheo-bronchial membrane, and in the membranous
and spongy portions of the urethra, we find them in the
shape of minute plaits or wrinkles in the long direction of
their respective tubes, but rarely of much length. The
object of these folds, which are peculiar to the mucoua
membranes, appears to be to increase the extent of sur¬
face, and to allow the membrane to undergo consider¬
able occasional distension.
ANATOMY.
837
General In certain points, where a communication is observed
Anatomy, between the general mucous surface and the cavities or
recesses of particular regions, anatomists, unable to de-
MUCOUS 1  ■£<»••*'*•£*/! ifo oviof-
Mucous monstrate a mucous membrane, have inferred its exist-
mem rane.^^ a continuation of the general surface. In the
tympanal cavity, to which the Eustachian tube leads, the
existence of a mucous or fibro-mucous membrane is
rather presumed from analogy than proved by obser¬
vation. We know that, where the biliary and pancreatic
ducts enter the duodenum, and for a considerable space
towards the liver, the interior appearance is that of a fine
mucous surface provided with lacuna and villosities ; but
it is impossible to say at what point of the hepatic duct,
or of the smaller canals of which it is formed, the mucous
membrane terminates. The tracheal membrane, when
traced to the bronchial divisions, presents no arrange¬
ment, either of papilla, piles, or villosities; and nothing
is perceived except a smooth uniform surface, of a. coloui
between gray, dun, and red or purple, which is moistened
with a viscid semi-transparent fluid, and which is as
like the peritoneum as the intestinal mucous membrane.
Lastly, the situation where the existence of the mucous
system, though believed, is most uncertain, is in the
interior of the vasa deferentia, where they take their ori¬
gin from the vasa eJJ'cTcntia of the testis. Itegai ding the
organization of these tubes, no sensible evidence can be
obtained, and whatever is stated concerning it is the re¬
sult of analogical inference.
Though these membranes have been designated by the
general name of mucous, the action of their surface is not
in every situation the same. It is not easy to limit the
signification of the term mucus ; for this fluid varies in the
nasal passages, in the trachea and bronchial membrane, in
the oesophagus, stomach, and intestines, and in the urin¬
ary bladder and ureters. But it may be stated that many
parts of the two mucous surfaces never in the healthy
state secrete any modification of this animal matter; and
in others the membrane is almost always moistened by a
different fluid. The mucous or villous membrane of the
eyelids is never in the healthy state occupied by mucus,
but is uniformly moistened with the tears ; the membrane
of the mouth and throat is moistened with saliva only;
the urethra presents a peculiar viscid fluid, which seems
to exude from many minute vessels opening along its sur¬
face, as in the lacuna, but which is widely different from
mucus. All those parts, in short, which are not in per¬
petual, but only occasional, contact with foreign or se¬
creted substances, seem to present no mucus in the healthy
state; whereas the surfaces of the stomach, intestines,
gall-bladder, and urinary bladder, are constantly covered
with a quantity, more or less considerable, of this animal
secretion.
The chemical properties of mucous membranes are com¬
pletely unknown. The analysis of the fluid secreted by
them has been executed by Fourcroy, Berzelius, and
others, but is foreign to the subject of this article.
That the mucous membranes are liberally supplied with
blood by vessels both large and numerous, is proved not
only by the phenomena of injections, but by the red co¬
lour of which many of their divisions are the seat. This
coloration, as well as the injectibility, is not indeed uni¬
form ; for in certain regions mucous surfaces are pale or
light blue, in others their redness is considerable.
Thus, in those regions in which the mucous membranes
coalesce with the periosteum, forming fibro-mucous mem¬
branes, e. g. in the facial sinuses, the tympanal cavity and
the mastoid cells, the colour is pale blue, or approaching
to light lilac. In the bladder, in the large intestines, in
the excretory ducts in general, though pale, this colour¬
ing becomes more vivid. In the pulmonic mucous mem- General
brane it is slate-blue, verging to pale pink. In the sto-
mach, duodenum, small intestines, and the vagina, it be- ^|ucous
comes still more marked. In the uterus it varies accord-
in0- to the period or the intervals of menstruation.
Examined in the gastro-entenc mucous membrane, in
which they are most numerous, these vessels are found
to consist of an extensive net-work of capillaries divided
to an infinite degree of minuteness, mutually intersecting
and spreading over the upper or outer surface of t e
mucous corion. This vascular net-work, though demon¬
strated by Ruysch, Albinus, Haller, and Bichat, has been
beautifully represented in the delineations of Bleuland,
who thinks he has traced their minute ramifications into
the villi. These minute vessels are derived from larger
ones, which creep through the submucous cellular tissue,
and penetrate the mucous corion, the substance of which
receives few or no vessels, to be finally distributed at its
exterior surface.
The arrangement of the vessels which supply the mu¬
cous surfaces is peculiar. Penetrating, in the form of
considerable trunks, between the folds of the serous mem¬
branes, they divide in the subserous cellular tissue into
branches of considerable size; and here they form those
numerous anastomotic communications which constitute
the arches so distinctly seen in the ileum. From the con¬
vexity of these arches are sent off most of the small ves¬
sels, which are then fitted, after passing through the
muscular layer and the submucous tissue, to enter the
mucous corion. . ,
The capillary terminations, then, of these arteries, and
their corresponding veins, constitute the physical cause of
the coloration of the mucous membranes. This colora¬
tion, however, is not at all times of the same intensity in
the same membrane, and varies chiefly according to the
state of the organ which the membrane covers. I he co¬
loration of the gastro-enteric mucous membrane under¬
goes, even within the limits of health, many variations.
Thus, according to the absence or presence of such fo¬
reign substances as are taken at meals, the mucous mem¬
brane is pale, or presents various shades of redness. At
the period of menstruation the uterine mucous membrane
becomes red and injected. Pressure on any of the venous
vessels renders the mucous membranes blue, purple, or
livid, as is seen in prolapsus, and more distinctly in a.s-
phvxia, in which all the mucous membranes assume a livid
tint. (Bichat.) The varieties of red colour observed in
the gastric mucous membrane by Dr Yellowly are to be
ascribed partly to the latter cause, partly to the vascular
redness which the presence of foreign bodies occasions.
(Medico- Chirurg. Trans, vol. iv. p. 371.) The pulmonary di¬
vision of this membrane is of an ash-gray or dun colour,
inclining to pale blue or light red. These colours vary,
nevertheless, according to the facility or the difficulty
with which the blood moves through the pulmonary ca¬
pillary system. It is also freely supplied with blood-ves¬
sels derived chiefly from the bronchial arteries. These
vessels, after accompanying the bronchial tubes and their
successive subdivisions, divide into minute branches which
penetrate the mucous corion, which here is white, dense,
and fibrous, and after anastomosing with the capillaries of
the pulmonary artery and veins, form a minute delicate
net-work on the outer surface of the pulmonary mucous
membrane. According to Reisseissen, to whom we are
indebted for a careful examination of these vessels, a suc¬
cessful injection of them from the bronchial arteries ren¬
ders the whole mucous membrane of the bronchi entire y
red to the unassisted eye. ( Ueber den Bau der Lungeny
u. s. w. Berlin, 1822.)
ANATOMY.
838
General The termination of arteries at the mucous surfaces has
Anatomy. at au times occupied the attention of anatomists and phy-
Mucous s^0^°gists 5 but it is not a matter of sensible demonstration,
membrane. ser0lls or sero-mucous fluid with which they
are moistened has led every author almost, and among the
rest Haller and Bichat, to infer the existence of arteries
with orifices, or what are termed exhalant vessels. It has
been admitted, nevertheless, more on analogical than di¬
rect proofs. The injections of Bleuland, the only experi¬
ments, after those of Kawe Boerhaave, which tend to con¬
firm the conclusion, require nevertheless to be repeated
and varied.1
That lymphatics are distributed to mucous membranes,
is a point well established. Cruikshank saw the lympha¬
tics proceeding from the pulmonic mucous membrane
loaded with blood in persons and animals dying of has-
moptoe. Their existence in the gastro-enteric mucous
membrane has been long established.
The mucous surfaces are also freely supplied by nervous
twigs and filaments, derived in general from the nerves of
automatic life. It is a mistake, nevertheless, to ascribe
to these filaments the sensibility and other properties of
the mucous membranes, which possess intrinsically certain
vital properties independently of the nervous filaments
with which they are supplied; and the principal use of
these filaments appears to be to regulate these properties,
especially that of secretion.
I he connection between the mucous membranes and
the skin was first demonstrated by Bonn, who traces their
mutual approximation and reciprocal transition into each
other, and represents the former as an interior production
of the latter, enveloping the internal as the skin incloses
the external organs. This view has been adopted by
Meckel and Beclard, to whom I refer for the proofs of its
accuracy. I cannot conclude the subject, however, with¬
out observing that one of the most conclusive arguments
in its favour is derived from the circumstances of the de-
velopement of the intestinal canal during the first months
of uterine life. The history of this curious process, which
has been investigated by Wolff, Oken, and Meckel, shows
that at this period the gastro-enteric mucous membrane,
which is previously formed by the vitellar membrane of
the ovum, and the allantois or vesical membrane, which
afterwards forms the genito-urinary mucous surface, are in
direct communication on the median line, and afterwards
at the navel* with the skin or exterior integument.
Serous Membrane, Transparent Membrane. (Membrana
Pellucida, M. Serosa.— Tissu Sereux.')
Serous The pleura and peritoneum are the best examples of
mem rane. the tissue which has been named serous, from the fluid
with which it is moistened, and which may be termed
transparent or diaphanous as its distinctive character.
The distribution or mechanical arrangement*of these
membranes is peculiar, and though not well understood by
anatomists, till Douglas, by his description of the perito¬
neum, rendered it clearer, may now be said, by the la¬
bours of Hunter, Carmichael Smyth, and Bichat, to be
quite intelligible. In this, nevertheless, there are certain
peculiarities which may perplex the beginner, and prevent
him from obtaining at first a clear idea of the distribution
and configuration of the pellucid membranes. Thus they
have neither beginning nor termination ; they have neither
orifice nor egredient canal; and they are not continuous General
with any other membrane or texture. Anatomy.
Every serous membrane consists of a hollow sac every-
where closed, and to the cavity or interior surface ofSeroVs
which there is no natural entrance; a circumstance from)rane'
which they have been denominated shut sacs (sacci occlusi;
sacs sans ouverture). In every serous membrane one part
is inverted or inflected, or reflected, as is commonly said,
within the other, so that the inner surface of the former
part is applied with more or less accuracy to the inner or
like surface of the latter. This mode of disposition has
suggested the homely and trite, but not inappropriate
comparison of a serous membrane to a night-cap, one half
of which is folded or doubled within the other, so that
while one half of the inner surface is applied to the re¬
maining half, no communication exists between the inner
and the outer surface. Every serous membrane, in short,
is a single sac, one half of which is doubled within the
other.
In every serous membrane the outer surface of the un¬
reflected portion is applied over the walls of the region
which the serous membrane lines, while the outer surface
of the inflected portion is applied over the organ or organs
contained in that region. From this arrangement it re¬
sults that each organ covered by serous membrane is not
contained in that membrane, but is on its exterior surface,
and that of every organ so situate, one part at least, viz.
that at which its vessels and nerves enter, is always un¬
covered. Thus the lungs are on the outer surface of the
pleura; the heart is on the outside of the pericardium;
the stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, and pancreas, are
on the outside of the peritoneum; and the testicles are
on the outside of the perididymis. In the same manner
the lungs, though invested by pleura before and behind,
at their apex and their base, are uncovered at their roots,
or the points where the bronchial tubes and great blood¬
vessels enter their substance; the heart is uncovered by
pericardium at the upper part of the auricular cavities;
and the intestinal canal is uncovered along the whole of
that longitudinal but tortuous line by which the mesentery
is attached, and at which its proper vessels and nerves are
transmitted.
To comprehend more distinctly the arrangement of
the pellucid membranes, it is expedient, by an effort of
abstraction, to trace the course of any one of them,
having previously thrown out of the question the means
by which their interior free surface is exposed. In this
mental process it is requisite to remember that there is
no initial point save what is arbitrarily made. If, for
example, the course of the pleura be traced, the mem¬
brane presents no natural boundary from which the ana¬
tomist is to commence his demonstration ; and he must
fix artificially on any point which he finds most con¬
venient for the purpose. Commencing with this under¬
standing, from the circumference of the spot termed root
of the lungs, the membrane may be traced first along the
internal surface of the chest formed by the ribs and in¬
tercostal muscles, forwards to the sternum, upwards to
the first rib and apex of the thoracic cavity, downwards
to the diaphragmatic insertions, and over the surface of
that muscle, and the outer surface of the pericardium
again to the circumference of the root or connection of
the lungs. From this point again it may be traced over
the surface and between the lobes of these organs, both of
Bat. e3C'ntcniia probabilitcr adstruitur, &c. a Jano Bleuland, M. D. Lugd.
Iconibus illustrata.' Trajecti 1*797’ ’ ’ ascu o> um InlBshnomm Unuium Tunicis suUUiorit Anatomes Opera DetependoTum Descriptio
ANATOMY.
General which, as already stated, are thus situate on the outside
Anatomy. 0f the pleura. The course first described is that of the
unreflected or exterior division of the pleura. The second,
Serous Qr over the organ covered, is the course of the injlect-
mem rane. ^ doubled portion of the membrane, which is thus ne¬
cessarily smaller, and less extensive, than the former.
The arrangement thus sketched, which may be easily
shown to be applicable to all the serous membranes, de¬
monstrates their twofold character of lining the walls of a
cavity and covering the organs contained. From an idea
of this property, the old anatomists applied to them the
epithet of menJbrance succingentes.
In tracing the course of the serous membranes, the
anatomist observes that they present productions which
float with more or less freedom in the cavity formed by
the free surface, and which may be generally shown to
consist of two folds of the single membrane produced
beyond the inclosed organ, but still maintaining the unity
of the membrane. Of these prolongations, the most dis¬
tinct examples are the epiploon and the appendices epiploicce
of the peritoneum. Less manifest instances are the adi¬
pose folds of the pleura near the mediastinum, and the
bladder-like appearance at the base of the heart, within the
pericardium. The synovial fringes in the interior of the
synovial membranes, which belong to a subsequent head,
are nevertheless of the same general character. Between
the folds of these productions there is invariably more or
less adipose substance, which indeed is observed in some
quantity in various parts of the filamentous tissue on the
outer surface of the serous membranes in general.
Every serous membrane I have above represented as a
hollow sac everywhere continuous, and the outer surface
of which has no communication with the inner. To this
character the only exception is the peritoneum in the
female, which is perforated at two points, corresponding
to the upper extremity or orifice of the Fallopian or ovi-
ferous tubes. This has been already mentioned as the
only spot at which the mucous and serous surfaces com¬
municate directly with each other.
Every serous membrane consists of a thin, colourless,
transparent web or pellicle, through which the tissue of
the subjacent organ or parts may be easily recognised;
and every serous membrane presents two surfaces, an at¬
tached or adherent, and a free or unadherent.
The attached surface, which is also termed its outer
one, is that by which it is connected to the tissue or organ
which it covers; it is somewhat irregular, flocculent or
tomentose, and is evidently connected by fine filamentous
tissue. The degree of attachment is very variable in dif¬
ferent membranes, and in different points of the same
membrane. In general, serous membranes adhere much
less firmly to the walls of cavities than to the surface
of the contained organs. Thus, the abdominal peri¬
toneum and the costal pleura are more easily removed
than the intestinal peritoneum and the pulmonic pleura.
The peritoneum adheres feebly to the bladder, to the
liver, and to the pancreas—more intimately to the different
regions of the intestinal tube, and seems to be almost
identified with the substance of the female organs of
generation. From the interior of the capsular pericardium,
and from the vaginal coat, it is almost impossible to detach
the serous pellicle. The former, however, is peculiar in
having between the serous surface and the fibrous mem¬
brane no filamentous tissue, upon the abundance or de¬
ficiency of which the degree of adhesion depends.
The free or unadherent or inner surface is very smooth,
polished, and uniform; moistened with a watery fluid,
from which it derives its shining appearance; and des¬
titute of fibres or any other trace of organic structure.
839
From this smooth, polished aspect, which is a peculiar attri- General
bute of the free surface of serous membrane, all the organs Anatomy,
covered by it derive their glistening appearance. Thus the
exterior surface of the lungs derives its appearance fr°m membrane
the pleura, the heart from the pericardium, and the liver
and intestinal canal from the peritoneum. A successful
injection of size or turpentine, coloured with vermilion,
brings into view so many capillary blood-vessels in this
membrane, that it might be supposed at first sight to con¬
sist entirely of minute arteries and veins. Further, by
proper management, lymphatics may be injected in it
with quicksilver to a degree equally minute and delicate.
From these experiments, therefore, it may be concluded
that serous membrane is chiefly composed of minute arte¬
ries and veins conveying colourless fluids, and of vessels
connected with the general trunks of the lymphatic system.
Whether it contains any thing else but vessels of this kind,
or has a proper substance or tissue, remains to be ascer¬
tained. Though nerves are often seen passing along their
outer or attached surface to the neighbouring tissues,
none have hitherto been traced either into the pleura or
peritoneum.
By most of the older anatomists, and among others by
Haller, serous membrane is considered as of the nature
of filamentous tissue or cellular membrane, more or less
closely condensed {tela cellulosa stipatd) ; and this view
is adopted and maintained by Bordeu, Bichat, Meckel,
and Beclard, the last of whom, however, thinks they par¬
take of ligamentous characters. Macerated, they become
soft, thick, and pulpy; and are finally resolved into floc¬
culent filamentous matter. In the course of decomposi¬
tion in the dead subject they first lose their glistening
aspect, then become covered by a foul, dirty coating of
viscid matter, which appears to exude from their surface ;
and eventually they are dissolved into shreds. Immer¬
sion in boiling water renders them thick, firm, and some¬
what crisp. When dried they become thin, clear, and
transparent, and, if preserved from humidity or the attacks
of animals, may remain long unchanged. The experiments
of Hatchett, Fourcroy, and Vauquelin, show that they
contain gelatine and a little albumen; but no precise in¬
formation on their chemical composition has yet been
given.
The principal character of the serous membranes is that
of isolating the organs which they cover, and to the struc¬
ture of which they are adventitious, and forming shut ca¬
vities, in which there is incessant exhalation and absorp¬
tion. In some instances they evidently contribute to fa¬
cilitate the mutual motions of contiguous and corre¬
sponding surfaces. From their free surfaces is secreted
a fluid containing a small portion of albumen (Hewson,
Experimental Inquiries, vol. ii. chap. vii.; Bostock, Ni¬
cholson’s Journal, vol. xiv. p. 147, and Medico-Chirurgi-
cal Transactions, vol. iv.), which is greatly augmented du¬
ring the state of disease.
The mode of developement of the pellucid membranes
is not well ascertained. The investigations regarding
organogenesy by Oken, Meckel, and Tiedemann, disclose
facts which induce Meckel to hazard the opinion that some
of them are not at all times shut sacs. I doubt, however,
whether the fact which he adduces for this purpose im¬
plies the open condition of the pericardium and the peri¬
toneum. In the case of the former the developement of
the heart proceeds from the basis generally, without affect¬
ing the integrity of the investing membrane. In the case
of the latter there is more reason to believe that, at the
navel, at least, the peritoneum is either open, or is con¬
tinuous with the vitellar membrane.
In the foetus the serous membranes are so thin, that
840 ANATOMY.
General they are much more transparent than in the adult. In cartilages is nevertheless established by sundry facts. 1st, General
Anatomy. small animals also, they are more transparent than in If a portion of articular cartilage be divided obliquely, Anatomy.
large, and in cold-blooded animals than in the mammifer- and examined by a good glass, it is not difficult to recog- evnov;ai
SerT ous. Of some also the disposition varies at different pe- nise at one extremity of the section a thin pellicle, differ-
membrane.r.ods Thug the descent of the testicle,—a process which ing widely in aspect, colour, and structure, from the blu-
has been well explained by Albinus, Haller, Wrisberg, ish-white appearance of the cartilage. 2d, If the free
and Lano-enbeck,—is attended with a remarkable change surface of the cartilage be scraped gently, it is possible to
in the arrangement of that portion of peritoneum which detach thin shavings, which are also distinct from carti-
the gland impels before it. 1 lage in their appearance. 3d, The free surface of the
° cartilage is totally different from the attached surface, or
Synovial Membrane. (Membrana Synovialis ; Bur see fr0in a section of its substance, and derives its peculiar
Mucosa.) smooth polished appearance from a very thin transparent
Synovial Bichat enumerates several circumstances in which he pellicle uniformly spread over it. \th, If articular carti-
membrane. conceives that serous and synovial membranes differ from lage be immersed in boiling water, this thin pellicle be-
each other. Gordon, who doubts how far the distinctions comes opaque, while the cartilage is little changed, bth,
are well founded as the basis of anatomical arrangement, Immersion in nitric or muriatic acid, which detaches the
admits, however, the following peculiarities. cartilage from the bone, gives this surface a cracked ap-
Synovial membrane resembles serous membrane in being pearance, which is not seen in the attached surface, and
a thin, transparent substance, having one smooth free sur- which is probably to be ascribed to irregular contraction
face turned towards certain cavities of the body, and an- of two different animal substances. &th, The existence of
other connected by delicate cellular tissue to the sides of this cartilaginous synovial membrane is demonstrated by
these cavities, or to the parts contained in them. But the morbid process with which the tissue is liable to be
it differs from serous membrane in the following circum- affected. On the whole, therefore, little doubt can be en-
stances. ls£, It possesses little vascularity in the healthy tertained that the representation of their course, as given
state ; no blood-vessels are almost ever seen in it after originally by Nesbitt, Bonn, and Hunter, is well founded,
death, nor can they be made to receive the finest injec- The same views may be applied to the synovial linings
tion. 2d, Its lymphatics are quite incapable of demon- of the tendinous sheaths, which are equally to be regarded
stration. 3d, Very delicate fibres, like those of cellular as shut sacs.
substance, or like the finest filaments of tendon, are dis- Attached to the free surface of each synovial mem-
tinctly seen in it after slight maceration, kth, It is con- brane is a peculiar fringe-like substance, which was long
siderably less strong than serous membrane. On these supposed to be an apparatus of glands (glands of Havers)
grounds, therefore, synovial membrane is to be anatomi- for secreting synovial fluid. It is now known that these
cally distinguished from serous membrane. fringes are merely puckered folds of synovial membrane,
The synovial membrane, as described above, is found and that, although synovia is abundantly secreted by them,
not only in each of the movable articulations, but in those this depends merely on the great extent of surface which is
sheaths in which tendons are lodged, and in which they the necessary consequence of their puckered arrangement
undergo considerable extent of motion, and in certain This arrangement is easily demonstrated by immersing an
situations in the subcutaneous filamentous tissue. articulation containing the fringed processes in clear water,
The distribution of the synovial membranes is much when they are unfolded and made to float, and show their
the same in all these situations. They are known to line connections, figure, and terminations. They are analogous
the ligamentous apparatus of each joint, capsular and to the free processes of serous membranes, and like them
funicular; and they are also continued over the cartila- are double, and contain adipose matter,
ginous extremities of the bones of which the articulation The synovial sheaths (bursa mucosa) are very nume-
consists. This continuation, which was originally main- rous, and arc generally found in every tendon which is
tained by Nesbitt, Bonn, and William Hunter, and was exposed to frequent or extensive motion,
demonstrated by various facts by Bichat, has been lately Though the fluid prepared by these membranes has
questioned by Gordon and Magendie, the former of whom been examined by Margueron, Fourcroy, John Davy,
especially thinks it unsusceptible of anatomical proof. Orfila, and other chemists, it cannot be said that its che-
The cartilaginous synovial membrane is certainly not so mical composition is accurately determined. It is said to
easily demonstrable as the capsular, for the same reason contain water, albumen, incoagulable matter regarded as
which I have already assigned regarding the difficulty of mucilaginous gelatine, a ropy matter, and salts ot soda,
isolating the capsular pericardium, the ovarian peritoneum, lime, and some uric acid. On the presence of the incoa-
and the serous covering of the tunica albuginea,—the want gulable gelatine depends its utility in diminishing friction
of filamentous tissue. in the finer kinds of metallic machinery employed in
The presence of synovial membrane in the articular watches and chronometers.
END OF VOLUME SECOND.
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Li 1 1-1. 1 i i i i 1 i.i.. . « . i I-L-X
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Fix,. 7.
• • • • • ••• • ••• • ••• • ••• •
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Fig. 17.
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BLxVNCHARD’S BAJXOON.
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0,2588?
0,34202
0,42262
GAKNKRI N S PARACHUTE
irr, descendi/u}
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0,64279
0.70711
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0.81915
0,86603
0.93969
0.96593
0,93481 - Ti
0,996W
CHARLES’ & ROBERT'S’ BALLOOR.
Entj^by G.Aibnan. BAinT
Scale of Feet
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Published by AA C.Black. Rduibiirgh.
*
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Published by A.&C. Black. Edinburgh. L853.
in
AGRICULTURE
PLA TE V.
PHCEWIX.
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of England. Scotland & Ireland,.
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I
AGRICULTURE.
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PLATE VH.
AGRICULTURE.
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Published by A.&CBlaek,Edinburgh, 1853.
Published by A.& C. Black. Edinburgh, 185?).
"'awi+m
Published, ly A.& C. Black, Edinburgh, 185?).
I
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PLATE IX.
~ ttw'fh- (LSifonan TLm.'.'.
AGRIcn/niRK.
'Suffolk Punch.
Improved Black; Cart Horse.
"Publishedby A.& C.Black. Edinburgh. 1853.
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Published by A_& C. B1 ack. Edinburgh. 1853.
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The Property of the Offht Hon. Bad Spencer, mported from Naples by the IforL.Captwn Spencer.
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OiCO
PLATE XIV.
West
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TabllslifiUjy-A.. & C.Black, Id±i£tnir^li, 1853.
Gr. A-i~krna.i l .
A CLS~ts
AGE IC r LTITRE.
PLATE XVI.
SECTION C..D.
10
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Publisiied bjA.&C Black Edmbargh. 1853
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THE < (>I’TIO or EGYPTIAN.
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